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THE
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OR,
Universal Dictionary
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE.
VOL. XXXVIIL
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THE
CYCLOPADIA;
OR,
UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY
OF
Arts, Sciences, and Literature,
BY
ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soc.
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF
EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.
ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,
BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.
ee
IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. XXXVIII.
EEE
LONDON:
PrinteD For LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, PaternosteER-Row,
F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A. STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J» CUTHELL,
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J. AND A. ARCH,
CADELL AND DAVIES, S. BAGSTER, J. MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY
PARBURY AND ALLEN, R- SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN
CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO.,
J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING.
1819.
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CK CLOP AD IA:
UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY
Aed D> Soand 3 SoC PEAN CES.
WATER.
i gale This important fluid was believed by the an-
cients to be one of the four elements out of which they
imagined every other fubftance is compofed. This opinion
maintained its ground for a very Iong period. At length,
however, it began to be fufpeéted, from the experiments of
Van Helmont, Boyle, and others. Wan Helmont fhewed
that plants would grow for a very long time in pure water,
whence it was concluded that water was capable of being
‘changed into all the fubftances found in vegetables. Mr.
Boyle fuppofed, that by long digeftion and boiling in glafs-
veflels, he had converted water partly into an earth. Mar-
graaff, who repeated his experiment, drew the fame conclu-
fion ; but the opinion was never very generally admitted,
and at length was proved to be erroneous, the earth being
fhewn to be derived from the glafs-veflels employed in the
experiments.
The combuttible nature of hydrogen gas was obferved
about the beginning of the 18th century, and the celebrated
Scheele, many years afterwards, was the firft who attempted
to difcover what was produced by this combuftion. In
this, however, he did not fucceed; nor were Macquer,
Bucquet, Lavoifier, Dr. Prieftley, and others, who fub-
fequently repeated the experiment with fimilar views,
more fortunate. The diftinguifhed honour of difcovering
the compofition of water was referved for Mr. Cavendifh,
who, in 1781, proved beyond a doubt that the combultion
of hydrogen and oxygen produced this fluid, and nothing
elfe. Water, eee, fince the period juft mentioned, has
been univerfally admitted to be compofed of thefe two
gafeous principles.
. Water is found in abundance in every part of the globe,
and is abfolutely neceffary for the exiftence of organized
beings. When quite pure, as obtained by diftillation, it is
Vou. XX XVIII.
Printed by A. Strahan,
New-Street-Square, London.
perfectly tranfparent and colourlefs, and free from tafte
and {mell.
A cubic foot of diftilled water, according to the beft
experiments, weighs, at a temperature of 40°, 437102.4946
grains troy. Hence, a cubic inch of water at the fame
temperature weighs 252.952 grains; and at the tem-
perature of 60°, 252.72 grains. The fpecific gravity of
water is always fuppofed to be 1.000, and it is made the
meafure of the {pecific gravity of every other body. (See
Specific Gravity, and Hyprosratics.) Water, atatem-
perature of 32°, becomes folid, and affumes the form of ice.
In this ftate it poffeffes confiderable hardnefs and elatticity,
and its {pecific gravity is diminifhedto.g4. See FREEzine
and Icr. .
When water is raifed to the temperature of 212° it boils,
and is gradually converted into fteam, which is an invifible
and highly elaftic fluid like air. The fpecific gravity of
fteam, according to the moft recent obfervations, is 6255
that of air being reckoned 1.000. See Boitine, Esu-
LITION, and STEAM.
Water is capable of undergoing a flight degree of com-
preffion. See Compression.
_ Water undergoes no alteration by expofure to heat or
light. Thus it may be made to .pafs through a red-hot
tube without fuffering any change.
i On expofure to the atmofphere, it abforbs a portion of
air, the greater part of which is capable of being again —
driven off by boiling. To expel the whole, however, it is
ftated to be neceflary to continue the operation at leaft two
hours.in a flafk, with its mouth inverted over mercury.
To this {mall proportion of air which it holds in folution,
water chiefly owes its agreeable flavour, boiled water being
infipid. See Ansorprion, and Gas.
B Hydrogen
WATER.
Hydrogen gas, even at a red heat, has no aétion upon
water. Charcoal, when cold, does not decompofe it. But
when red-hot charcoal is brought in contact with water,
carbonic acid and carburetted hydrogen are formed in
abundance. Sulphur and phofphorus do not appear to be
capable of decompofing water, even when affifted by heat ;
but potaffium and fodium, and doubtlefs alfo the metallic
bafes of the alkaline earths, decompofe it rapidly. Of the
other metals, iron, zinc, antimony, and tin, decompofe it,
when aflifted by heat. Silver, gold, copper, and platina,
produce no effe& upon it. :
Water diffolves the alkalies and alkaline earths. The acids
alfo, and many faline compounds; are foluble in this fluid ;
but it is incapable of diffolving the earths properly fo called.
Water combines with bodies in two different ways. It
either diffolves them, in which cafe the proportion of water
is unlimited, or it combines with them, and forms folid
compounds, termed Aydrates, into the compofition of which
the water enters in a definite proportion. The metallic
hydrates, in general, are remarkable for the brilliancy of
their colours. They are more foluble in acids than the
oxyds, and in fome inftances affeét the organs of tafte even
more perceptibly than the metallic falts. This fubjeé& has
been particularly inveftigated by M. Prouit. See HypraTE.
According to the lateft and moft perfe€t experiments,
water is compofed of two volumes of hydrogen gas, and
one volume of oxygen gas. Hence, its combining weight
or atom will be 1.125, oxygen pene reckoned 1; or, if
we confider the fpecific gravity of hydrogen gas to be
-6944, and of oxygen gas 1.1111, it is compo ed of one
part by weight of hydrogen, and eight parts by weight of
oxygen. The union of oxygen and hydrogen gafes to form
water is attended by the extrication of much light and heat.
See Compustion and DeToNATION.
Warerns, Natural. “ Water,’ fays Dr. Saunders, ‘ is
found throughout the earth in every degree of purity, ex-
cept the higheft, for fuch is never procured, except by arti-
ficial diftillation, as all natural waters are conftantly pig
into contaét with fome fubftance which they can either dil-
folve or hold fufpended.’” Waters to which the epithet
mineral is applied, in many inftances differ from other natural
waters in the degree only in which they are impregnated with
fimilar foreign Pitlancee : in other inftances, they differ in
the nature of the impregnating ingredient ; but for the
moft part they differ in both thefe circumftances. In pre-
fenting our readers with an account of natural waters in
general, we fhall commence with an enumeration and fhort
account of the different foreign ingredients ufually met
with in waters, and influencing their operation op the animal
economy.
12 Caloric.—The temperature of natural {pring-waters is
the fame, in general, as the mean annual temperature of the
articular place in which they occur. It is evident, there-
‘ore, that this temperature muft vary with the latitude.
(See the articles CLimatE, TEMPERATURE, &c. ) Waters
rarely occur of a temperature much Jower than the mean
annual temperature of the latitude in which they are found ;
but inftances are met with in every part of the globe in
which they occur of a higher temperature. This degree
of increafed temperature is very different in different in-
ftances. Commonly it is not very ftriking, while in other
cafes it is very remarkable: thus, the waters of Carlfbad, in
Bohemia, have the extraordinary temperature of 165°. In
this country, the hotteft fprings are thofe of Bath and
Buxton, the higheit temperatures of which are ftated to be
116° and 82° refpectively. In fome inflances, thefe devia-
tions from the natural temperature are obvioufly referrible
to the neighbourhood of volcanoes, but generally their
caufe is very obfcure, as we can hardly form any idea of
agents operating for fuch a length of time, and fo uniformly,
as thofe of neceflity muft do which give origin to the phe-
nomena in queition : all we can infer is, that although local,
they are deep-feated and permanent.
2. Atmofpheric Air : Azote—All natural waters of a
mean temperature hold a portion of common air in folution.
The quantity, however, has been {tated by Bergman not to
exceed sth of the bulk of the water; and even this can
only be retained at a mean temperature, and under the ordi-
nary preflure of the atmofphere, for the greater part of it
efcapes under the air-pump, or on fubmitting the water for
a fhort time to a temperature of 212° or 32% It is the
oxygen contained in this {mall portion of atmofpheric air,
retained by water, that fupports the refpiration of fifhes, and
other aquatic animals, which {peedily die from fuffocation in
water deprived of air. It is this air alfo, as before obferved,
which renders water fapid and grateful to the palate; for
by boiling or diftillation, this fluid is rendered infipid and
difagreeable, ‘ and has long been in difrepute,”? fays Dr.
Saunders, ‘ for lying heavy on the ftomach, and even pro-
ducing fcrofulous tumours and obitruétions.”? The pre-
fence of atmofpheric air in water is eafily accounted for,
from the affinity which fubfifts between the two fubitances,
and which is fuch, that they foon become mutually impreg-
nated by being expofed to each other.—Azotic. gas has
been found to exift in {mall quantity in fome waters, and in
thefe inftances it has been obferved to be extricated from
the {pring itfelf in union with the water. As far as is at
prefent known, this gas imparts no medicinal or even fenfible
property to the waters containing it.
3. Carbonic Acid.—This gas is likewife ftated by Berg-
man to exift in greater or lel quantity in all natural fpring-
waters. ‘The limits in which it occurs is faid to lie between
about +3,, and an equal bulk of the water. In mineral
waters it is a moft important ingredient, not only from its
operation upon the animal economy, but from its being the
folvent of various other aétive ingredients. When waters
contain this principle in excefs, ey affume a bright and
fparkling appearance to the eye, have an agreeable pungent
acidulous talte, and fometimes exert a kind of intoxicating
power when largely drunk. Fifhes are unable to exift in
them, and f{peedily die from fuffocation. On expofure to
the air, however, thefe properties in a fhort time become
fenfibly diminifhed, and at length almoft totally difappear,
owing to the feparation of the gas—an operation which
may itill more fpeedily be effeéted by boiling. The pre-
fence of this gas in water is eafily explained, from its natural
affinity to that fluid. In almott every inflance it is extri-
cated from the {pring in union with the water; but the
fource from whence it is derived is, in general, obfcure and
inexplicable.
4. Hydrogen and its Compounds, carburetted, fulphuretted, ~
and phofphuretted Hydrogen.—Hydrogen gas is barely folu-
ble in water, and probably, therefore, never exifts alone
in that fluid. The fame is true of carburetted hydrogen.
Both thefe gafes, however, are often extricated from waters,
efpecially when ftagnant, and containing organic fubftances
in a ftate of putrefaction. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a fre-
quent ingredient in mineral waters, and gives them fo cha-
racteriftic a feature, that they are infbantly recognized.
Waters holding this gas in folution have an offenfive fmell,
like that of rotten eggs, or a foul gun-barrel, and which is
more or lefs ftrong, according to the degree in which they
are impregnated. Such waters alfo have a tafte fomewhat
{weetifh, and they generally appear turbid. Water, at a
mean
WATER.
mean temperature, is ftated to abforb from 3ds to 3ths of
its bulk. of this gas, and by long agitation more than its
bulk. At a temperature of 80° or 90°, however, this fluid
can with difficulty be made to diflolve any of it. Sul-
phuretted waters, therefore, on expofure to heat, or even
to the open air without heat, foon lofe their characteriftic
properties, and become turbid, the hydrogen being diffi-
pated, and the fulphur depofited. The fource of this gas,
in general, is not obfcure, it being formed in great abun-
dance during the decompofition of pyrites, and other mine-
rals containing fulphur. Phofphuretted hydrogen is faid
to be occafionally extricated from marfhes and ftagnant
pools, but it is not known to conftitute an ingredient in
mineral waters.
5. The Alkalies and their Salts.—The fixed alkalies feldom,
if ever, occur in natural waters in a free ftate. Even the
number of their falts is fo limited, that Dr. Saunders
thinks it neceffary to enumerate only two, namely, the ful-
phate and muriate of foda. The firft of them is a very
common ingredient in mineral waters, but rarely occurs
alone in any quantity, fo that it can hardly be faid ever to
ive a peculiar chara€ter to a water. Muriate of foda is
b extenfively and abundantly diffufed through nature,
that we rarely meet with a natural water which does not
contain more or lefs of it. Sea-water, and many natural
waters or brines, owe their peculiar characters to this falt,
which has been known from the earlieft times, and feems to
be almoft a neceflary ingredient in our food. The muriate
of foda, however, never occurs alone in natural waters, but
is commonly accompanied by fome of the earthy falts,
efpecially the fulphate of lime. Chemifts have been puz-
zled to account for the origin of the vaft quantity of this
falt which is met with in the fea and elfewhere; but a
little refle€tion will fhew, that the exiftence of this fub-
ftance is not more difficult to be accounted for than that
of any other ingredient of our globe. From its property
of being foluble in water, it is, perhaps, more generally dif-
fufed than any other principle; but it is doubtful if it
atually exifts in greater abundance than filex, and many
other folid fubftances, and which, in a geological point of
view, differ from it only in the mechanical circumftanee of
their infolubility in water. ‘The carbonate of foda is occa-
fionally met with in waters. Its diftribution, however, is
very partial, being ufually in very minute quantities, or in
very large ones. When in fmall quantity, it is generally
fuperfaturated with carbonic acid. The moft remarkable
inftance of an excefs of this falt is in “ the natron lakes
of Upper Egypt. It is here often mixed with common
falt, and they both are largely diffolved in the water, and
form a cruft of feveral feet in thicknefs at the edge of the
lake, owing to the copious evaporation of their water of
{olution effected by a tropical fun.’? Potafh, or its falts,
wery feldom occur in mineral waters. Carbonate of am-
monia is occafionally found in fmall quantities in fome waters,
arifing probably, as Dr. Saunders conjectures, from decom-
pofed animal or vegetable fubftances.
6. The Earths and their Salts —The earth moft fre-
quently occurring in natural waters is lime, and fo gene-
rally is this the cafe, that very few inftances are known in
which this earth is not met with in fome’ ftate or other.
The neutral carbonate of lime, or chalk, is one of the moft
infoluble fubftances known; but the fupercarbonate of
lime is very foluble, and is a frequent ingredient in many
fprings. ‘ It is one fource of Aardne/s in waters,” fays
Dr. Saunders, ‘ but is eafily got rid of by boiling, which
drives off the excefs of carbonic acid, and thus catifes the
chalk to be precipitated ; hence the earthy cruft or furr on
kettles in which hard water has been boiled for a number of
times. Some natural waters contain an unufual quantity of
this calcareous earth, which is rapidly depofited as foon ag
they become expofed to the air, and thereby give an earthy
lining to every tube through which they flow, and encruft
with the fame material every fubftance that accident or
defign may put in their way. Of this kind are the various
petrifying {prings that form part of the natural curiofities
of feveral mountainous diftriéts, and have been applied to
ufe in a very ingenious manner at the baths of St. Philip,
in Tufcany, and {till more extenfively at Gualecavelica, in
Peru.” —* The fulphate of lime (the gypfum or felenite of
the older writers) is one of the commoneft of all the earthy
falts that are found in natural waters, and generally ae-
companies every faline fubftance, except where there is an
excefs of alkali. It is almoft invariably found in con-
junétion with the carbonate of lime ; and hence the calea-
reous depofitions, petrifactions, and the like, frequently con-
tain a {mall admixture of felenite.”” This {alt imparts very
little tafte to water, but gives it “that rough and harfh
feel to the fingers and tongue, which charaéterize the
infipid 4ard waters.” The muriate of lime commonly ac-
companies the other falts of lime, but efpecially the muriate
of foda. When in excefs in any water, it imparts to it a
bitter and difagreeable tafte, and ative medicinal properties.
The great bitternefs of ‘ the waters of the Dead fea is
owing to the muriates of lime and magnefia, and not to
bitumen, as was erroneoufly fuppofed.”? The carbonate of
magnefia is infoluble in water; the fupercarbonate of
magnefia, when it occurs in waters, is always accompanied
by the fupercarbonate ef lime, both the earths being held
in folution by an excefs of carbonic acid. The fuper-
carbonate of magnefia, however, is more foluble than the
fupercarbonate of lime, and is not, therefore, fo eafily
{eparated by boiling. The fulphate of magnefia, or Ep/fom
falt, as it was formerly denominated, is the moft important
of the falts of this éarth. It almoft always accompanies the
fulphate of foda; and to thefe two falts moft of the natural
purging waters owe their cathartic properties. It is like-
wife frequently combined with the fulphate of lime, and
alfo with iron. The fulphate of magnefia imparts to the
waters containing it in any confiderable quantity a ftrongly
bitter and faline tafte. It was firft difcovered in a {pring
at Epfom, whence its name; but is ufually prepared at
prefent from the refufe falt of fea-water, after the common
falt has been feparated. The muriate of magnefia, as before-
mentioned, commonly accompanies the muriates of foda and
lime ; hence it is found in various brine-{prings, and forms
a confiderable part of the faline contents of fea-water, to
which fluids, efpecially when concentrated by evaporation,
it imparts a ftrong bitter tafte. Salts of alumina are not
of very frequent occurrence in waters. The moft common
is the fuperfulphate of alumina, or common alum, which is
ufually affociated with the fulphate of iron. The fource
of this falt is for the moft part alum-flate, the fulphur
contained in which becomes acidified on expofure to
the air, and forms fulphuric acid, which, uniting with the
alumina, produces the falt in queftion. The’ prefence of
the fulphate of iron is eafily accounted for upon fimilar
principles, fince more or lefs of iron pyrites almoft in-
variably accompanies alum-flate. Silex, in a ftate of mi-
nute divifion, is fometimes found fufpended in {mall
quantity in running waters, but is foon depofited on their
remaining at reft. This earth, however, occafionally occurs
in a ftate of folution in hot and tepid fprings, efpecially in
the neighbourhood of volcanoes. The menftruum appears
to be ufually a little free or carbonated alkali, the folvent
B2 powers
WATER.
powers of which are doubtlefs much increafed by heat, or
by fome unknown caufe.
7. Metals and their Salis —The metal moft ufually met
with in natural waters is iron; never, however, in its me-
tallic ftate, but in a ftate of oxyd combined with an acid.
The carbonate of iron is a frequent ingredient of natural
waters, the bafe of which is the black or protoxyd of the
metal, for the red oxyd does not feem capable of combining
with carbonic acid, or at leaft of forming with it a foluble
compound. This is, doubtlefs, a wife provifion of nature ;
for, as Dr. Saunders juitly obferves, if the contrary were
the cafe, almoit every natural water would be a chalybeate.
The carbonate of iron, like all tlie other falts of this metal,
imparts to waters containing it a peculiar inky tafte,
« which,” fays Dr. Saunders, “ is very perceptible, even
when the proportion of iron is fo {mall as hardly to be
eftimable by any chemical procefs.”” Waters containing
the carbonate of iron depofit this metal readily on expofure
to the air, partly from the efcape of the carbonic acid, and
partly from the further oxydation of the metal. The ful-
phate of iron or green vitriol is met with occafionally in
waters in confiderable quantity. This falt, as before ob-
ferved, generally. occurs in union with the fulphate of alu-
mina, or alum, and is the natural produétion of the decom-
pofition of iron pyrites. Waters containing this falt in any
quantity, poffefs the properties of chalybeates in a high
degree, and are peculiarly ityptic. ‘The muriate of iron is
occafionally met with in natural waters ; but its exiftence
in any confiderable quantity is a rare occurrence. Copper,
or rather its falts, and efpecially the fulphate of copper, is
eccafionally met with in natural waters. This generally,
however, occurs in the neighbourhood of copper-mines ;
and the fulphat® of copper, as Dr. Saunders obferves, is
probably formed, like the fulphate of iron, by the decom-
pofition of copper pyrites. Waters containing this metal
are highly poifonous, and are never ufed internally. Man-
ganefe is occafionally found in fmall quantity in natural
waters. It appears, in general, to be affociated with iron ;
but the ftate in which it exifts is not accurately known.
As far as prefent obfervation goes, it imparts no fenfible
or other properties to the waters containing it. Lead, per-
naps, never naturally occurs in waters; but fome waters
wave the property of diffolving, or holding in fufpenfion, a
minute portion of this pernicious metal, when expofed to it
in the metallic ftate. Pure foft waters are faid to poffefs
this property in the moft ftriking degree.
8. Mineral Acids.—Both the muriatic and fulphuric acids
are occafionally met with in mineral waters in a free ftate.
Such fprings ufually occur in volcanic countries.
g. Bitumen.—Bitumen is faid by many of the older
writers to be a frequent ingredient in mineral waters. This
ftatement, however, has been generally found erroneous by
modern chemifts, who have in moft cafes demonftrated the
fuppofed bituminous principles of their predeceffors to be
fubitances of a very different nature. There are fome
{prings, however, which yield a real bitumen; but this,
from its infolubility in water, is never diffolved in that fluid,
aout in a few rare inftances, through the medium of an
i.
Such is a fhort account of the principal mineral fub-
ftances which are met with in natural waters when they
iffue from the earth. ‘* When,’’ fays Dr. Saunders, “ they
flow within a channel over the furface of the ground, they
often become much changed in their chemical compofition,
lofing fome of their contents by evaporation, others by flow
depolition, or by being decompofed through the influence
of light and air. At the fame time they an acquire new
6
contents, which are furnifhed by the foil over which they
flow. Thus the ftreams which pafs over a country coyered
with vegetable matter, or which water large towns, will
contain a fenfible quantity of mixed alluvial contents, or a
heterogeneous compound of animal and vegetable extract of
mucilage.
Different authors have chofen different principles ot
arrangement in treating of natural waters. An arrange-
ment purely chemical, or purely medicinal, cannot be
effe€ted in the prefent {tate of our knowledge; we fhall
not therefore attempt either, but fhall confider them under
the following heads :
1. Potable waters.
Saline waters.
Chalybeate waters, fimple and compound.
Acidulous waters, fimple and compound.
Sulphureous waters, fimple and compound. °
Thermal waters, fimple and compound.
2
3.
as
5:
6.
This arrangement of natural waters, according to their
Jenfible properties, coincides likewife, as well perhaps as
the prefent ftate of the fubje¢t will admit, with their chemi-
cal and medicinal properties. Itmay, however, be objected
to the divifions fimple and compound, that neither of them is
accurately corre&, and this muft be admitted in a AriGly
chemical point of view ; but taken in the enlarged and ge-
neral fenfe here under{tood, there feems to be no ferious ob-
jection to this mode of divifion.
1. Potable Waters.—Under this divifion we wifh to in-
clude every variety of this fluid ordinarily ufed by mankind
and other animals for fatisfying their thirft. 'Thefe may be
comprehended under the heads of, a, pure or diflilled water ;
4, atmofpheric water; c, {pring-water ; d, running water ;
and e, ftagnant water.
a. The chemical properties of pure water have been al-
ready defcribed at the head of this article. As before ob-
ferved, it never occurs in nature, and was therefore pro-
bably never intended as an article of drink for mankind ; cer-
tainly, atleaft, not as one abfolutely neceflary for their ex-
iftence, or even healthy condition.
b. Under atmo/pheric waters are included rain-water, fhow-
water, dew, &c.
Rain-water, colle&ed at a diftance from large towns, or
any other obje&t capable of impregnating the atmofphere
with noxious materials, approaches more nearly to a flate of
purity than perhaps any other natural water. Even collect-
ed under thefe circumftances, however, it invariably yields
traces of the muriatic acid, and, according to Margraaff,
of the nitric alfo, Rain-water of courfe differs according
to the fate of the atmofphere through which it pafles.
“« The heterogeneous atmofphere of a {moky town,”’ fays
Dr. Saunders, “¢ will communicate fome impregnation to rain
as it pafles through ; and this, though it may not be at once
perceptible on chemical examination, will yet render it liable
to fpontaneous change : and hence rain-water, if long kept,
ef ecially in hot climates, acquires a {trong {mell, becomes
full of animalculx, and in fome degree putrid.’? Rain-water
in general, in warm climates, is much more impure and lia-
ble to become offenfive than in cold and temperate ones,
Rain alfo that falls in the fpring and fummer, or after a
long-continued drought, or very Tos weather, is faid to be
more impure than that which falls at other feafons of the
year, or after a long-continued moift feafon ; circumftances,
doubtlefs, owing to the exiftence of a greater proportion of
animal and vegetable principles in the atmofphere in fuch
climates and feafons. Thefe foreign fubftances have fome-
times been fo abundant and peculiar in their appearance, as
to
WATER.
to have given origin to many marvellous ftories, fuch as the
raining of blood, &c. (See the article Rain.) The fpe-
cific gravity of rain-water hardly differs from that of dif-
tilled water ; and from the minute portions of the foreign
ingredients which it generally contains, it is very /oft, and
admirably adapted for many culinary purpofes, and various
proceffes in different manufactures and the arts.
Snow-water equals, if not furpafles, rain-water in purity,
when collected under the fame circumftances, it bein
for obvious reafons more free from animal and vegetable
impregnations ; thus Dr. Rutty found it perfe@ly fweet
after keeping it in a clofe veffel for eighteen months. Snow-
water, like rain-water, even in its pureft ftate, yields traces
of muriatic acid, and perhaps alfo of the nitric.
Hail-water may be compared to {now-water, which it
clofely refembles: indeed
Ice-water in general is very pure, as the air and faline fub-
ftances are feparated by freezing. Common ice-water, how-
ever, is lefs pure than rain and {now water, as the foreign
fubftances, though perhaps feparated by freezing, ftill re-
main incorporated with the ice, fo that it is impoffible to
melt the ice without retaining at leaft a portion of thefe fo-
reign matters.
Dew, being depofited chiefly from the lower parts of the
atmofphere, is commonly much more impure than rain or
fnow water. According to Dr. Rutty’s obfervations, it
foon becomes foetid and offenfive. _ It yields alfo more fenfi-
ble traces of the prefence of muriatic acid than rain-water.
This fluid, however, colleéted at different places and
times, differs exceedingly in its properties, as might be na-
turally expected. x
c. Spring-water includes well-water, and all others that
arife from fome depth below the furface of the earth, and
which are ufed at the fountain-head, or at leaft before they
have run any confiderable diftance expofed to the air. Al-
though all fpring-waters are originally of atmofpheric origin,
yet they differ from one another according to the nature of
the foil or rock from which they iffue ; fot though the in-
gredients ufually exifting in them are in fuch minute quanti-
ties as to impart to them no ftriking medicinal or fenfible pro-
perties, and do not render them unfit for common purpofes,
yet they modify their nature very confiderably. Hence the
water of fome fprings is faid to be hard, others /oft, fome
Sweet, others brackifh, &c. according to the degree and nature
of the impregnating ingredients. Common fprings pafs infen-
fibly into mineral or medicinal fprings, as their foreign con-
tents become larger or more unufual ; or in fome inftances
they derive medicinal celebrity from the abfence of thofe in-
gredients ufually occurring in {pring-water ; as, for example,
is the cafe with the Malvern and other f{prings. Almoft all
fpring-waters poflefs the property termed hardne/s ina greater
or lefs degree. This hardnefs, as we formerly mentioned,
depends chiefly upon the fulphate and carbonate of lime
which they hold in folution.. The quantity of thefe earthy
falts varies very confiderably in different inftances ; but Dr.
Saunders obferves, that when they exift in the proportion of
five grains in the pint, fuch water will be hard, and from
its property of decompofing foap will be unfit for wafhing,
and many other purpofes of houfehold ufe or manufactures.
The water of deep wells, according to Dr. S., is always,
cateris paribus, much harder than that of {prings which over-
flow their channel ; but there are many exceptions to this rule.
The fofine/s of {pring-waters depends on their containing
{maller proportions of the earthy falts above-mentioned.
Spring-waters are faid to be brackifh, when they contain a
{mall proportion of the muriates of foda, magnefia, or lime,
a6 is frequently the cafe in the. neighbourhood of the fea.
Sweetne/s is generally underitood as oppofed to brackifone/s or
fetor when applied to fpring-waters. The fpecific gravity
of f{pring-waters in general is greater than that of diftilled
or any other potable water. See Sprinc.
d. Running waters include river-waters, and every other
{pecies of water expofed to the air, and moving in an open
channel. On this part of our fubje&t we cannot do better
than quote from Dr. Saunders. ‘ River-water,” fays Dr.
S., “in general is much fofter, and more free from earthy
falts than {pring-waters, but contains lefs air of any kind;
for by the agitation of a long current, and, in moft cafes, a
great increafe of temperature, it lofes common air and car-
bonic acid, and with this laft much of the lime which it
held in folution. The fpecific gravity thereby becomes lefs,
the tafte not fo harfh, but lefs frefh and agreeable, and out
of a hard fpring is often made a ftream of fufficient pu-
rity for moft of the purpofes where a foft water is required.
Some ftreams, however, that arife from a clean filecious
rock, and flow in a fandy or ftony bed, are from the outfet
remarkably pure, fuch as the mountain lakes and rivulets
in the rocky diftri€&ts of Wales, the fource of the beautiful
waters of the Dee, and numberlefs other rivers that flow
through the hollow of every valley. Switzerland has long
been celebrated for the purity and excellence of its waters,
which pour in copious ftreams from the mountains, and give
rife to fome of the fineft rivers in Europe.”’—* Some rivers,
~however, that do not take their rife from a rocky foil, and
are indeed at firft confiderably charged with foreign mat-
ter, during a long courfe, even over a richly cultivated plain,
become remarkably pure as to faline contents, but often
fouled with mud and vegetable or animal exuviz, which are
rather fufpended than held in true folution. Such is that of
the Thames, which, taken up at London at low water, is
very foft and good water, and after reft and filtration it
holds but a very {mall portion of any thing that could prove
noxious, or impede any manufa@ture. It is alfo excellently
fitted for fea-ftore, but it here undergoes a remarkable fpon-
taneous change. No water carried to fea becomes putrid
fooner than that of the Thames. When a cafk is opened,
after being kept a month or two, a quantity of inflammable
air (carburetted or fulphuretted hydrogen) efcapes, and the
water is fo black and offenfive as fcarcely to be borne.
Upon racking it off, however, into large earthen veflels,
and expofing it to the air, it gradually depofits a quantity of
black flimy mud, becomes clear as cryftal, and remarkably
{weet and palatable. The Seine has a high reputation in
France, and appears, from the experiments of M. Parmentier,
to be a river of great purity. It might be expected that a
river which has pafled by a large town, and received all its
impurities, and been ufed by numerous dyers, tanners, hat-
ters, and the like, that crowd to its banks for the conve-
nience of plenty of water, fhould acquire thereby fuch a
foulnefs as to be very perceptible to chemical examination
for a confiderable diftance below the town ; but it appears
from the moft accurate examination, that where the ftream
is at all confiderable, thefe kinds of impurity have but little
influence in permanently altering the quality of the water,
efpecially as they are for the moft part only fufpended, and
not truly diffolved ; and therefore mere reft, and efpecially
filtration, will reftore the water to its original purity. Pro-
bably, therefore, the moft accurate chemilt would find it
difficult to diftinguifh water taken up at London from that
procured at Hampton-court, after each had been purified by
fimple filtration.”” The water of the Ebro alfo, notwith-
ftandisg this river paffles through feveral large towns, is re-
markable for its purity. In general, thofe rivers which iffue
from lakes are moft pure and tran{parent, while thofe chiefly
fupplied
WATER.
fupplied by f{prings and rain are the reverfe. The water of
fome rivers is remarkable for its colour: thus that of the
Tinto, in Spain, at its fource is of a fine topaz, a circum-
{tance from which the river takes itsname. Others are of a
yellowith or greyifh-white, and the water of all fuch rivers
ufually holds a large proportion of fome falt of lime in folu-
tion. In countries where bogs and marfhes abound, the
rivers are often tinged of a brownith colour.
e. Stagnant Waters.—Under this head are included the
waters of lakes, pools, and refervoirs of every defcription,
in which this fluid is expofed to the air in a ftate of relt.
Stagnant waters, in general, prefent greater impurities to the
fenfes than any others, from their ufually containing a large
proportion of animal and vegetable matters in a ftate of de-
compofition. Their tafte in general is vapid, and defti-
tute of that frefhnefs and agreeable coolnefs which diftin-
guith {pring-water. Stagnant waters have various origins,
but ufually they are a mixture of rain, {pring, and river
water ; and hence, befides the animal and vegetable matters
they contain, may be fuppofed to be impregnated with the
various faline matters ufually met with in fuch waters. Many
ftagnant waters are faid to contain the nitrate of potafh ;
others, and efpecially fome lakes, abound in the fulphate
of magnefia; others in the carbonate of foda, as, for exam-
ple, the natron lakes of Egypt and Hungary, which are
generally very fhallow. A lake in Thibet is impregnated
with the borate of foda mixed with the muriate of foda, the
waters of which feem to have a fubterranean origin. Some
lakes alfo are found impregnated with fulphuretted hydrogen
gas. Stagnant waters are feldom perfeély colourlefs and
tranfparent. - Lakes, when deep, are ufually of a blueifh
tinge, mixed with green; and when the neighbouring hills
are covered with peat, &c. their water is always of a muddy-
brownifh tinge, as, for example, is the cafe with moft of
the Iakes in Scotland.
1. Ufes of Potable Waters.—If we were to be directed by
the evidences of the fenfes alone, /pring-waters would un-
doubtedly be pronounced to be the moft wholefome, for the
are univerfally admitted to be the moit agreeable. A
other waters have more or lefs of a flat infipid tafte. This
is efpecially the cafe with diftilled and rain water ; the firft of
which is quite pure, and the fecond nearly fo. Diflilled
water, therefore, is feldom employed for drinking ; and the
difficulty of procuring it in large quantities almott precludes
its ufe to any extent in the preparation of food, or in manu-
faftures. Much, however, has been lately faid of its me-
dicinal powers by Dr. Lambe, who has recommended it in
cancerous and other affections ; and, as Dr. Saunders juftly
obferves, water, when not already loaded with foreign mat-
ters, may become a folvent for concretions in the urinary paf-
fages ; and as much good has been obtained from the ufe of
very pure natural {prings, acourfe of diftilled water may be
confidered as a fair {ubje&t of experiment. Diflilled water
is an effential ingredient in the compofition of many medi-
eines, and often abfolutely neceffary in the profecution of
all nicer chemical proceffes in the liquid way. Snow and
ice water form almoft the conftant drink of the inhabitants
of cold climates during winter ; and the mafles of ice which
float on the polar feas afford an abundant fupply of freth
water to the mariner, ‘* Snow-water,” fays Dr. Saunders,
“has long lain under the imputation of occafioning thofe
ftrumous {wellings in the neck which deform the inhabitants
of many of the Alpme valleys; but this opinion is not fup-
ported by any well-authenticated indifputable facts, and is
rendered {till more improbable, if not entirely overturned,
by the frequency of the difeafe in Sumatra, where ice and
fnow are never feen, and its being quite unknown in Chili and
12
Thibet, though the rivers of thofe countries are chiefly {up-
plied by the melting of the fnow with which the mountains
are always covered.” Dew, efpecially when colleéted in the
month of May, was formerly in great repute as a cofmetic,
and for many other purpofes; but its ufe has been long en-
tirely laid afide. Spring-waters, as before obferved, from
the air they contain, and from their grateful coolnefs, con-
ftitute by far the moft agreeable of the potable waters, and
aré in more general ufe than any others. Their ufe, how-
ever, is {tated fometimes to occafion in delicate ftomachs an
uneafy fenfe of weight, followed by a degree of dyfpepfia.
They have alfo been accufed, efpecially when of the de-
{cription termed hard, of inducing calculous affections ; but
this notion by moft modern writers is confidered as ill.
founded. Spring-waters, in general, alfo, from their pro-
perty of hardnefs, are, as boots obferved, very ill adapted
for many domeftic and other purpofes ; while, in particular
inftances, this quality is of advantage. Hard /pring-waters,
for example, are very ill adapted for the purpofes of the
dyer or bleacher. ** On the other hand,’’ fays Dr. Saunders,
“there are feveral faline fubftances which are very readily
foluble in any kind of water, and here a hard water may be
employed when the objeét is only to procure thefe particu-
lar falts. For culinary purpofes, water is ufed either to foften
the texture of animal or vegetable matter, or to extrac
from it, and prefent in a liquid form fome of its foluble parts.
Soft pure water will fulfil both thefe objeéts better than hard
water ; and at the fame time the colour of the fub{tance em-
ployed will vary as well as its folution. Green vegetables
and pulfe are rendered quite pale, as well as tender, by boil-
ing in foft water ; whereas in a hard water, the colour is more
preferved, and the texture lefs altered, becaufe in the former
cafe the colouring matter of the vegetable is readily extraét-
ed by the menftruum, whilft in the latter more of it remains,
and is likewife altered by the chemical action of the earthy
or neutral falts.”? Dr. S. thea relates fome comparative
experiments he made with hard and pure water upon
tea ; from which he concludes that hard water is lefs pow=
erful in foftening the texture of vegetable leaves than foft
water, and that it is not able to exert its full effect in
heightening their colour till affifted by heat; and alfo, that
the gallic acid (or tannin) is equally wellextracted by hard
as by foft water, when by raifing the temperature, the
power of the former as a folvent is fully exercifed. It may
be therefore laid down as a genéral rule in domettic economy,
that when the obje& is to extraé the virtues of any fub-
ftance, and to retain them in folution, /oft waters fhould be
ufed ; but that when the obje& is the reverfe, or to preferve
as entire as poffible the article ufed as food, ard waters are
preferable.
Some fine {prings of very pure and foft water have been
long celebrated for their medicinal properties; as, for ex-
ample, the Malvern {prings, in Worcetterfhire, and. St.
Winifrid’s Well, at Holywell, in Flinthire. Malvern
water is ufed both externally and internally. Externally
applied, it is ftated to be a mott ufeful application to deep-
feated ulcerations of a fcrofulous nature, and to various
cutaneous affections. Its internal ule is often of advantage
“in painful affections of the kidneys and bladder, attended
with the difcharge of bloody, purulent, or foctid urine ; the
he@tic fever produced by {crofulous ulcerations of, the
lungs, or very extenfive and irritating fores on the {urface of
chitbenty ; and alfo fittulas of long re that have been
negleéted, and have become conitant and troublefome. fores.’?
The internal ufe of this water fometimes induces naufea at
firft, and occafionally drowfinefs, vertigo, and head-ache,
which foon go off, or may be readily removed by a mild
purgative.
WATER.
dae This water occafionally purges, but moft com-
monly the body becomes coftive under its ufe. ‘ In all
cafes, it increafes the flow of urine, and improves the gene-
ral health of the patient ; fo that his appetite and {pirits
almoft invariably improve during a courfe of the water, if
it agrees in the firft inftance.”” "The duration of a courfe of
this water depends in a great degree upon the nature of the
difeafe under which the patient labours. Thefe obfervations
upon the effeéts of the Malvern water are perhaps equally
applicable to all fpring-waters of a fimilar degree of
purity.
What has been faid of fpring-waters may be applied per-
haps with little modification to running waters, which in ge-
neral differ from /pring-waters only in being fofter, in con-
taining lefs air, and in being therefore better qualified for
many purpofes for which f{pring-waters cannot be employed.
Stagnant waters in general, efpecially in marfhy countries and
hot climates, are ufually efteemed unwholefome, and per-
haps defervedly fo. This arifes chiefly from the large quan-
tity of vegetable and animal exuviz which they contain, and
perhaps from other circumftances of which we are at prefent
ignorant. They fhould never be ufed, therefore, till they
have been boiled and filtered; by which procefles moft of
the foreign fubftances will be probably removed. In gene-
ral ftagnant waters, as Dr. Saunders obferves, are unpa-
latable ; and this circumftance has probably caufed them to
be fometimes in worfe credit than they a¢tually deferve to be
on the fcore of falubrity.
2. Simple faline Waters. — Under this denomination
we include all thofe waters impregnated with neutral,
alkaline, and earthy falts only. Waters of this defcrip-
tion may be arranged under the following heads : —
a. Brines, or waters whofe principal faline ingredients are
the muriates of foda and magnefia ; and 4. Bitterns, or waters
peg principally the fulphates of foda and mag-
nefia.
a. Sea-water, which may be confidered as an example of
the faline waters termed brines, is one of the mott abundant
and extenfively diffufed compounds occurring upon our globe.
When taken up at a confiderable diftance fan the fhore it
is quite tranfparent and colourlefs, and free from any {mell.
Its tafte is ttrongly faline, and at the fame time naufeous and
bitter. When kept for a fhort time it becomes highly of-
fenfive, from the putrefaction of the animal and vegetable
matters which it holds in folution. Its {pecific gravity varies
in different latitudes and circumftances, but may be faid to
lie between 1.0269 and 1.0285. The {pecific gravity is faid
to be lefs within the polar circles than at the tropics, owing
probably to the vaft quantities of ice found in thofe regions.
The waters of inland feas alfo, that have little conne&tion
with the ocean, and the water of bays, &c. into which frefh-
water rivers empty themfelves, contain in general lefs faline
matters than the open ocean. This is particularly the cafe
_ with the Baltic,' efpecially when the wind blows from the
eaft. The Mediterranean fea, on the contrary, is faid
to be more faline than the Atlantic. Water taken from a
confiderable depth is more faline than that taken from the
furface, particularly after much rain, for rain-water being
lighter appears to move upon the furface for a confiderable
time before it becomes quite incorporated. The quantity of
faline matter alfo is {tated to be greater in fummer than in win-
ter. “The water of the Britifh coafts is faid to contain upon
an average about one-thirtieth of its weight of faline matter,
and its temperature to vary between 40° and 65°. Sea-water
does not freeze till cooled down to 28.°5. The following
is one of the lateft analyfes of fea-water by Dr. Murray. A
wine pint of water colletedin the Firth of Forth was found
to contain
Grains,
Of lime - - - =) 29
Magnefia - - - - 14.8
Soda - - - - 96.3
Sulphuric acid - - = 144
Muriatic acid - - - 07-7
226.1
Or, fuppofing the elements to be combined in the modes
in which they are obtained by evaporation; that is, as mu-
riate of foda, muriate of magnefia, fulphate of magnefia,
and fulphate of lime, the proportions of thefe falts in a pint
will be,
Grains,
Muriate of foda - 5 - 180.5
of magnefia - - 23.0
Sulphate of magnefia - zy 1535
— of lime 2 = = Jed
226.1
Or, fuppofing that the lime exifts as muriate of lime,
(which is the moft probable conclufion with regard to it);
and farther, fuppofing that the fulphuric acid exifts in the
{tate of fulphate of magnefia, the proportions will be,
; Grains,
Muriate of foda - - - 180.5
of magnefia - - 18.3
of lime - - al igty
Sulphate of magnefia - - 21.6
226.1
Or, laftly, fuppofing that the fulphuric acid exifts in
the {tate of fulphate of foda, the proportions will be,
Grains.
Muriate of foda > - - 159-3
of magnefia = = 35.5
of lime - - Rs
Sulphate of foda - a= 995.6
226.1
The bitter tafte of fea-water is owing chiefly to the mu-
riate of magnefia which it contains. It may alfo arife, in
part, from the prefence of decayed vegetable and animal
fubftances. See the articles Sarr, SALTNESS, and SEA.
Many attempts have been made to render fea-water po-
table. Of thefe the beft, and indeed the only good one, is
diftillation. :
The method of obtaining frefh water from the diftillation
of fea-water was pra¢tifed by fir R. Hawkins, in the reign
of queen Elizabeth, who thus obtained water that was
wholefome and noutifhing. See Purchas’s Colleét. of
Voyages, book vii. chap. 5.
Experiments were afterwards made by Hales, Lifter,
Hanton, Lind, and others, to fimplify and render more per-
fe& the procefs of diftillation, and af length it attained a
great degree of perfe€tion, both in France and England.
Thus M. de Bougainville, in his Voyage round the World,
bore ample teftimony to the utility of the machine for dif-
tilling fea-water, which had been made public in 1763 by
M. Poiffonnier, its inventor; and lord Mulgrave, in his
Voyage
WATER.
Voyage towards the North Pole, in 1773, did equal juftice
to the method of obtaining freth water from the fea by dif-
tillation, which had been introduced into the a navy
in 1770, by Dr. Irving, and for which he obtained a parlia-
mentary reward of s000l. L ; an
Dr. Irving’s contrivance confifted in converting the fhip’s
kettle into a ftill. Every fhip’s kettle is divided into two
parts, by a partition in the middle; one of thefe parts is
only in ufe when peas or oatmeal are dreffed, but water 1s at
the fame time kept in the other, to preferve its bottom.
Dr. Irving availed himfelf of this circumftance ; and by fill-
ing the {pare part of the copper with fea-water, and fittiag
on the lid and tube, fhewed that fixty gallons of freth water
could be drawn off, during the ee of either of the above-
mentioned provifions, without the ufe of any additional fuel.
He recommended alfo the preferving of the water diftilled
from the coppers in which peas, oatmeal, or pudding, are
dreffed, as both a falutary beverage for the fcorbutic, and
the moft proper kind of water for the boiling of falt pro-
vifions. Dr. Irving particularly direéted that only three-
fourths of the fea-water fhould be diftilled, as the water dif-
tilled from the remaining concentrated brine was found to
have a difagreeable tafte ; and as the farther continuation of
the diftillation proved injurious to the veffels. For an ac-
count of the feveral experiments made on fome of the bett
diftilled water, prepared by Dr. Irving from fea-water, by
Dr. Watfon, fee his Chem. Eff. vol. ii. p. 168, &c.
The thips of difcovery lately fent out by the French go-
vernment are furnifhed with an economical diftilling appa-
ratus, and inftead of water have taken with them a fupply
of fuel. ie) TS ae
Dr. Prieftley fuggefted a plan to give to diftilled water
the brifknefs and {pirit of frefh {pring-water, and at the
fame time to render it, perhaps, a remedy or preventive
againft the fcurvy, by impregnating it with carbonic acid
gas. Diftilled water alfo acquires, in aconfiderable degree,
the grateful flavour of common water, by fimple expofure
for tonite time to the atmofphere. q
Sea-water may be likewife rendered potable by converting
it into ice. In the polar regions, therefore, there can be no
want of frefh water. In warm climates, the ingenious freez-
ing apparatus of Mr. Leflie may be employed to procure a
fupply of frefh water from the ocean.
é. As an example of the bitterns we may felect the Sedlitz
water, which is one of the beft known, and ftrongett of this
defcription of fimple faline waters. Sedlitz is a village in
Bohemia, and its waters, as well as thofe of Seydfchutz in
the immediate neighbourhood, and which clofely refemble
them, were firft brought into note about a century ago by
the celebrated Bergman. ‘The tafte of thefe waters is
ftrongly bitter and Filine, but not in the leaft brifk or aci-
dulous, as they ufually contain a {mall proportion of gafeous
matters. ‘Thus the Seydfchutz water above-mentioned was
found by Bergman to yield ay 6 per cent. of gafeous pro-
duéts, two-thirds of which only were carbonic acid. Its
{pecific gravity, as ftated by the fame chemilt, is 1.006, and
an Englifh wine pint was found to contain of
Grains,
Carbonate of lime - - +944
Sulphate of lime - - $140
Carbonate of magnefia ss - - 2.622
Muriate of magnefia - - 4567
Sulphate of magnefia - - 180.497
193-770
Sulphate of foda is not mentioned as an ingredient
in this water, although it doubtlefs exifts in it; at leaft
this falt almoft always occurs in waters of this defcrip-
tion.
Medicinal Properties and Ufes of the fimple faline Waters. —
All waters of this brett ah ees - i ftrongly upon
the bowels, according to the quantity of faline ingredients
which they contain ; here they are often of the greateft ufe
in complaints where alvine evacuations are particularly indi-
cated. They generally a& alfo as diuretics. Sea-water and
all brines have the property of inducing a fenfation of thirft.
“ Sca-water,”? fays Dr. Saunders, “* when ufed internally,
fhould be taken in fuch dofes as to prove moderately purga-
tive, the inereafe of this evacuation being the peculiar obje&
for which it is employed: about a pint is generally fuffi-
cient, and this fhould be taken in the morning, at two dofes,
with an interval of about half an hour between each. It is
feldom neceffary to repeat the dofe at any other time of the
day. This quantity contains half an ounce of purgative falt,
of which about three-fourths are muriate of foda.’’—* There
is very little danger ever to be apprehended from an excef-
five dofe of fea-water, except the inconvenience of a tem-
porary diarrhoea, and fometimes a forenefs at the extremity
of the re&tum, which all faline purgatives are now and then
apt to produce.”? The internal ufe of fea-water, befides its
general ufe in difeafes where cathartics are indicated, has
been recommended in various forms of fcrofulous affection,
efpecially in indolent glandular tumours in the neck and
other parts, which are commonly flow in ulcerating and in
their cure ; alfo in deep-feated {crofulous inflammations, fol-
lowed by caries of the bones, profufe difcharges, and tedious
exfoliation, and particularly in {crofulous ophthalmia. ‘ In
all fuch cafes, the internal ufe of fea-water 1s almoft entirely
confined to thofe periods of the difeafe when there is no
general fever and he¢tic tendency, when no fymptoms of
danger are prefent, and when the objeé is rather to prevent
a relapfe than oppofe any prefent difeafe. The external
ufe of fea-water either as a general cold bath, or as a topical
application to indolent fwellings, or granulating ulcers, when
the healing procefs has commenced, coincides perfe&tly well
in thefe cafes with the general intention.’”? The moft im-
portant advantages of fea-water are indeed probably derived
from its external ufe as a bath. (See the articles Baru and
BartuinG.) With refpeé to the medicinal properties of the
bitterns, we fhall attempt to illuftrate them by relating thofe
of the Sedlitz water, which we before feleéted as an ex-
ample of the whole tribe. A pint of this water, taken in
divided portions, is generally a full dofe for an adult, and the
ftrongeft perfon mene requires more than two pints. It
operates very fpeedily, and without producing griping or
flatulency; and is {tated by Hoffmann, as quoted by Dr.
Saunders, to be of the utmoft advantage in a foul itate of the
ftomach, and general torpor of the inteftinal canal, as it not
only ftimulates thefe organs to expel their morbid contents,
but by its bitternefsreftores their tone, and with it the appetite —
and digeftive powers. ‘¢ When the prefence of hypochondriafis
is a by anxiety, general languor, perturbed dreams,
a livid hue on the face, difficulty of breathing, pain of
the back and head, vertigo and coldnefs of the extremities ;
when a bilious humour and a depraved fecretion of the fto-
mach impairs its tone and healthy aétion, and is attended
with obftinate coftivenefs ; this water, by evacuating its con-
tents and reftoring the due force of contraction, enables it to
throw off the offending matter.’’—#* Numerous trials alfo have
fhewn the efficacy of this faline water in that cachexy of fe-
males attended with a fuppreffion of the men{trual difcharge,
whereby
WATER.
whereby are produced a general languor, difficult refpira-
tion, febrile heat and irritation, wafting of the body, and lofs
of appetite. _Alfo when women have arrived at that time of
life when this periodical evacuation begins to ceafe, and is
fucceeded by a number of anomalous diforders, fuch as prof-
tration of appetite, flatulent pains, irregular flufhings, pains
in the back and {welling of the feet, a courfe of Sedlitz
water reftores the wavering appetite, and difperfes the tu-
mours and other morbid fymptoms. Men of from forty to
fifty years of age, who have led a very fedentary life, and have
been accuftomed to intenfe thought and protound medita-
tion, become frequently affeéted with edematous tumours
in the extremities, a want of due aétion in the ftomach, eruc-
tations after taking food, and a generally impaired fate
of health; all of which are for the moft part very certainly
removed by a liberal ufe of this water. Perfons alfo of a
plethoric habit of body, who from fome obftruétion of blood
in the abdominal vifcera, and have acquired a {trong difpofition
to hemorrhoidal affeétions, become thereby often expofed
to very ferious evils. To fuch perfons a faline water like
that of Sedlitz is often of great utility, efpecially if accom-
panied by blood-letting when requifite, and a general anti-
phlogiftic plan of cure. Another important ufe of thefe
‘ waters is in removing from the fyftem thofe impurities and
acrid humours which are ufually termed fcorbutic.”” Such
are the properties of the Sedlitz faline waters according
to the celebrated Hoffmann, whofe account, as quoted by
Dr. Saunders, we have extracted, becaufe it prefents in few
words a comprehenfive and rational view of the medicinal
properties of this important tribe of waters in general. We
wifh however to obferve, that when the ftomach is in a very
weak ftate, and dyfpepfia is prefent in a very great degree,
faline purgatives and waters in general may do harm by in-
creafing thefe affeGtions ; their ufe, therefore, in fuch cafes is
rather contra-indicated, or at leaft fhould be combined with
other remedies calculated to invigorate thefe organs, efpe-
cially chalybeates.
3. Simple chalybeate Waters.—Chalybeate waters are either
Simple or compound. Under this head of fimple chalybeates we
include all waters whofe chara¢teriftic ingredient is one or
more of the neutral faltsof iron. ‘Thefe may be confidered
as of two general defcriptions :—a. Waters containing the
carbonate of iron, without any ftriking excefs of carbonic
acid ; and 5. Waters containing the fulphate or.muriate of
iron, generally in combination with a large proportion of the
fulphate of alumina. Waters of this laft defcription are much
more rare than the former, and are ufually formed from the
decompofition of iron pyrites.
a. As an example of the firft of thefe varieties of fimple
chalybeate waters, we may adduce that of Tunbridge Wells.
This water has been lately fubmitted to a careful and ac-
curate analyfis by Dr. Scudamore, from whofe pamphlet on
the fubject we chiefly-take the following account. The
temperature of the fpring throughout the year is uniformly
50°; andits fp. gr. in the month of Augutt, at its natural
temperature, was 1.0007. The frefh water is perfeétly
tranfparent, and does not fend forth air-bubbles. It exhales
a {mell which is diftin@tly chalybeate. Its tafte in this refpe&t
is ftrongly marked, but is neither acidulous nor faline. It
has an agreeable frefhnefs, and is by no means unpalatable.
Submitted to analyfis, one gallon was found to contain,
Cubie Inches.
OF carbonic acid - - - 8.05
Oxygen - == Sc
Azote - - - ae = | 4075,
: 13-30
Vou. XXXVIII.
Grains.
Of muriate of foda_— - - - 2.47
—— of lime - - - 39
————- of magnefia - = 629
Sulphate of lime - - - I-4I
Carbonate of lime - - man 2i7
Oxyd of iron - - - 2.29
Traces of manganefe, infoluble mat-
ter (vegetable fibre, filex, &c.) t ot
Lofs in proceffes - - =) 13
7-69
Or, ftating the refults according to Dr. Murray’s view,
which will be particularly explained when we treat of
the analyfis of mineral waters, the following eftimate will
appear :
Grains.
Muriate of foda - - =) eZee,
Sulphate of foda - - - 1.47
Muriate of lime - - - 1.54
of magnefia - - .29
Carbonate of lime - - 27
Oxyd of iron - - - 2.29
Traces of manganefe, &c. - = Ae
Lofs, &c. FS dates - = afte
7-68
This latter eftimate, which renders the carbonate of iron
the moft abundant ingredient in the water, appears much
more probable than the former, and to account more fatif-
factorily for its medicinal effeéts.
6. One of the moft ftriking examples of the fecond variety
of fimple chalybeate waters is that occurring in the Ifle of
Wight, and lately analyfed by Dr. Marcet. This {pring iffues
from a cliff on the S.S.W. fide of the ifle, immediately under
St. Catherine’s Down, in the parifh of Chale, between which
village and the village of Niton it is nearly equidiftant. The
diftance from the fea-fhore is about 150 yards, and elevation
about 130 feet above the level of the fea. Its properties, &c.
are the following :— When it firft iffues from the rock it is per-
fectly tranfparent, and remains fo if kept in clofe veffels ;
but when expofed to the air, reddifh flakes are foon depo-
fited in it. It has a flight chalybeate fmell, and a highly
aftringent and ftyptic tafte. Its {pecific gravity, in a courfe
of feveral experiments, was found to be 1007.5. One pint
or fixteen-ounce meafures yielded
Of carbonic acid -3,ths of a cubic inch,
Grains.
Sulphate of iron, in the ftate of cryftal-
lized green fulphate - - ai
Sulphate of alumina, a quantity of which,
if brought to the ftate of crytalzed 31.6
alum, would amount to -
Sulphate of lime dried at 160°; - - 10.1
Sulphate of magnefia cryftallized =) 4356
Sulphate of foda cryftallized . - 16.0
Muriate of foda cryttallized - - - 4.0
Silica - - - - - - - 07
107-4.
This therefore is the ftrongeft aluminous chalybeate known.
Medicinal Properties and Ufes of fimple chalybeate Waters.—
a. The feafon for drinking the Tunbridge water, which we
have felected as an example of the fimple carbonated cha-
lybeates,
WATER.
lybeates, is ufually from May to November. On entering
upon the ufe of this water fome aperient fhould be premifed ;
and Dr. Scudamore recommends that the firft dofe fhould
be taken at feven or eight o’clock in the morning, the
fecond at noon, and the third about three in the afternoon.
The exa& quantity to be taken muft be varied according
to circumftances ; but “asa general ftatement,”” fays Dr. S.,
“ T would fay that half a pint daily is the extreme {malleft
quantity, and that two pints daily is the extreme largeft
amount to found a juft expe€tation of benefit ; and further,
in the way of general outline of dire€tion, I conceive that
half a pint, a pint, a pint and a half, and two pints, fhould
form the progreffive ratio of the total daily quantity to be
taken at the three intervals. As the patient arrives at the
larger proportions, they may with advantage be fubdivided
with the interval of a quarter or half an hour, which fhould
be occupied in exercife.” Tea at breakfaift is directed to be
avoided ; and in cafes when the water difagrees at its natural
temperature, it is recommended to be adminiftered warm.
“ Qn the firft employment of the water, either cold or warm,
fome inconvenient fenfations very commonly arife, fuch as
fiuthing of the face, flight fulnefs of the head, with drowfinefs
and an uneafy diftenfion of the ftomach, together with con-
tinued flatulence. In general thefe effects are not of im-
portance, either in degree or duration, and are much to be
prevented by previous attention to the ftomach and bowels.”
—“ Asa general ftatement, it may be added, that the employ-
ment of this water is improper in a very plethoric ftate of the
circulation ; alfo when there is an inflammatory determination
to any particular organ, or even when local congeftion exilts
without inflammation. In cafes of fimple debility of the con-
ftitution, the water promifes to produce its happieft effeéts.
The proofs of its immediately agreeing with the patient are
increafed appetite and {pirits, and thefe. aufpicious fymptoms
are followed by a gradual improvement in the general en-
ergy and ftrength.” The bowels ufually become contti-
pated under its ufe, and require the affiftance of medicine.
The warm bath is occafionally of fervice in conjunétion with
this water, as was long ago pointed out by Hoffmann.
Exercife alfo after its ufe is generally of great importance.
In dyfpepfia depending on debility of the ftomach, and ac-
companied with general languor and nervoufnefs, this water
is remarkably aera In uterine debility alfo, and chlo-
rofis, its ufe is often of the utmoft fervice. Ithas been much
recommended likewife in fome cutaneous affeGtions. For the
Springs.
Muriate of foda
Muriate of magnefia
Sulphate of foda
Sulphate of magnefia
Sulphate of lime
Carbonate of foda
Oxyd of iron
Lofs
J
°
5
Sulphuretted hydrogen
Carbonic acid
complaints of children, efpecially when young, (that is to fay,
under fix or feven years of age, ) it is not in general artak,
for reafons fufficiently obvious. A courfe of this water may
vary from three weeks to two or three months, according to
circumftances. 4. With refpe& to the medicinal properties
of waters containing the fulphates of iron and alumina, as the
Ifle of Wight and Hartfell waters above-mentioned, they
differ little perhaps, except in degree, from thofe of the
fimple chalybeate waters. The Ifle of Wight water is fo
ftrong, that it is always proper to dilute it at firit with twice
its quantity of common water ; and even then the dofe cannot
well exceed two or three ounces, which may be gradually
increafed to about a pint in twenty-four hours. Dr. Saun-
ders recommends the fame quantity as the maximum dofe of
the Hartfell water. Both thefe waters are often much im-
proved by being gently heated, efpecially in cafes where the
ftomach is very delicate and irritable. Dr. Lempriere, who
has written a pamphlet on the Ifle of Wight water, ftates,
that he found it particularly ferviceable in the debility in-
duced by the Walcheren fever, chronic dyfentery, &c. as
well as in every inftance when the conftitution had been
undermined by previous illnefs, and the ordinary tonics had
failed. It is particularly neceffary to guard againft coftive-
nefs during the ufe of thefe waters.
Compound Chalybeate Waters.—Thefe may be divided into
a. Saline chalybeates, and b. Acidulous chalybeates.
a. The Cheltenham waters, properly fo called, are a good
example of the /aline chalybeates. (For the hiftory of thefe
waters, fee CHELTENHAM.) Since that article was written,
however, feveral fprings of different qualities and powers
have been difcovered by Mr. Thomfon ; an abftraé& of the
compofition and properties of which, as lately publifhed, we
fhall now take the opportunity of laying before our readers.
The fprings which have been deferibed and analyfed by
Meflrs. Brande and Parkes are fix, viz.
1. The ftrong chalybeate faline water. Sp. gr. 1009.2.
2. The ftrong fulphuretted faline water. Sp. gr. 1008.5.
3. The weak fulphuretted faline water. Sp. gr. 1006.
4. The pure faline water. Sp. gr. 1010.
5. The fulphuretted and chalybeated magnefia f{pring, or
bitter faline water. Sp. gr. 1008.
6. Saline chalybeate, drawn from the well near the
laboratory.
The following Table prefents a view of the contents of a
wine pint of thefe different {prings.
. |Cub. In.
2.5
WATER.
The medicinal properties of thefe different {prings of courfe
vary according to their compofition and ftrength. Mr.
Thomfon, the proprietor, procures from them fix different
faline preparations, neither of which, however, is precifely
fimilar to the water drank at the fpa. Thefe he denomi-
nates, cryftallized alkaline fulphates ; ditto efflorefced and
ground to an impalpable powder for hot climates ; magne-
fian fulphate in a ftate of eflorefcence ; a murio-fulphate of
magnefia and iron in brown cryttals, highly tonic; fub-
carbonate of magnefia in powder, and calcined magnefia.
4. As an example of the acidulous chalybeates, we may ad-
duce the celebrated waters of Spa.. (See Spa.) Dr. Jones
has lately publifhed an interefting paper on thefe waters,
which contains, among other things, analyfes of the different
{prings, of the refults of which the following table prefents
a fummary view.
Tas xx exhibiting the Nature and Proportion of the Subftances contained in One Gallon of the refpeétive Spa Waters.
-». {Carbonic] Solid
- S 1
Tempe Eee be Aeidicun ecient
AES SEMIS CCHS iaullateiorn
Sulphate
Fountains. of Soda,
Pouhon = 26.8
262.0 0.92
50
494% |1-0008
1.90095
Geronftere - 168.5)12.50 | 0.62
Sauviniere - 241.4] 8.50 | 0.05
49% |1.00075
265.0, 5-90
Muriate
of Soda.
1.26
0.64 | 1-43
|
0.25
Carbon Carbon.
of Lime.|° Mag-
nefia.
Carbon. ;
of Soda. Silex. Lofs.
Alumina.
2-45 | 9.87 | 1.80 2.26 | 0.29 | 2.71
5-20 | 1.05 1.40 | 0.19 | 1.03
0.60 | 3.50] 0.69 0.40 | 0.10 | 0.90
0.30 | 2.40 | 0.20 0.60 | 0.10 | 0.55
Groefbeeck -
1ft Tonnelet -
zd Tonnelet -
494 |1-0007
49% |1.00075
49% |1-00075
282.0
260.5
5332,
3679
0.05
0.06
*
0.20
0.10
0.60
0.65
0.10
0.09
not afcer-
tained,
Watroz - 9-30
after much 32.3
wet weather.
The nee
0.90
3°27,
* Quantity not appretiable.
With refpe& to the medicinal properties of the compound
chalybeates, they are, as might be expected, of a mixed cha-
raéter, and ufually correfpond with the nature of the pre-
dominant impregnating ingredients; hence their proper-
ties will be readily underftood from what has been ad-
vanced. For further particulars refpecting the medicinal
properties of the CuELTENHAM and Spa waters, we refer
our readers to thefe articles.
4. Simple Acidulous Waters.—Under this denomination
may be included all waters whofe chara¢teriftic ingredient is
an acid. They may be confidered as of two defcriptions :
a. Thofe impregnated with a volatile acid, as the carbonic
and fulphurous acids ; and 4. Thofe containing a fixed acid,
as the muriatic and fulphuric acids.
a. The waters of Seltzer may be adduced as an example
of the firft variety of acidulous waters. “¢ Seltzer is a village
fituated in a fine woody country, about ten miles from
Frankfort, and thirty-fix from Coblentz, in a diftri€ which
abounds with valuable mineral fprings.”? This water has
been examined by Hoffmann, Bergman, and others. When
frefh from the well, it is perfetly clear and pellucid, and
fparkles much when poured into a glafs. Its tafte is flight-
ly pungent, but at the fame time gently faline and alka-
line. On expofure to the air for a fhort time, the carbonic
acid efcapes, and the alkaline tafte becomes more per-
ceptible. According to Bergman, an Englifh pint con-
tains of
Cub. Inches.
Carbonic acid upwards of - 17
Grains.
Carbonate of lime about —- 3
Carbonate of magnefia - 5
Carbonate of foda - - 4
Muriate of foda - = 179.5,
29:5)
4. Waters containing a free mineral acid in excefs are
very rare, and chiefly confined to volcanic countries. Mr.
Garden has lately examined a water of this defcription from
White ifland, on the coa{t of New Zealand: it was of a pale
yellowifh-green colour ; its odour refembled that of a mix-
ture of muriatic and fulphurous acids. Its tafte was
{trongly acid and ftyptic, like that of a chalybeate. Its
{pecific gravity 1.073. On being fubmitted to analyfis, its
contents were found to confift chiefly of muriatic acid, a
flight trace of fulphur, fmall proportions of alum, muriate
of iron, and fulphate of lime. ‘Waters impregnated with
C2 fulphuric
WATER.
fulphuric acid are fometimes met with likewife in the vi-
cinity of volcanoes.
As to the medicinal properties of thefe waters, they pro-
bably differ little from thofe of a dilute folution of the dif-
ferent acids which they contain. For the particular pro-
perties of the Seltzer water, fee SELTZER.
Compound Acidulous Waters.—Acidulous waters fome-
times contain fo large a proportion of {aline matters, that the
nature of their operation is confiderably modified. Such
waters may be denominated faline acidulous waters. The
nature of their compofition and medicinal properties will be
readily underftood from what has been already advanced.
5- Sulphurcous Waters. — Thefe are either Simple or com-
pound. A good example of a /imple fulphureous water 1s
the Moffat fpring. The village of Moffat is fituated in
Dumfriesfhire, on the banks of the Annan, about fifty
miles fouth-weft of Edinburgh. The fulphureous waters
for which this village is noted, iffue from a rock a little
below a bog, whence, fays Dr. Saunders, they probably de-
rive their fulphureous ingredient. This water, even when
fir drawn, appears fomewhat milky. — Its tafte is ful-
phureous, and “lightly faline. It fparkles a little when
poured from one glafs into another. Onexpofure to the air,
it becomes more turbid, and throws up a thin film, which is
pure fulphur, and it thus lofes its diftinguifhing properties as
afulphureous fpring. This change even takes place in clofe
veffels, fo that it cannot be exported with any advantage.
According to Dr. Garnett’s analyfis, a wine pint of this
water contains
CuLic Inches.
Of fulphuretted hydrogen - 1.25
Of carbonic acid - - -625
Of azote “ “4 4 5
2-375
And of muriate of foda 4.4 grains. ©
With refpe& to the medicinal properties of fimple fulphureous
waters, they have been always celebrated for their good
effets in cutaneous affe&tions in general, and alfo in {cro-
fula. They are applied externally in the form of a warm
bath, as well as taken internally. ‘They have been alfo re-
. commended in bilious complaints, dyf{pepfia, general want
of ation in the alimentary canal, and calculous cafes. The
quantity of the Moffat waters ufually prefcribed internally
varies from one to three bottles every morning. But Dr.
Saunders juftly obferves, that few delicate ftomachs can bear
fo much. On the other hand, the fame eminent phyfician in-
forms us, that the common people not unfrequently fwal-
low from fix to ten Englifh quarts in one morning.
For further particulars refpecting this fpring,
Morrat.
Sulphureous waters frequently contain fo confiderable a
proportion of faline fubftances as to merit the name of com-
ea An example of fuch waters we have in the cele-
rated {prings of Harrowgate, in Yorkfhire. (See Harnow-
GATE.) This water, when firft taken up, appears perfeétly
clear and tranfparent. It emits a few air-bubbles. Its
{mell is very ftrong, fulphureous, and feetid, like that of a
foul gun-barrel. Its tafte is bitter, naufeous, and ftrongly
faline ; though it is remarkable that moft perfons foon be-
come reconciled to it. On expofure to the air, it becomes
turbid, the fulphureons odour is diminifhed, and the fulphur
is gradually depofited. According to Dr. Garnett, its {pe-
fee
cific gravity is 1.0064. A wine pint, according to the ex-
periments of the fame chemift, was found to contain about
Cubie Inches.
Of fulphuretted hydrogen - 26375
Carbonic acid gas mtitihy % 1.000
Azote - - - - 875
4-25
And of
Grains.
Muriate of foda_ - - . 76.9
Muriate of lime - - - 1.6
Muriate of magnefia—- - 1164.
Carbonate of lime ~— - 2.3
Carbonate of magnefia - = ae
Sulphate of magnefia - - ig
94-2
With refpe& to the medicinal properties of waters of this
defcription, and particularly of Harrowgate water, they are
of the greateft ufe in all thofe complaints that require pur-
gatives, and at the fame time are benefited by fulphur ;
hence they have been long celebrated in cutaneous affec-
tions, in piles, worms, &c. They have alfo been found of
great ufe in that obftinately coftive habit of body which
ufually accompanies hypochondriafis. Harrowgate waters
were formerly principally applied externally, but now they
are generally recommended to be taken internally, in fuch
dofes as to produce a fenfible effe€t upon the bowels ; for
which purpofe it. is commonly neceflary to take in the morn-
ing three or four glafles, of rather more than half a pint
each, at moderate intervals.
6. Thermal Waters.—There is fomething fo myfterious
and remarkable in the circumftances of thermal {prings, that
they have in all ages attra¢ted great attention, and been fup-
pofed to poffefs extraordinary medicinal properties. Hence,
by moft writers on mineral waters, thermal f{prings have
been arranged under a diftinét head ; and as there appears to
be no ferious objeCtion to this arrangement, we have thought
proper to adopt it. The inveftigation of the cau/fe of
thermal fprings belongs to the geologift, and will be found
under Eartu, Hor Springs, TEMPERATURE, VOLCANO,
and analogous articles.
They may be divided into fimple and compound.
Simple thermal waters are either tepid, that is, poflefling a
temperature below that of the human body ; or warm, pof-
feffing a temperature above that point. A good example of
the fimple tepid waters are thofe of Buxton. (See Buxton
Water.) Tepid waters ufually occur in lime-ftone diitri&s.
Warm waters of every degree of temperature, even to the boil-
ing point, are nobabenslly met with in the neighbourhood of
volcanoes. See VoLcAno.
With refpe& to the medicinal at cic of the fimple
thermal waters, it is extremely doubtful if they poflefs any
other powers than thofe of common water artificially raifed
to the fame temperature.
Thermal {prings are liable to be impregnated with all the
different fub{tances which ufually enter into the compofi-
tion of cold mineral waters; hence they are very various
in their nature. Such thermal waters may be called com-
pound, and without .any great facrifice of the principles of
rhs hE we have adopted, may be comprifed under
three heads ; namely, a. Saline thermal waters, 4. Acidulo-
chalybeate thermal waters, and c. Sulphureous thermal
waters 5
WATER.
-
waters; each of which varieties may be either tepid or
warm. ‘
a. Thermal waters fimply faline are very rare. ‘Their
properties can in no refpeé be fuppofed to differ from cold
faline waters raifed to the fame temperature. Sea-water,
therefore, heated artificially, is a good example of this
variety. It is generally ufed externally as a bath. See
BATHING.
b. A good example of the acidulo-chalybeate thermal
waters we have in the fprings of Carlfbad. For a full ac-
count of the chemical properties of thefe fprings, fee
CARLSBAD.
c. The celebrated waters of Aix-la-Chapelle, or Aken,
afford a good example of the /ulphureous thermal waters.
See Arx-LA-CHAPELLE.
With refpe& to the medicinal properties of the compound
thermal waters, they have all been in much repute as baths,
which was, perhaps, the original mode in which the two laft
varieties in particular were employed. In later times, they
have been much ufed internally. The difeafes, fays Dr.
Saunders, to the cure of which the internal ufe of Carlfbad
waters are applicable, are as various as the nature of their
foreign contents ; and from the union of feveral valuable
qualities in one water, it may be made ufe of in cafes of very
oppofite natures, without incurring the cenfure of employing
it indifcriminately as an univerfal medicine. In common
with the other purgative chalybeates, it is found to be emi-
nently ferviceable in dy{pepfia and other derangements of
the healthy aétion of the ftomach, in objtruétions of
the abdominal vifcera, not conneéted with great organic
difeafe, and in defe& or depravation of the biliary fecretion.
Ttis alfo of ufe in calculous affections, and is highly efteemed
for rettoring the uterine fyftem to a healthy ftate. The
fame precautions again{t its internal ufe in plethoric and
irritable habits, and thofe who are fubject to hemoptylis, or
liable to apoplexy, require to be obferved here as with any
of the other aétive thermal waters. The Aix-la-Chapelle
waters, taken internally, are likewife found effentially fer-
viceable in the numerous fymptoms of diforders in the
ftomach and biliary organs, that follow a life of high indul-
gence in the luxuries of the table. It alfo much relieves
painful affeCtions of the kidneys and bladder. The fame
precautions in its ufe are to be attended to, as thofe above-
mentioned refpecting the Carlfbad waters. For the ex-
ternal ufes of thofe waters, fee BATHING, and the articles
Caruspap and Arx-LA-CHAPELLE, before referred to.
Our readers will readily perceive, from the above fytte-
matic fketch, that the infinite variety which exifts among
mineral waters abfolutely precludes a perfed arrangement of
them: we truft, however, that no mineral water can occur
which may not be referred to one or other of the above
heads or their fubdivifions, without any great facrifice of
our principles of arrangement; and, confequently, whofe
general medicinal properties cannot be eftimated with tole-
rable accuracy @ priori from its chemical compofition.
On the general Ufes of Water in a dietetic and medicinal Point
of View.—No organic procefs nor interchange of elements
can be fuppofed to take place without the intervention of a
fluid ; organized beings, therefore, contain a large propor-
tion of fluid in their compofition, through the medium of
which that endlefs feries of changes, effential to their exift-
ence, is principally effected. The bafis of this fluid is uni-
verfally water, which of all other fluids is the moft emi-
nently fitted for diffolving and holding in folution every
variety of animal and vegetable matter. See Foon of Plants.
In animals, the firft great ftep in the feries of vital pro-
ceffes is dige/fion; and here nature appears to render the pre-
fence of a fluid particularly neceffary, in otder, as it were, to
infure for herfelf a fufficiency for her future operations.
Accordingly, we find that all animals inftinétively take in a
certain proportion of fluid, either in the form of fimple
water, or fucculent food. Man alone is the only animal
accuftomed to {wallow unnatural drinks, or to abufe thofe
which are natural; and this is the fruitful fource of a great
variety of his bodily and mental evils.
We know little of the intimate nature of the digeftive
procefs, but we know that it is chiefly effeéted by means of
a highly animalized fluid fecreted by the ftomach itfelf.
Now this important fluid, by drinking too little or toa
much, or by other caufes, may be rendered too concentrated
or too dilute for the due performance of its operations; and
dyf{pepfia, and all its confequences, may thus enfue from ha-
bitual errors in the quantity of drink only. The remedy in
fuch cafes is obvious, and confifts perhaps in nothing more
than in duly regulating the quantity of watery aliment, as
dictated by inftin&, or the fenfation of thirft only.
An eminent modern phyfiologift recommends to abftain
from drinking during meals, and for fome time afterwards ;
and asa general rule, this may, perhaps, be proper, fince a
healthy ftomach may be fuppofed to be always able to fecrete
fluid enough for its own immediate operations: there can be
no doubt, however, but many exceptions to this rule may,be
met with, arifing either from the nature of the food or
condition of the ftomach, in which moderate dilution is not
only grateful but falutary.
With refpeé to the choice of water as an article of diet,
(for our readers will underftand that we fpeak of water only
in this place,) thofe which are hard and impure have long
lain under the.imputation of producing calculous affections ;
and we have good authority for ftating, that, in many in-
ftances, the ufe of fuch waters actually increafes the painful
fymptonis of thefe diftrefling complaints. It is not perhaps
an ealy tafk to explain this, fince, with the exception of lime,
the fubftances found in hard waters never enter into the
compofition of calculi: their operation, therefore, muft be
rather of a predifpofing nature, and is probably exerted upon
the organs of digeftion, which are well known to be inti-
mately conneéted with the kidney. A faét which renders
this opinion the more probable is, that hard waters are often
pofitively noxious to irritable ftomachs,by inducing dyfpepfia.
In fhort, pure water, as we formerly obferved, muit obvioufly:
be much better adapted for the important purpofes of dilu-
tion and folution, than water already faturated as it were
with foreign fubftances ; and upon this principle may pro-
bably be fatisfaGtorily explained the good effects of Malvern
and other waters, whofe only charatteriftic property is,
their remarkable degree of purity.
Ina medicinal point of view, the ufe of water as a diluent
is moft important ; and, as Dr.Sau nders jultly obferves, the
long lift of ptifans, deco&ions, &c. ufually prefcribed by
phyficians in acute difeafes, owe their virtues almoft entirely
to the watery diluent itfels.
The inftinGive defires or averfions, continues the fame
eminent writer, of perfons labouring under any fpecies of
difordered fun&tions, have been juitly confidered as defery-
ing the higheft attention from the phyfician, and in moft
cates will furnifh him with ufeful hints for his treatment of
the patient. In acute difeafes, the thirft after water is pe-
culiarly remarked as a charaéteriftic fymptom, and is a
direé&t inftinétive indication of increafed heat and want of
dilution; and this is fo uniform, that the degree of fever
may often be pretty well eftimated by the eagernefs of the
fufferer after cold drink. The benefits arifing from large
dilution in acute difeafes, however, are not confined to the
mere
WATER.
mere quenching of thirft, though this is in itfelf highly ad-
vantageous ; but it is after fo much liquid is added to the
circulating mafs, that the truly diluent effeéts are pro-
duced. hefe confift, in Dr. S.’s opinion, in diminifhing
the morbid heat and violence of rea¢tion in the folids ; in pre-
ferving all the fecretory organs in a pervious ftate ; and in
checking that tendency to fpontaneous change, which ren-
ders the fluids pofitively noxious to the veffels in which they
are contained, and unfit to perform thofe functions, on which
the health of the body fo effentially depends.
It appears poffible, however, in the opinion of the fame
author, to carry dilution in aétive fever to excefs. In
fever, as is well known, the exhalent veffels are compara-
tively ina€tive, or morbidly conftriéted, and the fecretion of
arine is defeGtive in quantity. In fuch cafes, it is often
better to take liquids in {mall divided dofes, which has the
effe& of moderating the thirft, without overloading the ar-
terial fyftem, and bringing on that tenfion and plenitude
liable to be produced by {wallowing too large a proportion
of liquids.
In the ufe of water in acute difeafes, the temperature
fhould be particularly attended to. As a general rule it
may be laid down, that the temperature of diluents at the
different periods of a cold, hot, and fweating ftage of a fim-
ple febrile paroxy{m, fhould be hot in the firft cafe, cold in
the fecond, and tepid in the third; and it is chiefly in the
fecond ftage that the quantity may be moft liberal.
Moft of the above remarks are equally applicable to
the ufe of water in chronic difeafes in general, but more
efpecially in the deranged funétions of the itomach and
bowels and biliary organs, occafioned by a long and habitual
indulgence in high food, ftrong drink, and all the luxuries
of the table, and which are well known to be fo decidedly
benefited by the ufe of water as a medicine. As in acute
difeafes, fo in chronic affeétions likewife, it is often of great
importance to attend to the temperature of the water. A
draught of cold water, for example, will often induce fick-
nefs and other diftrefling fymptoms in delicate dyfpeptic ha-
bits, while water rendered flightly tepid may be taken with
impunity and even advantage. On the other hand, the ha-
bitual ufe of warm water or drinks is to be avoided, and
doubtlefs always does much harm.
We fhall clofe thefe remarks by a quotation from Dr.
Saunders on the habitual ufe of water. ‘* Water-drinkers,”
fays this eminent writer, ‘‘ are in general longer livers, are
lebs fubjeét to decay of the faculties, have better teeth, more
dd appetites and lefs acrid evacuations, than thofe who
indulge in a more ftimulating diluent for their common
drink.”
For the external ufes of water, fee the articles Batu
and Baruine, where this part of the fubjet is treated at
length.
On the general Contents of Mineral Waters and their Opera-
tion.—The proportions of faline and other ingredients in
mineral waters are for the moft part fo fmall, as apparently
to be infufficient for explaining the effeéts they often pro-
duce upon the animal economy. Many attempts, therefore,
have been made to explain this circumitance by different
writers, and the fubjeé is fo interefting, that we cannot let
it pafs without making a few remarks upon it.
Dr. Saunders, one of the lateft and beft writers on mine-
ral waters, very properly ridicules the idea’ of Specific and
other myfterious properties, by which the older authors at-
tempted to explain their operation. This intelligent phyfi-
cian fuppofes, that a very great proportion of their effects
depends folely upon the diluent operation of the water itfelf.
Of this, as we formerly obferved, there can be no doubt, in
II
many inftances ; and even in all, the mere bulk and tempera-
ture of the water muft be allowed to produce a certain pro-
portion of the effe&ts. Still, however, innumerable inftances
occur, in which thefe are infufficient to explain the whole,
even when aided by the additional circumftance of great
dilution, on which the above eminent phyfician likewife lays
Dae ftrefs. The matter, therefore, has always appeared
ufficiently puzzling, and it is only lately that a little light
has been thrown upon it by the ingenious views of Dr.
Murray, which will be more fully explained in the next
fection.
There can be no doubt that foluble falts in general are
capable of exerting a much more powerful effe& upon the
animal economy, ceteris paribus, than thofe which are info-
luble. The muriates are the moft foluble clafs of falts oc-
curring in waters, and are moreover, independently of this,
the moft aétive ; at leaft, this is the cafe with the earthy
muriates, efpecially the muriate of lime. Now this *falt,
Dr. M. has rendered it probable, exifts in all mineral waters
found by the ufual analytic method to contain the ful-
phate of lime and muriate of foda, which comprehend by
far the greater number. ‘The fame ingenious author has
alfo rendered it probable, that iron ‘not unfrequently exifts
in the ftate of muriate inftead of carbonate, as commonl
believed, as for example, in the Bath waters. With thefe
views in general we perfectly coincide, and have no doubt
that, in many inftances, a large proportion of the good ef-
feéts of mineral waters arifes from the muriates they con-
tain; but we muft confefs that many difficulties ftill appear
to us to remain on this obfcure fubje&t, which cannot, in the
prefent ftate of our knowledge, be fatisfaétorily explained.
Analyfis of Mineral Waters.—The analyfis of mineral
waters has been juftly deemed one of the moft difficult pro-
blems in praétical chemiftry. ‘This arifes partly from the
diverfified nature of the ingredients, and partly from the
minute proportions in which {ome of them exift. The cele-
brated Bergman was the firft chemift who prefented the
world with a general method or formula for analyfing mine-
ral waters. This was efteemed excellent in its day, and
even,at the prefent time may be confidered valuable. Twenty
years afterwards, Mr. Kirwan publifhed an effay on the fub-
je&t, which not only comprifed all that had been previoufly
done, but contairied many valuable additions made by
himfelf. He alfo propofed a new method of analyfis, of
which we fhall give a fhort account hereafter.
a. The firlt ftep in the examination of a mineral water,
is to notice accurately its fenfible properties, fuch as its tem-
perature, colour, tranfparency, taite, fmell, &c.
b. The fecond ftep is to afcertain its fpecitic gravity, the
fpontaneous changes it undergoes on expofure to the air,
the application of heat, &c.
c. Thefe preliminary operations being performed, the next
object of inquiry, is to endeavour to obtain a knowledge of
the different ingredients prefent by means of reagents, or tefts,
as they are ufually termed. We have already mentioned the
different ingredients commonly met with in mineral waters,
and fhall now proceed to give a lift of the different tefs by
which their prefence may be deteéted. For this lift we are
chiefly indebted to Dr. Thomfon, who has compiled it from
Kirwan and others.
1. The Gafeous Subflances may be feparated from water, by
boiling it in a retort conneéted with a pneumatic appara-
tus, and their nature and proportions may be afcertained in
the manner to be prefently defcribed.
2. Hydrogen and its Compounds.—Sulphuretted hydrogen is
readily diftinguifhed by its peculiar fmell, by its reddening
litmus fugacioufly, and by its blackening paper oe fo-
y ution
WATER.
lution of lead. Carburetted hydrogen may be detected by
its inflammable nature, and by its yielding carbonic acid by
combuttion. Pho/phuretted hydrogen may be known by its
peculiar {mell and {pontaneous inflammability.
3- Atmofpheric dir: Oxygen and Azote.—The prefence
of oxygen gas may be known by its power of fupporting
combuttion, and by the diminution which takes place on
mixing it with nitrous ue or phofphorus.. There is no
teft for azote, but it is fufficiently chara¢terized by its ne-
gative properties. ‘
4. Alkalies and Alkaline Earths. —The alkalies and alkaline
earths, as well as their caréonates, are diftinguifhed in general
by the following tefts. Turmeric paper is rendered brown
by alkalies, or reddifh-brown, if the quantity be minute.
Brazil wood is rendered blue not only by the alkalies, but alfo
by the alkaline and earthy carbonates. Litmus paper reddened
by vinegar is reftored to its original colour by alkalies, and
alfo by the alkaline and earthy carbonates. If thefe changes
are fugacious, we may conclude that,the alkali is ammonia.
Fixed alkalies are indicated when a precipitate is produced by
muriate of magnefia after being boiled. The volatile alkali,
or ammonia, may be readily diftinguifhed by its fenfible
properties. The earthy and metallic carbonates are precipi-
tated by boiling the water containing them, except carbo-
nate of ashe which is only precipitated imperfeétly.
With refpeét to the individual fubftances of this clafs—
Potafh may be diftinguifhed by the precipitate it produces
with the muriate of platina, the fulphate of alumina, and
tartaric acid. For /oda there is no good teft, but its falts are
eafily diftinguifhed from thofe of potafh. Ammonia may be
known from its odour and other properties above-mentioned.
Lime is dete&ted by means of the oxalic acid, which occa-
fions a white precipitate. To render its operation certain,
however, the mineral acids, if prefent, mutt be faturated with
an alkali. Magnefia and alumina. Pure ammonia precipi-
tates both thefe earths and no other, provided the carbonic
acid has been previoufly feparated. Lime-water alfo pre-
cipitates only thefe two earths, provided the carbonic and
fulphuric acids be previoufly removed. The alumina may
be feparated from the magnefia by boiling the precipitate in
pure potafh, which diffolves the alumina and leaves the mag-
nefia. Silica may be afcertained by evaporating a portion of
the water to drynefs, and rediffolving the precipitate in
muriatic acid. The /ilica remains behind undiflolved.
5- Metals.—The prefence of metals may be fufpeéted, if
precipitates are produced by the pruffiate of potafh and ful-
phuretted hydrogen. fron may be difcovered by the follow-
ing tefts. The addition of tin@ure of nut-galls gives water
containing iron a purple or black colour. If the tin@ure
has no effet upon the water after boiling, though it co-
loured it before, the iron is in a ftate of carbonate. Pruf-
fiate of potafh produces a fine blue precipitate in water
containing iron, provided no excefs of alkali be prefent,
which mutt be faturated with an acid. Manganefe is occa-
fionally prefent in minute quantity, efpecially in chalybeate
waters. It may be precipitated by ammonia with proper
precaution, and is known by the beautiful violet hue it im-
parts to borax, on being fufed with that fubftance. Copper
is occafionally met with in waters. It may be deteéted by
the fine blue colour produced on the addition of ammonia ;
by the red-coloured precipitate produced by the pruffiate
of potafh ; or it may be obtained in the metallic thate by
plunging into the water a piece of polifhed iron. Lead
is fometimes found in waters that have traverfed leaden
pipes. Such waters are blackened by a current of fulphu-
retted hydrogen gas; but to render the prefence of the metal
more certain, a portion of the water*is to be evaporated to
drynefs ; the remainder is to be tefted with nitric acid, and
afterwards tefted with folutions of the carbonate and ful-
phate of potafh, which produce white precipitates, from
eee the lead may be readily obtained in the metallic
ate.
6. Acids.—Carbonic acid, in a free or uncombined ttate,
may be deteéted by lime-water, which occafions a precipi-
tate foluble with effervefcence in muriatic acid ; or by the
infufion of litmus, which is reddened, but becomes again
blue on expofure to the air. Water containing free car-
bonic acid lofes this property of reddening litmus by boil-
ing. The fulphuric acid is readily diftinguifhed by the
muriate, nitrate, or acetate of barytes, ftrontian, and lime,
and alfo by the nitrate er acetate of lead. The moft deli-
cate of thefe tefts is the muriate of barytes: this pro-
duces a white precipitate, infoluble in muriatic acid.
To enfure the operation of this teft, it is neceflary
that no earthy or alkaline combination be prefent in the
water. The muriatic acid is dete€&ted by the nitrate of
filver, which occafions a white curdy precipitate, info-
luble in nitric acid. To enfure the operation of this
teft, the alkaline and earthy carbonates muft be previoufly
faturated with nitric acid ; and the fulphuric acid, if any be
prefent, muft be feparated by the nitrate of barytes. Bo-
racic acid is dete&ted by means of the acetate of lead. The
precipitate formed is infoluble in acetic acid. To render
this teft certain, the alkalies and earths mutt previoufly be
faturated with acetic acid, and the fulphuric and muriatic
acids removed by means of the acetate of ftrontian and the
acetate of filver.
Such is a brief account of the different te/fs ufually em-
ployed to deteét the ingredients prefent in mineral waters,
and the moft obvious precautions to be obferved in their ufe.
It is proper, however, to obferve, that there are many cir-
cumfttances to be attended to, in the ufe of tefts in general,
which can only be learnt by perfonal obfervation and prac-
tice, and that the inexperienced chemift is very liable to be
mifled by them.
d. Having thus acquired, by the employment of tetts,
a general knowledge of the ingredients contained in a mineral
water, the next obje& is to endeavour to afcertain the
quantities and modes of combination in which they exift ;
and this conftitutes by far the moft difficult part of the
inquiry.
‘There are two general modes of conduéting the analyfis
of a mineral water: one is to feparate, by various appro-
priate manipulations, the different ingredients in the fame
compound forms in which they are fuppofed to a@tually exift
in the water. The other, recommended particularly by
Dr. Murray, is to afcertain, chiefly by means of tefts, the
quantities of the different /imple fubftances, and afterwards
to eflimate from them the quantities of the compounds.
The firft of thefe modes, and in fome inftances a combina-
tion of both, is the one which has hitherto been generally
adopted by chemifts; we fhall, therefore, give a fhort ac-
count of the manipulations had recourfe to for feparatin
a few of the fubftances moft ufually occurring in ea.
waters.
1. The gafeous matters are firft to be feparated in the
manner formerly mentioned, and their grofs amount afcer-
tained by admeafurement in a jar graduated into cubic
inches. Sulphuretted hydrogen, if it be prefent with other
gafes, is firft to be feparated by immerfing the jar in warm
water, and introducing nitric acid, which abforbs the ful-
phuretted hydrogen, and the diminution of bulk denotes its
quantity.
WATER.
quantity. If fulphurous acid be prefent, the above ftep is
unneceflary, for fulphuretted hydrogen never exifts in water
containing this acid. Sulphurous acid may be feparated by
introducing into the gafeous mixture a quantity of the
peroxyd of lead, in a ftate of powder. This will gradually
abforb the whole, and the diminution of bulk, as before,
will denote its quantity. The introduétion ofa little potafh,
after this, will abforb the carbonic acid. The remaining
gafes muft be oxygen and azote. The oxygen may be fe-
parated by introducing a piece of phofphorus, or by other
well-known eudiometrical means ; and the azote will remain
lait of all, unaffeéted by any of thefe proceffes.
2. The earthy carbonates, if any be prefent, are firft to
be feparated by boiling a. given portion of the water for a
quarter of an hour. The precipitate thus obtained may
confit of a mixture of the carbonates of lime, of magnefia,
of iron, and of alumina, and even of the fulphate of lime.
Suppofing all thefe to be prefent, the precipitate is to be
treated with dilute muriatic acid, which will diffolve the
whole, except the alumina and fulphate of lime. Dry this
refiduum in a red heat, and note the weight. Then boil it
in a folution of carbonate of foda; faturate the foda with
muriatic acid, and boil the mixture for half an hour: car-
bonates of lime and alumina will be precipitated ; the hime
may be then diffolved by acetic acid, while the alumina will
remain; and thus the weight of each may be afcertained.
The muriatic folution contains lime, magnefia, and iron.
To feparate thefe, add ammonia, which will precipitate the
iron and part of the magnefia. Dry the precipitate, and
expofe it-to the air for fome time in a temperature of about
200%. The magnefia may be then feparated by acetic acid,
and the acetate thus formed is to be added to the muriatic
folution. The iron is now to be rediffolved in muriatic
acid, precipitated by an alkaline carbonate, and dried and
weighed. j
Muriate of lime and magnefia ftill remain in folution.
To feparate them, add fulphuric acid as long as any pre-
cipitate appears, then heat the folution, and concentrate.
The fulphate of lime thus obtained is to be heated to red-
nefs, and its weight afcertained. Laftly, the magnefia
may be feparated by an alkaline carbonate, or, what is
much better, by the phofphate of ammonia.
3. To afcertain the quantity of the alkaline carbonates,
fuppofing them to exift in waters, determine how much of
any dilute acid, whofe ftrength has been previoufly carefully
afcertained, is neceffary to faturate them ; and from this the
quantity of alkali can be readily eftimated.
4. The alkaline and earthy fulphates may be eftimated by
the following methods.
The alkaline fulphates may be determined by precipi-
tating their acid by means of the nitrate of barytes, having
previoufly feparated all the earthy fulphates.
Sulphate of lime is readily eftimated by evaporating the
water to a few ounces, the earthy carbonates being pre-
vioufly faturated with nitric acid, and precipitating the ful-
phate of lime by means of dilute alcohol.
If the fulphate of magnefia or alumina be the only ful-
phate prefent, the quantity of either can be readily eftimated.
If they exift together, the two earths may be precipitated
‘by foda, and afterwards feparated by acetic acid in the
manner above-mentioned. If fulphate of lime be alfo pre-
fent, this may be previoufly: feparated in a great degree, as
above; or, what is preferable, the lime may be precipitated
by an alkali along with the other earths, and afterwards
feparated. The Cene holds good alfo with the fulphate of
iron; or the iron may be feparated by expofing the water
for fome days to the air, and mixing with it a portion of
alumina. The oxyd of iron and fulphate of alumina are
precipitated together, and may be eaflly feparated, and the
quantity of iron afcertained. ;
5- If muriate of potath or foda exift alone in water, its
quantity can be readily eftimated by preci itating the
muriatic acid with the nitrate of filver. The ime procefs
may be followed, if the alkaline carbonates be prefent ;
only thefe carbonates muft be previoufly faturated with ful-
phuric acid, and, inftead of ufing the nitrate, the fulphate
of filver is to be employed.
If the alkaline muriates exift along with more or lefs of
the earthy muriates, or with the muriate of iron, without
any other falts, the whole of the earths may be feparated
by barytes water, and their quantities eftimated as before.
To difcover the proportion of the alkaline muriates, the’
barytes is to be feparated by fulphuric acid, and the muriatic
acid expelled by heat. The quantity of the alkaline mu-
riates may be then afcertained by evaporation.
When fulphates and muriates exift together, they may be
feparated by evaporating the whole to drynefs, and diffolving
the earthy muriates in alcohol; or, when the water has
been duly concentrated, by precipitating the fulphates with
the fame fluid. ,
When alkaline and earthy muriates exift with fulphate of
lime, this laft falt is to be decompofed by means of the
muriate of barytes. The eftimation is then to be conduéted
as if nothing but muriates are prefent, only the proportion
of muriatic acid which united in the muriate of barytes,
added, muft be allowed for.
When muriates of foda, magnefia, and alumina, are pre-
fent, together with fulphates of lime and magnefia, the water
is better examined by two diftin& operations. “To one por-
tion add carbonate of magnefia, till the whole of the lime
and alumina be precipitated. Afcertain the quantity of
lime, which es: the proportion of fulphate of lime. Pre-
cipitate the {ulphuric acid by muriate of barytes: this gives
the quantity contained in the fulphate of magnefia and ful-
phate of lime ; and the quantity of fulphate of lime being
previoufly known, that of the fulphate of magnefia can be
eafily eftimated. To a fecond portion of the water add
lime-water; till the whole of the magnefia and alumina be
feparated. From the weight of thefe earths the quantity of
their muriates may be eftimated, that portion of the mag-
nefia previoufly found to be in union with fulphuric acid
being dedu@ted. . After this, remove the fulphuric acid by
barytes water, and the lime by carbonic acid, and the liquid
evaporated to drynefs will leave the common falt.
6. Lattly : Ifthe fixed mineral acids fhould alone be
found to exift in a water, it need fearcely be obferved that
their quantities can be readily afcertained; the fulphuric
acid by means of a barytic falt, and the muriatic acid by
means of a falt of filver.
All thefe different precipitates fhould be dried uniformly,
or at lea{t at fome known degree of temperature. It is not
eafy to fix this point, which muft in a great degree be regu-
lated by the nature of the falt, and the peculiar views of the
analy{t ; fome choofing to reduce the falts to an anhydrous,
others to a cryltallized ftate. Asa fort of check alfo to
the analyfis, it is proper to evaporate a known quantity of
the water to drynefs, in order to learn the grofs amount of
the faline matters it contains, which amount is to be com-
pared with the refults as obtained by the different procefles
of the analyfis. tang
Such are a few of the moft common methods recom-
mended for feparating and afcertaining the proportions of the
10 different
WATER.
different faline fubftances contained in a mineral water.
They muft of courfe be varied according to circumftances ;
but this, as well as the application of other methods, mutt
depend upon the praétical knowledge and judgment of the
analyft.
The principles, however, upon which many of the above
analytical proceffes are founded, have been lately called in
queftion by Dr. Murray of Edinburgh, and we think very
juftly. That gentleman has endeavoured to fhew, that we
by no means arrive at a juft knowledge of the contftituents of
a mineral water by thefe procefles, and that many of the
compounds obtained by them are determined by the pro-
ceffes themfelves. The following quotation, from a paper
by Dr. Murray, entitled “A general Formula for the
Analyfis of Mineral Waters,” in the eighth volume of the
Tranfa€tions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, will con-
vey a diflin@ idea of his opinions and mode of reafoning
upon the fubject.
Two methods of analyfis have been employed for dif-
covering the compofition of mineral waters, what may be
called the dire method,in which, by evaporation, aided by
the fubfequent application of folvents, or fometimes by
precipitants, certain compound falts are obtained ; and what
may be called the indireét method, in which, by the ufe of
reagents, the principles of thefe falts, and bafes of which
they are formed, are difcovered, and their quantities efti-
mated, whence the particular fats and their proportions
may be inferred.
Chemifts have always confidered the former of thefe me-
thods as affording the moft certain and effential information.
They have not neglected the latter, but they have ufually
employed it as fubordinate to the other. The falts pro-
cured by evaporation have been uniformly confidered as the
real ingredients ; and nothing more was required, therefore,
it was imagined, for the accuracy of the analyfis, than the
obtaining them pure, and eftimating their quantities with
precifion. On the contrary, in obtaining the elements
merely, no information, it was believed, was gained with
regard to the real compofition; for it ftill remained to be
determined in what mode they were combined: and this, it
was fuppofed, could be inferred only from the compounds
actually obtained. ‘This method, therefore, when employed
with a view to eftimate quantities, has been had recourfe to
only to obviate particular difficulties attending the execution
of the other, or to give greater accuracy to the propor-
tions, or, at furtheft, when the compofition is very fimple,
confifting chiefly of one genus of falts.
Another circumftance contributed to lead to a preference
of the direét mode of analyfis,—the uncertainty attending
the determination of the proportions of the elements of the
compound falts. This uncertainty was fuch, that even
from the moft exa& determination of the abfolute quantities
of the acids and bafes exifting in a mineral water, it would
have been difficult, or nearly impraéticable, to affign the
precife compofition and the real proportions of the com-
pound falts: and hence the neceffity of employing the dire&
method of obtaining them.
The prefent ftate of the {cience leads to other views.
If the conclufion was juft, that the falts obtained by eva-
poration, or any analogous procefs from a mineral water,
are its real ingredients, no doubt could remain of the fu-
periority of the dire&t method of analyfis, and even of the
abfolute neceflity of employing it. But no illuftrations, I
believe, are required to prove that this conclufion is not ne-
ceffarily true. Theconcentration by the evaporation mutt, in
many cafes, change the ftate of combination; and the falts
obtained are hence frequently produéts of the dperation, not
Vou. XXXVITI.
original ingredients. Whether they are fo or not, and what
the real compofition is, are to te determined on other
grounds than on their being a€tually obtained ; and no more
information is gained, therefore, with regard to that com-
pofition, by their being procured, than by their elements
being difcovered; for when thefe are known, and their
quantities are determined, we can, according to the prin-
ciple from which the aétual modes of combination are in-
ferred, whatever this may be, affign with equal facility the
quantities of the binary compounds they form.
The accuracy with which the proportions of the confti-
tuent principles of the greater number of the compound falts
are now determined, enables us alfo to do this with as much
precifion as by obtaining the compounds themfelves ; and if
any error fhould exift in the eflimation of their proportions,
the profecution of thefe refearches could not fail foon to
difcover it.
The mode of determining the compofition of a mineral
water, by difcovering the acids and bafes which it contains,
admits in general of greater facility of execution, and more
accuracy, than the mode of determining by obtaining infu-
lated the compound falts. Nothing is more difficult than to
effect the entire feparation of {alts by cryftallization, aided
even by the ufual methods of the aétion of alcohol, either as
a folvent or a precipitant, or by the aCtion of water as a
folvent at different temperatures: in many cafes, it cannot
be completely attained, and the analyfis mutt be deficient in
accuracy. No fuch difficulty is attached to the other me-
thod. The principles being difcovered, and their quantities
eftimated in general from their precipitation in infoluble
compounds, their entire feparation is eafily effefted. No-
thing is eafier, for example, than to eftimate the total
quantity of fulphuric acid by precipitation by barytes, or
of lime by precipitation with oxalic acid; and this method
has one peculiar advantage with regard to accuracy, that if
any error is committed in the eftimation of any of the prin-
ciples, it is difcovered in the fubfequent ftep of inferring the
binary combinations: fince, if all the elements do not bear
that due proportion to each other, which is neceflary to
produce the ftate of neutralization, the excefs or deficiency
becomes apparent, and of courfe the error is detected.
The indire& method, then, has every advantage over the
other, both in accuracy and facility of execution.
Another advantage is derived from thefe views, if they
are juit, that of precluding the difcuffion of queftions,
which otherwife fall to be confidered, and which muft often
be of difficult determination, if they are even capable of
being determined. From the ftate of combination being
liable to be influenced by evaporation, or any other analytic
operation, by which the falts exifting in a mineral water are
attempted to be procured, difcordant refults will often be
obtained, according to the methods employed: the propor-
tions at leaft will be different, and fometimes even products
will be found by one method, which are not by another.
In a water which is of a complicated compofition, this will
more peculiarly be the cafe. The Cheltenham waters, for
example, have in different analyfes afforded refults confider-
ably different: and on the fuppofition of the falts procured
being the real ingredients, this diverfity mutt be afcribed to
inaccuracy ; and ample room for difcuflion with regard to
this is introduced. In like manner, it has often been a fub-
je& of controverfy whether fea-water contains fulphate of
foda with fulphate of magnefia. All fuch difcuffions, how-
ever, are fuperfluous. The falts procured are not necef-
farily the real ingredients, but in part, at leaft, are produéts
of the operation; liable, therefore, to be obtained or not,
or to be obtained in different proportions, according to the
method
WATER.
method employed: and all that can be done with precifion
is to eftimate the elements, and then to exhibit their binary
combinations, according to whatever may be the moit pro-
bable view of the real compofition.
The method propofed by Mr. Kirwan, formerly al-
luded to, confifts in determining, chiefly by tefts, the
quantity of the different faline fubftances prefent. But the
complicated nature of many of the formule, befide the very
principle of the method itfelf, being liable to moft of the
objections above urged by Dr. Murray againft that in com-
mon ufe, render its application difficult, and refults uncer-
tain. Upon the whole, therefore, we have no hefitation in
faying, that we confider Dr. Murray’s views and methods
as by far the beft, and moft likely to lead to correét con-
clufions, that have yet appeared, and which may be ftated
in few words, as follows:
« Determine by precipitants the weight of the acids and
bafes prefent in a mineral water. Suppofe them united in
fuch a manner that they fhall form the moft foluble falts :
thefe falts will conftitute the true faline conftituents of the
water under examination.”
Dr. Murray illuftrates his method of procedure by fup-
pofing, as an example, a water found, by the ufual tefts,
to contain the carbonates, fulphates, and muriates of lime,
magnefia, and foda. The water is to be reduced by eva-
poration as far as can be done, without occafioning any
fenfible precipitation or cryftallization. A faturated folu-
tion of muriate of barytes is then dire&ted to be added as
long as any precipitate falls, and no longer. This precipi-
tates the whole of the fulphuric and carbonic acids, and the
carbonate of barytes is to be feparated from the fulphate by
diluted muriatic acid. Add to the refidual liquor a folution
of oxalate of ammonia as long as any turbid appearance is
produced. By this the whole of the lime is feparated.
The oxalate of lime is to be calcined, and converted into
fulphate of lime, from which the quantity of pure lime may
be readily eftimated. The next ftep is to precipitate the
magnefia; and for this purpofe, Dr. Murray recommends a
modification of Dr. Wollafton’s procefs. ‘This confifts in
adding, firft, a folution of neutral carbonate of ammonia,
and afterwards a ftrong folution of phofphoric acid, or
phofphate of ammonia ; ne care to leave an excefs of
the carbonate of ammonia. By thefe proceffes, the whole
of the magnefia is obtained in the ftate of triple -phofphate,
and its quantity can be readily eftimated. Mluriate of foda
now remains in folution, and its quantity can be obtained by
evaporation. As a check, however, to the different pro-
cefles, it may be proper to afcertain the quantity of muriatic
acid prefent by means of the nitrate of filver.
If alumina, filica, or iron be prefent, they are beft fepa-
rated by diftin& procefles, in the manner formerly de-
{cribed.
Laftly, Dr. Murray recommends that the refults of an
analyfis be ftated in three modes: 1{t, The quantities of the
acids and bafes; 2dly, The quantities of the binary com-
pounds, as inferred from the principle that the moft foluble
compounds are the ingredients; and 3dly, The quantities
of the binary compounds, fuch as they are obtained by
the ufual modes of analyfis. The refults will be thus pre-
fented in every point of view. As an inftance of this
method of ftating the refults of an analyfis, we refer our
readers to what we have faid on /ea-qwater in the prefent
article.
Mineral Waters, artificial Preparation of.—Chemiftry had
no fooner developed the compofition of mineral waters, than
it faggefted methods of preparing them artificially. Ac-
cordingly, Bergman and others have given many formule for
2
this purpofe, fome of which approach the truth, while
others are very imperfect. When the compofition of a
water is very fimple, nothing more is required to form it
artificially than to know the nature and quantity of the
faline fubftances prefent, and to diffolve fimilar quantities of
the fame faline fubftances in the fame proportion of water.
In the earlier periods of chemical inveftigation, before the
nature of gafeous fubftances was cciestined: no attempts
of courfe could be made to imitate the important clafs of
waters which derive their chief properties from the prefence
of fuch fubftances; but chemifts no fooner became ac-
quainted with the nature of gafes, than they began to devife
methods of imitating thefe alfo; and artificial carbonated
waters have been long fince prepared as an article of com-
merce, under the name of /oda water, fuperior in point of im-
pregnation to any acidulous waters known. See Pyrmont.
It is true that there are fome inftances of natural chemical
folution, which art has not even yet been able to imitate.
Of this kind is the folution of filex, which occafionally oc-
curs in mineral waters. It is doubtful, however, if this
earth is capable of exerting any falutary effeéts on the animal
economy; and, therefore, we have little occafion perhaps
to regret our inability to effeét its folution. Another defeé&
in the formation of artificial mineral waters is, that many of
the more important ones cannot be obtained in large quan-
tities for bathing, &c. without fo great a degree of expence
and trouble, as to entirely preclude their ufe.
On the other hand it feems plaufible, in theory at leail,
that we can improve upon the compofition of many mineral
waters. Thus, many mineral waters contain ingredients,
which, either from the minutenefs of the proportion in which
they exift, or from their inert nature, may be deemed as
fuperfluous, or in fome inftances as injurious. Again,
others contain their ative ingredient in fuch fmall quantities,
as to require an inconvenient bulk of the water to produce
the defired effe&: all which defe&ts may be remedied in the
artificial preparation, by leaving out the ufelefs or noxious
matter, and increafing that in which the proper medicinal
virtue refides. Befides thefe advantages alfo, we have it in
our power to form new and valuable compounds, which are
no where to be met with in a natural ftate.
The firft itep to the artificial formation of a mineral
water is, of courfe, to know the exa&t compofition of the
water we would imitate. Many of the ingredients, how-
ever, obtained from mineral waters by the ufual modes of
analyfis, are very little foluble in water: fuch, for example,
are the fulphate and carbonate of lime, &c. which we fhould
attempt in vain to diffolve dire&tly in water. Other modes,
therefore, muft be devifed for this purpofe ; and Dr. Mur-
ray’s views of the compofition of mineral waters in general
will enable us to effe&t our objeét, in moft inftances, very
readily and completely, as the following example will
fhew.
Suppofe we wifhed to imitate the Seltzer water, an
Englifh pint of which, according to Bergman’s analyfis,
contains, as before mentioned, of
Cub. Inches.
Carbonic acid - J # 4 17
Grains.
Carbonate of lime e = 2 3
Carbonate of magnefia - . 5
Carbonate of foda - - - 4
Muriate of foda enn) oc) feteeede BS
29.5
OF
WATER.
Of thefe ingredients, neither the carbonate of lime nor
magnefia are foluble in water, nor can be rendered fo, with-
out a tedious procefs of impregnating the water, through
which they are diffufed, with carbonic acid gas. But if we
adopt Dr. Murray’s views, and confider a pint of this water
as actually containing of
Cub. Inches.
Carbonic acid gas 17
—
Grains.
Muriate of lime - 3.3
Muriate of magnefia 5
Muriate of foda - 7.8
Carbonate of foda 10.3 dry, or 18 cryftallized.
26.4.
we can eafily imitate its compofition in the following
manner :
About 35 grains of muriatic acid, of the ftrength ufually
met with in the fhops, are to be put into a ftrong bottle,
with a pint of water, the acid being introduced to the bot-
tom of the water by a long funnel. Three grains of pure
white marble in coarfe powder are then to be dropped in,
and the bottle clofed. When thefe are diffolved, five grains
of the common carbonate of magnefia in powder are to be
added ; and after the folution of this, 32 grains of cryftal-
lized carbonate of foda, or what is equivalent to this, and
preferable, as affording more carbonic acid, 27 grains of
bicarbonate of foda, are to be putin. The bottle is to be
clofed accurately, fhaken, and inverted. In a fhort time
a perfe& folution takes place, and a liquor is obtained
tran{parent, which fparkles when poured out, has a plea-
fant tafte, and in its compofition refembles the Seltzer
water.
It might be fuppofed, fays Dr. Murray, that fo large a
proportion of carbonate of foda could not exift with the
muriates of magnefia and lime, without decompofing them ;
but on making the experiment, it was found that the above
qtantities might be diffolved in a pint of water, indepen-
dently of the excefs of carbonic acid, without any apparent
decompofition ; the folution remaining tranfparent, even on
expofure to the air.
Upon fimilar principles may the compofition of almoft
every other mineral water be readily imitated.
We have an agreeable imitation of acidulous waters, under
the term of what is called the effervefcing draught. "This
confifts of two folutions, one of an alkaline carbonate, and
the other of the citric or fome other vegetable acid, which
are dire€ted to be mixed together, and fwallowed during
the a& of effervefcence. A more portable form of this
grateful draught is to be obtained in the fhops, under the
name of Sodaic powders, Seidletz powders, &c. in which
the requifite proportions of alkali and acid in their dry ftate
are formed into feparate little packets, one of each of which
is direéted to be diffolved feparately in water, and the two
folutions to be then mixed, and {wallowed during the a&t of
effervefcence, as before.
The following, therefore, may be laid down as a general
rule for the artificial preparation of mineral waters :—A fcer-
tain, upon Dr. Murray’s principles, the precife propor-
tions of the moff foluble falts that can be prefent in any
given water; diffolve fimilar proportions of the fame falts
in an equal quantity of water, and a compound water will
be obtained, erally fimilar in its compofition to the
original,
Catalogue of the moft important mineral Waters.—The fol-
lowing catalogue is intended to comprife the principal
mineral waters of Great Britain, and fome of the more im-
portant ones of other countries. Our readers will recolle&
that, in the preceding article, we divided natural waters
into potable, faline, chalybeate, acidulous, Julphureous, and
thermal, and defcribed the general chemical and medicinal
properties of each clafs, as well as of their compounds.
To prevent repetition, and to fave room, therefore, we have
attempted to refer the different {prings, mentioned in the
following catalogue, to one or other of the above clafles :
thus, when a fpring is ftated to be Saline, its general com-
pofition and properties are to be underftood to refemble the
clafs of /aline waters ; and fo of the reft.
The moderns have very properly exploded the old notion
of the myfterious and /pecific operation of particular fprings.
But even if this cogent reafon for generalization did not
exit, it would be impoffible, in a work of the prefent defcrip-
tion, to defcend to all the minutiz of analyfis, &c. fuppofing
them to be known, which is far from being the cafe: we
have thought proper, however, to give a few of the more
interefting and inftruétive recent analyfes of fome of the
moft important {prings.
Thofe fprings marked thus *, in the following lift, are
more particularly defcribed in the preceding article, as
examples of the different claffes.
Abcourt. An acidulous chalybeate fpring. See As-
COURT.
Aberbrothick, or Arbroath.
{pring. See ABERBROTHICK.
An acidulous chalybeate
Adon, A faline fpring. See Acton,
nie Tyrone, Ireland. A fulphureous fpring flightly
ine.
* Aix-la-Chapelle. Sulphureous thermal fprings. See
Arx-LA-CHAPELLE.
Alford. A faline {pring See ALrorp.
Alkerton, near Gloucefter. A faline {pring.
: fee > Leitrim. A weak fulphureous {pring flightly
aline.
PR Fermanagh. A fulphureous {pring flightly
ine.
Afeeron, Yorkshire.
flightly faline.
Aftrope, Oxfordhire.
4fwarby, Lincolnfhire.
Athlone, Wettmeath.
faline,
@ Ax-en-foix, France.
repute as baths.
Baden. Sulphureous fprings, formerly in much repute as
baths. See BApEN.
Bagnigge-Wells. ‘Two fprings, one faline, the other
chalybeate. See PANCRAS.
Baie. Thermal {prings, in much repute among the Ro-
mans. See Barz.
Balaruc. Saline thermal {fprings. See BALARUuc.
Ballycaftle. "Two chalybeate fprings, one in which the
iron is in combination with carbonic acid, the other with
fulphuric acid. See BaLtycasTLe.
Ballynahinch, Downfhire. A fulphureous fpring, faid to
contain iron.
Bagneres, France. ‘Thermal fprings, in much repute as
baths.. See BAGNEREs. :
Balfton, North America. A highly acidulous chalybeate
fpring. According to the recent analyfis of a French
chemift, 25 fluid ounces contain of
Dz
A ftrong fulphureous fpring
An acidulous chalybeate {pring.
A faline chalybeate fpring.
A chalybeate fpring flightly
Sulphureous thermal fprings, in
Carbogic
WATER.
Cub. Loches.
Carbonic acid - e ; = 15
Grains.
Muriate of foda - - - 31
Carbonate of lime - - - 22
Muriate of magnefia. - - - 12-5
Muriate of lime : - - 5
Carbonate of iron - - - 4
74:5
Barege. Sulphureous thermal fprings, in confiderable
repute. See BAREGE. : ;
Barnet, Hertfordthire. A weak faline fpring. At
North-hall, about three miles from Barnet, is another of
the fame defcription, but a little ftronger. ene
Bath. Celebrated faline thermal {prings, containing like-
wife a little iron. (See Batu.) One of the moft recent
and probably correét analyfes of thefe waters is by Mr.
Phillips. According to this gentleman, a wine pint con-
tains of
Cub. Inches.
Carbonic acid - =, Sa 1.2
Grains.
Sulphate of lime - Sarria.)
Muriateoffoda - - - 3:3
Sulphate of foda_ - - - 1.5
Carbonate of lime - - - 0.8
Siler) * Yense= past a ene 5nd
Oxyd of iron - - - 0.0147
14.8147
Bilton, Yorkfhire. A weak faline fulphureous fpring.
Binley, Warwickfhire. A faline chalybeate {pring.
Borrowdale, Cumberland. A ftrong faline water.
BorROWDALE.
Borfet. Sulphureous thermal fprings, in confiderable
repute. See BorseEr.
Brabach, Germany. An acidulous chalybeate f{pring.
Brandola, Italy. A weak acidulous chalybeate fpring.
Brentwood, Effex. A faline fpring.
Brighton. A chalybeate {pring : are of iron. (See
BriGHTHELMSTON.) According to Dr. Marcet’s analyfis,
a wine pint contains of
See
Cub. Inches.
Carbonic acid gas - - . 2.5
Grains.
Sulphate of iron - . - 1.80
Sulphate of lime a 8!
Muriate of foda - AA 1-53
Muriate of magnefia - - - 0.75
Silex - . - - - O.14
Lofs - - - : = 4 o.I9
8.50
Byjftol Hotwells. A fimple thermal water. As this
{pring has not been defcribed in its proper place, we fhall
infert the following fhort account of it here. This water is
inodorous, perfeétly limpid and fparkling, and fends forth
air-bubbles when poured into a glafs. It is agreeable to
the palate, but has no decided tafte. Its {pecific gravity is
flated to be 1.00077. Its temperature, upon an average,
is about 74°. A wine pint,
analyfis, contains of
according to Dr. Carrick’s
j 3 Cub. Inches.
Carbonic acid gas = - - 3.95
Commonair - - = = 0375
4.125
. Grains.
Muriate of magnefia “=D
Muriate of foda - ~ -nit te suas
Sulphate of foda - - - 1.4
Sulphate of lime - - - 1.47
Carbonate oflime - -~ - 1.63
5°9
It was formerly much celebrated in confumption, but its
fuppofed good effects in this difeafe have been jultly called
in queftion by modern writers.
Bromley, Kent. A chalybeatef{pring. See Bromiry.
Broughton, Yorkfhire. A {trong faline fulphureous
{pring, fimilar to that of Harrowgate.
Buch, near Carlfbad, in Bohemia. A weak acidulous
water.
Buglawton, Chethire. A faline fulphureous water.
Burlington, or Bridlington, Yorkfhire. A chalybeate water
flightly faline.
Burnley, Lancafhire. A chalybeate water flightly faline.
*Buxton. A fimple thermal water. See Buxton-Water.
Cannock, Staffordfhire. A chalybeate water.
Cargyrle, near Chefter. , A weak faline water.
Carlfbad. Celebrated acidulo-chalybeate thermal {pyings.
See CaRLsBAD.
Carlton, Nottingham. A chalybeate water.
Caflleconnel. A chalybeate water. See CASTLECONNEL.
Cafllemain. A fulphureous fpring faid to contain iron.
See CASTLEMAIN.
Cawley, Derbyfhire. A fulphureous water flightly faline.
"St ag Lincolnfhire. A chalybeate fpring flightly
ine.
: ns Oxfordfhire. A fulphureous water flightly
aline.
Chaude Fontaine, near Liege, Germany. Thermal fprings
celebrated as baths.
*Cheltenham. Saline and faline chalybeate f{prings.
CHELTENHAM.
Chippenham, Wiltfhire. A chalybeate f{pring.
Cleves. An acidulous chalybeate fpring. See CLEVEs.
Clifton, Oxfordfhire. A faline fpring.
Cobham, Surry. A chalybeate water.
Codfal Wood, Staffordthire. A fulphureous fpring.
Colchefter, Effex. A faline {pring.
Colurian, Cornwall. A chalybeate fpring.
Comner, or Cumner, Berkfhire. A weak faline {pring.
Corftorphine, near Edinburgh. A weak fulphureous {pring
flightly faline.
Coventry. A faline chalybeate fpring. See Coventry.
Crickle sa Lancafhire. A ftrong faline fulphureous water.
Croft, Yorkthire. A fulphureous water flightly faline.
Crofs town, Waterford. A fulphureous f{pring.
Cunley-houfe, Lancafhire. A ftrong fulphureous {pring
See
flightly faline.
Deddington. Saline fulphureous fprings. See Dep-
DINGTON.
Derby. A chalybeate {pring.
Derrindaff,
WATER.
Derrindaff, Cavan. A fulphureous {pring flightly faline.
Derry-hinch, Fermanagh. A fulphureousfpring.
p Dog and Duck, St. George’s Fields, Southwark. A faline
ring.
PDrg-well, Cumberland. An acidulous chalybeate fpring.
; Drumafnave, Leitrim. A ftrong fulphureous {pring flightly
aline.
Dublin. Several weak faline fprings.
Dulwich, Kent. Pretty ftrong faline fpring.
Dunblane, Perththire. Thefe fprings have been only lately
difcovered. They have been accurately analyfed by Dr. Mur-
ray. There are two {prings, both of a fimilar nature, that is
to fay, faline, with a minute proportion of iron. A wine
pint of the north /pring was found by Dr. M. to contain of
Grains.
Muriate of foda - - - - 24.3
Muriate of lime = = = - 18.
Sulphate of lime - - - - 361
Carbonate of lime with a trace of iron = 05
45-9
The fame quantity of the /outh /pring yielded
Grains
Muriate of foda - - - - 22.5
Muriate of lime - - = = 16;
Sulphate of lime = - - - =. '23
Carbonate of lime - - - - 03
Oxyd of iron - - - - =1ig
: 41.25
Dunfe, Scotland. A chalybeate fpring.
Durham. A ftrong fulphureous water flightly faline.
Egra, Bohemia. A celebrated faline chalybeate fpring.
See Ecra.
Epfom. A celebrated faline fpring. See Epsom.
Felftead, Effex. A chalybeate fpring.
Filah, Yorkthire. A faline chalybeate fpring.
Francfort on the Maine. Saline fulphureous {prings.
See FRANCFORT.
Galway, Ireland.
Geyfer, Iceland.
ICELAND.
Glanmile, Ireland. A chalybeate fpring.
Glaftonbury. A chalybeate {pring flightly faline. See
GLASTONBURY.
Glendy, Angusfhire. A ftrong chalybeate fpring.
Granfhaw, Downfhire. A chalybeate {pring.
Haigh, Lancafhire. Achalybeate {pring : fulphate of iron.
Hampjftead. A chalybeate water. See Hampstzap. The
moft recent analyfis of this water is by Mr. Blifs, according
to whom a wine gallon contains of
A chalybeate fpring.
Remarkable thermal fprings. See
Cub. Inches,
Carbonic acid - = - - 10.1
Atmofpheric air - - - - 90.9
101.
7 ean
Oxyd of iron - - - me Es
Muriate of magnefia 2 - - 75
Sulphate of lime - - = = $2.12
Muriate of foda nearly - < rah Titel
Of filex about = - - - - 38
6-75
Hanbridge, Lancafhire. A chalybeate water flightly
aline.
Hanlys, Shropfhire. ‘lwo f{prings, one faline the other
chalybeate.
*Harrowgate. Saline fulphureous fprings. See Har-
ROWGATE.
_ Afarifell, Annandale. A chalybeate fpring: fulphate of
iron. According to Dr. Garnett’s analyfis, a wine pint of
this water contains of
Grains.
Sulphate of iron = - - 10.5
Sulphate of alumina — - = Sear
Oxyd of iron - - - - 1.875
13.875
Hartlepool. A chalybeate fpring. See Harriepoor.
Holt, Wiltthire. A weak faline water.
Holt-nevil, Leicefterfhire. A chalybeate {pring: fulphate
of iron. See Horr Waters.
Jefp's Well, near Cobham, Surry. A ftrong faline
water flightly chalybeate.
Ilmington, Warwickthire. A chalybeate {pring.
Inglewhite, Lancafhire. A ftrong chalybeate {pring.
_ Le of Wight. A very ftrong chalybeate: fulphate of
iron.
Dflington. A chalybeate fpring. See Istincron.
Kanturk, Cork. A chalybeate fpring.
Kattrine Loch, Scotland. On the north fide of this
lake is a ftrong chalybeate fpring.
Keddleftone, Derbythire. A ftrong fulphureous water
moderately faline.
Kenfington. A faline fpring. See Kensineron.
Kilbrew, Meath. A chalybeate water: fulphate of iron.
Kilburn, Middlefex. A faline fpring.
Kilroot, Antrim. A faliue fpring.
Kiling-foanvally, Fermanagh. A chalybeate water flightly
ine.
Killafher, Fermanagh. A {trong fulphureous water.
Kinalton, or Kynolten, Nottinghamfhire. A weak faline
water.
Kincardine. A chalybeate fpring.
King’s-clif, Northamptonfhire.
weakly faline.
Kirby or Kirkby-thower, Weftmoreland.
beate {prings.
Knarefborough, the Dropping-well, contains lime held in
folution by carbonic acid. See KNARESBOROUGH.
Knowfley, Lancafhire. A chalybeate {pring.
Korytna, Moravia. A very ftrong fulphureous f{pring.
Kuka, Bohemia. A chalybeate acidulous water.
Lancafter. A chalybeate {pring flightly faline.
Latham, Lancafhire. A chalybeate {pring.
Leuk, Valois, Switzerland. Thermal {prings.
Llandrindod, Radnorfhire. Three f{prings; one faline,
another fulphureous, and the third chalybeate.
Lilangybi, Carnaryonfhire. A faline {pring.
Leamington. A faline {pring. See WARWICK.
Leez, Effex. A chalybeate {pring.
Lincomb, Bath. A chalybeate {pring flightly faline.
Lifbeak, Fermanagh. Two fulphureous {prings.
Lis-done-varna, Clare. A ftrong chalybeate water.
Pn ibe Yorkfhire. A fulphureous fpring flightly
ine.
Maccroom, near Cork. A chalybeate fpring.
Mahereberg, Kerry. A faline {pring.
A chalybeate fpring
Two chaly-
Mallow,
WATER.
Mallow, Cork. A pure thermal fpring. See Mattow.
Malion, Yorkthire. A ftrong chalybeate {pring mode-
rately faline.
* Malvern, Worcefterfhire. Very pure {prings. See
Matvern. One wine gallon of the Malvern Holywell
waters, according to Dr. Wilfon, contains of
Grains.
Carbonate of foda - - - 5-33
Carbonate of lime - - - 1.6
Carbonate of magnefia - - - .gIg
Carbonate of iron - - - 625
Sulphate of foda - - - 2.896
Muriate of foda - - - 16553
Refiduum, filex - - - 1.687
14.610
According to the fame chemift, one gallon of the Malvern
St. Ann’s well contains of
Grains.
Carbonate of foda
Carbonate of lime
Carbonate of magnefia
Carbonate of iron
Sulphate of foda
Muriate of foda
Refiduum, filex
7°395
Markfball, Effex. A chalybeate water.
Matlock, Derbythire. Thermal {prings, temp. about 66°.
See Matlock.
Maudfley, Lancafhire. A fulphureous water moderately
ine.
Mechan, Fermanagh. Two fulphureous fprings.
Millar’s Spa. A chalybeate {pring. ‘
* Moffat, Annandale. Two fulphureous fprings. See
Morrat.
Mofshoufe, Lancabhire. A chalybeate f{pring.
Moreton, Shropthire. A faline {pring.
Mont @’Or, near Clermont, France. Sulphureous ther-
mal fprings. :
Mount Pallas, Cavan. A chalybeate {pring-
Nevil Holt. See Horr.
Newnham Regis, Warwickhhire. Three chalybeate {prings
flightly faline.
Newton Dale, Yorkhhire.
lime in folution. t
Neawton Stewart, Tyrone. A chalybeate fpring.
Nezdenice, Germany. An acidulous water. ;
Nobber, Meath. A chalybeate {pring : fulphate of iron,
Normanby, Yorkthire. A fulphureous fpring flightly
falinie.
Nottington, Dorfethhire. A ftrong fulphureous water.
Orflon, Nottingham. A chalybeate {pring.
Oulton, Norfolk. A weak chalybeate {pring.
Owen Breun,Cavan. A fulphureous {pring flightly faline,
Pancras, Middlefex. A faline {pring.
Paffy, near Paris. A moderately ftrong: chalybeate
An acidulous water holding
{pring. ;
Peterhead, Aberdeenthire. A ftrong chalybeate {pring.
See PETERHEAD. j
Pettygoe, Donegal. A ine fulphureous water, faline.
Pitcaithly, Perthfhire. Thefe {prings refemble clofely
thofe of Dunblane, and have been lately analyfed by Dr.
Murray, according to whom a wine pint contains of
: Cubic Inches.
Atmofpheric air - - spake
Carbonic acid gas - - The:
Iss
Grains
Muriate of foda - - = 134
Muriate of lime - - - 19:5
Sulphate of lime - - - 9
Carbonate of lime - - EY bag
34-3
Plombiers, France. A thermal {pring.
Pontgibault, France. A weak acidulous fpring.
Pyrmont, Weitphalia. A highly acidulous chalybeate
fpring. See Pyrmont.
Queen’s Camel, Somerfetfhire. A fulphureous fpring.
Richmond, Surry. A faline fpring.
Road, Wiltthire. A chalybeate fin
Rougham, Lancafhire. A faline {pring.
St. Bartholomew’s Well, Cork. A chalybeate water
flightly faline.
St. Bernard’s Well, Edinburgh.
flightly faline.
St. Erafmus’s Well, Staffordfhire. A weak faline water.
St. Winifrid’s Well, Flint. A very pure fpring. See
Ho.tyweEL.
Scarborough, Yorkfhire. A faline chalybeate {pring. See
SCARBOROUGH.
Schooley’s Mountain, United States. A weak chalybeate
A fulphureous water
pring.
Scollienfes, Switzerland. An acidulous chalybeate {pring.
*Sea-water. See Sea and the former part of this article.
*Sedlitz. A faline water. See SepLirz.
*Seltzer. An highly acidulous water. See Se_rzer.
Sene, or Seend, Wiltthire. ‘Two chalybeate {prings.
*Seyd/chutz, near Sedlitz. A faline water. See Sepiitz.
Shadwell. A {aline chalybeate {pring : fulphate of iron?
Peat Weftmoreland, A fulphureous {pring flightly
ine.
Shettlewood, Derbythire.
faline.
ella Yorkfhire. A fulphureous {pring moderately
ne,
Somerfham, Huntingdonhhire.
phate of iron. See SomERSHAM.
*Spa. Highly acidulous chalybeate fprings. See Spa.
Stanger, Cumberland. A faline chalybeate fpring. »
pert Lincolnfhire. _ A chalybeate {pring flightly
ine.
Streatham, Surry. A faline fpring. See SrREATHAM.
Suchaloza, Germany. An acidulous {pring.
Sutton Bog, Oxfordfhire. A {trong Sidi {pring
flightly faline.
Swadlingbar, Cavan.
Swanfea, Glamorganfhire.
phate of iron. See SWANSEA.
Sydenham, Kent. A weak faline fpring.
Tarleton, Lancafhire. A chalybeate {pring flightly faline.
Tewkfbury, Gloucefterfhire. A faline fpring.
Thetford, Norfolk. A chalybeate fpring fligbtly aci-
dulous.
F Thoroton, Nottinghamfhire. A chalybeate fpring flightly
“li
A fulphureous fpring flightly
A chalybeate {pring : ful-
A fulphureous fpring.
A chalybeate fpring: ful-
ine.
Thurfk, Yorkthire. A faline chalybeate fpring.
Tiff
WATER.
Tibfoelj, Derbythire. A chalybeate {pring flightly aci-
dulous.
Tilbury, Effex. A faline {pring fienly chalybeate.
Toberbony, near Dublin. A faline {pring.
Tonflein, Germany. A faline acidulous {pring in con-
fiderable repute.
Tralee, Kerry.
“*Tunbridge Wells, Kent.
Tonsrince /Vells.
Opminfter, Effex.
A chalybeate fpring.
A chalybeate fpring. See
A ftrong faline fulphureous fpring.
Vabls, France. A weak acidulous {pring flightly faline.
Vichy, France. A highly acidulo-chalybeate thermal
fpring. See Vicuy.
Wardrew, Northumberland. A faline fulphureous {pring.
Warmbrunn, Silefia. Thermal fprings.
Weatherftack, Weltmoreland. A faline chalybeate {pring.
Wellenbrow, Northamptonfhire. A weak chalybeate {pring.
Weft Afbton, Wiltthire. A weak chalybeate fpring.
Weftwood, Derbythire. A chalybeate {pring : fulphate of
iron.
Wexford, Ireland. A weak chalybeate fpring.
White Acre, Lancafhire. A chalybeate fpring.
Wigan, Lancafhire. A chalybeate f{pring.
Wigglefworth, Yorkfhire. A {ulphureous fpring flightly
faline.
Wildungan, Germany. A weak acidulous water.
Witham, Effex. A chalybeate {pring.
Wirkfworth, Derbythire. A faline fulphureous f{pring.
Zahorovice, Germany. A weak faline acidulous water.
*Zealand, New. An acidulous water: muriatic acid.
See the article Aqum, where many thermal and other
f{prings are noticed, which have been omitted in the above
catalogue.
Among the older writers on mineral waters, fee Rutty,
Monro, Elliot, and others. One of the beft modern treatifes
on mineral waters is doubtlefs that of Dr. Saunders, to
which we have been particularly indebted. Detached eflays
on particular waters are too numerous to be all noticed.
Among the more recent publifhed in this country may be
enumerated thofe of Phillips on the Bath waters ; Scudamore
on the Tunbridge Wells water ; Jones on the Spa waters ;
and Brande on the Cheltenham waters.
The chief of the older writers on the analyfis of mineral
writers, are Bergman and Kirwan. Latterly, fome very
valuable effays have been publifhed on this fubje& by
Dr. Murray of Edinburgh, of which we have availed our-
felves in the above article.
Water of Cry/flallization, in Chemiftry, is a denomination
applied to the water attra&ted by many faline bodies during
the a& of cryftallization. Some falts contain no water of
cryttallization, while others contain a very large proportion.
Water always appears to enter into the compofition of
cryftals in a definite proportion. Water can be commonly
feparated from falts without affe@ting their faline properties,
and may be reftored to them by atalece them in water, and
fuffering them to cryftallize. See CrysTALLIZATION and
Sats.
Waters, Difilled or Simple, in Medicine and Pharmacy,
confift chiefly of fimple water flightly impregnated with the
effential oils of different plants, and are principally ufed as
vehicles for more ative remedies. They were formerly very
numerous, but their numbers have been very properly much
reduced by the moderns. See Aqu® Dijflillate, where all
thofe in common ufe are enumerated.
Water, Spirituous, Cordial, or Compound,in Pharmacy, &c.
was the name formerly given to what are now denominated
Spirits, the menftruum being alcohol, and the impregnating
ingredients commonly yarious. See Aqum Cardiace, and
Spreit. For the methods of preparing fuch compounds,
fee alfo DistirLation, and O11, efential.
Water, in Agriculture and Rural Economy, is a fluid of
great utility for many different purpofes. The nature of the
compofition of water, and the great power and capacity
which it poffeffes of taking up and holding a variety of dif-
ferent matters in the ftate of diffufion or folution, as well as
the circumftance of its being every where prefent amongtt
almoft all kinds of bodies, renders it particularly ufeful in
the ‘growth of plants as crops, and in many other ways.
Dr. Woodward, indeed, from finding it to contain the par-
ticles of moft forts of extraneous Pui was led to
fuppofe that fome of them were the proper matter of nutri-
tion ; as water is conftantly found to afford fo much the lefs
nourifhment, the more it is purified by diftillation, or other
means. So that water, as fuch merely, did not appear to
be the proper nutriment of vegetables, but only the medium
or vehicle that contains the nutritious particles or properties,
and which conyeys them along with it through all the parts
of the plant. The more full and complete knowledge of
the nature and properties of water which has fince been ac-
quired, have, however, fet the matter in a more clear and
fatisfa€tory point of view. See the article WATER.
Water is feldom, if ever, met with in a flate of perfeé&
purity, nor often in that even which is fufficiently fo for the
different operations and ufes to which it may be neceflary to
apply it. Nor have all the trials that have ever been made
been yet capable of producing it perhaps perfeCtly pure.
There feems indeed to be no fort of ftandard by which the
weight and purity of water can be readily and eafily afcer-
tained. It is, in fat, a very difficult matter, however ufe-
ful and advantageous it might be in many different inten-
tions, as water fearcely ever continues for any length of
time exaétly of the fame weight, or perhaps purity ; as by
reafon of the air and caloric, or matter of heat contained in
it, much variation in refpe& to the former continually takes
place. The effeéts which different degrees of heat have on
the gravity of water are well fhewn by the expanfion of it
in boiling. It is this which makes the chief difficulty in
fixing the fpecific gravity of water, in the view of fettling
its degree of purity. The pureft water that is capable of
being obtained is, however, thought by fome, as Mr.
Hawkfbee, who has made many experiments on the fubje&,
to be eight hundred and fifty times heavier than air. But
others, whofe trials have not been lefs numerous or corre&,
have made it not more than about eight hundred, or eight
hundred and thirty-fix times heavier than air. From whence
this general proportion may perhaps be deduced, which may
be confidered as a fort of ftandard in the bufinefs, that when
the barometer is at 30°, and the thermometer at 55°, then
water is eight hundred and twenty times heavier than air ;
and that in fuch a ftate the cubic foot of water weighs one
thoufand ounces avoirdupois, and that of air 1.222, or ;{,ths
nearly. (See Water.) ‘There is not, however, any very exact
ftandard in air, as the more water there is contained in the
air, the heavier it muft of courfe be ; for indeed a confi-
derable part of the weight of the atmofphere appears to
arife from the water that is contained in it. Confequently,
the nearer any water is found to approach the above ftand-
ards, the purer it may be concluded to be; which may
ferve to guide and direé&t many praétical ufes and applica-
tions of the fluid.
In regard to the properties and effe&ts of water, it is well
known to be extremely volatile and expanfive, being capa-
ble of reduétion wholly into the ftate of vapour, and of
being diffpated-when expofed to heat and unconfined. a
this
WATER.
this ftate, when properly confined, itis of great ufe and ap-
plication for a variety of purpofes. See STEAM.
It is found, however, that water, when heated in an open
veffel, acquires no more than a certain determinate propor-
tion or degree of heat, whatfoever may be the mires or
the length of continuance of the fire to which it is expofed ;
which greateft proportion or degree of it is when it boils in
the completeft manner. The degree of heat, however,
which is neceflary to make water boil perfeétly, is va-
riable, according as the purity of the water, and the weight
of the atmofphere, may happen to be. A knowledge of this
may be of confiderable utility and benefit in the application
of heat to this fluid, in a number of operations, as tending
to fave time, trouble, and the confumption of fuel.
The ready penetrability and feparability of water from
the bodies with which it may have united, as well as its pro-
perties and powers of cohefion, folution, and coagulation,
render it ftill more extenfively‘applicable and ufeful on many
occafions.
Water is a fluid which, in popular language, is dif-
tinguifhed into many different kinds, according to the
qualities of it, and the circumftances under which it
makes its appearance, or is found (fee the preceding
article WATER); as fre/b water, or that which is per-
feGly infipid, without any faline or other tafte, and ino-
dorousy being that which is the natural and pure ftate of
water ; in this ftate, it is well fitted for moit forts of domef-
tic as well as many other ufes: hard water, or that in which
foap does not completely or uniformly diffolve and diffufe
itfelf, but appears in a fort of curdled or coagulated ftate :
it is certain from this that the diffolving power of hard water
is lefs than that of foft; and that hence it is lefs fit for
wafhing, bleaching, dyeing, boiling culinary vegetables, wa-
tering plants and trees, and many other purpofes. It is,
for the moft part, found, that the hardnefs of water pro-
ceeds either from faline matters, or from the prefence of
gas- The hardnefs which arifes from faline matters may
moftly be difcovered and removed by the addition of {mall
quantities, as a few drops, of a folution of fixed alkali;
and that which is caufed by the latter by boiling, or ex-
pofure to the open air for fome length of time. That the
waters of {prings are hard ; but thofe of rivers foft. That
hard waters are remarkably indifpofed to corrupt; they
even preferve putrefcible fubftances for a confiderable length
of time ; hence they would feem to be beft fitted for keep-
ing, efpecially as they are fo eafily capable of being foften-
ed by a very little of the alkaline folution being added to
them. Putrid water is that which has acquired an offenfive
fmell and taite by the putrefcence of the animal or vegeta-
ble fubftances which are contained in it. ‘This fort of water
is of a very pernicious quality, and quite unfit for any pur-
pofe. Cauttic lime, when put into water, is ufeful in pre-
ferving it longer in a {weet itate; and even expofure to the
air in broad fhallow veffels has the fame effe&. And water
in this putrid ftate fmay be, in a great meafure, rendered
fweet by having’a current of frefh air paffed through it, from
the bottom to the top. Water in this condition is, of courfe,
always to be avoided, except for the purpofe of manure,
for which, in fome cafes, it is of great ufe. Rain-water,
or that which may be confidered as a pure fort of diftilled
water, but as impregnated during its paflage through the
air with a confiderable quantity of putrefcent matter,
whence, in fome meafure, its great fuperiority to any
other in fertilizing the earth or foil, as well as in promoting
the vege of trees and plants. Whence too its inferiority
for fome domeftic purpofes to that of the {pring or river
kind, even where it ean be readily and well procured ; but,
7
more efpecially, fuch as is collected and gotten from {pouts,
trunks, and other contrivances put below the roofs of
houfes and other buildings, which are the ufval modes of
procuring it in this country, which is obvioufly very impure,
and in a fhort time becomes in the putrid ftate. From its foft-
nefs, it, however, anfwers well in fome ufes, after it has
become pretty pure by ftanding. . River-water, or that
which is next in purity to that of foe, or the diftilled kind,
and which, for moft domeftic and fome other ufes, is fupe-
rior to either of them, as having lefs putrefcent matter, and
more fixed air, or carbonic ca gas in it. Of this water,
that, however, which runs over a clean, rocky, ftony, or
gravelly bottom, is by much the pureft. River-waters, in
general, arefound to putrefy fooner than thofe of fprings ;
and that during their putrefaGtion they throw off a part of
the extraneous matter they contain, and at length become
{weet again, and purer than in their firft itate ; after which
they will commonly preferve {weet a great length of time ;
this is particularly the cafe with fome river-water, as that of
the Thames. It is this fort of water that is fo extenfively ufe-
ful in improving grafs-lands, when thrown over them in a pro-
per manner. See WaterinG Land, and Warer Meadow.
There are fome other forts of water, as /a/t water, or that
which contains large portions of falt in it, fo as to be fenfi-
ble to the tafte. This is of moft ufe in the preparation of
that fubftance from it, but may perhaps be applicable in
fome other ways. Sea-water, or that which is a fort of an
affemblage of bodies or fubftances, in which this fluid may
be faid to have barely the principal part : it is, in fhort, an
univerfal colle&tion of moft of the matters in nature, fuftained
and kept fwimming in this fluid as a medium or vehicle :
being a diffufe folution of various fubftances, as common falt,
bitter cathartic falt, different other faline matters, and a
compound of muriatic acid with magnefia, mixed and blended
together in a variety of proportions. It is capable of being
frefhened by fimple diftillation, without any addition ; and
is about three parts in a hundred heavier than common
water ; the temperature of it at oar9 depths being from
thirty to forty degrees; but near the furface it follows the
temperature of the air more nearly. It is probable, from
fome trials lately made with it, that it may be ufeful when
applied to land in fome cafes. Its greater weight and other
properties would feem to be favourable for this in fome in-
tentions. It is the muddy material conveyed in the ftate of
diffufion in this water, which is found fo beneficial in the
ing of land in fome cafes and fituations. (See Warp-
1NG of Land.) Snow-water, or that which is the pureft
of all the common waters, when the fnow has been colleéted
in its pure ftate, and kept in a dry place, in clean glafs
veffels, not clofely ftopped, but covered from duit and other
fuch matters ; this water becomes in time 2 tas although
in well-ftopped bottles it will continue unaltered for feveral
years ; but diftilled water undergoes no alteration in either
circumftance. Snow-water will be feen below to be ufeful
in promoting the nutrition of plants. Spring-water, or that
which is commonly impregnated with fome forts of mate-
rials or other, as a {mall portion of imperfeé neutral falt
extracted and taken up from the different ftrata through
which it paffes and percolates; great quantities of flony
matter, which are depofited as it runs along, and large
mafles of ftone thus formed, fometimes too incruftating dif-
ferent fubftances of the animal and vegetable kinds, which
it is faid to petrify. Spring-water is much ufed for domef-
tic purpofes in many cafes, and on account of its coolnefs
and clearnefs forms a fuitable drink for man and animals ;
but from its being ufually fomewhat hard, is inferior in
fome intentions to that which has run a confiderable diftance
in
WATER.
‘in an open channel, expofed to the aétion and influence of
the air.
The water of f{prings arifes and is caufed by rain, and
from mifts and moifture in the atmofphere ; which falling
upon the hills and higher grounds, as well as other parts,
foak in and fink down into the earth, paffing along between
the different ftrata, until they find a vent or outlet in the
form of a fpring. See Drarnine of Land, Serine, and
‘Watt. Alfo Sprinc-Draining.
It is only under certain circumftances that fpring-water
can be applied over the furface of grafs-land with much be-
nefit ; as where it is confiderably impregnated and loaded
with particular forts of materials, as thofe of the calcareous,
and perhaps fome other kinds.
A late philofophical writer has remarked, that the neceffity
of much water in the progrefs of the growth of plants or
their vegetation, is fhewn by the great quantity which exifts
naturally in all parts of them ; infomuch that many roots, as
thofe of the {quill and rhubarb, are known to lofe about fix
parts out of feven of their original weight, fimply by dry-
ing them before the fire; which quantity of moifture never-
thelefs does not exhale in the common heat of the atmo-
{phere during the life of the root; as may be feen in the
growth of fquills in the fhop of the druggift, and of onions
on the floors of the ftore-rooms of the feedfman. And
that a fecond neceffity of much water in the economy of
their vegetation or growth may be deduced from the great
perfpiration of them, which appears from the experiments
of Hales and others, who, like San@torius, have, it is faid,
eitimated the quantity of perfpiration from their daily lofs
of weight ; which, however, it is fuggefted, is not an ac-
curate conclufion, either in refpeé& to plants or animals, as
they both abforb moifture from the atmofphere, as well as
perfpire it. But that this great perfpiration of vegetables,
like that from the fkin and lungs of animals, does not ap-
pear to confift of excrementitious matter, becaufe it has in
general no putrefcent fmell or tafte, but feems to be fecreted
firft for the purpofe of keeping the external furface of the
leaves from becoming dry, which would prevent the oxygen of
the atmofphere from entering into the vegetable blood or juice
through them ; fince, according to the experiments of Dr.
Prieftley on animal membranes, the oxygen will only pafs
through them when they are moift. A fecond ufe of this
great perfpiration is, it is faid, to keep the bark fupple by
ats moifture, and thus to prevent its being cracked by the
motion of the branches in the wind. And though a great
part of this perfpirable matter is probably abforbed, as on
the fkins of animals, yet as it exifts on fo large a furface of
leaves and twigs, much of it mutt neceflarily evaporate on
dry and windy days.
And the difcovery of the decompofition of water has, it
is faid, led to atthird great ufe of water in the vegetable
economy, which is probably owing to its ready decompo-
fition by their organs of digeftion, fanguification, or juice-
forming, and fecretion. This is evinced, it is thought, firft,
by the great quantity of hydrogen which exifts in the com-
pofition of many of their inflammable parts ; and fecondly,
from the curious circumftance which was firft difcovered by
the ingenious Dr. Prieftley, that the water which they per-
{pire is hyper-oxygenated, and in confequence always
ready to part with its fuperabundance of oxygen, when
expofed to the fun’s light ; whence it may be concluded, it
is thought, that a part of the hydrogen, which was pre-
vioufly an ingredient of this water, has been feparated from
it, and ufed in the vegetableeconomy. And that, from the
decompofition of water, when confined in contaé with air
beneath the foil, the nitrous acid feems to be produced, and
Vou. XXXVIII.
ammonia, both of which are believed to be ufeful to vegeta-
tion and the growth of plants.
But that, befide thefe peculiar ufes of a great quantity
of water, the more common ufes of it both to vegetable and
animal life, along with caloric or the matter of heat, are to
produce or preferve a due fupplenefs or lubricity of the fo-
lids, and a due degree of fluidity of liquids which they
contain or circulate ; and, laftly, for the purpofe of dif-
folving or diffufing in it other folid or fluid fubftances, and
thus rendering them capable of abforption, circulation, and
fecretion.
It is beneficial, too, in the view of promoting the ferti-
lity of grafs-lands, by the occafional fuffufion or flowing it
over them, by which it not only fupplies fimple moifture ‘for
the purpofes above noticed in the drier parts of the feafon,
but brings along with it calcareous earth and azotic air
from the neighbouring {prings in many inftances, or other
manures from the rivers and brooks. Still another benefi-
cial confequence of it is to give a due penetrability to the
foil or mould, which otherwife, in moft fituations, becomes
fo ftiff and hard, as to ftop the elongation and diftenfion of
the tender roots of plants; but neverthelefs, the cohefion
of the foil or earthy particles may be too much or too
greatly diminifhed or leflened, by great and perpetual moif-
ture, fo as not to give fufficient firmnefs to the roots of
trees or plants. It may alfo be injurious in fome cafes, as
in very hafty fhowers, by wafhing off and taking away
much of the decompofing animal and vegetable recrements,
which are foluble or diffufible in it, and carrying them
down the rivers and brooks into the fea; and from the fides
of hills, injury in this way is produced by {mall fhowers ;
and the evaporation of water or moifture from the furface
of the earth may produce fo much cold as to injure fuch
terreftrial plants as are too long covered with it.
The author of the “ Elements of Agricultural Che-
miftry’’ has concluded, that water is abfolutely neceffary to
the economy of yegetation, both in its elaftic and fluid
{tate ; and that it is not devoid of ufe, even in its folid
form. Snow and iceare, it is faid, bad conduétors of heat ;
and that, confequently, when the ground is covered with
{now, or the furface of the foil or of water is frozen, the
roots or bulbs of the plants beneath are proteéted by the
congealed water from the influence of the atmofphere, the
temperature of which, in northern winters, is ufually very
much below the freezing-point ; and this water becomes the
firft nourifhment of the plants in early fpring. The ex-
panfion of water too during its congelation, at which time
its volume increafes one-twelfth, and its contraction of bulk
during a thaw, tend, it is obferved, to pulverize the foil, to
feparate the parts of it from each other, and to make it
more permeable to the influence of the air, and the fibres of
the roots of vegetables.
Water alfo, as conftituting the daily neceffary drink of
the different forts of domeftic animals which form the live-
{tock of the farmer, is always to be particularly attended
to, and to be provided as fully and of as good quality as
can poffibly be met with ; as fuch ftock conftantly do beft
bars they have plenty of water. See Ponp, and Live-
Stock.
Application of water, whether of ponds, brooks, rivers,
or other kinds, to the purpofe of fifheries, is likewife a
matter of great individual utility and benefit, as well as ge-
neral national advantage. It is the means of increafing
a moft ufeful fort of food in almoft an unlimited manner,
at very little coft or expence. It provides much profitable
labour and employment to fome of the working clafles of
fociety ; and from the trifling charge incurred in providing it,
and
WATER.
and the readinefs of its difpofal, muft be a fource of great
wealth to the country. It fhould, of courfe, be encouraged
as much as poffible, wherever it can be done with conve-
nience and fuccefs, in all parts of the kingdom. See Fisu-
Poud, Ponn-Fij/beries, and SALMon-Fifheries.
Warer, <Afcent of, in Hydraulics. See Ascent and
Caritiary Tubes.
Water, High and Low. See Frux, Hicu, and Tipe.
Warer, Motion of. The theory of the motion of run-
ning water is one of the principal objeéts of hydraulics, and
many eminent mathematicians have applied themfelves to
this fubje&. But it were to be wifhed that their theories
were more confiftent with eachother, and with experience.
The curious may confult fir Lfaac Newton’s Principles,
lib. ii. prop. 36. with the comment. Dan. Bernouilli’s
Hydrodynamica. Jo. Bernouilli, Hydraulica, Oper. tom. iv.
p- 389, feq. Dr. Jurin, in the Phil. Tranfy N° 452, and in
Dr. Martyn’s Abridg. vol. viii. p. 282, feq. S’Gravefande,
Phyfic. Elem. Mathemat. lib. iii. par,ii. Polenus, de Caf-
tellis, and others.
Mr. Maclaurin, in his Fluxions, art. 537. feq., has illuf-
trated fir Ifaac Newton’s doétrine on this intricate fubject,
which ftill, notwithftanding the labours of all thefe eminent
authors, remains in a great meafure obfcure and uncertain.
Even the fimple cafe of the motion of running water, which
is when it iflues from a hole in the bottom of a veflel kept
conitantly full, has never yet been determined, fo as to give
univerfal fatisfa€tion to the learned. We fhall here mention
fome of the phenomena of this motion, as ftated by Dr.
Jurin from Poleni; referring for other obfervations on this
fubject to Fiuips, and Hydraulic Laws of Fiurps.
1. The depth of the water in the veffel, and the time of
flowing out being given, the meafure of the eflluent water is
nearly in proportion to the hole.
2. The depth of the water, and the hole being given, the
meafure of the effluent water is in proportion to the time.
3. The time of flowing out, and the hole being given,
the meafure of the effluent water is nearly in a fubdupli-
cate proportion to the height of the water.
4. The meafure of the effluent water is nearly in a ratio
compounded of the proportion of the hole, the proportion
of the time, and a fubduplicate proportion of the depth of
the water.
5. The meafure of the water flowing out in a given time,
is much lefs than that which is commonly affigned by ma-
thematical theorems. For the velocity of effluent water is
commonly fuppofed to be that which a heavy body would
acquire in vacuo in falling from the whole height of the
water above the hole; and this being fuppofed, if we call
the area of the hole F, the height of the water above the
hole A, the velocity which a heavy body acquires in falling
i vacuo from that height V, and the time of falling T ; and
if the water flows out with this conftant velocity V, in the
time T, then the length of the column of water, which
flows out in that time, will be 2 A, and the meafure of it
will be 2 AF. But if we calculate from Poleni’s accurate
experiments, we {hall find the quantity of water which flows
out in that time to be no more than about 47.) of this mea-
fure2 AF. Polen. de Caftellis, art. 35. 38, 39. 42, 43.
Poleni alfo found, that the quantity of water flowing out
of a veffel through a cylindrical tube far exceeded that
which flowed through a circular hole made in a thin lamina,
the tube and hole being of equal diameter, and the height
of the water above both being alfo equal; and he found it
to be fo when the tube was inferted, not into the bottom,
which others had obferved before, but into the fide of the
veffel. 12
6. Since the meafure of the water running out in the
time T,is2 AF x $445, the length of the column of water,
which runs out in that time, is'2 A x 3335- Therefore
if each of the particles of water, which are in the hole in the
fame fpace of time, pafles with equal velocity, it is plain that
the common velocity of them all is that with which the {pace
2A x 4330 would be gone over in the time T, or the ve-
locity V x $Z4,- But this is the velocity with which water
could {pring in vacuo to near 3d of the height of the water
above the hole.
7. But when the motion of water is turned upwards, as
in fountains, thefe are feen to rife almoft to the entire height
of the water in the ciftern. Therefore the water, or at leait
fome portion of the water, fpouts from the hole with almoft
the whole velocity V, and certainly with a much greater ve-
locity than V x $35.
8. Hence it is evident, that the particles of water, which
are in the hole in the fame point of time, do not all burft
out with the fame velocity, or have no common velocity 5
though fome mathematicians have hitherto taken the con-
trary to be certain.
g- At a {mall diftance from the hole, the diameter of the
yein of water is much lefs than that of the hole. For in-
ftance, if the’ diameter of the hole be 1, the diameter of
the vein of water will be 34, or 0.84, according to fir Ifaac
Newton’s meafure, who firft obferved this phenomenon ;
20 208
and according to Poleni’s meaftire —, or
se Ee that is, taking
the mean diameter 0.78, nearly.
As to the manner of accounting for thefe phenomena, we
have already obferved that authors are not agreed; and
it would be far beyond our defign to ftate their different
theories, we muft therefore refer to the originals above
quoted.
Neither are authors agreed as to the force with which a
vein of water, {pouting from a round hole in the fide of a
veffel, preffes upon a plane direétly oppofed to the motion
of the vein. Moft authors agree that the preffure of this
vein, flowing uniformly, is equal to the weight of a cylin-
der of water, the bafis of which is the hole through which
the water flows, and the height of which is equal to the
height of the water in the veflel above the hole. The ex-
periments made by Mariotte, and others, feem to counte-
nance this opinion. But Mr. Daniel Bernouilli reje&s it,
and eftimates this preffure by the weight of a cylinder, the
diameter of which is equal to the contracted vein (accord-
ing to fir Ifaac Newton’s obfervation above-mentioned ),
and the height of which is equal to twice the height of the
water above the hole, or, more accurately, to twice the al-
titude correfponding to the real velocity of the {pouting
water ; and this preffure is alfo equal to the force of repul-
fion, arifing from the reaétion of the fpouting water upon
the veffel. For he fays that he can demontitrate, that this
force of repulfion is equal to a preflure exerted by a vein of
{pouting water upon a plane directly oppofed to its motion,
if the whole vein of water {trikes perpendicularly againft the
plane. From whence it would follow, that the preflure or
force of the vein will be greater in proportion, as its con-
traction is lefs; and this contraction vanifhing, as it does
when the water fpouts through a fhort tube, and the vein
being at the fame time fuppofed to have the whole velocity
it can acquire by theory, the scaring water will then exert
a preffure double to what is commonly fuppofed. But the
aétual velocity of the water being always fomething lefs
than it ought to be by theory, and the vein of water
being not uncommonly contraéted to almoft one half, expe-
riments
WATER.
riments have led authors to think, that the preffure, exerted
by {pouting water, was equal to the weight of a cylinder
of the fame diameter with the vein, and of the height of the
water above the hole. The ingenious author remarks that
he fpeaks only of fingle veins of water, the whole of which
are received by the planes upon which they prefs; for as to
the preffures exerted by fluids furrounding the bodies they
prefs upon, as the wind, or a river, the cafe is different,
though confounded with the former by writers on this fub-
je. Hydrodynamica, feét. 13. p. 289.
M. Bernouilli endeavours to confirm his theory by a dif-
fertation in the eighth volume of the A&a Petropolitana ;
where he obferves, that the experiments formerly made be-
fore the Academy of Sciences at Paris, to eftablifh the
quantity of the preflure exerted by a vein of {pouting
water, are very far from proving the truth of the rule they
are brought to eftablifh. For inftance, in one of thofe ex-
periments, the height of the water in the veffel above the
hole from whence the’ vein fpouted was two feet Paris mea-
fure ; the diameter of the circular hole, which was cut in
the horizontal bottom of the veflel, was four lines; and the
force of the vein of water was obferved to be one ounce
and three-quarters. But the weight of a cylinder of water
of the diameter of the hole, and of the height of the water
in the veffel, is fcarce equal to one ounce and three-eighths.
The difference, therefore, is at leaft three-eighths of an ounce,
which is about three-elevenths of the whole weight of the
before-meritioned cylinder of water. So that it is furprif-
ing, that this difference fhould have been afcribed to the re-
moval of the plane, receiving the impulfe, to fome diftance
from the hole; for this caufe, fuppofing the plane removed
to the diftance of two inches, could not produce an increafe
of one-fixteenth of an ounce. It appears, therefore, that
the common opinion is rather overturned than confirmed by
experience. Du-Hamel, Hift. Acad. Paris, ann. 1679,
fect. 3. cap. 5.
M. Bernouilli, on the other hand, thinks his own theory
fufficiently eftablifhed by the experiments he relates; for
the particulars of which, we refer to the Aéta Petropoli-
tana, vol. cit. p. 122, feq.
This ingenious author thinks that his theory of the quan-
tity of the force of repulfion, exerted by a vein of {pouting
water, might be ufefully applied to move fhips by pumping;
and he thinks the motion produced by this repulfive force
would fall little, if at all, fhort of that produced by rowing.
He has given his reafons and computations at length in his
Hydrodynamica, p. 293 to 302.
The {cience of the preflures exerted by water, or other
fluids in motion, is what M. Bernouilli calls hydraulico-/tatica.
This fcience differs from hydroftatics, which confiders only
the preffure of water and other fluids at reft; but hydrau-
lico-{tatics confiders the preflure of water in motion. Thus
the preflure exerted by water, moving through pipes, upon
the fides of thofe pipes, is an hydraulico-ftatical confidera-
‘tion, and has been erroneoufly determined by many, who
hhave given no other rules in thefe cafes, but fuch as are ap-
plicable only to the preffure of fluids at reft. See Hydro-
dynam. fet. 12. p. 256. feq.
Water, Raifing of. Machines for this purpofe are
fo numerous, that a minute defcription of fuch hydraulic
machines as are in common ufe would fill a volume; and
a {cientific account of their principles, with the maxims
neceflary to be obferved in their conftruétion, would
form a very complete body of mechanical fcience: this is
far beyond the limits of an article like the prefent, in which
we can only introduce the moft ftriking machines which
have not already been explained in different articles of this
work ; and for others, we mutt refer to the original works
in which they are defcribed.
The moft complete colle¢tion of hydraulic machines is
that of Jacob Leopold, entitled «* Theatrum Machinarum
Hydraulicarum,” publifhed at Leipzic, in 1724 and 1725,
in 2 vols. folio ; thefe form part of his voluminous “ Theatri
Machinarum,”’ which may be confidered as containin g all that
was known in mechanics at that period.
M. Belidor, in his “ Archite€ture Hydraulique,” 1737,
has defcribed many machines which were invented fince the
date of Leopold’s work. This eminent engineer was a
good mathematician, and his work may be confidered as a
{tandard for the theory of the hydraulic machines of which
it treats. The ‘ Experimental Philofophy” of Defagu-
liers contains fome chapters on hydraulic machinery, in
which he generally follows Belidor very clofely, but has
tran{lated the mathematical inveftigations of the former into
the ordinary procefles of arithmetic, to adapt them to the
comprehenfion of mechanics ; and in this point of view, the
works of Defaguliers have been of great ufe. On the
other hand, M. Prony publifhed a modern edition of Beli-
dor’s work in 1790, in which, in moft cafes, he has tran-
{cribed the proceffes of the original into the modern modes
of analyfis; but on the whole, he has added little to our
real knowledge, except his defcriptions and fuperb plates of
Mr. Watt’s fteam-engine.
We do not recolleét any complete colleétion of machines
for raifing water fince Belidor, although the inventions of
the laft century are both numerous and important. _Much
information relative to them may be derived from Gregory’s
“¢ Mechanics,”’ in z vols. 8vo.; Dr. Robifon’s Works, and
his excellent articles Hydrodynamics, Pump, and Water-
works, in the Encyclopedia Britannica; and from various
mifcellaneous publications, fuch as the Repertory of Arts,
and the TranfaCtions of different learned Societies ; alfo the
colle&tion of Mr. Smeaton’s Reports, in 3 vols. 4to. It
is much to be regretted, that this excellent engineer never
completed a defign which he formed, to publifh a com-
plete colleétion of pra&tical hydraulic machines founded
on his own experience. Among his manufcript papers which
have been lent to us by fir Jofeph Banks, we find an outline
for this work, of which we have availed ourfelves in this article.
In confidering machines for raifing water, they may be
claffed under two heads :
Firft, thofe machines which a¢tuate fome kind of
bucket or veffel adapted to contain water, which veffel is
raifed up when full of water, and difcharges its contents
into an elevated refervoir, then defcends empty in order
to repeat its action: of this fpecies are, the buckets for
wells, {coops, Perfian and Chinefe wheels, chaplets or
chains of buckets, the Noira, and the fcrew of Archimedes.
It is evident from the nature of all this clafs, that they are
incapable of raifing water to a greater height than that to
which the machine is.elevated, or provided with the means
of drawing up the buckets or other veffels; and further,
that they cannot raife conftant ftreams of water, but that
the water muft be given out by a fucceffion of difcharges
from the different buckets or veffels.
The fecond clafs compriies thofe machines which a& by
means of valves and piftons moving in cylinders, or other
equivalent contrivances, and force the water to afcend
through pipes or tubes: thefe machines have the advantage
of railing the water to very great heights above the place
where the machine is placed. The greater part of thefe
machines we have already defcribed under the article Pump,
Ez and
WATER.
and there remain but few to be confidered in the prefent
article; wiz. the varieties of the hydraulic ram, of the
Chremnitz fountain, and of the fyphon machines.
The moft obvious means of raifing water is by the operation
called baling, that is, lifting up water in a bucket, or other
veffel, by the force of a man’s arm. This method is ex-
tremely fatiguing, and is only adapted to very {mall eleva-
tions, fuch as clearing the water from a boat, &c. The moft
ancient hydraulic machine aéts on this principle, fuch as the
{coop and troughs, the Fen wheel, Perfian wheel, the Noira,
&e.: it is, therefore, with thefe machines we fhall com-
mence. ,
The Dutch water-fcoop, or fhovel, is the beft means of
baling out water. The fcoop is a kind of box, made of
five pieces of board, with one end and one fide open: this
hox is fixed at the extremity of a long pole, which the
workman holds in his hand, and the weight of the fcoop
is borne by a cord tied to the pole near to the box, and
fufpended from a tripod, formed,of three poles tied together
at the top. The man works the machine by {winging the
{coop backwards and forwards in the direGtion of the length
of the pole; in moving the box forwards, he deprefles the
end of the pole, which caufes the box to dip into the water,
and take up a quantity which it will throw forwards and
rather upwards to a confiderable diftance. In pba
{coop back for another ftroke, he depreffes the end of the
pole which he holds in his hand, and thus keeps the box
out of the water. Of courfe this method is only applicable
where the height to which the water is to be raifed, or rather
thrown, is very {mall. M. Belidor informs us, that a work-
man can only remove half a cubic foot in two vibrations,
which he will perform in four feconds ; this is at the rate
of 7% cubic feet ‘ia minute, or 450 cubic feet per hour: it
is rarely applicable, except to throw the water over a bank
which forms the boundary of a ditch, or other place of {mall
depth, which is to be emptied.
The /aving gun, which is ufed in falt-works from its fim-
plicity, comes next. It is a trough of five or fix feet in length,
made {mall at one end like a {pout, and gradually increafing to
the oppofite end, where it is about a foot or eighteen inches
{quare. The {mall end is fupported on pivots. upon the bank
over which the water is to be raifed, and a lever is applied to
it for a man to work it by. The large end of the trough
will dip into the water, when it defcends and becomes filled ;
but when lifted the leaft above the horizontal pofition, the
contained water will run along the trough, and be delivered
over the bank through the Aoatit This machine is much
improved by making it double, or with two troughs, on the
oppofite fides of the centre; thus when one aicends, the
other will defcend fo as to raife up a conftant ftream, which
it muft, in this cafe, deliver at a {pout fideways, near to the
pivot or centre on which it plays. This double machine
will raife a copious ftream of water, but is confined to {mall
heights of three or four feet. If the large end of the
trough has a valve opening into it to admit the water, it will
fill itfelf more readily. na machine which operates on the
fame principle as-this, is called the f{coop-wheel, or tympa-
num, which is in fac feveral double laving machines ar-
ranged round the centre like a wheel. The advantage of
this wheel is, that it always moves in the fame direétion,
whereas the fimple machine requires a reciprocating
motion.
The tympanum, or fcoop-wheel, mentioned by Vitruvius, is a
great hollow wheel formed by a kind of barrel or drum
(as its name imports): it is compofed of feveral planks
joined together, well caulked and pitched, and having a ho-
rizontal axle with pivots at the ends, on which it turns. The in-
terior capacity of this drum is divided into eight equal fpaces,
by as many partitions placed in the dire€tions of the radii ; each
fpace or cell has an orifice of about fix inches in width in the
rim of the drum or wheel. Thefe openings are fo fhaped, as to
facilitate the admiffion of the water; moreover, there are
eight hollow channels running along the axle of the wheel and
contiguous to each other, each correfponding to one of the
eight large cells ; into thefe channels the water pafles out of the
cells juft mentioned, and after running along thechannels in the
axis of the wheel to a convenient dilances it efcapes through
orifices into a refervoir placed juft under the axle. Thus
when the wheel is turned round, the water is elevated through
a vertical height equal to the radius of the hollow wheel.
When the tympanum is ufed to raife water from a run-
ning ftream, it is moved by means of float-boards fixed on the
circumference, which are impelled by the ftream ; but when
it is employed to raife ftagnant waters, there is commonly a
{maller hollow wheel fixed on the fhaft at the fide of the
tympanum, which is turned by men walking in it, as in the
old walking-crane. The chief defeé of this machine is,
that it raifes the water in the moft difadvantageous fituation
poflible, for the load of water is always towards the extre-
mity of a radius of the wheel, and the length of the effec-
tive lever which anfwers to it muft continually increafe as
the water is raifed through the whole quadrant, which the
water defcribes in pafling from the bottom of the wheel to
the altitude of its centre, fo that the power muft a& in the
fame manner as if it were applied to a winch or crank han-
dle, and cannot aét uniformly. ,
The horn-wheel was contrived to remedy this defe&: it
is fo called, becaufe the fegments which pafs from the cir-
cumferences of the large flat cylinder to its centre are not
{traight radii, as in the former inftance, but are curved fpirally.
The fcoops, or mouths, by turns, dip into the water, and
as they rife up caufe the water to pafs up the horn, or
curved fegment, until it is as high as the centre of the
wheel, and then it is difcharged into a trough placed under
the end of the axis, which is hollow, and has its pivots
faftened to a crofs.
M. de la Faye has inveftigated the proper curves for the
{coop fegments of this machine in the following manner :—
When we evolve the circumference of a circle by unwrappin
a ftring from the circumference, the end of the ftring wil
defcribe a curve called the involute of the circle, of which
all the radii are fo many tangents to the circle, as is fhewn
by the {tring in its different pofitions whilft tracing the
curve, and likewife all the radii are refpectively perpen-
dicular to the feveral points of the curve defcribed by the
end of the itring.
The greateft radius of this curve is a line equal to the
periphery of the circle evolved. The truth of this ftate-
ment is fhewn by geometricians, when treating of the gene-
ration of Ewolute and Involute Curves. See thofe articles.
Hence, having an axle, whofe circumference a little ex-
ceeds the height to which the water is propofed to be ele-
vated, let the circumference of the axle be evolved, and it
will make a curve which will be the involute of the circle,
as before mentioned. Now, let a number of pipes, or
trunks, be made exactly with this curvature, and then put
together around the axle, in form of a wheel, fo that the fix
ther extremities of thefe canals will fucceflively enter the wa-
ter that is to be elevated, whilft the other extremities abut
upon the fhaft which is turned. Then, in the courfe of the
rotation of the wheel, the water taken in at the extremity
of each canal will rife in a vertical line, which is a tangent
to
WATER.
to the fhaft, becaufe the curves of the feveral channels will
be at right angles to this vertical line, in the points where
the line interfe€&ts the curves ; and this is true in whatever
pofition the wheel may be. ‘Thus the aétion of the weight
continuing always beneath the extremity of the horizontal
radius of the axle, will oppofe the fame refiftance, as though
it a€ted upon the invariable arm of a lever, in the manner
of a bucket of water, which is drawn up out of a well by a
rope, winding on a roller, and the power required to raife
the weight will be always the fame.
If the radius of the wheel, of which thefe hollow canals
ferve as bent fpokes, be equal to the height through which
the water is to be raifed, and confequently equal to the
circumference of the axle, or fhaft, the power will be to
the load of water reciprocally as the radius of a circle to
its circumference, or direétly as 1 to 64 nearly. M. de la
Faye recommended the machine to be compofed of four of
thefe canals, but it has often been conftruéted with eight.
‘The wheel is turned by the impulfion of the ftream upon
float-boards fixed on the circumference of the wheel, and
the orifices of the curvilineal canals dip one after another
into the water which runs into them; and as the wheel
revolves, the fluid rifes in the canals, until it is as high as
the centre: it then runs out in a ftream from the holes in
the axis, and is received into the trough fixed beneath the
axis; from thence it may be conveyed by pipes or troughs
to the required fituation.
By this conftruétion, the weight to be raifed offers always
the fame refiftance, and that is the leaft poffible, while the
power is applied in the moft advantageous manner which
the circumitances will admit of. Thefe conditions being
both fulfilled at the fame time, furnifh the moft defirable
perfection in a machine. This machine raifes the water by
the fhorteft way, namely, the perpendicular or vertical line,
and in this refpect is preferable to Archimedes’s fcrew,
where the water is carried up a crooked and inclined path ;
and befides this each curved channel in this wheel empties all
the water it receives in every revolution, while the fcrew of
Archimedes delivers only a {mall portion of the fluid with
which it is charged, being often loaded with twenty times as
much water as 1s difcharged at one rotation, and thus re-
quiring an increafe of labour when a large quantity is in-
tended to be raifed by it. The horn-wheel would be one
of the moft perfe& machines for raifing water, were not its
powers confined to fuch altitudes as the femi-diameter of
the wheel.
The flafh, or fen-wheel, comes next to be defcribed.—
This is a vertical wheel, made exa@tly like thofe water-
wheels for turning mills which are called breaft-wheels, and
in the fame manner the wheel is furrounded at the lower
quadrant by a curved {weep of mafonry or breaft, to which
the floats of the wheel are fitted with the greateft accuracy,
but do not abfolutely touch. This wheel, being turned
round in a direétion contrary to that in which a water-wheel
turns, will carry water before its floats, and raife it up
againft the brea{t until it runs over the fame. The opera-
tion is juft the reverfe of the water-wheel ; and the only
difference in the conftruGtion of the two machines is, that
the flafh-wheel requires no fhuttle to be placed at the top
of the breaft, becaufe the water muft be allowed to run
freely away from the top of the breaft ; but the water-
wheel requires a fhuttle or fluice to regulate the quantity of
water which fhall flow to the wheel.
It is by this kind of machine that the extenfive fens of
Holland are drained ; and in Lincoln and Cambridgefhire
they are\alfo ufed very extenfively. They are, in general,
bey by the power of the wind, and are on a very large
cale.
Mr, Smeaton made a horfe-machine on this plan, whieh
raifed thirty-three hogfheads ger minute, to the height of
four feet and a half, when it was worked by four horfes ;
but a fluice was placed in the channel which admitted the
water to the wheel, fo as to fupply the water in a greater
or leffer quantity ; and by this means, the fame machine
could be adapted to the power of three or two horfes.
The crown or top of the breaft, over which the water
was delivered, was not elevated to the full height to which
the water was to be raifed, but it was laid twelve inches
beneath the furface, and the body of water which the wheel
raifed up was fufficient to drive this depth of water before
it; but to prevent the return of the water when the mill
ceafed working, two pointed doors were placed in the
channel leading from the wheel, like the gates of a canal-
lock : thefe doors opened freely, to let the water pafs, but
would fhut and ftop the water from returning. The pro-
portions of this machine were as follows :
Diameter of the track in which the
horfes walked - - -
Great cog-wheel fixed on the per-? 72 teeth 9 feet dia-
pendicular axis - - - meter.
Trundle worked by the wheel - 35 teeth 42 fect diam.
Diameter of the water-wheel on the t 14 feet
26 feet 8 inches.
fame axis as the trundle
Breadth of the wheel - - -
Number of its floats - - -
2 feet 2 inches.
42
The floats did not point to the centre of the wheel, but
formed tangents to a radius, equal to about half the radius
of the wheel. The floats of the wheel were very exaétly
fitted to the channel or pit in which it worked, fo as not
to touch. ‘
The bucket-wheel is a very ancient method of raifing
water ; but it cannot lift water to a greater height than its
own diameter. The laft machine was the reverfe of the breaft
water-wheel, and the prefent is the reverfe of the over-fhot
water-wheel, for the circumference of the wheel is furround-
ed by buckets, which dip in the water beneath the wheel,
and take up water, which they difcharge at the top of the
wheel into an elevated trough or refervoir. The wheel is
mounted upon an horizontal axis, and turns upon pivots ; it
is put in motion by the force of a current of water ftriking
the float-boards fixed on the circumference of the ‘wheel ;
or if there is no current in the water, it may be moved by
making the wheel hollow within for a man to walk in it, as
is common in fome kinds of cranes, or the wheel may be
turned by horfes. The rim, or circumference of the wheel,
is made hollow, and is divided into feveral compartments, to
form a number of boxes or buckets; each bucket has an
opening into it at that end which will be the moft advanced
when the wheel turns; and from this opening, a {pout or
trough projets in a direGtion parallel to the axis of the
wheel. When the wheel revolves, the buckets dip into the
ftream, and become filled with water; but as the mouths
or fpouts are at the upper end when the buckets rife out of
the water, they cannot efcape, and each bucket carries up
its charge of water to the top of the wheel; but the buckets
will have then become inverted, and the {pouts or openings
being at the loweft part, that they difcharge the water
fideways through the fpouts into a trough properly placed
to receive it, and then the buckets defcend empty till they
dip into the ftream and are refilled. The objeétion to this
machine is, that the buckets begin to pour out the yes
ome
WATER.
fome time before they arrive at the greateft height of the
wheel; and, therefore, the trough is of neceffity placed
lower than the diameter of the wheel, or a confiderable por-
tion of the water would be loft, and in any: cafe part of the
water is raifed above the level of the trough.
Spanifh Bucket-Wheel.—Mr. Townfend, in his Travels
through Spain, defcribes a fimple machine which is ufed at
Narbonne for watering of gardens. The water is raifed by a
vertical wheel, which is twenty feet in diameter, on the cir-
cumference of which is fixed a number of little boxes or
fquare buckets, for the purpofe of raifing water out of the
ciftern communicating with the canal below, and to empty
it in a refervoir above, placed by the fide of the wheel. The
buckets have a lateral orifice to receive and to difcharge the
water. The axis of this wheel is embraced by four {mall
beams, crofling each other at right angles, and tapering at
the extremities fo as to form eight little arms. This wheel
is near the centre of the path in which the mule walks, and
contiguous to the vertical axis, into the top of which the
horfe-beam is fixed; but near the bottom of this axis it is
embraced by four little beams, forming eight arms, fimilar to
thofe above deferibed, on the axis of the water-whecl. As
the mule which they ufe goes round, thefe horizontal arms,
fupplying the place of cogs, take hold each in fucceffion of
thofe arms which are fixed on the axis of the water-wheel,
and keep it in rotation. This machine may be made very
cheap, and will throw up a great quantity of water, yet
undoubtedly it has two defeéts ; the firft is, that part of the
water runs out of the buckets, and falls back into the well
after it has been raifed nearly to the level of the refervoir ;
and the fecond is, that a confiderable proportion of the water
to be difcharged is raifed higher than the refervoir, and falls
into it only at the moment when the bucket is at the higheft
point of the circle, and ready to defcend.
The Perfian wheel with fwinging, buckets is free from fome
of the defe&s of the laft machine. The buckets are loofe,
and each hangs from the circumference of the wheel by a
pin, on which it {wings or turns freely ; and as the bucket
is fufpended by its upper part, it will hang perpendicular,
with the mouth upwards, in all pofitions of the wheel. From
the time it dips in the water and is filled, until the bucket
arrives at the upper part of the wheel, it is carried by the
motion of the wheel againft the edge of the trough, and in-
clined fo far as to difcharge its contents into the trough.
on Perstan Wheel.) The pins are fixed into the circum-
erence of the wheel, and projeét fideways therefrom a fuf-
ficient diftance to fupport the buckets, and carry them over
the elevated trough. Sometimes the wheel is made with
two rims, and each bucket is fufpended upon an axis be-
tween them: the end of each axis pafles through the rim of
the wheel, and is bent to form a fhort lever, which is carried
by the motion of the wheel againft a fixed rail, and thus
inclines the bucket to difcharge the contents into a trough
which is fixed to the rims of the wheel immediately beneath
the bucket, and has a {pout projeéting at the fide of the
wheel, to carry the water fideways and deliver it into the
trough, which is fixed at the fide of the wheel for its
reception.
As the Perfian wheel is a very effective machine in fitua-
tions where the elevation is required to be but fmall, the
following direétions, given by M. Belidor for its conftruc-
tion, are worthy of attention: frft fix the diameter of the
- wheel fomething greater than the altitude to which the water
is to be raifed; fix alfo upon an even number of buckets, to
be hung at equal diftances round the periphery of the wheel ;
and mark the pofition of their centres of motion in fuch a
manner, that they will ftand in correfpondigg pofitions in
every quarter of the circle. Suppofe vertic fines drawn
through the centre of motion of each bucket in the rifin
part of the wheel, and they will interfeét the horizon’
diameter of the wheel in points, at which, if the buckets
were hung, they would make the fame refiftance to the
moving force, as they do when hanging at their refpetive
places on the rim of the wheel. Thus, fuppofing there are
eighteen equidiftant buckets, then while eight hung on each
fide of a vertical diameter of the wheel, there would be eight
on the other fide, and two would coincide with that diame-
ter: in this cafe, the refiftance arifing from all the full
buckets would be the fame as if one bucket hung on the
prolongation of the horizontal diameter, at the diftance of
twice the fine of 20° + twice the fine of 40° + twice the
fine of 60° + twice the fine of 80°, thefe being the fines to
the common radius of the wheel.
To know the quantity of water that each one fhould con-
tain, take four-ninths of the abfolute force of the ftream,
that is, four-ninths of the weight of a prifm of water whofe
bafe is the furface of one of the float-boards, and whofe
height is equal to that through which the water muft fall in
order to acquire the velocity with which the ftream moves.
This is the power which fhould be in equilibrio with the
weight of water contained in the buckets of the rifing femi-
circle. Then fay, as the fum of the fines mentioned above
is to the radius of the wheel to the centre of the float-
board, fo is the power juft found to a fourth term, one-half
of which will be the weight of water that ought to be con-
tained in each bucket. Lattly, the velocity of the float-
board of the wheel will be to that of the ftream nearly as
one to two and two-fifths, and from this the number of re-
volutions it will make in any determinate times may be
known, and of confequence the quantity of water the wheel
will raife in the fame time, fince we know the capacity of
each bucket, and the number of them which will be dif-
charged in every revolution of the wheel. See Perstan
Wheel. ;
The Chinefe Bucket-Wheel.—Sir George Staunton, in his
account of the Embafly to China, gives the following de-
feription of a bucket-wheel, which is different from any we
have met with in the hydraulic collections, and conftruéted
with that fimplicity which diftinguifhes the Chinefe inven-
tions. Two hard-wood pofts or uprights are firmly fixed in
the bed of the river, in a line perpendicular to its banks.
Thefe pofts fupport the pivots of an axis of about ten feet
in length: this is the axis of a large wheel confifting of
two unequal rims, the diameter of the rim which is neareft
to the bank being about fifteen inches lefs than that of
the outer rim; but both rims dip into the ftream, while the
_oppofite points or top of the wheel rife above the elevated
bank over which the water is to be raifed. This double
wheel is framed upon the axis, and is fupported by fixteen
or eighteen fpokes, inferted obliquely into the axis near each
extremity, and crofling each other at about two-thirds of
their length. They are there ftrengthened by a concentric
circle, and are faftened afterwards to the two rims. The
{pokes inferted in the interior extremity of the axis reach to
the outer rim, and thofe proceeding from the exterior ex-
tremity of the axis reach to the inner and fmaller rim. Be-
tween the rims and the croffings of the {pokes is a triangu-
lar fpace, which is woven with a kind of clofe bafket-work, to
ferve as ladle-boards, or floats. Thefe fucceflively receiving
the current of the ftream, obey its impulfe, and turn round
the wheel.
The buckets which take up the water are {mall tubes or
fpouts
WATER.
fpouts of wood attached to the two rims of the wheel, and
having an inelination of about twenty-five degrees to the
horizon, or to the axis of the wheel. The tubes are clofed
at their outer extremities, which are fixed to the larger rim,
and open at the oppofite end. By this pofition the tubes,
which in the motion of the wheel dip into the ftream, have
their mouths or open ends uppermoit, and fill with water.
As that fegment of the wheel rifes upwards, the mouths of
the tubes attached to it will alter their relative inclination,
but not fo much as to let their contents flow out until fuch
fegment of the wheel arrives at the top. The mouths of
thefe tubes are then relatively deprefled, and they pour the
water into a wide trough placed on pivots, from whence it
is conveyed, as may be wanted, among the plantations of
canes. *
The only materials employed in the conftruétion of this
water-wheel, except the nave or axis, and the polts on
which it refts, are afforded by the bamboo. The rims, the
{pokes, the ladle-boards or floats, and the tubes or fpouts,
or even the cords, are made of entire lengths, or fingle
joints, or large pieces, or thin flices, of the bamboo. Nei-
ther nails, nor pins, nor fcrews, nor any kind of metal,
enter into its conftru€tion: the parts are bound together
firmly by cordage of flit bamboo. Thus, at a very trifling
expence, is conftru€ted a machine, which, without labour
or attendance, will furnifh, from a confiderable depth, a
refervoir with a conftant fupply of water, adequate to every
agricultural purpofe.
Thefe wheels are from twenty to forty feet in diameter,
according to the height of the bank, and confequent eleva-
tion to which the water is to be raifed. A wheel of thirty
feet is capable of fuftaining with eafe twenty tubes or
fpouts, of the length of four feet, and diameter of two
inches in the clear. ‘The contents of fuch a tube would be
equal to fix-tenths of a gallon, and the twenty tubes would
hold twelve gallons. A ftream of a moderate velocity
would be fufficient to turn the wheel at the rate of four re-
volutions in one minute, by which would be lifted forty-
eight gallons of water in that fhort period; or in one hour,
two thoufand eight hundred and eighty gallons; and fixty-
nine thoufand one hundred and twenty gallons, or upwards
of three hundred tons in a day. This wheel is thought by
fir George to exceed, in moft refpe&ts, any machine yet in
ufe for fimilar purpofes. The Perfian wheel, with loofe
buckets fufpended to the edge of the rim or fellies of the
wheel, fo common in the fouth of France, and in.the Tyrol,
approaches neareft to the Chinefe wheel, but is vaftly more
expenfive, and lefs fimple in its conftruétion, as well as lefs
ingenious in the contrivance. Inthe Tyrol there are alfo
bucket-wheels for lifting water in a circumference of wood,
hollowed into fcoops ; but they are much inferior either to
the Perfian or Chinefe wheel.
Chain of Buckets.—This machine confifts of a number of
buckets attached to a chain or rope, the ends of which are
united together. The chain is conduéted over a wheel,
which is turned by fome animal or mechanical power; and
the chain hangs down from this wheel into the well from
which the water is tobe drawn. The buckets at the lower
part of the chain become filled, and, by the motion of the
chain, the buckets attached to one part of the chain will
afcend full of water, whilft thofe on the oppofite tide are
defcending empty, with their mouths downwards. When
the full buckets of water turn over the upper wheel, they
difcharge their contents into a trough fixed near the wheel.
The moft convenient way of difcharging the water is to
make the upper wheel hollow, with divifions in it like the
tympanum; and the buckets, when they turn over, will
pour their contents into the hollow fegments of the wheel,
and it will run off through a hollow in the axis made for
that purpofe. The advantage of the chain of buckets over
the wheel is, that the chain can be made to defcend in a well,
or {mall fpace, where the wheel could not; alfo, that the
chain may be ufed for greater depths than would be pra@i-
cable for a wheel.
The Spanifh noira is a chain of buckets or earthen jars,
Mr. Townfend informs us, in his journey through Spain,
that the noira confifts of an endlefs band or girdle, paffing
over a {procket-wheel: the band is long enough to reach
eighteen inches or two feet below the furface of water ina
well. Allround this band, at the diftance of about fifteen
inches, are fixed jars of earthen-ware, which, as the band
turns, take up water from the well, and pour it into a eif-
tern fitted to receive it. A little afs, going round in a
circular walk with eafe, turns a trundle, which gives motion
to a cog-wheel, fixed on the fame axis with the fprocket-
wheel, on which the band is hung, and with which it turns.
This machine produces a conftant and confiderable fupply
of water, at a fmall expence, and with very little friction.
As the air would obftru& the entrance of water into thefe
earthen jars or bottles, each jar has a little orifice in its bot-
tom, through which the air efcapes; but-then water runs
out alfo, and a certain quantity falls back into the well.
It is true, as the jars rife in one ftraight line, the water
which runs out of the fuperior jar is caught by that which is
immediately below it, yet ftill there is a lofs; and, befides
this inconvenience, the whole quantity is raifed higher than
the upper refervoir, at leaft by the diameter of the {procket-
wheel, becaufe it is only in their defcent that the jars are
emptied.
The crew of Archimedes isa machine on a principle very
clofely allied to the horn-wheel; but the curved. channels
are wrapped fpiralwife round an axis, which is placed on an
inclined pofition, with the lower end immerfed in the water
which is to be raifed, and the upper end placed oyer the
edge of the refervoir into which the water is to be delivered.
When this cylinder is turned round, it will take water up
in its fpiral channel, and raife it gradually to the elevated
end, and difcharge it into the refervoir. (See Screw.)
Although this machine is fimple in its general manner of
operation, its theory is attended with fome difficulties.
If we conceive that a flexible tube is rolled regularly
about a cylinder, from one end to another, this tube or
canal will form a fcrew or fpiral, of which we fuppofe the
intervals of the {pires or threads to be equal to one another.
Suppofe this cylinder placed with its axis in a vertical pofi-
tion, if we put in at the upper end of the fpiral tube a {mall
ball of heavy matter, which may move freely, it is certain
that it will follow all the turnings of the {crew from the tep
to the bottom of the cylinder, de{cending always as it would
have done, had it fallen in a right line along the axis of the
cylinder ; only it will occupy more time in running through
the fpiral. .
If we fuppofe the cylinder placed with its axis horizon-
tally, and we again put the ball into one opening of, the
canal, it will defcend, following the direGtion of the firft
demi-fpire, until it arrives at the loweft point in this portion
of the tube, and then it will ttop: for the weight of the
ball has no other tendency than to make it defcend in the
demi-fpire. The oblique pofition of the tube, with refpe&
to the horizon, caufes the ball, in defcending, to advance
from that extremity of the cylinder whence it commenced
its motion to the other extremity. When the ball is ar-
rived at the bottom of the firft demi-{pire, if we canfe the
cylinder to turn on its axis, without changing the pofition
of
WATER.
of that axis, and in fuch manner that the loweft point of the
demi-fpire on which the ball preffes becomes elevated, then
the ball falls neceffarily from this point upon that which
fucceeds, and becomes loweft ; and as this fecond point is
more advanced towards the fecond extremity of the cylinder
than the former one, the ball will be advanced towards that
extremity by this new defcent, and fo on, that it will at
length arrive at the fecond extremity. Moreover, the ball,
by conftantly following its tendency to defcend, has ad-
vanced through a right line, parallel and equal to the axis
of the cylinder ; and this diftance is horizontal, becaufe the
fides of the cylinder were placed horizontally.
But fuppofe the cylinder had been placed oblique to the
horizon, and turned on its axis continually in the fame di-
reétion, it is eafy to fee that the ball will move from the
lower end of the fpiral tube towards the upper end, al-
though it is a€tuated folely by gravity, for this caufes it to
occupy the loweft point of the firft demi-fpire ; and when it
is abandoned by this point, as it is elevated by the rotation,
and will roll by its weight upon that point which has taken
its place, this ocr point is further advanced towards
the elevated extremity of the cylinder than that which the
ball occupied juft before ; confequently the ball, while fol-
lowing its tendency to defcend, will be always more and
more elevated, by virtue of the rotation of the cylinder.
Thus it will, after a certain number of turns, be advanced
from the lower extremity to the upper, or through the
whole length of the fpiral; but it will only be raifed
through the vertical height, determined by the obliquity of
the pofition of the cylinder.
Inftead of the ball, let us now confider water as entering
by the lower extremity of the fpiral canal, when immerfed
in a refervoir. This water defcends at firft in the canal
folely by its gravity ; but the cylinder being turned, the
water moves on in the canal to occupy the loweft place,
and thus, by the continual rotation, is made to advance
further and further in the fpiral, till at length it is raifed to
the upper extremity of the {piral, where it is expelled.
There is, however, an effehtial difference between the water
and the ball; for the water, by reafon of its fluidity, will
adapt itfelf to the form of the fpiral, and, after having de-
fcended by its heavinefs to the loweft point of the demi-
fpire, will rife up on the contrary fide to the original level ;
on which account, more than half one of the {pires may be
filled with the fluid.
The moft fimple method of tracing a fcrew or a helix
upon a cylinder is well known to be this :—Take the height
or length of a cylinder for the perpendicular leg of a right-
angled triangle, and make the bafe or horizontal leg equal
to as many times the circumference of the cylinder as the
{crew is to make convolutions about the cylinder itfelf ;
then draw the hypothenufe to complete the yay. oe Sup-
pofe this triangle to be enveloped about the furface of the
folid cylinder, the perpendicular leg being made to lie
parallel to the axis of the cylinder, and the horizontal leg
or bafe to fold upon the circumference of the cylinder, even
with its bafe ; then the hypothenufe or floping fide of the
triangle will form the contour of the fcrew. If a tube be
formed according to the dire¢tion of this fpiral, and a {mall
ball put into it when the cylinder is placed upright, the
ball would roll to the bottom with the fame velocity, and
the fame force, as it would have defcended upon a plane
furface, inclined in the fame degree as the hypothenufe of
the triangle which we have fuppofed, when the bafe thereof
is horizontal. But fuppofe the cylinder be inclined in fuch
degree, that the hypothenufe of the faid triangle would be
horizontal inflead of the bafe, as the angle which the
threads of the {crew make conftantly with the bafe of the
cylinder is juft equal to that inclination, the threads at
their point of {malleft inclination will be parallel to the ho-
rizon; fo that there being nothing to occafion the ball to
roll towards either end, it will remain immoveable, fup-
pofing the cylinder to be at reft; but if the cylinder be
turned on its axis in one direction, the ball (abftra@ing
from frition) will move the contrary way, in conformity
with the firft law of motion. The inclination which we
have juft affigned is the leaft we can give, fo that the ball
fhall not defcend of itfelf; but if we augment this inclina-
tion, then, by turning the cylinder, the ball will always have
a defcent on one fide, and will in confequence roll towards
the elevated end of the fame, and will mount by defcending.,
The reafon is very fimple: the plane which carries it makes
it rife more, in confequence of the rofatory motion, than it
defcends by virtue of the force of gravity. It is obvious,
from what has been remarked, that this fcrew can never
raife water, when the angle which the central line of the
{piral makes with the bee of the cylinder is larger than
the angle which the bafe of the cylinder makes with the
horizon.
The ratio of the weight of the ball to the force which is
neceflary to make it rife by turning the fcrew, is as the ver-
tical {pace through which the weight is raifed to the {pace
pafled through by the power in moving it. Suppofe the
moving force aéts at the circumference of the cylinder, the
{pace paffed over by that force will be equal to as many
times the circumference of the cylinder as the number of
convolutions of the helix. Let the diameter of the cylin-
der be 14 inches, the vertical altitude of the upper end of
the cylinder above the lower end 12 feet, or 144 inches, and
12 convolutions of the fpiral: let the cylinder be fo placed,
that the inclination of the axis is greater than the inclination
of the {piral to the axis, and let the weight to be raifed be
a48lb. ball. The circumference of the cylinder will be
nearly 44 inches, and the 12 turns equal to 12 x 44 =
528 inches, for the {pace the power muft move through.
Hence we have 528 inches : 144 inches :: 48 lbs. : 135 lbs. ;
the meafure of the requifite force to be applied at the fur-
face of the cylinder. If the moving force defcribes a circle
whofe diameter is three times that of the cylinder, or aéts
at a winch whofe diftance from the axis of motion is 21
inches, that force will then be reduced to § of 13} or 43 lbs.
which is lefs than one-tenth of the weight of the ball. In
this inveftigation, no notice is taken of the friétion upon the
pivots, or of the effeéts of the air included in the fpiral :
yet if the fpiral had been folded upon a cone inftead of a
cylinder, or if it had been formed of a flexible tube of va-
rying diameter, thefe effets would have been important :
fome of them are confidered in our account of the fpiral
ump.
The Archimedes’ ferew is a machine fo frequently em-
ployed in hydraulic architeéture, as to deferve particular di-
rections for conftruéting it. The fimple pipe wrapped
round a cylinder will not afford any confiderable fupply of
water, and therefore a hollow barrel muft be made with one
or two fpiral partitions running in it, like the fpiral ftair
cafes ufed in church fteeples.
Vitruvius has given minute diretions for the conftru@tion
of the water-fcrew, and Mr. Smeaton’s directions, which
are very fimilar, are as follow :—For a {crew of 18 inches
diameter, ufe a folid cylinder of fix inches diameter as an
axis, upon the furface of which cut a double helix, form-
ing two feparate grooves round the axis of about three-
quarters of an inch wide eultees fo that the grooves in
going once round will advance about fixteen inches, and in
confequence
WATER.
. confequence the two grooves will be eight inches apart from
middle to middle, meafuring parallel to the length of the
cylinder. Into thefe grooves drive and faften pieces of
board, fo as to form radii or feétors of a circle of eighteen
inches and a half diameter, and fo moulded as to be a little
upon the twift, to anfwer the different inclinations of the
helix, at the different diftances from the centre. Thefe
pieces being jointed together, and to the axis, fo as to fill
the whole groove from one end of the axis to the other,
form a double fcrew; then apply narrow boards longitu-
dinally, reaching from one end of the fcrew to the other.
The boards fhould be about four inches broad, and formed
concave withinfide, anfwerable to a circle of eighteen inches
diameter. Thefe boards are marked one by one at the
places where they touch the fpiral boards, and are then
grooved about a quarter of an inch, to admit the ends of
the radius pieces which form the fcrew. When all the boards
are put together they form a cylinder of eighteen inches
diameter, which is hooped on the outfide, in the manner of
a tub or cafk; and in order that the hoops may properly
drive on the outfide, at the fame time that the infide forms a
complete cylinder, the longitudinal pieces are made rather
thicker in the middle than at the ends.
Archimedes’ {crew may be ufed for other purpofes than
raifing of water. It might be adapted with advantage in
raifing cannon-balls from a fhip to a wharf, and with the
addition of a bevel-wheel or two and their pinions, might
be worked either by men or horfes. Sometimes Archi-
medes’ {crew inftead of being worked by men at a winch,
is turned by means of float-boards fixed on the circum-
ference of a wheel placed at its lower end, upon which a
ftream of water acts. If the water has a moderate fall, it
will have fufficient efficacy to turn two fcrews, one above
another. The top of the lower fcrew and the bottom of
the upper {crew may aé one upon the other, by means of a
wheel upon each, with an equal number of teeth taking
into each other. In this cafe the upper fcrew will turn ina
contrary direétion from the lower, and confequently the
{piral tube muft be wound about the cylinder in an oppofite
direétion. A folid wheel, or a light wheel with a heavy
rim, turning upon the middle of the ferew as an axis, will
operate like a fly, and in fome cafes be very ufeful.
Mr. Smeaton made a machine to raife water by an Archi-
medes’ ferew for the royal gardens at Kew, which was on
a large fcale. The fcrew was twenty-four feet long, two
feet fix inches in diameter, and raifed the water perpendicu-
larly fourteen feet nine inches. The central cylinder, or
fhaft of the ferew, was ten inches diameter; the diftance be-
tween the threads, including the thicknefs of the helix, was
twelve inches and a half; and as there were two fpiral paf-
fages, each {piral advanced twenty-five inches along the cy-
linder at every turns each fpiral contained twenty-feven
quarts at every turn, the {crew therefore gave out fifty-four
quarts at every turn which it made.
This {crew was turned by means of a trundle or pinion
from a horfe-wheel, with the intervention of two moveable
joints, to change the direction of the axis from the hori-
zontal to the dire&tion of the axis of the ferew, which was
inclined at an angle of about thirty-eight degrees to the
horizon. The diameter of the horfe-track was twenty-
five feet, half of which was the length of the effective
lever upon which the horfes aéted. The great cog-wheel
on the axis of the levers was fourteen feet diameter, with
144. cogs, and the trundle which it turned twenty-three
cogs, fo that the {crew made about fix turns for one of the
horfe-wheel.
This machine was worked by two light horfes, with very
Vou. XXXVIII.
great eafe, and they made three turns per mincte; but if at
all urged, could make the fcrew turn twenty turns per mi-
a and at that rate of working raifed 300 hogtheads per
our.
The Water-/crew, defcribed in our article Screw, does
not differ from the ferew of Archimedes in its principle,
but as the ferew turns round within a fixed barrel, the water
is liable to leak back in part.
_ Drawing Water by Buckets.—The methods which we have
hitherto defcribed are only adapted to raife water to {mall
elevations ; but by means of buckets, water may be drawn
from very great depths. The moft fimple cafe is'that of a
man with a bucket or other veffel in his hand, {tooping down
to lower the empty bucket into a pond, as low as he can
reaeh, and drawing it up full of water.
The firft improvement which would occur would be to
fufpend the bucket by a rope, and draw it up by means of a
long lever, or otherwife, if the depth was greater, by con-
tinuing the rope over a pulley, fo that the man could eafily
draw the end of it; and this would be farther improved
when two buckets were fufpended at the oppofite ends of
the rope or chain, fo that one being drawn up full of water,
an empty one would be let down at the fame time. This
method is applicable to the deepeft well, and is very effec-
tive. The addition of a windlafs and crank would be a
fucceffive improvement, and could be made to a@ either
fingly, to draw up one bucket, or double, to let down an
empty bucket at the fame time it drew up another loaded
with water.
The drawing up of a bucket by a rope and pulley is
fo fimple and obvious as to need no explanation. The
bucket fhould be of fuch a fize that it will not weigh above
twenty-fix pounds, and will therefore contain nearly half a
cubic foot of water. For although a man could with eafe
raife 4 much greater weight, yet he would be unable to
draw it up fo quickly, or to work at it throughout the
day ; and what he would gain by the increafed quantity of
water, he would lofe in the time which it would require to
draw up the bucket, and in the time he would require to
reft himfelf from his fatigue. If the rope is conduéed ho-
rizontally, and the man takes it over his fhoulder and walks
along the ground, his force will be applied in a much more
effective manner than by fimply hauling the rope over a pul-
ley ; and a horfe may be applied in the fame manner With a
larger bucket, and there is perhaps no better mode of ap-
plying the force of a horfe for a deep well. The bucket
fhould not in this cafe weigh above a hundred and twenty
pounds, or it muft not contain above two cubic feet to
enable the horfe to draw it with that velocity which is moft
natural to him.
When a windlafs is employed to wind up the rope, the
winch or crank, which is applied to the axis of it, can be
made much larger than the radius of the windlafs, and in
confequence the power may be increafed fo much that a
larger bucket may be drawn, which is fome advantage, be-
caufe lefs time will be loft in ftopping to fill and empty the
bucket, otherwife nothing is gained in drawing up a large
bucket, becaufe it muft move flower in proportion to its in-
creafed weight ; but in all cafes the length of the handle
fhould be about fourteen or fixteen inches, to enable a man
to turn it with eafe, and the weight of the bucket muft be
fo adapted to the fize of the windlafs, that the power re-
quired at the handle will not be above thirty pounds or even
twenty-five pounds, if a man is to work continually for fix
or eight hours in a day. For example, fuppofe the bucket
is about forty-fix pounds weight, and the handle fixteen
inches long, then as 46 is to 25, fo is 16 to 83 nearly ; from
F which
WATER.
which dedu& half the thicknefs of the rope, and it leaves
the proper radius for the roller or windlafs. A rope of the
proper fize for this purpofe will be about two inches and
a half in circumference, or rather more than three-quarters
of an inch in diameter; hence the diameter of the: barrel
will be 16{. If.a fily-wheel is applied to the axis, it will
be an advantage to equalize the force which the man ap-
plies, becaufe fome pofitions of a crank or handle are lefs
favourable than others for the exertion of a man’s ftrength.
It is moft advantageous to employ two buckets, and as the
rope for one unwinds whilft the other winds up, the weight
of the two buckets balarice each other, and the man has only
the weight of the water to draw up. :
crike, Melaers for deep Wells.—When a machine to
draw water by buckets is made on a larger {cale, the windlafs
is placed perpendicularly, and levers applied to it at the lower
end, which may be aétuated either by men, or by horfes
walking round in a circle on the ground, and drawing or
puthing the end of the lever; in this way a powerful ma-
chine may be made, and if the depth is very confiderable, it
is. a very good method. Many methods have been propofed
to make the buckets fill fiaiblecs when at the bottom of
the well, and empty when at the top: the beft is to fufpend
the bucket in an iron loop or bow, like the handle of a pail,
but this fhould be made fo long, that the pins on which the
calk or bucket hangs, fhall be but little above the centre of
gravity of the bucket when loaded with water; in confe-
quence, when the bucket is drawn up to the top, one edge
of it is caught by a hook fixed on the edge of the eciftern
into which the water is to be delivered, and the bucket {till
continuing to be drawn up whilft the hook detains one edge,
the bucket is thereby overturned, and its contents difcharged
into the refervoir.. It is requifite for this plan, that the
bucket be made, by fome contrivance, to prefent,itfelf
always in the fame dire¢tion to the hook, fo that it will be
feized and overturned thereby: one method is to fix upright
pieces of wood or iron in the well on each fide of the bucket,
and the pivots on which the bucket is poifed projec on
each fide beyond the iron loop on which the bucket hangs,
and enter into grooves formed in thefe pieces, fo as to be
guided in the afcent and defcent of the bucket. Another
method is to make the rope of the bucket double for fome
feet immediately above the bucket, that is, the rope divides
into two ends, each of which is made faft to the oppofite
fide of the iron loop in which the bucket is fufpended : the'
rope is made to pafs through a narrow opening in a piece of
plank, which will admit the double rope to pals freely, pro-
vided the bucket comes up in the required pofition; but if
it does not, then the forked rope will be a€ted upon by the
fides of this narrow opening in fuch manner, as to turn the
bucket round to the required pofition.
To make the bucket fill readily at the bottom of the well,
a fimple valve is made in the bottom, which opens upwards
and admits the water, but fhuts when the bucket is drawn
up out of the water. In the Tranfaétions of the Society of
Arts, vol. xii. is a defcription of a machine by Mr. Ruffel,
in which the bucket, when it is drawn up to the top of the
well, aéts upon a lever, and caufes a moveable trough to run
acrofs the well beneath the bucket; and then as the bucket
rifes higher, a trigger, which belongs to the valve in the
bottom of the bucket, is intercepted by a fixed piece of
wood, fo as to open the valve, and the water runs out of the
bucket into the moveable trough which conveys it into the
refervoir: when the bucket begins to defcend, it allows the
levers to return, and the moveable trough retreats from
beneath the bucket, and allows it to defcend again into the
well to bring upa frefh charge. The'moveable trough is made
10
to run backwards or forwards over the mouth of the well,
by means of wheels or rollers, on which it is fupported, and
thefe wheels run upon pieces of wood laid acrofs the well.
Indian Method of drawing Water by a leathern Bucket.—
Dr. Roxburgh of Calcutta has given us a defcription of a
method of raifing a large quantity of water from a deep
well by means on one or two buffaloes or bullocks, which
is in common ufe in many parts of Hindooftan, where the
wells are too deep for the lever. A pulley is ereéted over
the well to receive a rope, which the animals draw by walk- ©
ing along an horizontal path in order to elevate a large
bucket, and they return towards the well to lower it down:
the bucket is made of leather, like a long funnel, extended
at the top or mouth by a fquare frame of wood, or by a
hoop, and the lower end terminates in a {mall open tube,
which is flexible, and can be turned up; in which cafe, if the
orifice of the tube is kept as high or higher than the mouth
of the bucket, no water can efcape through the tube, it is
in this condition that the bucket is drawn up full of water :
the end of the tube has a cord faftened to it, which is con-
duéted over a roller fixed on the edge of the trough into
which it is defired to deliver the water, and which trough
mutt be at leaft the length of the bucket beneath the great
pulley that is fixed over the well. The oppofite end of the
cord is tied to the great rope near the point where the
buffaloes draw, and the cord is of fuch length as to hold
the orifice of the tube rather above the mouth of the
bucket, until the tube is drawn up to the roller. When the
cord draws the tube over the roller, and leads its end into
the trough as the bucket continues to be drawn up, it is
raifed above the level of the trough, by which means the
whole of the water will make its efcape through the orifice
of the tube into the trough: when the bucket is let down
again, the flexible tube returns over the roller, and the cord
holds up its orifice above the top of the bucket.
Defaguliers, in the fecond volume of Experimental
Philofophy, defcribes a very fimple contrivance to raife
water by a bucket; which is this, to one end of a rope is
fixed a large bucket, having a valve in its bottom opening
upwards; to the other end of the fame rope is faftened a
{quare board, fomething like the fcale-board of a balance,
but large enough for a man to ftand upright in it; the cord
is made to pafs over two pulleys, each of about fifteen inches
diameter, and fixed in fuch manner, that as the bucket
defcends, the feale afcends with equal velocity, and vice
verfi. The fcale is made to run freely between four ver-
tical guide rods, pafling through holes at its four corners,
and when the bucket is lowered down into the lower water-
ciftern in order to fill with water, the fcale ftands nearly
level with the horizontal plane of the upper refervoir to
which the water is to be raifed. When the bucket is full,
a man fteps into the feale, and his weight, together with
that of the frame, exceeding the weight of the veffel and its
contained water, will give an afcending motion to the
bucket, and caufes the valve in its bottom to clofe. When
the bucket is raifed to the proper height, a hook which is
fixed at the edge of the upper refervoir catches into a hafp
at the fide of the bucket, and turns it over, to caufe it to
empty its water into the upper ciftern, or into a trough,
which conveys it where it is required : at this time the man
and the fcale have arrived at a platform, which prevents
their further defcent, and the man muft remain in the fcale
till he finds the bucket above is empty, when he fteps from
the feale, and runs up a flight of ftairs t6 the place from
which he defcended : the bucket in the mean while, being
fomewhat heavier than the fcale, defcends again to the water,
and raifes the frame to its original pofition; thus the work
is
WATER.
is continued, the man being at reft during its defcent, and
labouring in the afcent.
Defaguliers employed in this kind of work a tavern:
drawer, who had been ufed to run up and down ftairs; he
weighed 160 pounds, and was defired to go up and down
39 fteps of 64 inches each (in all about 21 feet) at the fame
rate he would go up and down all day. He went up and
down twice in a minute, fo that allowing the bucket, witha
quarter of a hogfhead of water in it, to weigh 140 pounds,
he is able to raife it up through 21 feet twice ‘in a minute,
which is equivalent to the whole hogfhead raifed 104 feet in
a minute, and rather exceeds what Defaguliers affigned as
arhaximum of human exertion ; from experiments made with
a mercurial pump. He recommends that the man in the {cale
fhould weigh one-fifth or one-fixth more than the weight of
the water in the bucket, in order to give him a prepon-
derance to bring up the bucket with a proper velocity.
Balance Buckets.—This is an ingenious contrivance for
railing water by the power of a {mall fall of water: fuppofe
a wooden lever twenty feet long, poifed upon a centre at
five feet from one end, one arm will then be five feet long,
and the other fifteen, or three times. At the extremity of
the long arm a {mall bucket is fixed, and at the extremity of
the fhort arm another bucket, which is rather more than
three times as great in capacity: the lever is fo poifed, that it
will place itfelf in an horizontal pofition when both the
buckets are empty; but fuppofe that in this fituation a {mall
{pout of water. runs into each bucket, when they become
both filled, the larger bucket at the end of the fhort arm
will overweigh the {maller one, becaufe it holds more than
three times as much water; in confequence, the larger bucket
will defcend and move the lever into a perpendicular fitua-
tion, by which means the fmall bucket is raifed fifteen feet
above the level of the fpout at which it received the water,
whilft the great bucket has defcended five feet beneath its
fource of fupply. Both the buckets are fufpended to the
ends of the lever on pivots, fo that they can readily be
turned over to difcharge their contents; this takes place
when the lever, arrives mear its vertical pofition: the {mall
bucket is caught by a hook, and overturned into the elevated
trough which is to receive the water, and immediately the
lower bucket is emptied by fimilar means. The long end
of the lever is now the heavielt, and in confequence the lever
returns to its horizontal pofition, in which it remains until
the buckets are both full, and then it makes another f{troke.
A fimple contrivance is applied to ftop the running of the
fpout of water during the time that the lever is in motion,
to prevent waite of the water.
The Jofing and gaining Buckets is a fimilar machine to the
preceding, but admits of raifing the water to a greater
height, becaufe chains and wheel-work are employed inftead
of a lever. This machine will raife water fufficient to ferve
a gentleman’s feat, with an overplus for fountains, fifh-ponds,
&c. A machine of this kind can be ereéted wherever
there is a {pring affording a fmall fupply of water, and
having even fo {mall a fall as ten feet. It is poflible, by
this invention, with the lofs of part of the water, to raife the
reft, to fupply a houfe, or any place where it is required; but,
of courfe, it mutt be ina lefs quantity than the fall of water
which is to a€tuate the machine, nearly in the fame propor-
tion as the place to which the water is to be raifed is higher
than the fall of the fpring. For example, the fall of one hogf-
head through ten feet will raife about one-fixth of a hogfhead
to the height of forty feet. This machine had been con-
ceived by Sehottas a great many years ago, and he gave a
draught of it. It is deferibed in Leopold’s Theatrum
Machinarum Hydraulicarum, 1720; but it was never
put in execution to any good purpofe in England, till
Mr. George Greaves, a carpenter, ere&ted an engine upon
this principle, about 1730, for fir John Chefter, baronet, at
his feat at Chickley, in Buckinghamfhire; a fketch of
which is given at fig. 13, Plate Water-Works. A {mall
{pring of water, fupplying four gallons per minute, is eon-
veyed feventy-two yards, by a gutter, into a ciftern N,
containing about twelve gallons. This water has a de-
fcent to the other ciftern at R, ten feet below X; from
the latter, the walte is conveyed off along H, by a drain or
fewer. The defcent of part of the water through this ten
feet is the motive force to work the machine. A, B, are two
copper pans, or buckets, of unequal weights and fizes, fuf-
pended by chains, which alternately wind off, and on the
two multiplying-wheels Y and Z, whereof the wheel Y is
{maller in diameter, and Z larger, in proportion to the dif:
ferent lifts each bucket is defigned to perform. A houfe
is built over the well or ciftern, with three floors, for the
conveniency of fixing the parts of the engine. On the
uppermoft flcor is fixed a frame of timber 2 2, in which the
moving parts are fupported, as is fhewn, (part being broken
off in the figure, to explain the work): acrofs this frame
lies an horizontal axis G, three feet and a half long, moving
on two gudgeons in braffes. Upon this axis are framed
three wheels ; firft, the {mall wheel Y, which is two feet
diameter, and fhrouded, or made with a raifed rim at each
fide: the edge of' the wheel is five inches broad, and fhod
with iron. Upon the wheel Y is fixed a chain, made very
flat and flexible, which, after it has wrapped once round
the wheel, is then made’ double, that it may lie on each
fide of the edge part, the double parts having a fufficient
opening between them to admit the fingle part, and this pre-
vents fretting or galling, and keeps the chain exaétly per-
pendicular : from the extremity of the double part is hutig
a long rod of iron, at the bottom of which the great bucket
A is fixed. The largeft wheel Z on the axis is fix feet
diameter, and one inch and a half broad on the face, which
is alfo fhrouded: this wheel is not circular, but fpiraled
two inches, both in the fole and in the fhrouds ; fo that its
radius at the leaft part is two inches lefs than three feet.
Upon the large wheel Z is fixed a fmaller chain, to fuf:
pend the bucket B: it is made like the former, and fo
arranged, that when the wheel Z has made one revolution
from left to right, the fpiral fole will take up a certain
length of the chain. After this length, the lower or re-
maining part of the chain has crofs-bars fixed to it, at equal
diftances, which fall upon the edges of the fhrouds into
notches plated with iron: by this means, and by the help
of the fpiral, this part of the chain is not only prevented
from riding upon the other, but helps to equiponderate the
increafe of weight of the other chain of the bucket A.
A third wheel r, three feet ten inches diameter, is fixed
on the axis G, between the other two wheels : it is fhrouded
like the others, and is fpiraled three¢fourths of an inch; it
receives a rope, the lower end of which goes about a’ wheel
d, of two feet diameter, to which that end is fixed; and on
the axis, d, of this wheel is another, ¢, one foot diameter,
and to this is faftened a rope, which goes down upon the
quadrant a4, which carries a fliding weight in a box at the
extremity of the arm Q;. the quadrant a moves on the
axis 4, and the rope defcending from the wheel ¢, is guided
between iron plates, upon the circumference of the qua-
drant. ‘The box, at the end of the arm Q, contains a fliding
lead weight, to counter-balance the weight of the chains,
by keeping an exa& equilibrium in every pofition of the
machine. | Befides the action of the quadrant, the motion is
regulated by wheel-work, like that of a jack; thus, upon
F2 one
WATER.
one end of the axis G, is a {trong iron wheel M, giving mo-
tion to a pinion m, and by means of a wheel and worm n and
o, to a fly P, which regulates the motion of the engine, and
prevents any improper acceleration from the unwinding
of the chains. The fmall bucket B is made of copper,
about five gallons in capacity ; it has a valve in the bottom,
by which the bucket will be filled when it defcends into the
water of the ciftern N. The bucket is fufpended in an
iron link, or handle, upon two pivots, fo that it can be
very eafily turned over upon them. This happens when it
is drawn up to F, the edge of the bucket catching a hook
which overturns it, and difcharges the contents into the
trough W, at an elevation of thirty feet above X, and
whence it is conveyed by pipes wherever it is wanted.
The great bucket A is likewife made of copper, and
contains about fifteen gallons when drawn up to the pofi-
tion A : itis filled with water from a valve, or fluice, in the
fide of the ciftern N, which is then opened by a bent lever,
whereof the end projects, fo that the bucket will lift it up.
In the bottom of the bucket is a fpindle-valve, which is
opened when the bucket has defcended to R, by the end of
its {pindle refting on the bottom of the well. Iron rods
are fixed vertically to guide both the buckets, which have
ears with brafs rollers in them, and inclofe three fides of
each, which is {quare, and they are thus caufed to afcend
and defcend in a perpendicular line, and no other.
The operation of the machine is as follows :—When the
buckets are empty, they are ftopped, as fhewn in the figure
on a level with the {pring at KX, whence they are both filled
with water at the fame time, in the manner juft defcribed.
The gréater of the two A, being the heavier, when full
preponderates, and defcends ten feet from C and D, and
the leffer B, depending from the fame axis, is at the fame
time weighed up or raifed from B to F thirty feet.
Here, by catching the hook F, the fmall bucket dif-
charges its water into the trough W, and thus fuddenly
lofing weight, it lets the great bucket down an inch lower,
and the valve in the bottom is opened, fo as to let out its
water, which runs wafte by the drain below at H. The
bucket B being then empty, is fo adjufted as to overweigh,
and defcending fteadily as it rofe, betwixt the guiding-rods,
it brings or weighs up A to its former level at X, where
both being again replenifhed from the fpring, they thence
proceed as before. And thus will they continue conftantly
moving, (merely by the circumftantial difference of water
and weight, and without any other affiftance than that of
fometimes giving the iron-work a little oil,) fo long as the
materials fhall laft, or the fpring fupply water.
The fleadinefs of the motion is, in part, regulated by the
fly P, which not only keeps the engine to an equal velo-
city, but by its running forwards, after the buckets are
quite up or down, holds them fteady till they are completely
filled or emptied, and prevents them recoiling back too
foon. In order to counterbalance the weight of the chains
in every pofition, the wheels r, d, and #, are fo calculated,
that during the whole performance up and down, they let
the quadrant a move no more than one-fourth of a circle ;
by which contrivance, as more or lefs of the chains which
fufpend the buckets come to be wound off their refpeétive
wheels Y and Z, this weight gradually increafes its action
as a counterbalance, and fo continues the motion equable
and eafy in all its parts. The fpiraling of the wheels Y
and Z help, in fome meafure, to regulate the weight of the
chains in every pofition, as they act in winding on and off
the wheels; but the quadrant ad, and lever with the
weight Q, complete the equilibrium, by aéting with the
greateft force, becaufe the lever is in the horizontal pofition
II
when the chain of the great bucket A is all down, and
weighing upon the wheel, the weight Q then aéts with its
whole weight upon the wheel ¢, as that chain is drawn up,
its acting weight is thereby diminifhed, and the lever of the
weight Q is moving down towards its perpendicular,
whereby the weight Q diminifhes equally in its influence
on the motion of the wheel r, until it hangs perpendicular,
and its weight ceafes to at; but the fliding-weight then
runs down in its box, to keep the rope tight, the fliding-
weight being attached to the end of the rope, and not to
the lever. At the firft return, or re-afcent of the great
bucket, the weight Q is drawn up to a fhoulder, before
any motion is given to the lever of the quadrant; but
whilft the long chain of the {mall bucket evolves from its
wheel Z, the aéting-weight of the quadrant is continually
increafing, and at the fame time the other chain of the great
bucket wrapping itfelf upon the wheel Y, its ating weight
is decreafing. The lever of the quadrant rifing higher,
brings the line of direétion of the weight Q fasthes from
the centre of the quadrant, and fo lays a greater force or
obftru€tion to retard the wheel r, and continually keeps a
counterbalance.
This engine, at a flow motion, carries up one bucket full
in five minutes ; but if the fpring ran double the quantity,
it would go up twice in the fame time, and an engine of
this kind may be made to raife one hogfhead per minute, or
more, if required, the confumption of water is lefs than
what is {pent by a water-wheel to raife an equal quantity
of water to the fame height.
The Endlefs Rope to raife Water—This is a moft fimple
contrivance, and will raife up a {mall quantity of water from
a very confiderable depth. A foft hemp or hair-rope,
with the ends fpliced together, is fufpended over a-large
wheel, which is turned by a handle ; the rope mutt hang
down into the well, and reach fome depth into the water, and
a fimilar wheel may be placed beneath the furface of the water
for the rope to pafs under ; but this is not neceflary when the
length of the rope is fuch, that its own weight will make
it apply clofe to the upper wheel. The upper part of the
rope muft defcend through a tube, which is fixed in the
bottom of the ciftern, or refervoir, to prevent the water
running down with the rope ; the tube is of fuch fize as to
fit the rope very nearly, but not to caufe any confiderable
friction. The rope is put in motion by turning the handle
of the wheel, and the motion muft be in fuch a direétion,
that the rope where it pafles through the tube in the ciftern
fhall defcend.
The confequence is, that the water in the well adheres
to the rope, and furrounds it like a film, or covering of
water ; but when the rope paffes over the wheel, fome of
the water is thrown off by the centrifugal force, and falls
into the refervoir, and that part of the water which efcapes
the aGtion of the wheel is feparated from the rope by the
tube through which the rope pafles ; for it is to be obferyed,
that the film of water which furrounds the rope is put in
motion, whilft it is in the well, by the lateral adherence of
the water to the rope, which motion being continually
kept up, is fufficient to overcome the gravity of the water ;
but if any body is prefented to the rope, fo as to refift the
motion of the water, without obftruting the motion of the
rope, the water will fly off, and, lofing its motion, will obey
the ation of gravity, and fall down.
The velocity with which the rope requires to be moved,
will depend upon the depth from which the water is to be
raifed. The length of that part of the rope which is im-
merfed in the water is alfo of fome oe hin for it
muft be fuch, that the rope will aét upon the {till water
which
WATER.
which immediately furrounds it, uutil’it has put that water
in motion with nearly the fame rapidity as the rope, and
then fuch portion of water will accompany the rope; but
this cannot take place without communicating a flower
motion to a much larger quantity of water, which will alfo
accompany the rope with a flower motion; but being too
far removed from the rope to have its motion accelerated,
or even maintained, its velocity will continually decreafe,
until it ceafes to afcend, and then it will begin to run back.
But this is to be under{tood only of that part of the water
which is too far diftant from the rope to have its motion
fully maintained by the lateral alion of that water which
is nearer to the rope, and which moves with nearly the fame
velocity as the rope. If the rope is examined at the point
where it rifes above the furface of the water, it will be
found to be furrounded by a column of water which is of a
confiderable fize at the bafe, but diminifhes as it rifes up-
wards, fomewhat in the form of a trumpet, fo that at a few
feet in height it is but little larger than the rope. ‘This
column of water is compofed of feveral lamine, each moving
with a different velocity: for inftance, the interior part
moves nearly as quick as the rope, the water which is more
diftant from the rope moves flower, until there muft be a
part in which the water remains immoveable, and all the
water which is beyond this, and on the outfide of the
column, runs downwards, and falls back into the well. On
this account, the machine lofes a confiderable part of the
power Which is applied to it without producing an adequate
effect. ¥
This machine was invented by the Seur Vera, in France.
A machine was made by him with a wheel three feet dia-
meter, and a hair-rope of half an inch diameter, the well was
ninety-five feet deep. A man could turn the wheel fixty
times per minute, which gives a velocity of five hundred and
fixty-five feet per minute for the rope. It brought up fix
gallons fer minute, but was fevere labour for one man.
When the wheel made fifty turns, and the rope moved four
hundred and feventy-one feet fer minute, the machine till
raifed a confiderable quantity of water ; but if the motion
was reduced to thirty turns, or two hundred and eighty-two
feet per minute, it brought up fcarcely any water. A rope
of hair is preferable to hemp, becaufe it is lefs fubjeét to
decay ; and when a hemp-rope begins to rot, it commu-
nicates a taint to the water.
The Sucking-Pump has a valve at the bottom of the bar-
rel, and alfo another valve in the pifton, which is called a
bucket, becaufe it brings up the water before it. This
pump does not raife water when the bucket is let down, but
only when it is drawn up, which is in fome cafes an incon-
venience ; and another obje€tion is, that it cannot raife
water to a greater height than the place where the power is
applied, becaufe there mult be an opening for the pump-rod
to come out at, and the water would flow out at the fame
opening, if it was raifed as high. This inconvenience is
remedied by
The Lift-Pump, which has a valve in the bucket, the fame
as the fucking-pump, but it differs from it in the manner of
communicating the force to the pifton or bucket: one way
of effe€ting this is to make the barrel open at the lower end,
and the rod from the bucket, inftead of being fixed to the
upper fide of the bucket, is fixed to the lower fide, and
comes out beneath the furface of the water in which the
barrel is immerfed. Rods are jointed to this, and rife up pa-
rallel to the barrel, in order to be attached to the lever by
which the pump is to be worked: the fixed valve is placed
_at the top of the barrel above the bucket: this is the old-
fathioned lift-pump.
The Lift-Pump with a Stuffing-box, called fometimes a
jJack-head pump, is exatly the fame as the fucking-pump,
except that the top of the barrel is covered by a lid, which
has a hole in the centre for the rod to pafs through: the
rod is made very fmooth and true, and the hole is fo formed
as to contain collars of leather, which fit clofe round the rod,
and prevent the efcape of any water by the fide of the rod.
The water mounts up a pipe which communicates fideways
with the upper part of the barrel.
Another form of lift-pump has been recently introduced,
in which the pifton is folid, having no valve in it, and the rod
pafles through a ftuffing-box or collar of leather in the top
of the barrel, the bottom of the barrel being open. Two
pipes are made to communicate fideways with the barrel at
the upper part, one of which brings water from the well
into the pump when the pifton defcends, and has a valve
in it to prevent the return of the water; the other pipe
conveys the water away from the barrel when the pif-
ton is drawn upwards, and this is likewife furnifhed with a
valve to prevent the return of the water.
One advantage of this kind of pump is, that both valves
are fituated in boxes near the top of the barrel, and can be
examined and repaired at any time by taking off the doors
or covers of the boxes ; but in pumps where there is a valve
at the bottom of the barrel, it fometimes happens that the
valve fails, and requires to be repaired, when the water in the
well ftands higher than the cover or door of entry to the
valve : in this cafe, fome other means mutt be ufed to reduce
the water in the well, or elfe the pump mutt be drawn up
out of its place, which, in large works, is very difficult.
Another advantage is, that the apertures of the valves may
be made of any required dimenfions to let the water pafs
freely through them; but when the water muft come up
through a valve in the bucket or pifton, the paflage through
the valve muft neceffarily be much {maller than the barrel, to
allow a proper lodgment all round for the valve and alfo
for the leathers. '
The Force-Pump.—This is made with a folid pifton, like
the laft, but the barrel is open at the top, where the pifton-rod
comes out. There is a valve at the bottom of the barrel to
admit the water into it, and a pipe, which turns fideways
out of the barrel at bottom, and has a valve to prevent the
water returning into the barrel, to convey the water to what-
ever place it 1s to be forced to. The force-pump raifes
water only when the pifton is preffed down, whereas the
lift-pumps and fucking-pumps raife the water when the
buckets are drawn up.
The Lift and Force-Pump of M. De la Hire.—This is the
union of the two laft pumps in one, for both thefe pumps
work with a folid pifton, and the barrel of the force-pump
is open at top, and the barrel of the lift-pump is open at
bottom ; hence the fame barrel and pifton may be made to
ferve for both, This pump throws up water equally when
the pifton-rod is drawn up or when it is forced down, and
is moft proper for the double-a&ting fteam-engine. _ It has
the advantage of raifing twice the quantity of water that
any of the other pumps will raife, and with the fri¢tion of
only one piftoh ; alfo the valves admit of being made of fuf-
ficient fize to allow the paflage of the water without any
unneceflary refiftance.
Force-Pump with a folid Plunger.—This was invented
by fir Samuel Morland, and does not differ from the force-
pump laft defcribed, except in the manner of fitting the
pilton to the barrel. Inftead of the barrel being bored truly
cylindrical withinfide, and the pifton fitted into it fo as to flide
up and down, and provided with leathers to make a clofe fit-
ting, the pifton is made of a cylindrical form, and very nearly
as
WATER.
as large as the hollow barrel into which it defcends, but it
does not touch the infide of the barrel. To make the clofe
fitting, the outfide furface of the cylindrical pifton, or plunger,
as it is called, is made very true and fmooth ; and it is fur-
rounded by a collar of leathers fixed at the top of the barrel,
fo that no water can leak out of the barrel between the
plunger and the leather collars ; at the fame time that the
plunger can freely move up and down through the collars,
and will thereby increafe or diminifh the capacity of the bar-
rel, to produce the fame effe& as if the pifton fitted clofe
into the barrel.
The principal circumftance to be attended to in this
pump is the conftruétion of the collar of leathers. To re-
tain thefe leathers in their places, the top of the barrel muft
be made with a flaunch, and pierced with holes to receive
fcrew-bolts. Upon this flaunch two rings of metal are ap-
plied one over the other, with fimilar holes: the internal
opening in the lowelt ring is exaétly the fize of the plunger,
and that of the upper one a little larger. Two rings of foft
leather are cut out to correfpond with the metal rings, except
that the central holes are rather {maller than the plunger :
to prepare the leather, it is foaked in a mixture of oil and
tallow for fome hours. One of thefe leather rings is laid
on the pump-flaunch, and one of the metal rings placed above
it ; the plunger is then thruft down through the leather, which
turns the inner edge of the leather ring downwards ; the
other leather ring is then flipped on at the top of the plunger,
and the fecond metal ring is put over it, and then the whole
are flid down to the metal ring ; by this the inner edge of
the laft leather ring is turned upwards.
The metal rings and leathers are now fixed on the flaunch
by the fcrew-bolts ; and thus the leathern rings are ftrongly
compreffed between them, and make a clofe joint with the
top of the barrel ; and as the holes through the leathers are
{maller than the plunger, they grafp the plunger fo clofely
that no preffure can force the water through between them.
The lower metal ring juft allows the plunger to pafs through
it, but without any play, fo that the turned-down edges of
the lower leathern ring cannot come up between the plunger
and the lower metal ring, but are lodged in a conical enlarge-
ment, which is made round the inner edge of the upper
part of the barrel ; and in like manner the turned-up edges
of the upper leather are received in the hole of the upper
metal ring, which hole is made larger than the plunger, to
leave a {pace all round for thefe edges : it is on thefe trifling
cireumftances that the great tightnefs of the collar depends.
To prevent the leathers from fhrinking by drought, there is
ufually a little ciftern formed round the head of the pump,
and kept full of water.
This kind of pump is preferable to any other, where the
preffure to be overcome is very confiderable. The hydro-
ftatic preffes are con{truéted on this principle. See Press.
Piftons or Buckets for Pumps.—A good pifton fhould be
as tight as poffible, and fhould have as little frition as is
confiftent with this indifpenfible quality. The bucket of
the common fucking-pump, when carefully executed, pof-
feffes thefe properties in a high degree, and is the model for
other kinds of pump-buckets, or piftons, in which leather
can be employed. This bucket is in the form of a truncated
cone, with a hollow through the centre of it, which is half as
large as the outfide, at the largeft part ; it is generally made
of wood not liable to fplit, fuch as elm or beech, but in the
beft kind of pumps is made of metal. The {mall or upper
end of it is cut away at the fides, fo as to open into the
hole through the centre of it, and form an arch, by which it
is faftened to the iron rod or fpear of the pump, and within
the arch the valve or clack is ‘fituated. ‘The lower end of
the conical part may be covered with a hoop of brafs, which
fits the barrel of the pump very exaétly ; the bucket is alfo
furrounded with a ring or band of ftrong leather, faftened to
the wood with nails, and firmly retained by the brafs hoop
which is driven down on the bucket from the upper or the
fmaller end of the cone, and binds the leather faft on the
wood; but the leather being wider than the brafs, the edge
of the leather rifes upwards and furrounds the wood : this
part of the leather is made to turn outwards, like a cup or
hollow cone, which, at the upper end, is rather larger than
the barrel, fo as to {pring againft the infide of the bar-
rel when the bucket is put into it. The leather muft be of
uniform thicknefs all round, fo as to fuffer equal compref-
fion between the wood of the bucket and the working
barrel, but this compreffion is very flight, becaufe it is the
upper edge of the cup which applies moft clofely to the
barrel. The feam or joint of the two ends of the band of
leather muft be tapered, and made to overlap and lie very
clofe, without increafing the thicknefs, but not fewed or
ftitched together, as that would occafion bumps or inequa-
lities, which would fpoil its tightnefs; and no harm can
refult from the want of fewing, becaufe the two edges will
be fqueezed clofe together by the compreffion in the
barrel ; nor is it by any means neceflary that this compreffion
be great, for it occafions fri€tion, and caufes the leather to
wear through very foon at the edge of the bucket, and it
alfo wears the infide of the working barrel, which foon be-
comes enlarged in that part which is continually paffed over
by the pifton, while the mouth remains of its original dia-
meter, and then it is impoffible to thruft in a pifton which
fhall completely fill the worn part. A very moderate pref-
fure is fufficient for rendering the pump perfe@ly tight,
becaufe the preflure of the water makes the leather cup ap-
ply itfelf clofe to the barrel all round, and even adjuft itfelf
to all its inequalities. Suppofe itso touch the barrel in a
ring of an inch broad all round, this is a trifle, and the fric-
tion occafioned by it not worth regarding ; yet this {mall
furface is fuflicient to make the paflage perfe&tly imper-
vious, even by the preffure of a very high column of incam-
bent water : for let this preflure be ever fo great, the pref-
fure by which the leather is forced againft the infide of the
barrel will always exceed it, becaufe, in addition to the pref-
fure of the water, the leather will always prefs againft the
barrel by its own elafticity, the top of the cup of leather
being made rather larger than the interior of the barrel.
This method of applying leather piftons is found to. be
preferable to any other, becaufe if the leather is preffed
againit the barrel by any other means than the force of the
column of water, the preffure will always be too great or
too little.
Pumps which are to raife hot water cannot be leathered,
becaufe the leather would fhrivel up; in this cafe, ftrong can-
vas cloth is fometimes ufed inftead of leather ; but as this will
not hold water perfeétly, fuch pumps are generally packed
with hemp, in the fame manner as the pifton of fteam-
engines.
Pump without Fridion—When the height to which the
water is to be raifed is fmall, a pump may be conftruéed in
which the pifton does not require to be fitted clofely into
the barrel, nor are any leathers required. The barrel of this
pump muft be as long as the whole height to which the
water is to be raifed, and as much more as the length of the
{troke of the pifton. The pifton is a folid piece of wood,
fitted to the barrel as clofely as it can be without actually
touching the infide, and may be either {quare or round, but
a fquare trunk and a {quare beam of wood are belt, if the
pump is made of wood. The pifton muft be as long as the
barrel,
WATER.
barrel, fo that when it is let down it will occupy the whole
interior {pace of the barrel, except that {mall {pace which
is left between the infide of the barrel and the pitton, to
avoid aétual contaét. The bottom of the barrel has a valve
in it which opens upwards, and a pipe proceeds from the
lower part to conyey away the water to the refervoir into
which it is to be raifed by the pump. This pipe is pro-
vided with a valve, to prevent the return of any water
which has paffed through it, but the greateft elevation of
the water in the refervoir muft not be quite fo great as the
top of the barrel. When this pump is fixed for work, the
lower end of the barrel muft be immerfed in the water of
the well at Jeaft as much as the whole length of the ftroke,
fo that the lower end of the pifton will never rife above the
furface of the water in the well, and upon this circumftance
the a€tion of the pump depends; for when the pifton is
drawn up, the water flows through the valve in the bottom
by its gravity, and fills the {pace which is left by the draw-
ing up of the pifton ; when the pifton defcends, it difplaces
from the barrel all this water, and forces it up the fide-pipe
into the refervoir. It is true that a {mall portion of water
rifes ia the {pace between the barrel and the pifton, but
this {mall quantity cannot efcape, becaufe the top of the
barrel rifes higher than the furface of the water in the re-
fervoir.
Dr. Robinfon, who we believe -firft defcribed this pump,
obferves that it is free from all the difficulties which are
experienced in common pumps, from want of being air-
tight. Another is, that the quantity of water raifed is
very nearly equal to the power expended ; for if there is
any want of accuracy in the work, which occafions a dimi-
nution of the quantity of water difcharged, it alfo makes an
equal diminution in the force which is neceflary for pufhing
down the plunger. The doétor mentions a machine, con-
fitting of two fuch pumps, the piftons of which were fuf-
pended from the arms of a long beam or lever, the upper
fide of which was formed into a walk, with a rail on each
fide. A man ftood on one fide of the centre of the lever,
until the pifton of the pump at that end funk to the bottom
of its barrel, and of courfe the pifton of the pump on the
oppofite fide of the centre was drawn up; he then walked
flowly up to the other end of the walk upon the beam or
lever, the inclination being about twenty-five degrees at
firft, but gradually diminifhed as he went along, and pafled
on the oppofite fide of the centre of motion, fo as to change
the load of the beam. By this means he made the pifton at
the other end go to the bottom of its barrel, and fo on al-
ternately, with the eafieft of all exertions, and what a man
is moit fitted for by his ftru@ture. With this machine a
feeble old man, weighing 110 pounds, raifed 7 cubic feet
of water 113 feet high every minute, and continued work-
ing eight or ten hours every day. A ftout young man,
weighing nearly 135 pounds, raifed 8} cubic feet to the
fame height ; and when he carried 30 pounds conveniently
flung about him, he raifed 93 feet to this height, working
ten hours a day, without greatly fatiguing himfelf. This
exceeds Defaguliers’? maximum of a hogfhead of water ten
feet high in a minute, in the proportion of 9 to 7 nearly.
This pump is limited to very moderate heights, and in fuch
fituations it is very effeétual.
The mercurial pump is a fpecies of lift-pump, in which
mercury is employed to make a clofe fitting between the
pifton and the barrel, and thus avoid the fri€tion of leathers,
and prevent lofs of water.
This pump was originally invented by Mr. Jofhua Haf-
kins, and was improved by Defaguliers, who defcribed it in
the Philofophical Tranfa¢tions for 1722, N° 370. p. 53
and he has alfo given every detail of the conftruGtion in his
Experimental Philofophy, vol. ii. p. 491.
In this pump the barrel is inverted, that is, it is open at
the bottom, like the firft lift-pump which we have men-
tioned ; and it has alfo two pipes communicating with the
upper end of the barrel, one to bring up the water from
the well, and the other to carry it up to the refervoir: each
pipe is provided with its valve, to prevent the return of the
water. The barrel muft be made of iron, and as thin as is
confiftent with the ftrength of the metal. The pifton isa
cylindrical plug of wood, fitted to the barrel fo as to fill it,
but not to touch the fides. This pifton is fixed perpendi-
cularly in the centre of a hollow cylinder of iron, which is
rather larger within than the outfide of the pump-barrel, fo
that an annular {pace is left all round between the folid
pifton or plug and the infide of the cylinder, into which {pace
the pump-barrel can enter, and will fill it very nearly. The
annular {pace is then filled with mercury. ‘This compound
piece, confifting of the hollow cylinder, with the f{maller
folid cylinder within it, forms the pifton; and to this the
power which is to work the pump is applied by means of
chains, which fufpend it from the fhort arms, fo that if the
lever is moved, the pifton will rife up and down. When
the pifton is applied in its place, and the inverted pump-
barrel is received into the annular fpace between the folid
and hollow cylinders, the mercury therein will make a clofe
fitting between the folid pifton and the infide of the barrel,
fo as to prevent any water pafling between them; and the
afcent and defcent of the pifton will produce an alternate
contraction and dilatation of the internal capacity of the
working barrel, in the fame manner as a folid pifton would
do, if it was clofely fitted to the infide of the barrel with
leather all round.
As the water exerts a preflure on the mercury, to force
it out of the annular fpace in which it is lodged, the depth
of the annular {pace and length of the barrel which defcends
into it muft be adapted to the height to which the water is
intended to be elevated; fo that the column of mercury
which it will contain, without raifing the mercury fo high as
to run over the edge of the external cylinder, fhall always
exceed one-thirteenth part of the height to which the water
is to be elevated ; the weight of mercury being more than
thirteen times the weight of an equal quantity of water.
That there may be lefs mercury ufed, the pump-barrel
fhould be made of plate-iron, turned on the outfide, and
bored within; the outer cylinder of the pifton fhould be
bored, and the inner one turned; and if the work be well
performed, eight or ten pounds of mercury will be fufhi-
cient, though the bore of the barrel, or diameter of the
column of water which is raifed, is fix inches. lLefs than
fix pounds of mercury would fuffice, if there were two bar-
rels, in order to keep a conftant ftream. This will very
much leffen the expence of mercury, which would. otherwife
be an obje€tion againft this pump ; and by making the inner
and outer cylinder of hard wood, as box, or lignum vite, the
expence may ftill be reduced. But if the engine be very
large, caft-iron bored will be proper for the outer cylinder,
and caft-iron turned on the outfide for the inner cylinder or
plug, and hammered iron»bored and turned for the middle
cylinder,
There is an objeétion, which feems at firft to take off the
intended advantage of this engine, viz. that inftead of the
friGtion of the leather of a pifton, when we lift up the pifton
to make a ftroke, the refiftance neceflary to make the mer-
cury to rife on the outfide of the barrel in the outer svindes
o
WATER.
of the pifton is at leaft as great as the fri€tion we avoid.
Delaguliers fays, that refiftance is never greater than the
weight of a concave cylinder of mercury, whofe height is
the greateft to which the mercury rifes in the faid outer
cylinder, and the bafe is the area of the barrel itfelf. This
weight in a pump of 6 inches bore is equal to 57% pounds,
and, therefore, it would appear to ‘be greater than the re-
fiftance arifing from the friction of a pifton. But if it be
confidered, that in the defcent of the pifton for fucking, the
mercury fhifts immediately into the infide of the barrel,
rifing to the fame height therein, and ftill keeping the fame
bafe, the weight of 574 pounds helps to prefs down the
pifton, and facilitates the overcoming of the force of the
atmofphere, or, fuétion of the pump; confequently, the
weight of the mercury being balanced is no hindrance,
‘whether the pump works with a double or with a fingle
barrel.
There remains only then the hindrance by lofs of time,
whilft the mercury changes from the outfide to the infide of
the barrel, at the beginning of any ftroke. Defaguliers
ftates this to be one-fifty-fecond part of the ftroke, and that
he found the beft pumps then in ufe generally loft near
one-fifth of the water that they ought to have given, ac-
cording to their number of ftrokes.
Notwithftanding the high terms in which this author and
others have {poken of the mercurial pump, it can only be
confidered as an ingenious fuggeftion, for the expence of
mercury would be too great for the atual application of
any fuch machine in pra¢tice ; and in refpeét to fri€tion, it
would have a confiderable fhare of refiftance in plunging
the pifton into the mercury, although there would be no
aétual rubbing of hard fubitances together. This refiftance
would arife in the rapid running or the mercury from the
infide of the barrel to the outfide, and back again, at the
beginning of each ftroke.
he machine is exceedingly ingenious and refined, and
there is no doubt but that its performance will exceed that
of any other pump which raifes the water to the fame
height, becaufe there can be no want of tightnefs in the
pifton, and friction is in a great meafure avoided. But
thefe advantages are but trifling. The expence would be
enormous ; for with whatever care the cylinders are made,
the interval between the inner and outer cylinders mutt
contain a very great quantity of mercury. The middle cy-
linder muft be made of iron-plate, and without any feam,
for mercury diffolves every kind of folder. For fuch rea-
fons, it has never come into ufe. But although we have
profeffed to defcribe only the machines in aétual ufe, it
would have been unpardonable to have omitted the defcrip-
tion of an invention, which is fo original and ingenious ;
and there are fome occafions where it may be of ufe, fuch
as nice experiments for illuftrating the theory of hydraulics :
it would be the beft pifton for meafuring the preffures of
water in pipes, being in faét the fame principle as the baro-
meter.
Sefor pumps are thofe in which the pifton is made to
move upon a centre, like a’door upon its hinges. The
pifton is inclofed within a veffel fhaped like the for of a
circle, which forms the body of the pump, and which is
divided by the pifton into two compartments. The pifton
is fitted, fo that it can move backwards and forwards on its
centre of motion, without fuffering any water to pafs by it ;
and by this motion it will alternately enlarge or contract the
capacities of the two compartments, fo as to draw in water
through pipes and valves properly fituated, and force it out
again at other pipes. Thefe kinds of pumps are difficult to
conftru@, and have no advantages over the pumps with
ftraight barrels, except for the engines for extinguifhing
fire. See that article for a defcription and figure of Mr.
Rowntree’s, which is one of the beft of this kind.
Rotative Pumps.—As moft of the firft movers for hy-
draulic machinery a& with a rotatiye motion, it would be
very defirable to have a pump which would at once employ
the rotative force to the purpofe of raifing water. any
{chemes have been propofed, and much ingenuity difplayed
in thefe inventions ; but hitherto no one has been brought
to fuch perfeétion as to be equal to the pumps with ftraight
barrels. In Ramelli’s work, publifhed in 1588, feveral
rotative pumps are defcribed; and Leopold has made a
collection of them in his “* Theatrum Machinarum Hydrau-
licarum,” vol. i. They are all upon one common prin-
ciple, viz. a hollow cylinder or drum clofed on all fides ;
within this another f{maller cylinder is inclofed, and the in-
terior cylinder is placed out of the centre of the hollow cy-
linder, fo that the interior cylinder touches the hollow one
at one point of the circumference ; but at all other points
there is a confiderable {pace between the two. The interior
cylinder is provided with four or fix valves or leaves, which
are united to it by hinges, and, when folded clofe up to the
cylinder, will form a fmooth and circular circumference ;
but if the leaves are opened out, they will reach to the in-
terior furface of the hollow cylinder. When the interior
cylinder is turned round by a handle applied to the axis, the
valves fweep round within the hollow cylinder, and in this
motion perform the office of piftons, becaufe they clofe up
to the internal cylinder, in proportion as they approach to-
wards the point where the internal cylinder touches the
hollow cylinder ; and the fame vanes open out again, after
they have paffed that point. In this way the {paces between
the valves form a number of cavities, which alternately ex-
pand and contra& in their capacity, and in confequence
they- will draw up water through a pipe which is inferted
into the hollow cylinder, and force it out at another pipe,
fo as to raife up a continual ftream.
The machine is fometimes varied, by making the hollow
cylinder of an elliptical form: in other cafes, the valves,
inftead of moving upon hinges, are made to flide in ftraight
lines from the centre of the revolving cylinder ; but in either
cafe, the aGtion is the fame. The common defeét of all
thefe rotatory pumps is, that it is very difficult to pack them
fo as to be tight, and they have more friction than any other
kind of pump.
The centrifugal pump, invented by Mr. Erfkine, may be
called a rotative pump, but it is on a different principle
from all other pumps. A perpendicular pipe has another
joined to it, in form of the letter T: the lower end of this
pipe being immerfed in water, and the whole filled with
water, it is turned round on the perpendicular {tem as an
axis; the water contained in the horizontal arms will, by its
centrifugal force, fly out, and draw a conftant ftream of
water up through the perpendicular pipe. See Centrifugal
Pump.
Spiral pump, or Zurich machine, is a hollow drum or cy-
linder turning on a horizontal axis, and partly plunged in a
ciftern of water, like a very large grind-ftone. The interior
{pace of this cylinder or drum ia fobaded into a fpiral canal,
by a plate coiled up within it, like the main-fpring of a
watch in its box, only that the f{pires are fituated at a given
diftance from each other, fo as to form a fpiral paflage of
uniform width. (See fig. 11. Plate Water-Works.) This
{piral partition is well joined to the two circular ends of the
cylinder, and no water can efcape between them. The
inner
WATER.
inner end or central part of the fpiral paflage communicates
with the axis, which is hollow at one end, and communi-
cates with the vertical pipe which is to convey the water to
the elevated refervoir. The outermoft turn of the fpiral
paflage begins to widen at about three-fourths of a circum-
ference from the open end, and this gradual enlargement
continues for nearly a femicircle ; this part being called the
horn. The paflage then widens fuddenly in form of a
feoop or fhovel. The cylinder is fo fupported, that this
feoop may, in the courfe of a rotation, dip feveral inches
into the water, and take up a certain quantity of water be-
fore it emerges again. This quantity is fufficient to fill the
enlarged part called the horn, and is alfo nearly equal
in capacity to one turn of the outermoft uniform fpiral.
The vertical pipe is conneéted with the axis by a turning
joint, fo as to admit of the rotation of the axis, at the fame
time that it will not allow of the efcape of any water.
When this cylinder is turned round by a handle applied
to the extremity of the axis, a portion of water which the
f{eoop takes up at every turn, will continually advance in the
fpiral, until it arrives at the centre ; it will then pafs through
the hollow in the end of the axle, and will rife upwards in
the vertical pipe ; and in the intervals between the periods
when the fcoop dips into the water, the horn will become
filled with air, and the fucceeding portion of water which is
taken in will carry the air before it, fo that the water rifes
in the vertical pipe mixed with air. See Screw.
Dr. Robinfon, in his account of this machine, recom-
mends the rifing pipe to be of {mall bore ; for if the pipe is
fo large as to allow the air to efcape freely upwards through
the water, the machine will raife the water to a certain
height, proportioned to the number of turns of the fpiral,
and to their diameter; but if the pipe be narrow, fo that
the air cannot rife freely, it will rife in the pipe almoft as
flowly as the water. By this circumftance, the water
mixed with the air becomes of a lefs fpecific gravity, as it
were, and can be raifed to a much greater height than it:
could be raifed by the mere preffure of the columns of water
and air in the different turns of the fpiral. This is effe€ted
with hardly any augmentation of the power, but if the
air, after being comprefled, is fuffered to efcape, all the
force exerted to comprefs it will be loft. The entrance into
the rifing pipe fhould be no wider than the laft part of the
fpiral; and it would be advifeable to divide it into four
channels by a thin partition, and then to make the rifing
pipe very wide, and to put into it a number of flender rods,
which would divide it into feveral flender channels, that
would ferve completely to entangle the air among the water.
This procedure will greatly increafe the height to which the
heterogeneous column may be carried.
Another Form of the Spiral Pump.—When the main pipe
is very high, the former conftruétion will require either an
enormous diameter of the drum, or many fpiral turns of a
very narrow pipe. In fuch cafes, it will be much better to
make the fpiral in the form of a cork-fcrew, than of a flat
form like a watch-{pring; or, the pipe which forms the
{piral may be wrapped round the fruftum of a cone.
We regret that we have had no opportunity of making
experiments upon a machine of this kind, as its principles of
action, though treated of by many authors, are not defcribed
in a fatisfa€tory manner in any works which we have read.
The chain pump is an effetive means of raifing water, and
with the advantage of a continuous motion. It is generally
made with a {quare or round barrel, placed in a perpendi-
cular pofition. The chain is furnifhed with feveral piftons
of the fame figure as the barrel, which are fixed at {mall
diftances afunder upon the links of the chain. The ends of
Vor. XXXVIII.
. deferibed.
the chain are united together, and it is extended between two
wheels, one fixed at the upper end of the barrel, and the
other at the lower end ; but fometimes only the wheel at the
top is ufed. Thefe wheels have forks fixed om the circum-
ference, which are fo contrived as to receive one half of each of
the flat piftons in the intervals between the forks, whilft the
forks take hold of the links of the chain, and draw them up,
when the wheel is turned round by means of a handle ap-
plied to the axis. The piftons on the chain are made accu-
rately to fill the fetion of the barrel, at the lower part near
the water, and alfo for a few feet upwards ; but above this,
the barrel is made larger, fo that the piftons rife up free:
indeed, the upper part of the barrel is only to contain the
water which is brought up by the piftons, and may, there-
fore, be fquare, or of any other figure. The lower end of
the barrel is immerfed in water, and the chain being caufed
to circulate by turning the wheel, each pifton, \as it enters
into the lower or bored part of the barrel, will bring up
water before it in the barrel; which water will rife in the
upper part of the barrel, till it runs over the top ; and as the
piftons fucceed each other in a regular fucceffion, they pro-
duce a conftant ftream. Chain pumps are chiefly ufed in
fhips, where they are worked by the force of men turning
winches. (See Pump.) In other fituations they are moved
by horfes, and fometimes by the impulfe of a ftream of water.
They are fo contrived, that by the continual folding in of the
piftons, when they enter into the bottom of the barrel,
ftones, dirt, or whatever comes in the way, may be cleared
off. On this account they are often ufed to drain ponds
and fewers, or to remove foul water, when no other pump:
could be employed.
The greateft difadvantage in the chain pump is the fric-
tion of the chain, and of the piftons, which is greater than
in other pumps; becaufe feveral piftons are moving in the
barrel at the fame time, and alfo becaufe the piftons donot
admit of the application of the cup-leathers, which we have
The edges of the cups would fold up when
they enter into the barrel, and get between the edge of
the pifton and the barrel. The piftons are, therefore,
made with a thick piece of leather, which is placed be-
tween two round plates, which form the pifton or faucer,
as it is called; the leather is cut round to the fize of the
barrel, fo that the edge of the leather may be applied to
the infide of the barrel. In this way, its tightnefs mutt
depend wholly upon the force with which the leather ig
{queezed into the barrel, and it occafions great fri€tion to
make the piftons fufficiently tight.
Another variety of the chain pump is an endlefs rope,
with ftuffed cufhions faftened upon it at regular intervals.
By means of two wheels or drums, the rope 1s made to cir-
culate, and the cufhions are drawn up in fucceffion through
the barrel, and each one carries fome water before it.
The chain pump is found to raife a greater quantity- of
water to the fame height, when the barrel is placed in an
inclined pofition, than when vertical. M. Belidor recom,
mends the barrel to be placed at an angle of 24 degrees with
the horizon, and the diftance between the piftons to be
equal to their diameter. The reafon of this advantage is,
that an inclined pump aéts with lefs fri€tion, becaufe the
piftons need not be fo exaétly fitted, but they will, by their
weight alone, apply clofely to the bottom or loweit fide of
the inclined barrel ; whereas the piftons of the vertical pump
muft exactly fill the barrel, or the water will leak down
from one to the next in a conftant {tream.
Bellows-Pump.—A pair of leathern bellows may be em-
ployed as a pump, if a fuction-pipe is applied to the lower
valve, and another pipe to the nozzle, with a valve to
G prevent
WATER.
prevent the water returning into the bellows after it has.
been driven out by clofing the bellows. This kiad of
has been frequently propofed, and the advantages of
difpenfing with barrels and piftons loudly infifted upon ; but
the refiftance of the leather in ee and the lofs of water
by leakage, and above all the want of durability, will always
prevent the adoption of fuch pumps. ;
The Pump with a Diaphragm of Leather, which does not
flide in the Barrel —This is very nearly allied to the bellows-
mp. The belt form for conitruéting it is fully defcribed
in our article Su1p’s Pump, where the invention is attributed
to Benjamin Martin; but we find the fame thing was long
before applied by Mefirs. Goffet and De la Deuille, in
France. (See Belidor’s Arch. Hydraulique, vol. ii. p. 120.)
This is a good pump, but is not durable, becaufe the con-
ftant ftrain on the leather will caufe it to crack.
Sucking-Pump, which gives out a continual Stream.—Mr.
Smeaton applied the following fimple and effectual expe-
dient to make a fingle fucking-pump deliver the water
_ equally in the defcent of the bucket as in its afcent. The
pump-rod was enlarged, by furrounding it with a cylinder of
wood at the part where it rofe above the furface of the
water contained in the ciftern at the top of the pump. This
cylinder of wood was of fuch diameter, that its feétion
was equal to half the area of the pump-barrel at the
place where the bucket worked. When the bucket was
drawn up, and raifed water into the ciftern at top of the
pump, the wood cylinder, which was attached to the pump-
rod, rofe up out of the water in the ciftern, and thereby
made place in the ciftern for one-half of the water which was
brought up by the bucket, and in confequence only one-half
of the water ran out at the {pout of theciitern ; but when the
bucket moved downwards, in order to fetch another ftroke,
this cylinder of wood difplaced from the ciftern half as much
watér as the pump brought up in the former inftance, and
confequently an equal quantity of water was given out at
the fpout in either cafe. '
If the pump is worked by the force of a man working a
fimple lever, then he will make the down-ftroke of the
bucket in lefs time than the up-ftroke, and in this cafe the
area of the cylinder fhould be made lefs than half the area of
the barrel of the pump. It muft be obferved, that this
contrivance is only a remedy for the unequal efflux of water
from the fucking-pump, and that the power required to
work the pump is ftill left unequal in the up*ftroke and
down-ftroke, becaufe it is only in raifing up the bucket that
the water is drawn from the well below; and that water
which runs out at the {pout when the bucket defcends, is
drawn from the ciftern at the top of the pump, and not from
the well. When the pump is worked by a man with a
lever, this inequality of the refiftance is advantageous, be-
caufe a man can exert his force moft conveniently when he
depreffes the end of the lever to draw up the bucket ; alfo,
in a fingle-aéting fteam-engine, the principal power is
exerted to draw up the bucket.
In machines worked by wind, water, or horfes, the moving
force is uniform, and the refiftance muft, by fome means, be
made uniform alfo, or the machine will move by fudden ftarts.
A fufficient weight may be applied to the oppofite end of the
lever to counterbalance one-half of the force neceflary to draw
up the bucket ; this weight will tend to diminifh the force of
drawing up the bucket, and when the bucket defcends, and
the machine would otherwife have nothing to do, it will
have to raife up the weight ready to aid it in the fucceed-
ing ftroke. Or a fly-wheel may be applied: but a ftill
better method is to employ two pumps to a& alternately, by
which means the refiftance is continual, and the eflux of
water alfo. When two fucking-pumps are em ey
may be combined together, +3 making ater aa
from a common fuétion-pipe, and both may be made to lift
the water into the fame ciftern. Or two or three force-
a may be combined keg as is defecribed in the
article Pump, in order to produce a continuous ftream.
Air-Veffel for equalizing the Difcharge of Water from
Pumps.—This is the mott perfeé& contrivance for effectin
that purpofe. It is a clofe veffel of any figure,,which wi
contain air, and is made to communicate with the pipe
which conveys the water away fromthe pump. This com-
munication: muft be made at the lower part of the air-veffel,
fo that the water will have free ingrefs and egrefs from it.
The air in this veffel will be comprefled into a {maller f{pace,
in proportion to the column of water which the pump has
to raife ; and by its elafticity endeavouring continually to re-
fe its former {pace, it “ak a& as a {pring to equalize all
udden motions of the water through the pipe; for in any
pump which aéts by a barrel and pifton, the water will be
propelled by ftarts; and even if two or three barrels are
combined together fo as to produce a continual efflux of
water, fuch efflux will not be perfeétly equal during all the
periods of the motion.
The evil of this may appear trifling and fo it would be
merely with refpeét to the difcharge of the water ; but it muft
be confidered that the mafs of water contained in a long
pipe is very great, and that it requires a very confiderable
force to put this mafs in motion with that velocity with
which it muft. flow through the pipe. Now if the
operation’ of a pump is by {tarts the mafs of water in
the main-pipe will remain at reft, preffing on the valve
during the time that the pifton is withdrawn from the bot-
tom of the working barrel. In this cafe, the force necef-
fary to put the water in motion mnuit be expended at every
ftroke, becaufe if the column comes to reft only for an
inftant, it muft be put in motion again before the operation
can be refumed: this is a heavy additional load upon the
firft mover, and has another more ferious evil in {training the
pipe and all parts of the machinery ; becaufe the column of
water in the pipe, after it ftops, runs back for a {mall
fpace until the valve fhuts ; and it makes juft as great a con-
euffion or fhock when its motion is fuddenly ftopped by the
fhutting of the valve, as any other folid body would do
which was of the fame weight, and moved with the fame
velocity. In large fteam-engines, the fhock occafioned by
the fhutting of the valve is exceedingly violent, unlefs an
air-veffel is applied. In that cafe, if the pump urges the
water with a fudden motion, the air in the veffel will yield, and
admit the water into the veffel in far lefs time than the whole
column of water could be urged into motion ; but as the air
will become comprefled by more force than the column of
water in the pipe, the elafticity of the air will force the
water from the veffel and up the pipe with a regular mo-
tion, and this will continue until the air has regained fo
much {pace that its elafticity is only juft fufficient to ba-
lance the column of water in the pipe.
The air-veflel fhould be placed as near the pump as pof-
fible, that it may produce an equable motion of the water in
the whole length of pipe. The air-veffel is of confiderable
_advantage when a column of water of great length is to be
raifed by a fingle-ating pump. If the pifton of the pump
at one end of the pipe is put at ouce into motion, even with
a moderate velocity, the ftrain on the pipe would be very
a before the column of water could be put in motion.
ut the air-veflel tends to make the motion along the main-
pipe lefs egies and therefore diminifhes thofe ftrains
which - would really take place in the pipe. It a
2 e
WATER.
like the {prings of a travelling carriage, whofe jolts.are in-
comparably lefs than thofe of a cart, and by this means
really enables a given force to propel a greater quantity of
water in the fame time.
The ftream produced by the affiftance of an air-veflel is
almoft perfectly equable, and as much water runs out dur-
ing the returning of the pifton as during its adtive flroke ;
but it muft not be imagined that it therefore doubles the
quantity of water. No more water can run out than what
is fent forwards by the pifton during its effeGtive ftroke.
The continued ftream is produced only by retaining part of
this water in the air-veffel during the itroke of the pifton,
and by providing a propelling force to act during the pif-
ton’s return; but it cannot enable the moving force of the
pifton to producean increafedeffe& : forthe compreflion which
18 produced in the air-veffel, more than what is neceffary for
merely balancing the quiefcent column of water, reacts on the
pifton to refift its compreffion juit as muchas the addition of
a column of water would do, the height of fuch column being
fufficient to produce the required velocity of the efflux.
Machines for working Pumps.—The bett method of work-
ing pumps from a firft mover which aéts with a rotative mo-
tion, is by means of cranks; and if two or more pumps are
to be aétuated by the fame machine, the cranks for them
fhould be placed at regular intervals round the centre, fo as
to produce a continual aétion.
It has been obferved, in our article Sream-Engine, that
the reciprocating motion obtained by a crank is very un-
equal, even when the rotative motion of the crank is quite
uniform. This renders the motion of the pifton in the bar-
rel of the pump irregular, for at the top and bottom of the
barrel the motion of the pifton is very flow, but when the
pifton is at the middle of the barrel the pifton moves
quickly. This property is a great advantage in working
pumps, becaufe it puts the column of water in motion with
a lefs fudden fhock ; but it has been very generally miftaken
and confidered as a defect, and many ingenious contrivances
have been propofed, by means of racks and pinions, to give
an uniform motion to the pifton-rods of pumps. Thefe have
never fucceeded in praétice, and have always been laid afide.
The attempts of mechanicians to corre& this unequal
motion of the pifton-rod are mifplaced ; for if it could be
done it would greatly injure the performance of the pump.
As this is a favourite fpeculation, and new attempts to
perfe& it are conftanuly making, we think it right to thew
the reafon of their failure.
Suppofe the firft mover to move uniformly with a rotatory
motion, and that the machinery is fo conftruéted, that the
pifton-rod will be moved up and down with a regular mo-
tion, or that the velocity of the pifton fhall be at all times
the fame, whether it is at the top or bottom, or in the
middle of its courfe. In this cafe, at every reciprocation,
the column of water in the main pipe muft be fuddenly
urged into motion from a ftate of reft, and the machine
could not perform one ftroke, if the velocity of the. firft
mover did not flacken a little, or if the different parts of the
machine did not yield by bending or compreffion. Thefe
ftrains would be fo fudden and violent, that no ftrength of
materials could withftand the violence of the fhocks at every
reciprocation of the motion. ‘This would be chiefly ex-
perienced in great works which are put in motion by a
water-wheel, or fome other equal power, exerted on a large
mafs of matter, of which the machine confifts. The water-
wheel, being of great weight, moves with fteadinefs or uni-
formity ; and when an additional refiftance is oppofed to it
by the beginning of anew {troke of the pifton, its quantity
of motion ie but littl affefted by this addition, and it pro-
ceeds with very little lofs of motion. The machine muft
therefore yield a little by bending and compreffion, or it
mutt break to pieces, which is the common event.
A crank is free from this inconvenience, becaufe it ac-
celerates the pifton gradually, and brings it gradually to reft,
while the water-wheel moves round with almoft perfe& uni-
formity. It has been ftated as an inconvenience of this flow
motion of the pifton at the beginning of its ftroke, that the
valves do not fhut with rapidity, fo that fome water gets
back through them ; but this is a miftake, becaufe the valves
always fall by their own weight as foon as the water ceafes
to flow upwards through them. Now when the pifton be-
gins to move with its flow motion towards the end of the
itroke, lefs water is caufed to flow through the valves, and
in confequence they clofe gradually, and will be fully fhut
by the time that the pifton becomes motionlefs, and before it
begins to return. This is fhewn in the large machines, fuch
as that of London-bridge, where the pumps are worked by
cranks, and the valves clofe imperceptibly ; but in a fteam-
engine of the fame power, the fhock oecafioned by the fhut-
ting of the valves is exceedingly violent. In fhort, by a
judicious application of the crank and a fly-wheel, or an air-
veflel, and by employing two or three barrels to the pump,
the evils of the reciprocating motion of pumps may be com-
pletely remedied, and on this account we confider, that if a
rotatory pump could be brought to perfeétion, it would have
no fuperiority over an accurate pump with a ftraight barrel.
Mr. Smeaton’s proportions for a two-horfe pump machine for
raifing water are as follow: horfe-track thirty feet diame-
ter ; great cog-wheel nineteen feet diameter, with 144 cogs ;
this gave motion to a trundle of feventeen ftaves, fixed upon
an horizontal axis, which carried a caft-iron fly-wheel of ten
feet diameter, and the rim three inches by three inches. On
the extremity of the horizontal axis was a crank of a foot
and a half in length, which, by means of a conne¢ting-rod,
gave motion to one end of a working beam or lever of feven-
teen feet long, which was poifed on a centre in the middle
of its length, and at the oppofite end was an arched feGor
for the chain, by which the pump-rod was fufpended. The
pump was a fucking-pump, fix inches diamieter in the barrel,
and the length of the ftroke was three feet. A weight was
applied to the end of the beam over the crank, which was
fufficient to balance one-half of the column of water in the
pump. In this machine, when the horfes walked two miles
and a half per hour, they made two turns and one-third per
minute. The trundle and fly-wheel made twenty turns per
minute; the pump made the fame number of effective ftrokes,
and raifed upwards of a hundred barrels ale meafure per hour,
By the counter balance and the fly-wheel, the refiftance to
the horfes was rendered perfeétly uniform.
‘The Pump Machine at Blenheim, which was ere&ed by
Mr. Alderfea for the duke of Marlborough, is thus de-
feribed by Mr. Fergufon in his le@ures. The water-wheel
is underfhot, and is turned by the fall of the water running
down an inclined plane, and {triking the fleats of the wheel.
The extremity of the pivot or gudgeon is formed into any
number of cranks; for inftance fix, that is, three at each end
of the axis, more or lefs, according to the force of the fall
of water, and the height to which the water is intended to
be raifed by the engine. As the water-wheel turns round,
thefe cranks move as many levers up and down, by the iron
conneding-rods. ‘Thefe levers alternately raife and deprefs
the piftons of the forcing-pumps by other iron rods, which
are attached to the oppofite ends of the levers, and as one
is raifed the oppofite pifton is deprefled. Pipes go from
all thefe pumps, to ‘convey the water which they draw up
(toa {mall height) into a a eiftern or box, from —
2 the
WATER.
the main-pipe proceeds, the water is forced into this ciftern
by the defcent of the piftons. And each pipe, going from
its refpeétive pump into the ciltern, has a valve to cover
its end in the ciftern, which valves will hinder the return
of the water by the pipes; and, therefore, when the cif-
tern is once full, each pifton upon its defcent will force the
water (conveyed into the ciftern by a former ftroke) up the
main-pipe, to the height to which the engine is intended to
raife it; which height depends upon the quantity to be raifed
and the power that turns the wheel. When the power upon
the wheel is leffened by any defeét of the quantity of water
turning it, a proportionable number of the pumps may be
laid afide, by difengaging their rods from the vibrating
levers.
When fuch a machine is placed in a flream that runs
upon a {mall declivity, the motion of the levers, and ation
of the pumps, will be but flow; fince the wheel mutt go
once round for each ftroke of the pumps. But when there
is a large body of flow running water, a cog or {pur-wheel
may be placed upon-each fide of the water-wheel, upon its
axis, to turn a trundle upon each fide; the cranks being
formed upon the axis of the trundle. And by proportion-
ing the cog-wheels to the trundles, the motion of the
pumps may be made quicker, according to the quantity and
ftrength of the water upon the firft wheel; which may be
as great as the workman pleafes, according to the length
and breadth of the float-boards‘of the wheel. In this man-
ner the engine for raifing water at London-bridge is con-
ftru@ted ; which we hall now proceed to defcribe.
The original engine at London-bridge was put up by
Mr. Sorocold towards the beginning of the laft century:
it deferves notice on account of a contrivance for raifin
and falling the water-wheel, to accommodate it to the dif-
ferent heights of the water: this was the invention of Mr.
Hadley, who put up the firft of that kind at Worcefler,
for which he obtained a patent. 5
Mr. Beighton has thus defcribed this machine in the Phi-
lofophical TranfaGtions. The wheels of the London-bridge
water-works are placed under the arches of the bridge, and
moved by the common ftream of the tide-water of the river.
The following are the particulars of the largeft wheel.
The axle-tree of the water-wheel is nineteen feet long,
and three feet in diameter, in which are four fets of arms,
eight in each fet ; thefe arms fupport four circular rings or
felloes, twenty feet in diameter, to which are attached the
float-boards, fourteen feet long and eighteen inches deep,
being about twenty-fix in number. The wheel lies with its
two gudgeons, or centre-pins, upon brafles in two great
levers, which are placed in an horizontal pofition, and there-
tore fupport the weight of the wheel. ‘The wheel is, by
thefe levers, made to rife and fall with the tide in the fol-
lowing manner. The levers are fixteen feet long ; thus,
from the fulcrum of each lever, to where the gudgeon of
the water-wheel bears on it, fix feet; and from thence to
the extremity ten feet. At the extremity is a fector or
arch of a circle defcribed from the fulcrum of the lever,
and to the bottom of this arch is fixed a ftrong triple chain,
made after the fafhion of a watch-chain; but the links are
arched to a circle of one foot diameter, having notches, or
teeth, to take hold of the leaves of a pinion of caft-iron,
ten inches diameter, with eight teeth in it moving on an
axis, which is fixed up over the arch at a confiderable
height, and the chain goes up to the pinion and turns over
it. The other loofe end of this chain has a large weight
hanging at it, to help to counterpoife the great weight of
the water-wheel, and prevent the chain from fliding on the
pinion. On the fame axis as the pinion is fixed a cog-
wheel, fix feet diameter, with forty-eight cogs. To this is
applied a trundle, or pinion, of fix rounds, or teeth ; and
upon the fame axis is fixed a fecond cog-wheel, of fifty-one
cogs ; laftly, this is turned by a trundle of fix rounds, on
whofe axis is a winch or windlal. The other lever is pro-
vided with a fimilar chain and wheel-work, and the axis
of the laft-mentioned trundle is prolonged until the two
winches nearly meet, fo that one man, with the two wind-
laffes, raifes or lets down the wheel, as there is occafion to
dip always equally into the water.
By means of this machine, the ftrength of an ordinary
man will raife about fifty ton weight, which much exceeds
the weight of the water-wheel.
Near each end of the great axis of the water-wheel, a
cog-wheel is fixed, eight fet diameter, and forty-four cogs,
working into a trundle, of four feet and a half diameter, and
twenty rounds, whofe axis or fpindle is of caft-iron four
inches in diameter, lying in braffes at each end, fupported
by (trong timber framing.
And omer the fulcrums of the levers above defcribed
are in the line of the axis of the trundle, in what fituation
foever the water-wheel is raifed or let down, the great cog-
wheel is always equidiftant from the trundle, and works
or geers truly therewith.
quadruple crank of caft-iron is attached to the end of
the axis of the trundle, the metal being fix inches fquare,
each of the necks being diftant one foot from the centre of
motion ; the gudgeons of the cranks are fuftained in brafles
at each end in two headitocks faftened down by caps. One
end of this crank is placed clofe abutting to the end of the
axis of the trundle, which at that end 1s fix inches diame-
ter, and having a flit in the end, the end of the crank ter-
minates in the fame manner, and an iron wedge is put, one
half into the flit in the end of the axis, and the other half
into the flit in the end of the crank, by means of which the
axis turns the crank about with it.
The four necks of the crank have each an iron fpear, or
rod, jointed to them, and alfo jointed at the upper end to
the refpeétive libra, or lever, within nine feet of the centre
of the lever. Thefe levers are twenty-four feet long, mov-
ing on centres in the middle of their length, and fupported
by the frame; at each end of each lever is jointed a rod,
which defcends into the pump-barrel, and has the forcer faf-
tened to it.. Each end of the four levers works a quadruple
forcing-pump, confifting of four caft-iron barrels or cylin-
ders four feet three-quarters long, feven inches bore above,
and nine inches below, where the valves lie ; the four bar-
rels are faftened by fcrewed flanches over four holes in a
hollow trunk of caft-iron, having four valves in it juft over
thefe holes, at the joining on of the bottom of the barrels,
and at one end of the hollow trunk is a fucking-pipe and
grate, going into the water, which fupplies ail the four
pumps alternately, when they fuck or draw up water.
To carry away the water which they force out, there
proceeds from the lower part of each pump-barrel, a neck
turning upward arch-wife, whofe upper part is caft with a
flanch to {crew up to the under fide oF another fquare trunk,
which receives the necks of all the four barrels ; which
necks have bores of feven inches diametet, and over the
holes in the trunk, communicating with them, are placed
four valves at the joinings or flanches. The fquare forcing-
trunk is caft with four boffes, or protuberances, ftandin
out againft the valves, to give room for their opening aid
fhutting ; and on the upper fide of the trunk are four holes
{topped with plugs, to take out on occafion, to cleanfe the
valves. One end of this trunk is ftopped by a 7 plug,
and to the other the iron-pipes are joined by flanches,
through
WATER.
through which the water is forced up a hundred and twenty
feet, or to any height or place required.
See a drawing of a triple forcing-pump of this fame
kind, in our article Pump.
Befides this four-barrelled pump, there is fuch another
placed at the other ends of the libre, or levers; but to
avoid confufion, we {poke only of one quadruple pump, as
the other is juft the fame ; but its rods and forcers being at
the oppofite ends of the levers, the barrels draw and force
alternately.
At the other end of the water-wheel is placed all the
fame fort of work as at the end already defcribed; viz.
the great cog-wheel and the trundle, fixed upon the {pindle
or axis, which is united, as before-mentioned, with the axis
of the quadruple crank.
Alfo the four rods from thefe cranks, to work the four
horizontal levers, each of which has a forcer at both
ends, to ferve the four barrels of a quadruple pump at each
end of the levers; fo that one fingle wheel works fixteen
pumps, viz. two quadruple engines at each end of the axis.
Mr. Beighton, who has defcribed the ftruéture and ope-
ration of this engine, (fee Phil. Tranf. abr. vol. vi. p. 358.)
has thus calculated the quantity of water raifed by it in a
given time.
In the firft arch next the city there is one wheel with
double work of fixteen forcers. In the third arch, one
wheel with double work at one end, and fingle at the other,
having twelve forcers. A fecond wheel in the middle hav-
ing eight forcers. A third wheel with fixteen; fo that
there are in all fifty-two forcers. One revolution of a
wheel produces in every forcer 2} ftrokes; fo that one
turn of the four wheels makes 114 ftrokes, taking all the
barrels into account. ‘When the river aéts with moft ad-
vantage, the wheels go fix times round in a minute, and
but 44 at middle tide; hence the number of ftrokes in a
minute is 684; and as the ftroke is two feet and a half
in a feven-inch bore, it raifes four ale gallons; and all raife
per minute 2736 ale gallons; i.e. 164160 gallons or 3420
hogfheads per hour, ale meafure, to the height of 120 feet.
Such is the utmoft quantity they can raife, fuppofing that
there were no imperfeétions or lofs at all; but Mr. Beigh-
ton infers, from experiments performed on engines whofe
parts were large and excellently conftruéted, that they will
Jofe one-fifth and fometimes one-fourth of the calculated
quantity.
Mr. Beighton obferves, that, though thefe water-works
may juitly be efteemed as good as any in Europe, yet fome
things might be altered much for the better. If, he fays,
inftead of fixteen forcers, they worked only eight, the
ftroke might be five feet in each forcer, which would draw
much more water with the fame power in the wheel; be-
caufe much water is loft by the too frequent opening and
fhutting of the valves; and that the bores that carry off the
water from the forcers are too fmall; and that they fhould
be near nine inches in diameter. This objeétion Dr. Defa-
guliers fays is of no force, unlefs the velocity of the piftons
was very great ; but here the velocity of the water pafling
through the bores is much lefs than two feet in a fecond.
This laft writer obferves, that a triple crank diftributes the
power better than a quadruple one. He adds, that forcers
made with thin leather tanned, of about the thicknefs of
the upper leather of a countryman’s fhoe, would be much
better than thofe of the tiff leather commonly ufed.
In order to calculate the power which the above water-
wheel exerts, we muft find the weight which it raifes, and
the {pace through which it is raifed in any given time.
The weight of the column of water, in any one of the
Zz
pumps, is found thus: Djameter feven inches {quared =
49 circular inches area. Now one cylindrical inch, a foot
high, weighs .34 pounds avoirdupois, and therefore 49 fuch
cylinders muft weigh 163 pounds; but the column is 120
feet high, and therefore 120 x 163 = 1999 pounds weight.
This column of water is raifed 2 feet at every ftroke, now
each pump makes 2} effective ftrokes for every turn of the
wheel, or taking the wheel at fix turns per minute, each
pump makes 13.2 ftrokes ger minute. Multiply this by 24
feet, and we find the motion given to each column of water is
near 33 feet in a minute, and the weight of it 1999 pounds.
But the wheel which we have defcribed a@uates 16 fuch
columns, and therefore the total weight will be 31984 lbs.
raifed 33 feet ina minute. This is equal to 1055571 lbs.
raifed one foot high ger minute.
What is called a horfe-power, in fteam-engines, is 33000
pounds raifed one foot high fer minute, and we find this
contained near thirty-two times in the above quantity, fo
that this fingle machine exerts thirty-two horfe-power. But
as the above horfe-power is 13 times what horfes can do for
conftant work, it would take forty-nine horfes to do as
much work as this wheel, and they would not be able to
work more than eight hours every day, but the water-wheel
works five or fix hours each tide.
We fhall afterwards give a fimilar calculation of the ma-
chine at Marly, in France, in the fame terms, fo as to admit
of a dire& comparifon, and from this it will appear, that the
old machine at London-bridge, which was erected not long
after the machine at Marly, is three times as powerful as any
one of the water-wheels at Marly.
The above ftatement of the wheel making fix turns per
minute is taken from, Mr. Beighton’s account, who alfo
ftates the velocity of the water at 685 feet fer minute, and
the velocity of the wheel 310 feet per minute, or as I to 2.2.
In 1763 Mr. Smeaton found, by an average of the fix years
preceding, that the engine above defcribed had made 3025
itrokes in each pump at every tide, taking an average of all
the circumftances of high and low tides. This is only 1375
turns for the water-wheel, or 4033 ale hogfheads every
twelve hours; and hence the produce falls very fhort of the
calculation of fix turns fer minute; but this does not affect
the power of the machine during the fhort time when it is
working at that rate.
In 1762, when the two middle arches of London-bridge
were thrown into one by the removal of the pier, the
water way of the river was fo much increafed, that the
water-wheels did not perform fo mich as they did before,
the daily produce being reduced to 2716 hogfheads. In
confequence, the city granted to the Water-works Com-
pany the ufe of the fifth arch, for which Mr. Smeaton
planned a larger machine than any of the others: it was
ere€ted in 1767, and which we fhall now defcribe.
We fuppofe it underftood, that London-bridge is not
built with {tone down the bottom of the river, but accord-
ing to an ancient method of driving piles into the bottom
of the river, and cutting off the tops level with the loweft
water line, upon thefe the ttone-piers of the bridge are
ereted ; but as the original piles were fubjeét to decay, and
admitted of no renewal, it became neceflary to furround
them with gravel and chalk ; and to retain the chalk, caf-
ings of piles, called ftarlings, are driven in all round the
piers. Thefe diminifh the {pace between the arches, fo as to
occafion a very rapid current of the water in running
through them, becaufe the water-paflage bears only a {mall
proportion of the artificial folids, thus placed in the way of
the current, and this reduces nearly all the arches to fluices
as it were. Of the twenty arches in this bridge, fix are
devoted
WATER.
devoted to the water-machines, that is, five on the London
fide, and one on the Southwark fide.
Mr. Smeaton’s great Engine at the fifth Arch of London
Bridge.—This machine is reprefented in_perfpetive, in
Plate 11. Water-works, Machines for raifing Water. The
view being taken from beneath the arch of the bridge, B B
reprefents the ftarling of the fourth pier of the iis
compofed of a vaft body of piles driven into the bed of the
river, and the interftices filled up with chalk and gravel.
Upon the heads of thefe piles, a fet of horizontal beams
are laid in the manner of joils, and all is made level by chalk
and gravel. .
The fifth pier C’C is made in the fame manner. The
water-wheel F FGG is made of fuch a breadth as to fill
the fpace between the two ftarlings as exactly as poffible,
without touching; and the bearings for the gudgeons of
its axis are fupported upon head-ftocks E Ey which reft
upon the Raines. The water-wheel has four circular
rings F FFF, each fuftained by fix arms mortifed into the
axis ; each ring has twenty-four ftarts mortifed into it, and
to thefe are nafled the float-boards ff, upon which the water
acts to turn the wheel round.
Upon each end of the main axis is fixed a large wooden
wheel H H, round which caft-iron rings of cogs are fixed
in fegments. Thefe cog-wheels turn two trundles, which
give motion to the forcing-pumps, which are fix in number,
vz. one three-barrelled pump on each fide of the water-
wheel; but only one of the engines or triple pumps is fhewn
in the figure, for as the other is exactly the fame, it is fuf-
ficient to defcribe one. The axis on which the trundle I is
fixed is of caft-iron ; it is conne&ted with a triple crank, one
arm of which is marked J, and two others are hidden behind
the frame: g4i are ftrong iron rods, joined to the cranks at
their lower ends, and-to the ends of the great levers or re-
gulators K L M at the upper ends.
The regulators are poifed on centres in the middle of
their length, and have arches #/m at the other ends, which
are firtieke from the centres of motion, upon which arches
the chains are laid, to give motion to the pifton-rods of the
pumps N.
By the motion of the water ftriking the float-boards, the
water-wheel is made to revolve on its axis, and the large cog-
wheel H with it. This turns the trundle I and the triple
cranks bc, which, being arranged round the axis at equal in-
tervals, elevate and deprefs the crank-rods gi and regula-
tors K LM fucceffively, and give to the pump-rods and
piitons a vertical motion.
The joints of the crank-rods ghi are made to ferew to-
gether round the crank-neck with brafs between; by this
means they work very pleafantly, and when worn can be
fcrewed up tight again that they may have no fhake. The
crank-rods are each made in two lengths, each of which has
a flanch at the end, and they join at n in the middle of the
rod: the flanches are held together by three fcrews, fo as
they may be taken apart occafionally without difficulty,
when the pump-forcers are to be drawn out of the barrels
to new leather them.
The joints at the end of the beam or levers are made
with braffes, and {crews to adjuft them; and fo are the cen-
tres or fulcrums of the levers.
The levers or regulators are admirably well defigned to
be ftrong, with but little timber; they are formed of two
pieces of timber, between which the caft-iron axis on Which
they turn are placed ; and then the ends of thefe pieces are
bent to touch, and are kept together by hoops and fecrew-
bolts, fo as to make clofe joints. At the ends, feveral {mall
{quare pieces of wood are interpofed crofs ways in thefe
joints at the ends of the lever, being let into both timbers ;
by thefe, when they are firmly bound together, the two
pieces of timber are prevented from fliding end ways upon
each other, fo as they form an excellent trufs-beam, for it
cannot bend or yield without ftretching one timber and
compreffing the other.
The pump-rods are attached to the arches at the ends of
the beams by four iron chains each, as is fhewn in fig. 2.
The rod has a crofs-piece p fixed on the top of it, to which
the two outfide chains are attached, and the lower ends of °
the fame chains are faftened at the lower end of the arch.
Thefe chains a& to pull down the pifton-rods ; the other
two chains which return or raife the rods are faftened to the
top of the arch, and to the rods at the lower ends, as» fhewn
in the figure.
The pumps are forcing-pumps, and raife the water when
the piftons are deprefled: the lower piece of the triple
pump is a fquare iron-pipe or trunk, ferewed faft down
upon the groundfells of the engine-frame ; this is called the
fuction-piece: it has a flanch at each end, to one of which a
lid is ferewed, and the other joins it to the fu€tion-pipe R,
which brings up the water from the river. On the top of
the trunk, the three barrels N are ferewed, each having
a valve in the joint, which allows water to enter into the
barrel, but prevents its return. From the bottom part of
each barrel proceeds a crooked pipe g, which communicates
with another fquare trunk S, called the forcing-piece, hav-
ing valves at the joint, to prevent any water from getting back
into the barrels. On the top of the trunk over each valve
is a round hole, over which a lid is ferewed, but can be re-
moved to clean or repair the valves when neceflary. Similar
lids are ferewed on over openings into the fuction-trunk, at
the back towards the cranks. At the ends of the forcing-
trunk S are flanches, one of which receives a lid like the
lower trunk, and the other flanch joins to the pipes, which
conveys the water away from the pumps.
The piftons or buckets of the pumps are folid, that is,
without valves in them ; and their aétion is as follows :
When the pifton of any of the barrels is drawn up, it
makes a vacuum in that barrel; and the preflure of the at-
mofphere on the furface of the water from which the fu@tion-
pipe R draws, raifes the valve at the bottom of that barrel,
and fills it with water.. At the defcent of the pifton, the
lower valve fhuts, and the water contained in the barrel can
find no paflage but through the valve in the forcing-trunk
S ; and when the pifton is drawn up again this valve clofes,
and the lower one opens to give a frefh fupply of water to
the barrel. By the pofition of the triple cranks, it always
happens that one or other of the barrels is forcing the
water into the force-pipes ; and as the itrokes of the other
fet of pumps at the other end of the water-wheel are con-
trived to be intermediate or alternating to thefe, a conftant
fucceffion is kept up.
The main-pipe s is continued to the fhore, to convey the
water into the ftreets. A wooden ciftern T is placed over
the pumps to hold water, and keep a conftant fupply of it
above the piltons to prevent leakage. The whole engine is
furrounded by a {trong timber fence, which guards it from
the injuries it might receive from veffels or floating ice,
ftriking it at high water, when the water rifes above the
level of the ftarlings nearly to the axis of the water-wheel.
On the tops of thefe piles, a large {tage is built, to ferve as
a road from the fhore to the engine, and the underfide of it
fupports the main-pipes, which convey the water afhore.
There are alfo other {tages in different parts of the machine,
to fupport workmen when repairing it; thefe prevent thre
whole engine from being feen from the bridge at one view, and
for
WATER.
for this reafon they are omitted in the drawing, which is in
fome degree imaginary, as it reprefents the engine detached.
. This machine is more fimple than the preceding, as it
performs more work by fix pumps of ten inches bore and
44 feet ftroke than the other by fixteen pumps of feven
inches bore and 24 feet ftroke, and therefore with much
lefs lofs of power by fri€tion; and as the cranks only
work in one direétion, they work much more pleafantly
than when there are pumps at both ends of each lever, be-
caufe in that cafe the ftrain on the cranks, conneéting-rods,
and the fnlerums of the levers, in faé& on all the joints, is
alternately in different direCtions, and if there is any fhake
or loofenefs in the joints, it produces jerks and irregularities.
By ufing three barrels and triple cranks, the fupply of
water, forced into the main-pipe, is more equable than when
four are ufed, though not perfectly fo. The perpendicular
motion produced by the arches and chains, is a great advan-
tage in making the barrels wear equally.
In order to enable this engine to work as long as poflible
in each tide, and after the velocity of the motive water 1s
abated, it is contrived to adjuft the refiftance to the dimi-
nifhed power. This is done in the moft fimple manner by
a fmall cock and pipe.in the chamber of each pump-barrel ;
jut above the fuction-valve from this cock, a rod of com-
munication rifes up to the flage to turn it by, and this cock
being opened will admit air into the barrel when the pifton
is drawn up, fo that the water of the river will not be drawn
up into that barrel; and in confequence, it will become in-
active, and the wheel will be relieved from the load of work-
ing it. In this way, the load of the engine is adapted to
the power of the tide at its different periods ; but when all
the three barrels are thus relieved by opening the air-cocks,
the motion of that engine becomes a ufelefs loud fri€tion of
the piftons and movements ; and to relieve this, the fhaft or
axis of conneétion between. the axis of the trundle and the
triple crank, is provided with the means of difuniting or
uniting them whilft in motion, fo that one engine will itand
ftill whilft the other is at work.
The principal dimenfions of this machine are as follow:
—The water-wheel is thirty-two feet diameter, meafuring
to the outfide of the float-boards; the léngth of the float-
boards fifteen feet and a half, and their breadth four feet
and a half; the number of float-boards twenty-four. At
each end of the axis is fixed a cog-wheel, fourteen feet dia-
meter, with eighty cogs: each of thefe turns a trundle of
twenty-three ftaves, fixed on the axis of the cranks, which
are triple; that is, three cranks are formed fide by fide on
the fame axis, and bent in different direétions, fo as to pro-
duce a continual aétion. Each crank actuates a lever or
working beam eighteen feet long, which is poifed on a ful-
crum in the middle, and gives motion to the pump-rods by
an arch-head and iron chains. The pump-barrels are ten
inches diameter, and the piftons make ftrokes of four feet
and a half long ; they are forcing-pumps, and three barrels
are combined together, to throw the water into one main
pipe, which conveys the water into the town; the higheft
elevation to which the water is ever lifted is a hundred and
twenty feet. The cranks, beams, and pumps, at each fide
of the wheel, are exaétly fimilar, fo that the wheel actuates
fix pumps.
This machine was erected, under Mr. Smeaton’s directions,
in 1767, and worked conftantly for fifty years, when the
timber-work becoming decayed, it was rebuilt in 1817, with
eaft-iron inftead of wood, and has been lately fet to work.
The principal proportions of Mr. Smeaton’s defign have
been preferyed, but the great levers have been fuppreffed, and
the cranks are placed over the fame pumps as the former.
Mr. Smeaton’s Pimp Machine at Stratford Waiersworks.—
This is fo like the laft, that we thall only give the principal
dimenfions, as an example of the beft proportions for a ma-
chine with a breaft-wheel, the laft being underfhot. The
water-wheel was fixteen feet diameter and eight feet wide ;
upon its axis was a cog-wheel of eleven feet and a half dia-
meter, with feventy-eight cogs, which turned a cog-wheel of
five feet one inch diameter, with thirty-five cogs. This was
fixed upon the axis of the cranks, which were three in number,
and by means of three beams gave motion to three forcing-
pumps nine inches diameter and two feet and a half length
of ftroke, lift of the water 84 feet. In addition to the pair of
cog-wheels juft mentioned, there was another pair, of different
proportions, fixed clofe to the fides of the others, and by a
fimple contrivance either pair could be brought into aétion,
and the other pair would then be difengaged. The fecond
wheel, which was fixed in the axis of the water-wheel, was
nine feet eight inches diameter, with fixty-fix cogs, and the
wheel on the axis of the cranks which belonged to it had
forty-feven cogs. The intention of thefe two fets of wheels
was to adapt the water-wheel to work equally well when it
was flooded and impeded in its motion, as when the water was
low; for when the quick motion was in ufe, the cranks made
15-6 revolutions fer minute, whilft the water-wheel made
feven revolutions. But when the flow motion was in ufe,
the cranks would make 15.4 revolutions per minute, whilft
the water-wheel made eleven. This machine is feven horfes?
power.
The Pump Machine at Marly, near Paris, being fo much
celebrated on account of its magnitude and the multiplicity
of its parts, we fhall be expeéted here to give fome account
of it, which we have taken from Belidor, and we fhall fub-
join a few remarks upon its conftruction, from which it will
appear we do not recommend it as a model.
‘This machine is fituated between Marly and the village
La Chauffée. In that place the river Seine is penned up
partly by the machine and partly by a dam, which keeps up
‘the water ; but in order that the navigation may not be in-
terrupted, a canal has been cut, two leagues above Marly,
for the paflage of boats and barges. There has been ereéted,
about thirty-five fathoms from the machine, a contrivance,
called an ice-reaker, to prevent floating pieces of ice or
timber, which come down the ftream, from damaging the
machine, and the better to fecure the pen-ftocks, and the
channels in which the water-wheels move. There is a grate
of timber to ftop whatever may come through the ice-
breaker.
The water is raifed to its deftined height by the force of
fourteen underfhot water-wheels, which work the pumps at
three different ftages: firft, one fet of pumps to lift the
water from the river, to a refervoir placed up the hill two
hundred and thirteen yards from the river, and at the eleva-
tion of a hundred and fixty Englifh feet above the level of
the Seine. The power of the wheels is conveyed alfo to
this place by chains, in order to work a fecond fet of pumps,
which force the water to the fecond refervoir, a hundred
and eighty-fix feet higher, and therefore three hundred and
forty-fix feet above the river, and fix hundred and ninety
yards diftant. At this fpot is a third fet of pumps, to
throw up the water from the latter to the fummit of a tower
a hundred and eighty-nine feet higher, and at a diftance of
one thoufand three hundred and thirty yards from the river
up the mountain. The whole elevation is rather more than
five hundred and thirty-five feet above the river. From the
ciftern in the tower the water is conveyed, by an immenfe
aqueduét, to the gardens of Marly.
The breadth of the machine comprehends fourteen water-
courfes,
WATER.
courfes, each fhut by a fluice or pen-ftock, which can be
raifed and deprefied by racks, and in each of thefe courfes
an underfhot wheel is placed. The fourteen wheels are dif-
pofed in three lines acrofs the river. In the firft line, which
is up the ftream, there are feven wheels, in the fecond line
fix, and only one in the third.
The wheels are thirty feet diameter, and five feet wide,
and they are all nearly the fame as follow : the ends of the
axle of each wheel go beyond their bearing ieces, and are
bent into cranks, which make levers of two feet ; the crank
which is towards the mountain gives motion to a beam or
lever, which carries four piftons or forcers at each end, to
work in the barrels of as many forcing-pumps, which as the
wheel works alternately fuck up the water of the river, and
drive it up into the firft ciftern. The other crank at the
oppofite end of the axle gives motion to the chains, which
go up the hill, to work the pumps in the two elevated
cifterns.
Each of the fix wheels on the firft line is conftruéted in
this manner, to give motion by one of its cranks to an
engine, confifting of eight forcing-pumps combined toge-
ther. The engine is a€tuated by a lever or beam, from each
end of which a fquare piece of wood is fufpended, that
carries and direéts four piftons of forcing-pumps ; the beam
of the engine is put in motion from the crank of the wheel
by a beam or leader, which is conneted with the crank of
the wheel at one end, and with one arm of a regulator or
bent lever, whilft the other arm of this regulator is united
by another leader to the extremity of the beam of the
engine, which beam is thus made to vibrate up and down
and work the pumps.
Of the fix wheels we have juft mentioned, there are five
which, by their oppofite cranks, give motion to the pumps
in the elevated ciftern of the art lift. This is effe@ed by
means of one vertical beam or lever, and two horizontal
levers, which are bent, and a€tuate the chains that com-
municate the motion; the three levers are only to change
the dire€tion of the motion of the crank into a proper
direétion to go up the hill. The fixth wheel, which is the
firft towards the dam, gives motion to a long chain that
goes up the hill to work the pumps of the upper ciftern.
The feventh wheel of the firft line is exclufively applied to
move a chain, which goes to the firft ciftern, by both its
cranks.
The fix wheels of the fecond line are like the five wheels
in the firlt row, i. ec. one of the cranks of each works an
engine of eight pumps, and the other a chain that goes to
the upper cittern.
Laftly, the fingle water-wheel, which is on the third
line by each of its cranks, works an engine of eight forcing-
pumps fixed in the river, and of itfelf fupplies one conduit-
pipe of eight inches and a half bore.
There are then eight engines in the river, and reckoning
all the chains which go up the hill, they are thirteen in
number, including the chains that come from the fixth and
feventh wheels of the firft line: thefe thirteen chains afcend
the hill ail together, and are fufpended at regular intervals
of twenty feet by levers, to bear them up ae touching
the ground, which by moving on their centre admit of the
working of the chains. Each chain is double, that is, there
is a fecond chain, which is conneéted to the oppofite ends of
the fufpending levers, and each chain ferves to draw the
other chain back again after it has made its ftroke. Five
of thefe double chains are employed to a¢tuate levers, which
work thirty inverted lift-pumps fituated in a ciftern at the
firft lift, and which drive the water through two pipes of
eight and a-half inches bore up to the upper lift. The
arher eight double chains go ftraight on to the upper
ciftern.
The feven chains of the wheels of the firft line, in going
along, work alfo eight fucking-pumps, placed a little ri
the ciftern of the firft lift, becaufe in that place the water of
a confiderable {pring is brought by an aqueduét, and thefe
fame chains take up that water a fecond time by forty-nine
pampt which are fituated in a feparate ciftern, at the firft
ft, on a level with the firft ciftern, and force it into the
upper refervoir, through two conduit-pipes of eight and a
half inches diameter, and three others of fix and a half inches
diameter.
The water raifed by the feventy-nine pumps in thefe two
cifterns at the firft lift, difcharges itfelf into a great refer-
voir at the fecond lift, and thence by two conduit-pipes of
a foot diameter each, it runs into refervoirs of communica-
tion, and is diftributed into the feveral wells or little pump-
cifterns of the upper ciltern, which all together contain
eighty-two inverted lift-pumps ; thefe force the water through
fix conduit-pipes of eight inches and a half diameter up into
the ciftern, in the tower which anfwers to the aqueduét. Thefe
eighty-two lift-pumps are worked by the eight great chains’
before mentioned, that go ftraight to the upper ciltern,
without pair 3 any pumps by the way ; and the fame chains
work fixteen fucking-pumps behind the upper ciftern, to
bring back into the refervoir of the fame hes the water
which leaks out of the fix iron pipes that go to the tower.
To fum up all the pumps of this intricate machine :
1. The eight engines in the river contain fixty-four pumps,
which fuck and force the water 160 feet up five iron pipes of
eight and a half inches bore, and 213 yards long, up to the
firft lift.
_2. The two cifterns at the firft lift contain feventy-nine
lifting-pumps, which raife the water 186 feet, through four
pipes of eight and a half inches bore, and three pipes of
fix and a half bore, and 477 yards up to the fecond lift.
__3- The cifterns at the fecond lift contain eighty-two
lifting-pumps, which raife the water 189 feet through fix
pipes of eight and a half inches bore, diftance 640 yards :
In all 225 forcing-pumps, which lift 535 feet and 1330
yards diftance. To this muft be added eight fucking-
pumps in the river called feeders, which raife water into t
cifterns at the top of the forcing-pumps, to keep water in
the pumps, and prevent leakage ; alfo the eight others which
are below the midway ciftern ; and laftly, the fixteen fucking-
pumps, which we mentioned as placed behind the upper .
ciftern, fo that the machine has in all 257 pumps.
The bafin of the tower, which receives the water raifed
from the river, and fupplies the aqueduct, is 1330 yards
diftant from the river, and 535 feet above the level: the
water having run along a flone aqueduét, which is raifed
upon thirty-fix arches, is feparated into different conduits,
which lead it to immenfe refervoirs at Marly, and formerly
conveyed it alfo to Verfailles and ‘T’rianon.
Such is the mechanifm of the machine of Marly. Its
mean produce in Belidor’s time was from 3000 to 4000
Englifh cubic feet of water per hour: he fays mean pro-
duce, becaufe under certain faethe circumftances it has
formerly raifed more than 8484 cubic feet per hour. But
during inundations, or when the Seine is frozen, when the
water is very low, or when any repairs are making, the
machine {tops in a great meafure, if not entirely.
The annual expences of the machine have been ftated
formerly at 3300/. fterling, or 9/. per day, including the
falaries of thofe who fuperintend it, and she wages of the
workmen employed, together with repairs, neceflary articles,
&c. This makes about one Fasthifty for every eleven
cubic
WATER.
cubic feet. Or, taking iato the account the itereft of
333,000/., the original expenfe of ere¢tion, which is five
‘times as great as the annual expenfe, 11 cubic feet, which is
67 gallons, will coft three half-pence, or at the rate of a
farthing for 11 gallons. ;
This is the account of it given by Belidor in his fecond
volume.
Rannequin, the inventor, was an ingenious praétical mecha-
nic, but no mathematician or philofopher. In feveral pofi-
tions, the moving forces aét unneceflarily obliquely, which oc-
cafions a great lofs of power, and renders the machine lefs
effeQual. A great proportion of the whole moving power of
fome of the water-wheels is employed in giving a reciprocating
motion to the fets of rods and chains, which extend from
‘the wheels to the ciftern, nearly two-fifths of a mile diftant,
where they work a fet of pumps.
As.this machine is continually quoted as the moft power-
ful of all machines, we will compare its power with fome of
the large fteam-engines in England. The quantity of water
is (8484 ~— 60 =) 141 cubic feet per minute x by 535 feet,
the height to which it is raifed, = 75649 cubic feet per
minute lifted one foot high. Divide this by 528 cubic feet,
which is the quantity that can be lifted one foot per minute,
by what is called a horfe-power in fteam-engines = 143
horfe-power ; but as the machine aéts by 14 water-wheels,
each one will be fcarcely 10} horfe-power. The horfe-
power is one-third greater than the average of horfes, and
we therefore eftimate that 215 horfes working together,
would do as much work as this machine ever did, or 15
horfes to each wheel; but as the horfes could only work
eight hours per day, three fets muft be kept to continue
conftantly.
M. Montgolfier informs us that the fupply of water to
the wheels is 138000 cubic feet fer minute, and the fall is
41 feet ; this gives a power 83 times as great as the effect
produced. Montgolfier found 22} times when he tried it.
The whole work is now ina very ruinous ftate, and many
projects have been formed for a reftoration of the machine
on better principles.
It is probable Rannequin thought his moving force would
not be fufficient to raife the water to the height of 535 feet
at once; and this is agreeable to the practice of more mo-
dern engineers.
If the machinery was conftruéted in caft iron, in the fame
manner as fteam-engines are now made, the force of one
crank would be more than fufficient to raife a cylinder of
water of that altitude, and above eight inches in diameter,
without any complication ; but the pipes would require very
great ftrength. This is proved by a machine that has been
lately ereéted at Marly, in place of one of the old water-
wheels.
Even according to the original conftru€tion, the water
might be raifed in one jet to the fecond refervoir, ‘This ap-
pears from two experiments, one made in 1738, and the
other in 1775. Inthe firft, M. Camus endeavoured to make
the water rife in one jet to the tower; his attempt was not
attended with fuccefs, but he made the water nife to the
foot of the tower, which is confiderably higher than the fe-
cond refervoir. During this experiment the machine was
fo much ftrained, that it was found neceflary to fecure
fome parts of it with chains.
The obje& of the fecond trial, made in 1775, was to
raife the water at once to the fecond lift, 346 feet. It did
afcend thither at different times, and in great plenty, but
the pipes were exceedingly ftrained at the bottom, fo
that feveral of them burft, and it was neceflary to fufpend
Vou. XXXVIII,
and recommence the experiment feveral times. This arofe
from a fault which might eafily have been remedied ; wis.
from the age of the tubes and their want of ftrength ;
therefore it refults from this trial, that the chains which pro-
ceed from the river to the firft lift might be fuppreffed, to-
gether with the firft well itfelf: and this perhaps is all that
is to be expeéted without a complete change in the
machinery.
Rules for calculating the Dimenfions of Pumps.—The quan-
tity of water delivered by any pump will be in the joint pre-
portion of the furface or bafe of the pifton and its velocity ;
for this.meafures the capacity of that part of the working
barrel which the pifton pafles through ;-and the fame is true
of fector pumps, or rotative pumps: but as pumps with
ftraight cylindrical barrels are the only kind in general ufe,
it will be fufficient to give the rule for calculating the con-
tent of a cylinder, which is fimply to multiply the area of
the bafe by the length ; thus, take the diameter of the barrel
in inches, and the length of the ftroke in feet.
Square the diameter in inches, and divide by 183.2: multi- »
ply this by the length of the firoke in feet, and it gives the con-
tent of the cylinder in cubic feet.
L£xample.—How many cubic feet of water will be raifed
inan hour by a pump 8% inches diameter, and 34 feet
ftroke, which makes 18 ftrokes per minute ?
Diameter 8.5 inches x 8.5 = 72.25 circular inches: di-
vide it by 183.3, which is the number of circular inches in
a fquare foot, and it gives .394 fquare feet for the area of
the barrel x 3.5 feet in length = 1.379 cubic feet; the
content of the barrel x 18 ftrokes per minute = 24.822
cubic feet of water raifed Jer minute x 60 minutes = 1489
cubic feet per hour.
If it is required to know the quantity whicha pumap will
raife in ale gallons, it is obtained by the following rule :
take the diameter of the barrel in inches, and the length of
the itroke in feet.
Square the diameter in inches ; multiply by the length in fect,
and divide by 30.
This fhould give the content of the barrel in ale gallons
of 282 cubic inches each; but the rule is not sear cor-
ret, forit affumes the gallon to be 282%..
Example of the fame Pump as above.—The fquare of the
diameter is 72.25 x 3.5 feet in length = 252.875 + 30=
8.429 ale gallons for the content of the barrel. The
true meafure in this cafe is 8.45 gallons, which is very
near,
To find the force requifite to work any pump, take the
diameter of the barrel in inches, and the perpendicular height
of the column of water in feet.
Square the diameter in inches ; multiply by .34 decimal, and
multiply by the height of the column in feet.
This gives the force in pounds avoirdupois. It is ufual
to add one-fifth to this weight, on account of friftion and
refiftance.
Example.—Suppofe the above pump lifts the water 64
feet in the whole, what force will it take to draw up the
pifton ?
The fquare of the diameter .is 72.25 x .34lbs. =
24.565 lbs., which is the weight of one foot high of the
column x 64 feet = 1572 J]bs., the weight of the whole
column. Add 3th of this, viz. 314 lbs. = 1886 lbs. the
weight required to draw up the pifton and give it a proper
velocity.
In conftruGting pumps, care muft be taken to avoid all
unneceffary contractions in the valves or pipes which convey
the water. If the water-way - too fmall, the water will
be
WATER.
be greatly refifted in its paffage through fuch contrac-
tions; and this is called by the workmen wire-drawing the
water.
The velocity of the water in the conduit-pipe, and in its
paflage through every valve, will be greater or lefs than the
velocity of the pifton, in the fame proportion that the area of
the pifton or working barrel is greater or lefs than the area
of the paflage of the valve. For whatever quantity of
water pafles through any feétion of the working barrel in a
fecond, the fame quantity muft go through any one of the
paflages : this enables us to modify the velocity of the water
as we pleafe, and we can increafe it to any degree at the
place of delivery, by diminifhing the aperture through
which it pafles, provided we apply fufficient force to the
pifton. This is the cafe in the engine for ga
fires; but no fuch increafe of velocity mutt be fuffered in
pumps which are required to raife the greateft quantity of
water with a given power ; becaufe the power required to
force the water with a great velocity is very confiderable,
and the velocity fo obtained adds nothing to the mechanical
effet which is produced. The refiftance arifes from a two-
fold caufe ; vix. the fri€tion of the water againft the fides
of the paflage, and {till more from the refiftance which
water oppofes to any fudden change of figure ; for though
water is a perfeét fluid, and will readily accommodate iti elf
to any change of figure by its own gravity, yet, it requires
fome time to make fuch change; and if we force it to
change its figure in lefs time than it naturally would, it re-
quires mechanical power to do fo, juft the fame as to
Pounds Avoirdu-
Authors. pois rafed one
Foot per Minute.
Hachette - - - - 1343
Amontons” - - - - 1530
Euler - - - . 3000
3668
Smeaton - ~ ¥ = 3750
may 3859
Bernouilli = - - - - 4144
Schulze é me : 2 4410
Defaguliers - - - - 5500
Emerfon - - - - 6300
5031
Dr. Robinfon - zi ¥
6648
Average of all thefe - - =< 4098
True ftandard
Water raifed one
Foot per Minute.
comprefs a mals of clay, or other foft and non-elaitic
body.
A practice, the velocity with which the piflon of the
pump moves, determines the fize of the f{malleft paflage
through which the water can pafs without Tiel re-
fiftance. Few pumps move with a greater velocity than 80
or 100 feet per minute ; and we think the area of the nar-
roweft paflages and pipes fhould bear fuch a proportion to
the area of the barrel, that the water will never be urged
with a greater velocity than three feet per fecond, or 180
feet per minute, if the power required to move the pump is
an obje&t. In general, this will be accomplifhed by making
the area of the {malleft opening equal to half the area of the
barrel ; or if the diameter of the barrel is divided into 10
parts, the diameter of the leaft opening fhould be 7 of thofe
parts. If the pump moves flower, then the paflages may bear
a {maller proportion. The pumps which fave folid piftons
are preferable, becaufe the valves can be made of any fize
which is defired ; but when a valve is made in the pifton,
its fize is neceflarily limited to lefs than we have recom-
mended.
Eftimate of the Strength of Men to raife Water.—Various
authors have ftated the mean force of a man fo widely dif-
ferent, that the ftudent is perplexed which to choofe. The
following table contains feveral of thefe ftatements, which
we have reduced to one common denomination; viz. the
number of pounds avoirdupois, or the number of cubic
feet of water which a man can raife up in one minute to the
height of one foot.
Cubic Feet of
Duration of the Work.
Working 10 hours per day.
Working during 8 hours in 24.
For 8 hours.
For to hours.
hours per day, a pump without fric-
tion.
A young man weighing 135 lbs.: 10
hours per day.
80.5 a feeble old man, working 8 or 10
65-5
60. | Working
10 hours per day.
875°
It is not difficult to account for thefe great differences,
when we confider how the mufcular force varies in different
individuals, and alfo the power of enduring fatigue. The
only means of afcertaining the mean force of a man is to take
the fum total of the work executed by a number of men
aGting for a great length of time. This was repeatedly
done by Mr. Smeaton, on a very large fcale, and with fo
very little variation, that we can very confidently recom-
mend engineers to calculate a man’s force at 60 cubic feet,
or sacalbey raifed one foot per minute: as this is juft one
cubic foot per fecond, it will eafily be fixed in the memory.
Defaguliers’ eRimate of one hogfhead raifed ten feet high per
minute, is very frequently ufed, and is 5500 lbs. raifed one
foot per minute, but it is too great for a mean ; and Defagu-
liers himfelf called it the maximum, which no machine can
exceed.
When a machine is to be turned by the force of a man
turning a winch or handle, the handle ought not to be
longer than from 12 to 16 inches; nor fhould it be calcu-
lated. to make more than 30 turns per minute ; and when
moving with this velocity, it fhould not require a greater
force than 163 lbs. preffure upon the handle ; or a man will
not be able to move it without greater fatigue than he can
endure for a day’s work. If the handle is required to move
flower,
WATER.
flower, for inftance 20 turns per minute, then the load may
1
The Force of Horfes to raife Water.—This we find as
be increafed in proportion ; viz. to 2531bs., and this willbe varioufly ftated by different authors as the force of men.
lefs fatiguing.
Pounds Avoirdu-
pois raifed one
Foot per Minute.
Authors.
Hachette’s eftimate that a horfe is equal aes
to 7 men - - - - =
Fenwick - - ap) jhus - - 13200
Gregory - - - - - 18480
More - - - - - - 21120
Watt - - - - - - 20000
Smeaton’s 2 horfe machine, with an
Archimedes’ {crew = = a ENE
Smeaton’s 4 horfe machine to work a
flafh-wheel_ - » = ‘= - 20418
Smeaton’s ftandard - - - - 22916
Defaguliers’ eftimate that a horfe al 27§00
equalto 5 men - - = 2
Smeaton’s experiment on drawing coals]
with 2 horfes - - - | eee
Mefirs. Boulton and Watt’s horfe-power 32000
in fteam-engines - = - = 33000
True ftandard - - - - - 22000
In this, as in the former inftance, we feel inclined to give
the preference to Mr. Smeaton’s eftimate, both from his
fuperior experience and accuracy, and alfo becaufe by his
MS. papers, we are informed of the particulars of his ex-
periments. He found, from examining the accounts of a
colliery, that each horfe drew 27720 pounds one foot per
minute ; but as they could only continue to work at that
rate for 44 hours per day, Mr. Smeaton fixed his ftandard
at 250 hogfheads fer hour raifed ten feet, which is equal to
22,916 pounds, raifed one foot high. Still we find in two
of his machines, of which we have already given the parti-
culars, the performance fell rather fhort: we have, there-
fore, chofen to recommend 352 cubic feet of water, or
22,000 pounds per minute raifed one foot high, as a ftandard
for a horfe’s force, when he works 8 hours per day, and
moves with a velocity of 24 miles per hour. ‘This is fettled
by univerfal confent as the moit preper pace for a horfe to
walk ; and he wiil in that cafe draw juft 100 pounds, which
is an eafy number to remember.
The eftimate of Defaguliers we confider as the maximum
of a horfe’s power ; for the horfe-power of Mefirs. Boulten
and Watt is only ufed as a meafure of the force of their
fream-engines. See that article.
In applying horfes to work machines, the circular tract
in which they walk fhould be as large as poffible,
that the horfes may turn round in the circle with little
inconvenience. Few cafes will admit of a walk of more
than 30 feet diameter; and in proportion as this is di-
minifhed, the horfe lofes fome of his power. No horfe-walk
fhould be made of lefs than 20 feet diameter, if he is re-
quired to aét with any confiderable force. When this fize
cannot be obtained, we are of opinion that the horfe would
work to a greater er by walking within a large per-
pendicular wheel, like thofe wheels ufed for cranes.
Water raifed one
Foot per Minute.
Cubic Feet of
Duration of the Work.
Working 9 hours per day.
Working 9 hours per day, light work.
Working 8 hours per day.
were kept in order to work for
9 hours per day.
\: ftrongeft horfes, fuch as are ufed
} wee 44 hours fer day, 4 horfes
in London, cannot work at this rate
throughout the day.
to 6 men.
eee 8 hours per day, nearly equal
It muft be remembered, that the horfe fhould always
move with a velocity of 24 miles per hour, or 220 feet per
minute ; and, therefore, the number of turns which he will
make in a minute muft be proportioned to the fize of the
track in which he works.
Number of Turns
per Minute, when
the Horfe walks
24 Miles per Hour.
Diameter of the
Horfe’s Track.
Circumference.
94 feet 2.34
88 2.5
81.5 2.7
75-2 2.9
69 3-17
62.6 3-5
The machine which is to raife the water fhould be fo
conneGted with the principal wheel which the horfe turns,
that it will move with the proper velocity, when the horfe-
wheel turns at the rate above fpecified. The velocity
proper for moft machines is mentioned in the defcription
of each.
Water-Wheels applied to raife Water.—The circumference
of a water-wheel will work to the greateft advantage, when
it moves with a velocity of from 3 to 4 feet per fecond, or
from 180 to 240 feet per minute. A very proper velocity
for a water-wheel is to make it the fame as the horfes, by
the above table ; and we have, therefore, added the velocities
for fmaller diameters.
Fitz
Diameter
Diameter. Circumference. [Turns per Minute.
18 feet. 3:9
16 4-4
14 5
12 5-86
10 7
Few machines, with pumps worked by a water-wheel,
will raife more water to a given beta in any time, than
amounts to one-third the mechanical effeét of the quantity of
water employed to work it; that is, confidering the dif-
ferences of the heights to which the water is raifed, and the
height of the fall, and neleeee them both to an equality,
the quantity of water raifed will never exceed half of the
Height of the Fall
of Water to work
the Machine.
Quantity of Water
expended in
24 Hours.
Diameter of the
Piftons.
Cubic Metres,
1900.328
2467.965
685-55
582.711
2467-905
Metres.
0-352
0.325
do.
do.
do.
French Metres.
85-757
89.656
79.910
79.910
89.656
The French metre is equal to 3.281 Englifh feet, and the
cubic metre is 35.3198 cubic feet Englifh. —
Power of the largeft Steam-Engines to raife Water.—The
moft powerful machine in exiftence is the iteam-engine, on
Mr. Watt’s principle, called Stoddart’s engine, at. the
United Mine in Cornwall. Three other engines of equal
dimenfions are employed to drain the mine, but only this
one is loaded fo as to exert its utmoft force. The fteam
cylinder is 63 inches diameter, and aéts double; that is, it
operates to raife water equally in the afcent or defcent of
the pifton, The weight of water in the pumps is 82,000
pounds, and with this load it makes 63 double ftrokes per
minute of 73 feet each; or, it gives to the load 100} feet
motion fer minute. gs
Multiply 82,000 pounds by r1oo§$ feet, and it gives
8,261,500 pounds per minute lifted one foot high: divide
this by 33,000 pounds, which is called the horfe-power, and
it gives 250} horfe-power for the aéting force of the engine.
Again, divide 8,261,500 pounds by 624 pounds, the weight
of a cubic foot of water, and we find this engine is capable
of raifing 132,184 cubic feet of water per minute to a height
of one Bot This is not one of the beft engines with re-
fpeé& to fuel, and it burns 314 pounds of coal to raife this
quantity. 1 ; Sev
The whole power employed to drain the United Mine is
as follows :
Horfe-Power.
Stoddart’s engine, 63 inch cylinder, double aéting 250
William’s engine, 65 inch cylinder, do. 200
Sim’s engine, 63 inch cylinder, do. 185
Poldorey’s engine, 63 inch cylinder, do. 196
Tot ie SALES
WATER.
quantity which falls. The other half is loft in fri&tion and
leakage, and in overcoming the inertie of the parts of the
machine.
PrefJure engines are thofe machines which give motion to
the pifton of a pump, by the force of a column of
water ating in a cylinder or barrel, fimilar to that of
the pump. (See the article Pressure-Engine.) It was
omitted in that article, that M. Belidor invented a ma-
‘chine, which may be confidered as the firft which was
perfect, and was indeed the model for that made by
Mr. Smeaton. See Architecture Hydraulique, vol. ii.
p- 240.
M. Baillet made obfervations upon feveral machines of
this kind in the mines of Hungary, from which it appears
that the mechanical effe& produced, is only four-tenths of
the mechanical effect of the firft power.
Height to which | Quantity of Water | Ratio of the Effeét,
and the Caufe.
the Water is raifed. | raifed in 24 Hours.
Metres.
89.656
214-39
49-777
28.585
66.267
Cubic Mecres.
817.036
479-879
394-185
589.566
1336.815
0.4. Mean.
Here we have a fingle machine of nearly double the
power of the famous machine at Marly, which is in fa&
compofed of fourteen machines, working in concert for a
common objet; and fo do the four engines in the mine,
which amount to 8314 horfe-power, without reckoning the
engines employed to draw up the ore. . ;
The engines at feveral' other mines in Cornwall are of
immenfe power. We will flate two.
The mine called Wheal Alfred has four engines: a
63 inch double engine, which is lightly loaded, and only
exerts 80 horfe-power ; a fingle aéting engine of 66 inch,
and 60 horfe-power; and two others of 64 and 60 inch,
equal to 51 and 54 horfe-power :—in the whole, 245 horfe-
power to drain one mine.
The Dolcoath mine has three engines: a double engine
of 63 inch cylinder, and 132 horfe-power ; a fingle engine
of 63 inch, and 45 horfe-power ; and a fmaller fingle engine
of 20 horfe-power :—in all, 197 horfe-power to drain the
mine.
It will be obferved above, that the power of the different ~
engines is not in proportion to the dimenfions of the cylin-
ders: this is becaufe the preffure upon each fquare inch of
the pifton varies in different engines from 7 to 20 pounds.
But cuftom has eftablifhed, that certain fizes of cylinders
will be equal to a certain number of horfes’ power, as is
fhewn by the following tables
The fleam in the boiler is fuppofed to be kept within the
limits of from 2 to 4]bs. preflure on each fquare inch more
than the atmofphere ; and in that cafe the cylinders of the
diameters marked in the Table will have very nearly the
powers afligned to them.
A TABLE
WATER.
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WATER.
This Table is formed from obfervations of a great number
of engines of different powers, and making the intermediate
fizes to correfpond to the fame law of increafe. Thus, a
twenty-horfe engine is always made with a cylinder of 24
inches diameter, which is allowing 22.6 fquare inches of the
pifton’s furface for each horfe-power ; but larger engines have
a lefs allowance; an eighty-horfe engine has 19.8 fquare
inches to each horfe-power, and fmall engines have a much
greater allowance ; a ten-horfe engine having 24%, and a
one-horfe, 28 fquare inches. This difference is to compen-
fate for the numerous difadvantages which always attend
{mall machines.
The proper length of the ftroke for different engines is
not at all fettled. Mr. Watt’s firft engines were made
much longer than this Table, but of late years they have been
made fhorter, and without any adequate reafon which we can
perceive ; for it muft be an advantage to a machine to make
as few reciprocations as is confiftent with a practicable
length of cylinder. Thefe differences in the length of ftroke
do not affeé& the calculation of powers, becaufe if the
length of the ftroke is altered, the number per minute is alfo
changed, and the velocity of the pifton is the fame ; at leaft
it will be always nearly the fame as the Table for thofe en-
gines which work a crank and fly-wheel. But it muft be ob-
ferved that thefe engines move with a greater celerity than the:
engines for pumping water, becaufe it is neceflary to accu-
mulate a confiderable velocity in the fly-wheel, or it muit be
immenfely heavy if the pifton was to move fo flowly as the
pumping engine generally does.
It is ufual with engine-makers to calculate the velocity
of the piftons of engines at 220 feet per minute ; but we
have rarely found them to come up to this in practice, and
have therefore calculated them at lefs. In the Table, the
prefflure upon each fquare inch of the furface of the fteam-
pifton is in proportion to the velocities there marked ; and
if the velocities are found lefs than the Table, as is the cafe
with engines for pumping, then the load upon each inch of
the pifton muft be increafed in proportion, or elfe the power
of the engine will be different, although the cylinder re-
mains the fame.
For inftance, the engine at the Birmingham canal,
mentioned in the article Sream-Engine, had a twenty-
inch cylinder ; and being a fingle engine, fhould, by our
Table, be rather more than feven horfes power. How does
this agree? The weight raifed ger hour to one foot high was
calculated, in the article Sream-Engine, at 13,961,805 lbs.;
which divided by 60 gives 232.697 lbs. per minute : divide
this by 33,000, the horfe-power, and we have a feven-
horfe power ; fo far it agrees with the Table. But the
preffure on each fquare inch of the pifton was 11.7 lbs., and
the Table fays the prefflure fhould be 7.1lbs. This dif-
ference is reconciled by the differences of the velocities ; for
the pifton of the Birmingham engine moved 63% feet per
minute, and the velocity in our Table for a fingle engine is
98 feet : now as 11.7 lbs. is to 7.1 lbs., fois 98 feet to 594
feet, inftead of 634; the difference is very {mall, and may
be thus accounted for. The Birmingham engine, although
feven horfes power, had only a twenty-inch cylinder, yet,
according to our Table, it fhould be 20.6; its pifton there-
fore required to move rather quicker, in order to make an
equal produce. Thus, the area of a twenty-inch cylinder is
314 {quare inches ; and of a cylinder 20.6 diameter, it is 332
{quare inches: now as 314 fquare inches is to 332 fquare
inches, fo is 59% feet per minute to 63 feet per minute, inftead
of 634, which the engine a@tually moved.
The allowance for Fuel in this Table is as {mall as it will
ever be found to be in aétual practice ; the confumption of
fuel is not in direct proportion to the power of the engine,
becaufe {mall engines lofe more heat, and have more fri@tion
in proportion than large ones, and the reciprocations of the
motion are more frequent. We have taken the effe& of the
twenty-horfe engine at twenty millions of pounds of water
per minute, raifed one foot with each bufhel of coals weigh-
ing 84]bs.; this makes the confumption of fuch an engine
very near two bufhels per hour ; an eight-horfe burns one
bufhel. We have alfo taken the performance of the engine
of roo horfes at 30 millions, and made all the intermediate
fizes by a regular law of increafe ; the refult agrees.fo well
with feveral engines which we have obferved, that we con-
fidered the 'Table as very correct. The quantities of coal
are the {malleft ; fcarcely any engines will do with lefs fuel
when they are working with their full load; but many en-
gines will require more. Engines will be conftantly found
which are of the dimenfions marked in our Table, and are
called fo many horfe-power, although they are working with
either a greater or leffer power than the Table exprefles ;
in fuch a allowance of fuel muft be altered in proportion.
We have now gone through the defcription of thofe ma-
chines for raifing water which are aGtuated by the mechani-
cal force of animals, or water or fteam aéting externally by
means of levers and: other conneéting mechanifm ; but there
are fome machines in which a current or a column of water
is made to operate within clofe veflels, and raife water to a
confiderable height : thefe are the Chremnitz fountain, the
fypho interruptus, and the hydraulic ram. Thefe are moit
admirable machines, particularly the laft, becaufe they are
fo fimple, and having fcarcely any moving’ parts, are not
liable to decay and injury ; and they do not waite the motive
power in unneceflary friction and refiftance.
The original fteam-engines of the marquis of Worcefter
and Savery, which are all of this clafs, are fully defcribed
under the article Sream-Engine. ‘The watte of fuel in thefe
engines is fo great, that they fall very far below other en-
gines. We have mentioned the engine made by Mr. Kier,
which by a calculation will be found to raife only 23 millions
of pounds of water one foot high with each bufhel of coals,
and the power of the engine is 24 horfes. An engine of the
fame kind, of five horfes power, which Mr. Smeaton calcu-
lated raifed 54 millions, end this is perhaps the utmott of this
kind of engines. Another engine of 23 horfe-power, raifed
54 millions. The beft engine on Newcomen’s principle will
raife 10 millions ; Mr. Watt’s 30 millions; and Mr. Woolf’s
50 millions. From this ftatement, it is clear that the expence
of fuel in Savery’s engines is fo great as to counterbalance
any advantages arifing from their fimplicity.
The Chremnitz, Machine.—In this a column of water, de-
{cending from an elevated refervoir, is made to raife up an-
other column of water from a confiderable depth, and air is
introduced as the medium for communicating the preflure of
the motive column to that column which is to be raifed.
This machine is not a new inyention ; its principle is fully
defcribed in the Italian book, ‘Le Machine,’? by Brancas
of Rome, 1629. A machine at Chremnitz, in Hungary,
is fo celebrated as to have given a name to this invention
from its fize, and the moft extraordinary formation of
ice and {now by the working of it, befides that it is the
only one of the kind which had been applied to large works.
An account was given to the Royal Academy at Paris by
their correfpondent M. Jars, which is inferted in their me-
moirs for the year 1768; and Dr. Wolfe has alfo defcribed
it. The machine was executed by father Hell, a profeffor
of aftronomy at Vienna, in the year 1755 ; it is ufed to raife
the water in a fhaft named Amalie, in the mines at Schrem-
nitz, or Chremnitz, in Hungary: jig. 14. Plate Wa-
tera
e
WATER.
ter-works, is a {ketch of this machine, in which the pipes
are not drawn in the proportion of their lengths, but are
contraéted to the {pace of the defign. O is a wooden
trough, placed in the middle of the mountain, 143 feet
above the place, K, where the water drains off ; this water
is conveyed from the mines above it, and the fall of the
water from this refervoir works the machine. There is alfo
another trough higher up the mountain, viz. 260 feet above
the place of delivery K, into which rain-water is conveyed
for the purpofe of working the machine with 260 feet fall,
when a fupply can be obtained therefrom; but when this
fupply fails, the machine is worked by the ciftern O with
143 feet fall. T is an iron-pipe aenieer | from the refer-
voir, to convey the water to an air-veffel of copper, A,
laced at the foot of the mountain near the place of de-
fey. The water from the refervoir O, or from the more
elevated refervoir, flows through the defcending pipe T,
whenever the cock H is opened: the pipe T defcends very
nearly to the bottom of the veflel A A, as fhewn by the
dotted lines X, with the intention that the air included in the
veffel fhall be compreffed when the watér enters, and forced
through the tube L M into a lower veffel, B, which is fimi-
lar to A, but only of half the capacity 5 it is placed at the
bottom of the lower mine, which is to be drained at 104
feet below the delivery K, and veffel A; this lower veffel
receives the waters colleted in this mine from the trough D,
through the pipe Q and cock C, and by the force of the
compreffed air introduced into B by the pipe M from the
upper veffel ; the water contained in B is expelled through
the pipe S, which defcends to the bottom of the veffel B,
and is difcharged at F.
The wooden trough D is the termination of a trough
or channel from another engine, which raifes the water from
a yet greater depth ; K is a pipe with a cock for difcharg-
ing the water out of the veffel A, when the operation is
over, in order to fill it again with air ready to repeat it, for
which purpofe the {mall pipe I is likewife opened to admit
air ; the cock L tranfmite and difcharges air from the upper
veffel A into the lower yeflel, through the pipe M. The
little pipe E, and its turncock, muft be opened to let out
the air from the veffel B, and it muft remain open whilft B
is filling, by the water from the trough D, through the
pipe C Q, and it is at the orifice of the little pipe E that
{now and ice are generated. A valve is placed at the lower
ends of the pipe FS, to prevent the water from efcaping
out of the pipe F S, after it has been raifed, and whilft the
veffel B is filling with frefh water.
The operation is performed thus: two men are placed at the
veffels A and B to open and fhut the cocks ; fuppofe all the
cocks fhut, and the refervoir O, at 143 feet high, is always
full; the pipe T H is alfo full as far as the cock H ; the refer-
voir D is kept conftantly full of water from the mine, which
isto be drained by raifing the water from D to F, 104 feet ; for
this purpofe, it muft firft be admitted into the veffel B : the
cock C is therefore opened, and the water flows into B, the
air being at the fame time fuffered to efcape from that veffel
by opening the cock E. The veffel B is known to be full
by the emiffion of water at E, at which inftant both the
cocks C and E are to be clofed. The machine is now pre-
pared for the operation, which is began by opening the cocks
H andL; the defcending water from the refervoir O enters
the veffel A, and compreffes the included air till its elaftic
force becomes equal to the preffure of the column of water
D F, and then the air defcends through the pipe M, and
enters the lower veffel B, where it preffes on the furface of
the water contained in the veffel, and forces that water to
afcend through S to F, which opens into the adit, through
10
which the water is difcharged from the mine. This water
being raifed, the lower veflel-B is become filled with con-
denfed air in place of the water, and the upper veffel A is
become filled with water in place of the air.’ The cocks
H and L are then fhut, and K and I are opened; the
cock K fuffers the water contained in A to flow off, and
I accelerates the difcharge, by admitting ‘the external air
into the veffel A ; and both thefe cocks are clofed again as
foon as the evacuation of the upper veffel is completed.
During this lait operation another man below opens the
cock E, by which the condenfed air included in the veffel B
iffues with great force through E ; he then opens C, and the
water from D again fills the veffel B, as at firft ; this being
done, he clofes C and E, wa :
The apparatus is now charged again ready for a€tion, and
by opening H and L the above operation will be repeated ;
viz. the contents of B will be forced up to F, and thus the
engine may be kept continually at work as long as the two re-
fervoirs O at the top, and D at the bottom, are kept fupplied.
The dimenfions of the principal parts, as given by father
Hell, are as follow, in Hungarian meafure :
The diameter of the upper veflel A 322 inches ; its
height 60 inches ; the thicknefs of the copper 1% inches.
The iron-pipe T is 260 feet; from H, to the moft elevated
refervoir above O, it is 44 inches bore ; and the thicknefs of
the metal is 1} inches.
The lower refervoir O 143 feet above H.
The pipe F S, 104 feet long, 34 inches bore.
The air-pipe L M is formed narrower towards the bot-
tom ; at its upper end it is two inches bore, and at its lower
end 1 inch; thicknefs of the metal 14 inches.
The Chremnitz foot is to the Paris foot, as 1538 to 1440;
the pound, as 106 to 92. The Paris foot to the Englifh, as
32 to 30.
A cubic foot of water of the mine weighs -72 Ibs.
The upper veffel A contains 574 cubic feet, and the
lower veflel B 274.
Twenty-five cubic feet are raifed at every operation, and
fometimes 314 feet, as the water defcends from the upper
or lower refervoirs at O, the duration of the operation being
different ; for when the upper ciltern O is ufed at 260 feet
of elevation, 20 or 21 draughts are made in an hour; but
when the lower ciftern is ufed at 143 feet elevation, only 17
or 18 draughts hour. ,
Each of thefe veffels is caft in three pieces, which are
joined by flanches and fcrews, with a ring of lead and an-
other of leather placed between each to fecure the joint, and
prevent the tranfmiffion of any fluid. M. Jars obferves that
the pipes would have been better if conne&ted by flanches,
in the manner fhewn by the figure ; but the real praétice is
to drive the ends of the pipes into hollow cylinders of d
wood, bound with iron hoops ; thefe anfwer tolerably ;
and are of confiderable durability.
The moveable plugs of the cocks, C, E, K, are ferewed
in their places by caps or covers faftened down with ferews.
The produce of water raifed by this machine is thus efti-
mated by Dr. Wolfe :
If the veffel A were completely emptied after each opera-
tion, the expence of water, when the fall of 260 feet is ufed,
would be 1178.25 cubic feet in an hour, defcending 206
feet ; and the effect, or. ater raifed, would be 563.75
cubic feet to a height of 1o4 feet; or, when the fall of
143 fect is ufed, the expence per hour would be 1006.25
cubic feet, and the effet 481.25. But as it is not neceffary
that the veffel A fhould be much more than half emptied,
the expence of water will be nearly equal to, or will not
much exceed the quantity raifed,
It
WATER.
It fhould follow, from experiments on the nature of air,
that the column F D is counterpoifed by the comprefled air
in the inverfe ratio of 104 to 32: hence the volume of air
contained in the veffel A and the pipe LM, equal to 584
cubic. feet, muft be reduced to 18 cubic feet, before the
elafticity will be equal to the preflure of the column CF
104 feet; but by increafing the compreffion a little more,
the water in B will be made to flow out through F.
If, at the moment the veffel A is full of water, the
cock H be fhut, the water will continue to flow through F,
until the air occupies a {pace of 18 cubic feet in the veffel B,
and in the pipe L M;; the elafticity of the air will then be
in equilibrio with the column F D, and the efflux of the
water through F will ceafe. In this manner, not above
17 cubic feet of water are evacuated at each draught, and
104 cubic feet are conftantly left in the veflel B.
But if the cock H is not fhut the very moment that the
veffel A is full, the water in A will follow the air through
LM, and, before it gets to the veflel B, will raife one
cubic foot more out of that veffel. After the water from
A enters into the veffel B, the difcharge at F will not be
the water of B, but the water of A defcending and afcend-
ing again by a ufelefs circuit, until H be fhut; which being
done, the water will continue to flow at F, until the re-
mainder of 103 cubic feet is expelled from B by the air
contained in it. ‘The moment when the water from A has
defcended into the lower veffel B may eafily be known, by
the velocity of the efflux at F becoming fuddenly three times
greater.
That this is a€tually the cafe is proved, becaufe fometimes
314 cubic feet are difcharged ; which quantity exceeds the
capacity of the veffel B by more than 4 cubic feet.
This inconvenience might eafily haye been prevented, by
giving to the pipe S a diameter of 18 inches; for then there
would have remained only the juft {pace of 18 cubic feet for
the compreffed air.
The height of the column T to the loweft of the two
refervoirs at O is 143 feet, which, taken upon the diameter
of the veffel A asa bafe, is equal to the weight of 822}
cubic feet, and would comprefs the air into a fourth; or,
when the water is defcending into the lower veffel B, into a
feventh part of its natural {pace, provided it were equally
refifted at F. The veffel A becomes filled at a mean in
8 feconds; and in twice that {pace of time, 17 cubic feet
are evacuated through F. y
The power of the column of 260 feet from the moft ele-
vated refervoir, ating within the veflel A, is equivalent to
the weight of 1495 cubic feet of water. It can raife a
greater quantity, if the veffel B be fo conftruéted as to
allow no more than a juft {pace to the compreffed air. If
the veffel A were filled in 4 feconds, then 17 cubic feet of
water would be difcharged through F in twice that time,
and the air would be reduced into an eighth, and, durin
the defcent of the water of the veffel A into the lower vellel
B, into an eleventh part of its bulk. But this makes no
alteration as to the quantity of the effe&t ; and when water
ceafes to flow out at F, there will always remain 103 cubic
feet of water in the veffel B.
Two men are required to attend it, but it would be very
eafy to conneét the levers of the cocks above and below, fo
as to require only one man to work the whole fet ; and in-
deed there would be little difficulty in making the machine
work itfelf fafely, without any attendant, except to fet it
off at firft, or ftop it when requifite. The machinery for
this purpofe has been propofed by Mr. Bofwell. See Nichol-
fon’s Journal, gto. iv. 117.
From what has been faid, it is evident that this machine,
Vou. XXXVIII. j
though it anfwers the author’s intention, is fo deficient as
to the effe&t the fame fall of water might produce, as to bear
fcarce any proportion ; and there is a defeé&t in the principle
of the mache, viz. that the air will require a confiderable
fhare of the power to comprefs it, and this air mutt be fuf-
fered to efcape, before the veflels can be refilled to repeat
the aétion ; in confequence, all the power taken to comprefs
the air is loft, and expands itfelf in forcing out a ftrong
blaft of air at the difcharging cock, without producing any
ufeful effe&t. Notwithftanding this defeét, the cheapnefs
and eafe of conftruétion, and the little wear and tear, to-
gether with the facility with which it may be made to work
and {top for very fhort periods of time, are powerful recom-
mendations of this machine, in fuch places as afford the re-
quifite fall of fuperior water, and do not require a higher
fingle lift than 15 or 20 fathoms.
A. curious phenomenon has been obferved in this machine,
when it js near the end of its operation, that is, when nearly
the whole of the water has been raifed out of the lower
veflel B, and the cock E be opened to give vent to the
comprefled air, and before the cock L is fhut, fo that the
air is followed up by the water, then if a hat or miner’s
bonnet be prefented to the aperture E, the aqueous vapours
difperfed through the compreffed air, and perhaps alfo,
fays M. Jars, part of thofe of the external air are con-
denfed in the bonnet in the form of very white and compaét
ice, very much refembling hail, and not eafily feparated
from the bonnet. It foon melts, which is not to be won-
dered at, as the temperature of the place itfelf is not cold:
Meffrs. Du Hamel and Jars remained in Hungary from
January to July 1758, and obferved the fame phenomenon
at all feafons ; but as they had no thermometer, they could
not make a number of experiments, which might have been
of value in the inveftigation of the fubjeé.
It is obferved that the air iffues out with fuch impetuofity,
that the workman could not hold the bonnet at the diftance
of a few inches from the aperture, as he does in this experi-
ment, if he were not fupported behind. The ice is much
more compact, if the cock be only in part opened.
When the cock at which the air is difcharged is opened,
it rufhes out with prodigious violence, and the drops of
water are changed into hail or lumps of ice. It is a fight
ufually fhewn to ftrangers, who are defired to hold their
hats, to receive the blafts of air: the ice comes out with
fuch violence as frequently to pierce the hat like a piftol
bullet. This rapid congelation is a remarkable inflance of
the general faét, that air, by fuddenly expanding, generates
cold ; its capacity for heat being increafed.
The formation of the ice and fnow, when the condenfed
air rufhes out of this machine, has been explained in a dif-
ferent way in almoft every fyftem of philofophy. It ap-
pears to us to be a neceflary confequence of the condenfed
air, on rufhing out into the open air.
The air of the atmofphere, and the water when taken into
the machine, are nearly of the fame temperature ; and it
may be confidered that each cubic foot of water and of air
contains fome certain quantity of heat or caloric ; but they
will readily impart a portion of this heat to any body contain-
ing a lefs degree than themfelves, or they will abforb or take
up heat from any body containing a greater proportion of
heat than themfelves, in confequence of that property of heat,
by which it will diftribute itfelf equally among all bodies
which are in contaét with each other. By the aétion of the
machine, the air is compreffed into one-third of the {pace it
before occupied, and the fhare of heat contained in that air
is likewife concentrated or thrown into a third of the {pace,
and in confequence becomes more intenfe. Some part of
I the
WATER.
the heat will, therefore, be communicated to the furround-
ing water, until the heat diftributes itfelf again between the
water and the condenfed air, fo that they come to the fame
temperature. In this ftate, if the air is fuffered to rufh out
of the veffel, it will fuddenly expand and recover its former
volume, and it muft alfo recover its former fhare of caloric,
which it can only do by abftra¢ting heat from the furround-
ing air, or from any fubftance with which it comes in con-
taé@t: hence the coldnefs of the blaft of air. In refpeé& to
the formation of fnow and ice, it muft be confidered that the
air of damp places always contains a confiderable portion of
water in a ftate of vapour, and the air in this machine will
have taken up more than the ordinary fhare, in confequence
of being in conta&t with the water. When the air expands
itfelf, the heat being fuddenly abftra&ted from this watery
vapour, it becomes fluid, and accumulates in drops like
rain; which drops, by a farther abftraétion of heat, become
folid like fnow or hail.
An inftrument which is in common ufe to produce fire,
by the fudden compreffion of air, fhews the reverfe of this
ation : it is a fyringe fitted with a pifton, which is air-tight ;
at the bottom of the barrel a {mall piece of tinder is placed.
Now, if the pifton is very violently and fuddenly forced
down to the bottom of the barrel, and the pifton is then
withdrawn, the tinder will be found on fire. The heat con-
tained in the air which fills the barrel is fo concentrated at
the fame time with the air, as to produce a¢tual fire. If
the pifton is forced flowly down, the air will be condenfed
to an equal degree, but no fire will be produced, becaufe
the heat has time to efcape through the metal of the barrel,
before it arrives at any confiderable degree of concentration.
We confider that in all cafes when air (and perhaps other
elaftic fluids) is comprefled mto a {maller f{pace, part of the
heat it before contained will be given out to the furrounding
matter; or if it is fuffered to expand to fill a larger {pace,
it will abforb or take up heat from the furrounding matter.
A larger Machine at Chremnitz.—This does not differ
from the original machine, fo as to require a minute defcrip-
tion; but as this machine is not employed in England, and
we think it might be ufeful in many cafes in mining diftri&s,
we fhall give the proportions and calculations of a larger
machine, as a model for engineers.
Feet.
Height of the fource above the place of delivery
or fall of water, which is to work the machine :
defcending pipe 4 inches bore =; fede -
Depth from which the water is to be raifed out of
the pit to the place of delivery : afcending pref 96
4inches bore - - - - - -
136
Cubic Feet.
Upper veffel a copper cylinder 5 feet diameter,
and 83 feet high; metal 2 inches thick; the
defcending pipe goes to within 4 inches of the thd
bottom : contents - - - - -
The lower veffel a brafs cylinde ot diameter,
and 6 feet high; metal 2 inches thick; the (- 83
afcending-pipe goes within 3 inches of the bot-
tom: capacity - - - - - -
Air-pipe which communicates between the two
veffels, 2 inches bore, and 96 feet in length -
To underftand the 2étion of this machine clearly :—Sup-
pofe that the lower cylinder is charged with water, and the
upper cylinder with air ready for aétion; when the water
from the fource is admitted into the upper cylinder, if no
iffue was given to the contained air, the water would enter
into the veffel, until the air was compreffed into one-fifth of
its bulk by the column of 136 feet high; for a column of
34 feet nearly balances the ordinary dlafticity of the air.
But when there is an iffue given to the air through the air-
pipe, it will drive the compreffed air along this pipe, and it
will expel water from the lower cylinder.
When all the air is expelled from the upper cylinder,
there will be 34 cubic feet of water expelled from the lower
cylinder. Now if the afcending pipe had been carried up
more than 136 feet above the lower level, inftead of 96 feet,
then the water would have rifen 136 feet high in that pipe,
by the intervention of the elaftic air, before it was in equilibrio
with the water in the defcending pipe; but no more water
would have been expelled from the lower cylinder than what
would fill this pipe.
But the afcending pipe being only 96 feet high, the water
will be thrown out at the top of it with a confiderable velocity.
Were it not for the great obftru€tions which the water and
air muft meet with in their paflage along the pipes, it would
iffue from the mouth of the afcending pipe with a velocity
of more than 50 feet per fecond. It iffues, however, much
more flowly.
When the upper cylinder is become filled with water, the
f{upply is ftopped; but the lower cylinder ftill contains 34
cubic feet of compreffed air of fufficient elafticity to balance
the water in a difcharging-pipe 136 feet high, whereas the
afcending-pipe is only 96 feet. ‘Therefore the water will
continue to flow at the mouth of the afcending-pipe till the
compreffed air is fo far expanded as to balance only 96 feet
of water, that is, until it occupies one-fourth of its ordinary
bulk, or one-fourth of the capacity of the upper cylinder,
viz. 424 cubic feet. Therefore 424 cubic feet of water
will be expelled, and then the efflux will ceafe, leaving the
lower cylinder about one-half full of water.
When the difcharging-cock of the upper veffel is opened
the water iffues with great violence, being preffled by the
condenfed air returning from the lower cylinder. It there-
fore iffues with the fum of its own weight, and of this com-
preffion. Thefe gradually decreafe together, by the efflux
of the water and the expanfion of the air ; and this efflux
ftops before all the water in the upper veffel has flowed out,
becaufe there are only 42% feet of the lower cylinder occu-
pied by air. This quantity of water nearly will therefore
remain in the upper cylinder. The workman knows this,
becaufe the difcharged water from the upper veffel is
receivedefirft of all into a veffel containing three-fourths of
the capacity of the upper cylinder, which ferves as a mea-
fure ; when this is filled, the attendant opens the cock
which admits the water into the lower veffel, by a long rod
which goes down the fhaft: this allows the water of the
mine to fill the lower cylinder, and the air returns into the
upper cylinder through the air-pipe, and permits the remain-
ing water to run out of it; and when the attendant finds
no more water will come out, every thing is brought to its
firft condition.
The above account of the procedure in working this
engine, fhews that the efflux at the mouth of the afcending-
pipe becomes very flow near the end. On this account, it 18
found convenient not to wait for the complete difcharge, but
to cut off the fupply when about 30 cubic feet of water
have been difcharged, and more work is done in this way.
A gentleman of great accuracy and knowledge of thefe
fubjects, took the trouble of noticing particularly the per-
formance of the machine. He obferved that each ftroke, as
it may be called, took up about three minutes and one-
eighth, and that 32 cubic feet of water were difcharged, and
66 cubic feet were expended.
The expence Hiatus is 66 cubic feet of water falling
136
WATER.
136 feet, and the performance is 32 cubic feet raifed 96 feet,
and they are in the proportion of 66 x 136 to 32 x 96, viz.
8976 to 3072, that is the power employed is to the effec
produced, as 2.9 to 1. The quantity raifed, viz. 32 cubic
feet, divided by the time 3; minutes, gives very nearly 10
cubic feet per minute, and multiplied by the height raifed
96 feet = 960 cubic feet raifed 1 foot high. Divide this
by 528 cubic feet, which is the horfe-power, and it gives 1.8.
The machine is not therefore equal in effe€tive power to a
fleam-engine of two-horfe power, but the power employed
is juft equal to five-horfe power. ‘
When we confider the great obftruétion which water
meets with in its paflage through long pipes, we find we
may gain fome adyantage by increafing the bore of the de-
fcending-pipe of fupply. The quantity of water which
defcends through this 1s 66 cubic feet in 34 minutes, or very
nearly 30 cubic feet per minute ; the area of the four-inch
bore is 12.5 fquare inches, and therefore 11.5 fuch areas
would make a {quare foot. Multiply 30 cubic feet by 11.5,
and we have 345 feet, which is the velocity with which the
water muft defcend in the pipe. This is much too great,
and it would be animprovement if the pipe was increafed to
fix inches bore, and the velocity would then be only 151
feet per minute. The performance of the machine would
then be greatly increafed, we think as much as one-third ;
it is true that 1t would expend more water, but not in the
fame proportion; for part of the deficiency of this ma-
chine arifes from the needlefs velocity of the water in the
pipe, as well as from the violent efflux of the water by the
condenfed air, as we have before mentioned.
The difcharging-pipe ought to be 110 feet high inftead of
g6, and would not give fenfibly lefs water. It mutt be con-
fidered if the original expence of this fimple machine would
not be lefs than a water-mill which would raife 10 cubic feet
of water, 96 feet high, in a minute ; the repairs of it would
be fmall when compared witha mill. And, laftly, let it be
noticed, that fuch a machine can be ufed where no mill
whatever can be put in motion.
A {mall ftream of water, which would not move any kind
of wheel, will raife one-third of its own quantity to the
fame height, working as faft as it is fupplied.
From its fimplicity, we think the Huncartan Machine
(which fee ) eminently deferves the attention of mathematicians
and engineers, to bring it to its utmoft perfeCtion, and into
general ufe. There are many fituations where this kind of ma-
chine may be very ufeful. Thus where the tide rifes 17 feet, it
may be ufed for compreffing air into feven-eighths of its
bulk, and a pipe leading from a very large veffel inverted in
the tide-water may be ufed for raifing water from another
veffel of one-eighth of its capacity, 15 feet high; or if this
veffel has only one-tenth of the capacity of the larger one
fet in the tide-way, two pipes may be led from it, one into
the {mall veffel, and the other into an equal veffel, 16 feet
higher, which receives the water from the firft. "Thus one-
fixteenth of the water may be raifed 34 feet, and a {maller
quantity to a ftill greater height, and this with a kind of
power that can hardly be applied any other way.
Sipho Interruptus to raife Water by Sudion.—TVhis machine
is the reverfe of the Chremnitz machine in its ation, for
the power of a defcending column of water, running out of
a clofe veffel, caufes a vacuum therein ; and another column
of water is fucked up into the veflel, or rather forced up
by the preffure of the atmofphere to fill the vacuous f{pace.
This machine is fully defcribed by Leopold, in his Theatrum
Machinarum Hydraulicarum, vol. i. It is provided with
apparatus to open and fhut the cocks, It would be diffi-
cult to explain this machine without feveral figures, and we
have therefore preferred to deferibe a machine of the fame
kind invented by Mr. Goodwin; he calls it a machine
that will raife a body of water to any height not exceeding
the height of that column which will counterbalance the
preffure of the atmofphere, (fay 30 feet) and as by the
defcent of part of the fame body of water through a fome-
what greater height, aided by the prefflure of the atmo-
{phere.
Let A, fig. 10, Plate Water-works, be a {pherical veffel of
copper or other metal, about 18 inches diameter ; B, another
f{phere, about two feet fix inches in diameter ; C, a refer-
voir kept conftantly fupplied with water, part of which is
to be raifed up to E, by the power of another part defcend-
ing to a confiderable depth beneath the refervoir C. D is
a glais cap, about fix inches long, fixed on the top of the
upper veflel A, for the purpofe of feeing when the water
begins to fill and has filled it; E is the upper refervoir into
which the water of the refervoir C is to be elevated, and the
contents of the upper veffel A is to be emptied; 1 isa
pipe about half an inch in diameter, joined into the top of
the lower veffel B, and rifing upwards to within about an
inch of the top of the glafs cap D of the upper veffel ; 2 is
a pipe of the fame diameter, and a few feet longer than 1, 1,
joined to the bottom of the lower veffel B, and defcending
downwards in a perpendicular or inclined direGtion, to a
rather greater diftance beneath C than the upper veffel A is
elevated above C ; 3 is a pipe one inch and a half in diame-
ter, joined to the bottom of the upper veffel A, and pafling
upwards through the bottom to within two inches of the
top of the glafs cap D ; 4, 4, is a pipe of about half an inch
diameter, joined to the top of the veffel B, it pailes through
the bottom of the refervoir C, and rifes above the furface of
the water therein ; 5 isa pipe of the fame diameter, fixed to
the top of the veffel B, and terminating in and fixed to the
bottom of the refervoir C ; a is a pipe or {pout of the fame
diameter, fixed into the bottom of the upper veffel A, to
convey the water into the refervoir E; 7 is a trumpet
mouth-pipe-fixed to the bottom of the pipe 3, and extend-
ing downwards beneath the water to within about an inch
of the bottom of the refervoir C ; a, 4, c, and d, are cocks
fixed to the pipes. The veffels, pipes, cocks, and joints,
mutt all be air-tight.
In order to raife water from the lower refervoir C into
the upper refervoir E, all the cocks being fhut proceed
thus: open the cocks 4 and c, in order to fill the lower
veflel B, and when B is filled, fhut the cocks 4 and c, and open
the cock d. The water will then begin to run from the
{phere B by its gravity, and by means of its communication
with the upper {phere A, through the pipe 1, will draw off
the air therefrom to fupply the Fate left in the lower veffel
B, by the running out of the water the air in A is thus rare-
fied. The atmofpheric air at the fame time preffing on the
water in the refervoir C, will caufe it to rife through the
trumpet-mouth 7 of the pipe 3, and by falling over the top
of the pipe 3 at D, it will fill the upper {phere A. When
A is full, which may be feen through the glafs cap D, fhut
the cock d, and open the three cocks “2, 6, and c, the cock
and pipe 4 will allow the atmofpheric air to return into the
veflel, and fill both with air, by which means the water eon-
tained in the veffel A will run into the elevated refervoir E,
and B will be replenifhed for another operation. Then fhut
the cocks a, 6, and c, and open the cock d, and it will re-
peat the operation of raifing the water into A.
If it be required to raife any body of water from refer-
voir C into refervoir E, by means of the defcent of a body
of fome other water from the veflel B, a communication
muft be made into B, independently of the pipe ‘5, and
1, cock
WATER.
cock ¢; viz. through a pipe-cock leading from another
refervoir, as is reprefented by the dotted lines communi-
cating with B near the pipe and cock 5; the action is the
fame as before ; but the cock with the dotted lines is to be
ufed in lieu of pipe 5, and cock c. By this means, if the
water which is employed to work the machine is foul or
tainted, it will haveno communication with the water which
it raifes. This machine has the fame defe& as the Chrem-
nitz machine ; viz. that the power which is expanded in
eaetying the air is greater than the quantity of water raifed,
and the difference is loft when the cock in the lower veffel
is opened, and the air rufhes in.
A different Form of the Siphon Machine.—Mr. Goodwin’s
engine is formed upon a very elegant principle, and operates
by the affiftance of only a {mall quantity of water. It may
be made in various forms, either to raife the fuid above the
defcending column, or from below it to a level with the
bottom, and the height may be doubled or trebled by pro-
portionally increafing the defcending mafs, and raifing fe-
veral columns of water from different elevations at the
fame time, by combining two or more of the fimple
machines together, as is fhewn in fig. 8. Plate Water-
works.
C, as in the former figure, reprefents the refervoir or
fource of water which is to work the machine ; B repre-
fents the loweft of the two yeflels which contain the rifing
and defcending bodies of water ; and the {mall {quare near
fig: 8. reprefents the upper veflel A, fg. 10. _Thefe veffels
are fpherical in the original drawing, but to leflen the iofs of
ace in defcent, they are here made flat and cylindrical ;
is the higher ciftern of the original figure, into which the
waters to be raifed ; 2, 3, and 4, are the pipes arranged in
the fame manner as the former machine ; F, a veflel the fame
as A, with tubes 3 and 6: it communicates with the
veflel B by a pipe, and is intended to raife water out of the
ciftern E into a higher and additional ciftern G.
The veffels E, F, and G, form a fecond machine, which
has the fame parts and properties as the former, except that
the lower veffel B is common to both, and ferves as the
lower veffel to exhauft and drive up the water both to A
and to F ; 2 is an enlarged tube like the original drawing,
through which the water defcends to produce the action ;
5 is a hole in the top of B, initead of a tube. This hole,
and the tubes 2, 4, and 6, mutt be provided with valves inftead
of cocks, which muft be kept clofe by weights or {prings,
(while the water is rifing) except the chimed to tube 2,
which muft be open. The tubes 3, 3, may alfo have valves
to fupport the raifed columns.
Operation.—F ill the cifterns C and E with water, and let
the lower ciftern be conftantly {upplied ; open the valves of
the tubes 4, 5, 6, 6, and clofe the valve of the defcending-
tube 2, the veffel B then becomes filled through the hole 5.
Now clofe the valves of the tubes 4, 5, and 6, and open the
valve of the tube 2, the water will then begin to defcend
out of B, and will exhauft the air from A and F, jult as in
the firft-mentioned machine; the preffure of the atmo-
{phere on the furface of the water C, will raife one body of
water out of C into A, and out of E into F; when B is
nearly empty, or when A and F are full, open the tubes
4, 5, 6, 6, and clofe 2, then B will be filled a fecond time, and
the veflels A and F will empty themfelves into their refpec-
tive cifterns E and G: thus the reciprocations continue
without interruption.
Another body of water may be raifed out of G into a
higher ciftern by additional apparatus, and by proportion-
ally increafing the dimenfions of the veffel B andthe tube 2.
The dotted lines reprefent the apparatus for raifing water
below the bottom of the tube 2, to be ufed inftead of thofe
above the ciftern C, ‘
This arrangement of the engine is of great utility in
many cafes; and in fituations where this machine can be
ereted, it may be of confiderable ufe for raifing water out
of mines for draining pieces of land, or elevating the water
employed in domettic purpofes.
cg an of different apiece tamer —in Mr. Nichol-
fon’s Journal, 8vo. vol. i. Mr. Bofwell has given a plan for
conftruéting Mr. Goodwin’s engine on a large fecale, to
operate without attendance of any perfon, to open and fhut
the cocks, and another method of caufing the Chremnitz
machine to raife water above the level of the prime refer-
voir ; and he makes the following comparative view of the
advantages of both kinds of engines and their powers.
It will be found that the powers and capabilities of thefe
machines are nearly fimilar. 1{t, In both the greater the
height of the original fall of water from the fource to the
difcharge, and the greater the quantity of water which it can
fupply ina “eam time, the greater quantity can be raifed by
either of thefe engines in a given time. 2dly, Both engines
can be conftruéted fo as to raife water, above the original
level, and from below, to the furface, or from a pit. 3dly,
By a fucceffive number of refervoirs, both engines can be
brought to raife water to any height, but as they will raife
a f{maller quantity as the height is increafed, the quantity
wanted in a given time, and the expence of conitruction, will
limit the extent of their elevation. 4thly, In both engines
the diftance of one refervoir from another mutt always be lefs
than that of the original fall: the circumftances in which
thefe engines differ arife from the difference in their manner
of aétion. sthly, The Chremnitz engine operates by cauf-
ing a fall of water to comprefs the air, which reaéting on
other water, forces it to rife in a pipe to a certain height.
The fyphon engine aéts by caufing a fall of water to rarefy
acertain quantity of air, in whofe fpace the preflure of the
atmofphere forces a quantity of water when permitted.
6thly, Hence in the Chremnitz engine the preflure aGing
from within outwards tends to burl the veflels ufed in the
ftru€ture, and to open and extend any fifflures which may
chance to be inthem. 7thly, In the fyphon engine, the
preffure acting from without inwards, clofes all the parts of
which it is compofed more together. 8thly, The Chremnitz
engine will always raife water of a height nearly equal to that
of the original fall from one refervoir to another, f{uppofing
the original fall of any height whatfoever as 100 feet. The
fyphon engine will not aie water by one refervoir fo high
as ehirty feet in any cafe whatfoever, as there cannot be a
complete vacuum formed by it in the air-chamber, but only
an approximation to one.
From this comparifon, it will follow that wherever the
original fall of water is lefs than thirty-two feet, the fyphon
engine will be much preferable to the Chremnitz, as from
the feventh article of the comparifon it may be made of
the cheapeft materials, fuch as {trong wooden cafks and
wooden pipes, whereas the Chremnitz engine from the fixth
article muit be made of the itrongeft, and of courfe the moit
coitly materials, as metal, and that of confiderable thicknefs ;
but wherever the original fall exceeds the height of thirty
feet confiderably, and it is required to raife the water to
nearly the fame height, then the Chremnitz engine appears
to be preferable, as, in all probability, the fewer number of
parts which it will require in this cafe will more than com-
penfate for its coft in materials.
When it is required to raife water to a height much greater
than that of the original fall above the firit level, or from a
greater depth, either from the original fall being fhort, or
the
WATER. ;
the required height being great, it is better to employ an
engine in which the preflure of the water is made to act by
a pifton in an apparatus fimilar to that of a fteam-engine.
(See our article Pressure Engine.) When neither the fy-
phon engine nor the Chremnitz can be ufed without a
number of refervoirs, then the pifton preflure-engine ought
to be preferred, but this will much depend on the number
of refervoirs; for perhaps one or two in addition to the
Chremnitz might coft lefs than boring the cylinder of the
pifton-engine perfeét, and conftru€ting its additional ma-
chinery. For merely raifing water the powers of each are
nearly equal, depending entirely on the height of the original
fall of water.
Tt would be a great advantage of the pifton-preffure engine
if a fall of water could be applied to it without any watte, to
work mills or machinery for any purpofe; this would be of
very great confequence when the fall of water is of con-
fiderable height, and the ftream or fupply imall. We have
mentioned the advantage in this engine to have its ation made
elaftic, by the addition of an air-chamber, on the fame prin-
ciple as that ufed in engines for extinguifhing conflagrations.
Mr. Bofwell fuggefts that this might be effe€ted by making
the pifton hollow, and of a larger fize, to contain air for this
purpofe, as the air’s elafticity would then aét both on the
upper and lower preflure of the water.
Machine for raifing Water by the lateral Communication, from
the Motion of a Stream of Water running through a conical Tube.
—This machine operates by fuction, or more properly by the
preflure of the atmofphere, and is in fome re{petts fimilar to
the fyphon machine. (See fig. 9. Plate Water-works.)
AA reprefents a refervoir of water kept conftantly full, at
the fame time that the conical {pout, B, is running full under
a confiderable preflure ; D, a {pherical copper veflel, with a
tube, C, joined into its bottom, and rifing up within to fome
height above the centre of the {phere ; E, another tube joined
to the bottom of the {phere D, and terminating near its top ;
the lower part of this tube is bent, and the extremity of
it is introduced into the {maller apertures of the conical
tube B ; F,afpout or tube to empty the veflel D, when it
is filled with water which has been raifed up out of the re-
fervoir A ; G, a {mall tube pafling through the {pout F, and
rifing to near the top of the fphere, D, for the admiflion of
air to quicken the defcent of water out of that veflel. Both
thefe tubes are clofed at their lower ends by a leather valve
at the end of the lever L, which lever is fixed upon the
turning plug of a cock in the tube E, and has a weight upon
one end, in order that the other end may bear the valve up
againit the openings of the tubes F, G, with a confiderable
force, and alfo to fupport the weight of the {mall bucket I,
which is fufpended from the lever by a wire (at leaft when
the bucket is empty) ; H is a {mall ciftern to be filled with
water from the refervoir A, in the fame time that the
water is raifed up into D ; this muft be done by regulating
the cock, %, upon the pipe which fupplies the ciftern with
water. The ciftern H is provided with afyphon, which will
begin running as foon as the veffel is full of water, and will
foon empty it. The {mall bucket I, which is fufpended
from the lever L, is alfo furnifhed with a fyphon-tube, which
will begin to run and empty the bucket whenever it is quite
full, but not before.
The operation of the engine will be as follows :—The re-
fervoir A being kept conftantly full of water, and the coni-
cal tube B completely filled at its wider end by the water
which runs out of A, the force of the lateral motion of the
fluid will be increafed by the conical form of the tube B,
and will aé&t upon the end of the tube E to draw air out of
the fame, fo as to rarefy the air in the veffel D ; and the pref-
fure of the atmofphere upon the furface of the water in the
refervoir A, will caufe part of that water to rife up the
pipe C, to run over its top and fill the {phere D ; it will then
defcend through E, and join the ftream of water which flows
out at B. When the veflel D is full of water, if the valve at
the {pout F is opened, the water will run out.
In order to open the valve the cock & is regulated, that
the ciftern H will be filled foon after D is full, and the
fyphon of this ciftern beginning to empty the water it fills
the bucket I, which then overbalances the weight upon the
lever L, and opens the {pout F, and air-pipe G, and at the
fame time clofes the cock in E ; the column of water in the
defcending pipe C immediately defcends into the refervoir,
and if the {mall tube G be full of water it will be emptied
by the defcent of that column, and will admit air into D fo
as to allow the water to flow out at F into the elevated re-
fervoir. The fyphon in the ciftern H is regulated fo that
the ciltern and the veffel D will be empty of water about
the fame time, and the bucket I by its fyphon will become
empty foon after: the weight upon the lever L will then
clofe the fpout F, and open the paflage through E, when
all the parts will ftand as at firft ready for a repetition of
the operation of the lateral aétion of the ftream, by which
the water is raifed up into D as before.
If the water fhould defcend through E before F and G
are opened, it will render the cock in E more tight. To
quicken the reciprocation of the engine, and increafe the
quantity of raifed water, a valve may be made to fupport
the column of water in the fu@tion-pipe ; this valve may be
placed in a cheft at the bottom of the pipe.
The defcending branch of the fyphon in the higher veffel
H fhould be made of confiderable length, to prevent a con-
ftant dripping, and make the reciprocation end at once;
the fyphon of the bucket I fhould fall as large in bore as
the other, in order that the weight on L may preponderate
quickly, and clofe the valve immediately.
The inventor entertains no doubt refpeéting the operation
of amachine of this kind, and that a column of water may
be raifed to any height not exceeding thirty feet by pro-
portionally increafing the preffure of water in the refervoir,
and the dimenfions of the conical tube.
In many fituations, however, the requifite quantity of water
for this purpofe cannot be had, and others may not admit of
fufficient defcent.
Where the ftream has a confiderable defcent, the water
may be raifed by a number of lifts inftead of one, by com-
bining as many machines. Suppofe three refervoirs each
with its conical tube or {pout through which the water runs
from one to the other; alfo three exhaufting veffels each
with its elevated ciftern into which the raifed water is to be
delivered ; and the fuétion-pipe of each veffel draws its water
from the elevated ciftern of the veffel below it. From each
exhautting veffel a pipe is conveyed to the conical fpout of
one of the three refervoirs, and the lateral motion of the
{tream pafling through the fpouts of the three refervoirs will
aét upon all three engines at once.
In like manner, when there is plenty of water, but not
convenience for a deep refervoir, feveral conical fpouts may
be fixed to different parts of the refervoir, and all upon the
fame level. Each machine muft be provided with ‘a lever
and weight to work its own valves, but they may be all
opened at the fame time by the defcent of one veffel con-
neéted with all the levers, or each may have its refpeétive
bucket and fyphons.
This kind of machinery, by altering the pofition of the
rarefying tubes, may be made to raife water from a depth
below the ftream equally as well as toa height above it ; and
in
WATER.
in fituations where there is plenty of water and convenience
for a refervoir a lower body of water may be conveyed into
a ftream above by the help of a fingle tube, one end of
which is placed in the water to be raifed, and the other muift
be introduced into the {maller aperture of the conical tube
adapted to the refervoir ; a conttant ftream will then rife,
fo long as water below can fupply the tube.
Mr. Whitehurf?’'s Machine for raifing Water by its Mo-
mentum.—Fig. 7, Plate Water-works, is a reprefentation of
the firft machine on this principle, which was executed in
the year 1772, by the ingenious Mr. John Whiteburft, at
Oulton in Chefhire, at the feat of Mr. Egerton, for the fer-
vice of a brew-houfe and other offices, and which purpofe it
was found to anfwer effetually. This firft form of the
momentum machine would be a ufeful application in many
fimilar fituations. The circumftances attending this water-
work are as follow: A reprefents the fpring, or original re-
fervoir, which fupplies the water, the upper furface coincides
with the horizontal line BC, and the bottom of the refer-
voir K, into which the water is to beraifed ; D is the main-
pipe, one inch and a half in diameter, and nearly two hundred
yards in length; E, a branch-pipe, of the fame dimenfions,
for the fervice of the kitchen-offices. It is to be obferved,
that the kitchen-offices are fituated at leaft eighteen or
twenty feet below the furface of the refervoir A ; and that
the cock F is about fixteen feet below it. G reprefents a
valve-box, and g the valve within it ; H is an air-veffel, and
O, O, are the two ends of the main-pipe, inferted into the
air-veffel H, and bending downwards, fo that in effe& the
pipes communicate with the loweft part of the veffel, and the
air cannot efcape when the water is forced into it, but it
mutt be compreffed by the column of water; W is the fur-
face of the water in the air-veffel. It is well known from
theory that, when water is difcharged from an aperture, under
a preffure of fixteen feet perpendicular height, it will move
at the rate of thirty-two feet in a fecond; the velocity of
the water from the cock F will be nearly as much, makin
fome allowance for fri€tion and refiftance ; and although
the aperture of the cock F is not equal to the diameter of
the pipe D, yet the velocity of the water contained in the
pipe will be very confiderable ; confequently when the cock
is opened a column of water fwo hundred yards in length is
put into motion, and if it is fuddenly ftopped by the fhut-
ting-cock F, its momentous force will open the valve g,
and condenfe the air in veflel H ; this action will be repeated
as often as water is drawn from F. It is needlefs to fay in
what degree the air is thus condenfed in the inftance before
us; but it will be fufficient to obferve, that it was fo much
condenfed as to force the water up into the refervoir K, and
even to burft the veffel H, in a few months after it was firft
conftruéted, although it was apparently very firm, being made
of fheet-lead, about nine or ten pounds weight to a fquare
foot. Whence it is reafonable to infer that the momentous
force is much fuperior to the fimple preflure of the column
in the refervoir K, above the level line C B, and therefore
equal to a greater refiftance (if required) than a preflure of
four or five feet perpendicular height. It may be neceflary
farther to obferve, that the cookin of the water in
the kitchen-offices is very confiderable, becaufe water is fre-
ques drawing from morning till night all the days of
the year.
From this account which is publifhed in the Philofophical
CranfaGtions for 1775, it is clear that Mr. Whitehurft was
fully aware of the power of the momentum of running
water, and though he applied it only to raife water to a
{mall height, he knew it might be carried to a greater
extent,
Montgolfier’s Hydraulic Ram.—We have given the ac-
count of Mr. Whitehurft’s machine, becaufe it fhews the
firft origin of a moft valuable invention, which was after-
wards praétifed in France by M. Montgolfier, the inventor
of the firft balloon with heated air. Mr. Boulton took a
patent in England for Montgolfier’s machine in 1797 ; he
afterwards called his machine belier hydraulique, that is, hy-
draulic ram, becaufe of the fhock which the water makes
when its motion is fuddenly ftopped. In his publication in
the Journal des Mines, vol. xiii. he fays, ‘* This invention
is not originally from England, but belongs entirely to
France; I declare that I am the fole inventor, and that the
idea was not furnifhed to me by any perfon. It is true
that one of my friends, with my confent, fent to Mefirs.
Watt and Boulton copies of feveral drawings of this ma-
chine with a detailed memoir on its applications. Thefe
are faithfully copied in the patent taken out by Mr. Boul-
ton in England, dated December 13, 1797, as that gentle-
man has avowed.’? We do not wifh to detraét from the
merit of M. Montgolfier, as we believe that Whitehurft’s
machine was unknown to him, but we muft ftate the
hydraulic ram an Englifh invention. To have an idea of
this invention, it is proper to ftate its phyfical principle of
action, which is as follows.
When water is running with a rapid current through a
pipe or clofe channel, if the end at which the water iflues
be fuddenly ftopped, the water (by its acquired motion,
momentum, or impetus,) will a& upon the fides or circum-
ference of the pipe, and endeavour to efcape with a force
proportioned to its quantity and velocity. If the materials
of the pipe are ftrong enough to refift that impetus, the
water may be made to iffue with violence and velocity, at
any aperture which is opened in or near the clofe end of the
pipe; therefore if an afcending pipe be joined to that
aperture, a portion of water will afcend in it. The machine
being provided with proper valves, to prevent the return
of the water fo elevated, the operation may be repeated in
a conitant fucceffion, and will form a kind of perpetual
ump. ;
The fame effe& will be produced by a different arrange-
ment of this apparatus, viz. a pipe open at both ends, with
a valve and afcending-pipe, fuch has as been defcribed. Let
this be fo attached to fome kind of machinery, that it can be
{wiftly moved along, in the dire¢tion of its length, through
ftanding water ; then, upon clofing the hinder part of the
pipe fuddenly, a portion of water will be forced up in the
afcending-pipe, in the fame manner as in the former cafe,
and for the fame reafon, becaufe the water will be relatively
in motion with refpeé to the pipe.
The fame principle may be readily extended to raife
water by fuction from a lower level than that on which the
machine is placed, and this by either of the means above-
mentioned. Suppofe a fuction-pipe, which communicates
with water at a lower level, be joined to the main-pipe
through which the water flows, and that the junétion is
near that end of the pipe where the water enters into it.
Suppofe alfo that the water has acquired a rapid motion
through the pipe, either by the current of water running
through the pipe, or by the pipe moving through the water ;
then let the mouth or end at which the water enters be fudden-
ly fhut by the machinery, and the water by its momentum
will continue its motion relatively to the pipe, and will
tend to exhauft the content of the pipe. This aétion will
draw or fuck up water through the afcending-pipe from the
lower level, fo as to fill up the vacuity in the main-pipe, oc-
cafioned when the water therein perfeveres in its previous
motion.
The
WATER.
The firft and moft fimple hydraulic ram is fhewn in fec-
Rion at fig. 4. (Plate Water-works) ;: here CC reprefents
“the main-pipe, or body of the ram, through which the ftream
of current water is conduéted ; D, the afcending-pipe pro-
vided with a valve of exit at A, to allow the paflage of the
water which is raifed, but to prevent its return; B is a ftop-
valve to clofe the end of the main-pipe ; E is a balance-
weight fixed upon the lever G, which communicates with
another, K, attached to the axis of the ftop-valve B; this
weight tends to open the valve at the proper time. . The
main-pipe is to be fituated in a current or ftream of water,
either produced by the natural current or declivity of a
river or other ftream, or by penning up the water by a dam
or weir, and inferting the end of the main-pipe through the
dam, fo as to obtain the greateft fall of water which the
natural circumftances will admit of. To put the machine
in action, let the ftop-valve be opened to the pofition fhewn
in the figure, the water will run through the main-pipe C,
until it acquires a certain velocity which will be propor-
tioned to the height of the fall of water which produces
the current of water. The ation of the current upon the
ftop-valve B, in its reclined pofition, will increafé until it is
fufficient to overcome the weight E, and then it will fhut
the ftop-valve. The water being now fuddenly ftopped,
and confined in the pipe C, by its impetus or momentum,
will exert a confiderable force within the pipe, which will
open the other valve A, and a portion of the water will
rife up the afcending-pipe D. The force of the momentum
being expended in raifing this water, the water in the main-
pipe will immediately recover the equilibrium, and the
clofing of the valve A will prevent the return of the water
which is raifed in the afcending-pipe. The weight E now
defcends, and opens the ftop-valve B, and the water in the
main-pipe refumes its motion until its velocity is fufficient
to clofe the valve A again, and the operation of raifing the
water is again repeated.
This water gradually rifes in the afcending-pipe until it
reaches its fummit, and then a quantity will iffue from it at
every ftroke into a proper refervoir R. The quantity will be
more or lefs, according as the height to which it is raifed, and
to the velocity of the current, and the fize of the apparatus.
In this defcription, we have taken no notice of the aGtion of
the air-veflel J, at the bottom of the afcending-pipe D, al-
though its ufe is very important to the pra¢ticability of the
contrivance ; for where the water is to be raifed to any con-
fiderable height, the pipes, although formed of the beft mate-
rials that can be procured, will be in danger of rupture from
the great concuffion of the water when fuddenly checked ;
hence the rifing of the water would be limited to the height
of a few feet, or the pipes muft be made of an extraordinary
thicknefs, difregarding expence.
This danger of burfting the pipes is to be regarded in
every cafe of applying this invention to praétice ; but it
will be prevented, or very much diminifhed, by introducing
an air-veflel I. The water from the main-pipe enters at
every ftroke through the exit-valve A, and compreffes the
air in the veflel J, which again, by its expanfion or elafticity,
acts upon the water, (which is prevented from returning to
the pipe C by the fhutting of the exit-valve,) and therefore
rifes through the afcending-pipe, and by repeated ftrokes
acquires the defired height:
‘The dimenfions of the air-veffel, as well as its form and
pofition, and whether it is affixed to the main-pipe laterally
ox above, are in a great meafure arbitrary ; but its contents
of air ought not to be much lefs than ten times the quantity
of water to be raifed through the afcending-pipe at each
ftroke, and if very much larger ftill the better, the prin-
cipal boundary being expence.
The regulation of the ftop-valve B, is a principal point
in the conftru@tion of thefe machines. It may be opened
and fhut by the current, as has been defcribed, in a very
fimple manner, by adapting the valve to move upon an axle
or hinge, and affilting it to open at the proper time by a
weight attached to a lever fixed to its axis at the proper
angle. The valve fhould be prevented from opening to
fuch a degree, that the aétion of the current of water could
not fhutit. This muft be done by fome fixed refiftance be-
hind the valves, as fhewn at B, fig. 3, or by any other con-
venient means.
It is neceflary to adjuft the weight by experiment, fo as
to open the valve at the right time, according to circum-
ftances, which may be done either by fliding the weight
nearer to, or farther from, the centre of motion, or by in-
creafing or diminifhing the weight itfelf. The inconve-
mience of this method is, that the weight being generally
under water, it is troublefome to adjuit it; therefore the
mechanifm fhewn in fig. 4. is better adapted to the ftop-
valve. ‘The weight E is fitted upon a lever conneéted with
a {pindle, to which another arm or lever G is alfo fixed,
and that is connected by rod a, with the arm K fixed to the
valve.
The rod may be prolonged to any neceflary length, and
the weight and its mechanifm may be always placed above
water, fo as to be eafily come at for adjuitment. Valves
of this kind may be hinged either upon their lower or
upper edge, or upon one of the perpendicular fides as a
common door, as convenience requires, and the mechanifm
is connected accordingly.
When it is required to open the ftop-valve fo completely
that the current of water in the main-pipe cannot aé&t upon
it, to fhut it, a {mall ftream of water is led from the head,
which {upplies the main-pipe, or from fome other fource into
a pipe or trough, which is furnifhed with a cock to regulate
the quantity. This pipe or trough pours its water into the
bucket G, fig. 5, which caufes the bucket to preponderate,
and by means of the lever 4c, fixed to its axle, and the
rod cd attached to it, it fhuts the ftop-valve B, by the con-
ne¢tion of the lever de attached to it. The bucket then
empties its water, and the pendulous weight E, as foon as
the recoil of the water in the main-pipe takes place, prepon-
derating in its turn, opens the valve, and reftores the bucket
to its place. In this contrivance, by opening the cocks of
{upply more or lefs, and by adapting the capacity of the
buckets in proportion to the weight E, the number of f{trokes
to be made in any given time is regulated.
The ftop-valve may be conftruéted in a circular form,
and, inftead of being hinged upon one fide, may be fixed
upon a {pindle in its centre, which flides in a focket, fimilar
to what are called button-valves ufed in pnmp-work, and at
the proper time is opened by mechanifm fimilar to the
former ; or, in place of the weight, a {pring may be em-
ployed.
In conftru@ing large machines, where the fhock, from
fhutting the ftop-valve, might endanger the derangement of
the machine, other kinds of {top-valves will be preferable to
thofe before defcribed.
A very good form of valve is that which opens in two
leaves, like the gates of a canal-lock. The leaves may fhut
one upon another in the middle, or may fhut upon an up-
right bar placed there. ‘They are opened by the fame kind
oF mechanifm as we have defcribed before, only there muft
be two conne¢ting-rods, one to each leaf of the valve ; and
4
WATER.
thefe being united together, will caufé them to fhut both
together. The aperture for this valve is of a rectangular
A valve in two leaves, fuch as is called a butterfly-valve,
may alfo be hinged in the middle of the opening, but would
too much obftru@ the water-way. When the main pipe is
of a large diameter, (for inftance, two feet or upwards, )
the ftop-valve may be made in three, four, or more leaves
conneéted together by mechanifm, fimilar to Venetian win-
dow-blinds.
Another kind of valve is poifed upon an axis, like a com-
mon fire-ftove chimney damper ; the axis does not pafs
through its centre, but divides it into two unequal fegments.
The valve is not opened fo far as to ftand in the line of the
current of water, but, when opened, ftands inclined to that
current ; fo that the larger fegment being placed towards
the flream, the latter may by its a€tion fhut it at the proper
time. It is opened by mechanifm fimilar to the former.
Another kind of valve is a fpherical ball of porcelain, which
is fitted into a feat.
When the machine is made ufe of in an open river, which
- does not admit of having its water penned up by a weir or
dam-head, the main pipe ought to be laid fo as to be covered
by the low waters of the river ; and it ought to be parallel
to the furface of the river, fo as to have the greateft poffible
detlivity that can be obtained in the length of the main
pipe: its mouth or receiving end fhould be fhaped like that
re a trumpet or bell. In ‘all cafes whatfoever, the valves
ought to be conipletely under the furface of the water, in
the lower refervoir. :
Performance of the hydraulic Ram, (fee Ram).—M. Mont-
golfier, in his publication, fays, that a belier hydraulique, exe-
cuted with care, is capable of rendering three-fourths of the
force which is employed to move it, that is, the produ of the
weight of water raifed, multiplied by the height to which it
is raifed, will be equal to three-fourths of the produét of the
weight of water which works the machine, multiplied by
the height of the fall. Commonly it yields fix-tenths, but
he would only engage to furnifh half. Thus, if the water was
to be raifed 100 feet by a fall of 5 feet, he would engage
to make a machine which fhould deliver at 100 feet a
fortieth part of the whole quantity which fell. He recom-
mends particularly that the machine fhould be fixed in the
molt folid manner, by mafonry or timber, fo that the fhock
of the water can produce no motion of the machine, be-
caufe all fuch motion will dednét confiderably from the
quantity of water raifed. It is ftated that the machine will
make from 20 to 120 ftrokes per minute.
The dimenfions of an hydraulic ram at the bleaching
works of M. Turquet, near Senlis, in France, when re-
duced to Englifh meafure, are as follow: diameter of the
body of the ram 8 inches, fall of the water 3 feet 4 inches,
height to which the water is raifed 15 feet r inch. In three
minutes this machine made 100 ftrokes, which expended
67 cubic feet of water, and raifed 93 cubic feet: hence,
67 cubic feet x 34 feet = 223, and 9% cubic feet x 157
Now nae
feet = \e
ee 140. 235
is equal to ,¢),ths, fo that the
effe&t produced is above fix-tenths of the power applied. In
another experiment it was found to be 64-hundredths. This
machine raifed a quantity of water equal to 6.2 inches of water
(pouces de fontanier), for 269 litres which are nearly equal
to 280 pints, in three minutes; and the pouce de fontanier
is a meafure of running water equal to 14 pints (French)
per minute, or 796.37 cubic inches, Englifh. This ma-
chine working 24 hours will raife 134400 pints ( French), of
4512 cubic feet Englith, of water to a height of 15 feet
1inch. The water raifed by this machine is equal to £ the
power of a man, according to our ftandard. sd
M. Montgolfier recommends the pipe or body of the ram
to be of an equal diameter through the whole length; and
all internal irregularities are to be avoided, becaufe they
diminifh the velocity of the water: the ftrength of the pi
fhould be at leaft equal to fuftain a column of twice he
i to which it is intended to raife the water. “
He fays, that he executed one with a fall of 10 feet,
which compreffed the air in an air-veffel to an equal degree
with 40 atmofpheres, which, taking the preffure of the at-
mofphere equal to 33 feet of water, makes the preffure
equal a column of water 1320 feet in height. ’
Improved hydraulic Ram.—M. Montgolfier, the fon of
the inventor, has recently obtained a patent in England for
an improved hydraulic ram, in which, by attention to fome
minute particulars in the conftruétion, he is enabled to make
the length of the tube much lefs than in the former ma-
chines ; and he has even obtained a refult equal to 84 per
cent. of the power employed.
One of thefe improvements is the addition of a fmall
fnifting-valve, which, at each movement, ferves to introduce a
{mall quantity of air into the head of the ram, from whence
it is driven by the next movement into the air-veffel, which
would otherwife become filled with water, if the air, ab-
forbed by the contaé& of the water under a ftrong preffure,
were not continually replaced by fome fuch means.
Alfo, in the interior of the head of the ram is an annular
{pace, furrounding the frame of the ftop-valve: this con-
tains a {mall volume of air, which cannot be forced into the
air-veffel, but which, at each movement, is compreffed by
and receives the firft effort of the moving water. This he
calls the air-matrafs, and by means of it, the fhutting of
the ftop-valve makes lefs noife, the pipe is not ftrained, and
all the operations take place with fo much eafe, that the
machine is lefs fhaken, and lefs frequently out of repair.
The following is a defcription of the new machine.
That end of the pipe or body of the ram which receives
the water of the refervoir is formed like a trumpet-mouth,
that the water may flow more readily into the pipe ; and the
length of the pipe mutt be regulated according to the height
of the fall of water, which is to produce the current through
it. The pipe is compofed of feveral pieces or lengths
{crewed together by flanches, or other fimilar means; but
it is in the end piece, which is called the head of the ram,
that the moving parts of the machine are placed.
The extremity of the pipe or head of the ram is a hollow
fphere, the diameter of which is nearly twice as great as the
bore of this pipe: the upper part of the fpherical end is flat-
tened, fo as to reduce it to a fegment of a {phere, with a flat
circular furface on the top or upper fide, in the centre of which
furface is a large circular opening to receive and hold the
feat of the ftop-valves, at which fh water iffues; but when
the valve is clofed, it prevents the water from iffuing.
When the valve opens, it defcends perpendicularly into
the hollow f{phere, and leaves a free paflage through the
opening. Its motion is guided between three or four per-
pendicular ftems, which have hooks formed at the lower
ends to retain or im the valve when opened ; and thefe
ftems are fixed by fcrews, fo that they can be regulated to
allow the valve to defcend more or lefs, and open a greater
or lefs pole for the water. The valve is made of metal,
and hollow, for it has a flat circular plate of metal, with a
hollow cup or difh of metal attached to its lower furface :
this
WATER.
this at the fame time renders the valve lighter in the water,
and gives it a convex furface on the lower fide, which, when
the valve is opened, correfponds in curvature with the in-
terior concave furface of the fpherical end of the head of
the ram. The feat of* the valve is compofed of a fhort
cylinder or pipe, of which the opening is much greater than
the tranfverfe fe€tion of the body of the ram. This fhort
cylinder is fcrewed by its flanch into the opening in the
upper furface of the head of the ram. This flanch of the
feat is fo formed as to have an inverted cup round the upper
part of the fhort cylinder, that is, a circular channel or an-
nular {pace within the head of the ram, which will contain
air, and from which the air cannot efcape when the water
compreffes. The air in this channel is called the air-
matrafs.
The {nifting-valve is at the end of a fmall pipe, which
leads from the annular {pace or matrafs to the open air.
The {nifting-valve opens inwards, in order to admit the air
to enter into the matrafs; but to prevent its return, there is
another {mall valve in the fame pipe, which opens outwards :
the office of this is to admit a certain quantity of air into
the matrafs, and then to fhut and prevent any farther en-
trance.
On the outfide of the feat of the ftop-valve that is over
the aperture in the head of the ram, where the water iffues,
another ftop-valve is applied, which is fimilar to the internal
valve before mentioned, but fhuts down on the outfide of
the feat. Its ufe will be hereafter explained.
The upper part of the pipe or head of the ram is made
flat at the part near the end where it enlarges to a {phere ;
and this flat furface on the top of the pipe has feveral nar-
row openings acrofs it, which are covered by as many flap-
valves of leather, to allow water to pafs out from the main
pipe, but to prevent its return. And on each fide of the
head of the ram, at the part oppofite to thefe flap-valves, is
a hollow enlargement, in form of a fegment of a horizontal
circle; and the two enlargements taken together form a
circular bafon, through the centre of which the pipe of the
ram paffes; but, as before ftated, the pipe, inftead of being
circular, is flat at top at that part, to form the feats for the
flap-valves. This circular bafon js covered by a cylindrical
air-veflel, {crewed down by means of a flanch at the edge,
fo that the circular bafon forms the bottom of the {pace in
the air-veflel ; the flap-valves being covered by the_ air-veflel
are therefore within the veffel.
In confequence of this arrangement, all the water which
iffues from the body of the ram through the flap-valves will
flow off on each fide, and be received in the bafon; but as
the circular bafon or bottom of the air-veffel is divided into
two parts, by the pipe of the ram which paffes through it,
there is a paflage communicating from one of the enlarge-
ments to the other; for which purpofe, it curves down
and defcends beneath the pipe of the ram; and the afcend-
ing pipe that carries away the water which the machine
ratfes, proceeds either from this curved paflage or from
fome other part of the bafon, fo that it may receive the
water which has pafled from the body of the ram through
the flap-valves and the air-veffel into the bafon, at each fide
of the pipe.
The aétion of this hydraulic ram is nearly the fame as the
preceding. Suppofe the pipe or body of the ram is full of
water, if the internal ftop-valve is opened, the water from
the refervoir will flow through the body of the ram, and
iffue through the opening at the end, it will lift up the ex-
Aernal ftop-valve and efcape; but the current having con-
tinued until the water has acquired a certain velocity, the
force of the current buoys up the internal valve, -and clofes
Vou. XXXVIII.
the paflage. ‘The motion of the water contained in the ram
will thus be fuddenly arrefted, and by its wis inertie, or
moving force, will exert a fudden preflure againft the ftop-
valve, and againft all the interior parts of the ram. The
{mall quantity of air contained in the {pace around the
interior ftop-valve, which is called the air-matrafs, is com-
preffed into a fmaller fpace, and, by its elafticity, takes off
the violence of the fhock or blow which would otherwife be
produced. ‘his preffure opens the flap-valves on the top
of the pipe, which are within the air-veflel, and a portion of
the water will be driven into the air-veflel, which is fup-
pofed to be full of air, compreffed or condenfed, till its
elafticity equals the preflure of the column of water which
is to be raifed up the afcending pipe by the aGtion of the
machine.
The water which is forced into the air-veffel caufes the air
therein to be condenfed, and to exert a greater degree of elafti-
city, until it will exceed the preffure of the column of water
in the afcending-pipe ; by degrees this air will therefore
force through the faid pipe all the water which was injected
through the flap-valves, and caufe that quantity of water to
iffue Fat the upper extremity of that pipe.
The moving force, or vis inertie of the mafs of water,
which was in motion in the body of the ram, having expend-
ed itfelf by forcing a portion of water into the air-veflel, and
making a {till greater compreffion of the contained air, a re-
coil of the water in the body will take place with a flight
motion from the valve towards the open end of the body 5
this arifes from the reaétion or elafticity of the air contained
in the air-matrafs, and alfo of the metal of which the tube
is compofed.
The flap-valves within the air-veffel fhut, and prevent the
return of the water which has been forced into the air-
veflel. This recoil of the water in the body towards the
open end caufes a flight afpiration within the whole body. of
the ram, and the external ftop-valve defcends by its weight,
and prevents the water with which it is covered from enter-
ing through it; but the air paffes through the {mall Pipe,
leading from the open air to the annular {pace or air-ma-
trafs, and opens the fnifting-valve, and a {mall quantity of
air is fucked into the matrafs; but this is a very {mall
quantity, becaufe the external air-valve clofes as foon as the
air flows with a rapid current through the pipe and fnifting-
valve.
During the recoil, the internal {top-valve having nothing
to fuftain falls by its weight, and opens the paflage ; and as
foon as the force of the recoil has expended itfelf in a@ting
again{t the column of water contained in the refervoir at the
open end of the body, the water begins again to flow
through the body in its original dire€tion, and repeats the
action before defcribed.
It fhuts the internal ftop-valve when it has acquired the
intended velocity, and being thus ftopped, the efflux of the
vis inertie condenfes the air-matrafs, and opening the flap-
valves, forces a quantity of water into the air-veffel, from
which the rea€tion of the contained air will drive it up the
afcending-pipe. ;
The vis inertie of the moving column of water being thus
expended, the recoil commences by the rea¢tion of the air in
the matrafs, the flap-valves fhut, and the external ftop-
valve likewife ; the afpiration produced by the recoil draws
fome air through the f{nifting-valve, and it joins the air in the
matrafs. The internal ftop-valve falls open by its weight
and opens the paflage, fo that the water in the pipe can re-
fume its motion when the recoil has exhaufted itfelf.
The {mall quantity of air which is drawn into the ma-
chine through the air-valve, at each afpiration, caufes an ac-
cumulation
WATER.
cumulation of air in the matrafs ; and when the afpiration
of the recoil takes place, a {mall quantity of this air paffes
from the annular fpace, and proceeds along the pipe till it
arrives beneath the patie and lodging in the {mall {pace
beneath thefe valves, it will be forced into the air-veflel at
the next ftroke, by which means the air-veflel is always kept
filled with air.
The following are the dimenfions of a machine which is
calculated to vais water up the tube to 100 feet above the
furface of the water in the refervoir, when the fall by which
it is worked is five feet, that is, where the level of the water
in the refervoir is five feet above the lower level; and the
length of the pipe from the open end to where the water is
difcharged is to be twenty feet long, and fix inches in
diameter.
Such a machine may be expected to expend about feventy
cubic feet per minute to work it, and to raife up about two
and one-third cubic feet per minute ; but thefe quantities
cannot be exaétly ftated, becaufe they depend upon the care
and accuracy with which the machine is conftruéted.
Under different circumftances, having a greater or lefs
fall or quantity or water, the dimenfion of the machine
mutt be calculated accordingly.
The improvements in this laft form of the hydraulic ram
are,
Firft, that by conftru€ting the head of the ram with the
upper fide of the pipe flat, and applying the flap-valves im-
mediately upon the top, there is very little {pace to contain
dead er, that is, water which will be motionlefs when the
current takes place in the pipe ; and by dividing the fingle
valve of the original machine into feveral {mall and narrow
valves, they open and {hut more fuddenly, and with lefs lofs
of water.
Secondly, in making the bafon on each fide of the pipe,
which bafon is on a lower level than the flap-valves.
By this means the water will flow off from the flap-valve on
each fide, and at the inftant when the machine performs its
ftroke, and forces water through the faid valves into the air-
veffel, the valves will not be covered, or at leaft very flightly
covered by water; confequently, when thofe valves open, and
the water is forced into the air-veffel, it has only the com-
preffed air to oppofe it, which from its elafticity allows the
water to enter with more facility than if it was refifted by a
column of water refting upon the valves ; not that there is any
lefs hydroftatic preffure upon the valves, becaufe it is the air
which bears upon them, inftead of the water, but there is a
lefs mafs of matter to be put in motion by the water which
enters into the air-veflel: for it has only the matter con-
tained in the valves themfelves to put in motion.
Thirdly, in applying the external ftop-valve, the ufe of
which is to prevent the water returning into the ram when
the recoil takes place, and having this provifion, a greater
quantity of air can be employed in the matrafs than could
otherwife conveniently be done; this renders the fhock
which takes place when the ftop-valve is fhut lefs fudden.
We have examined feveral of thefe machines made in France
by the inventor, and can with confidence recommend them
to engineers as the very beft machine, and the moft fimple
for raifing water when there is a natural fall. The laft im-
provements, as they enable us to fhorten the length ef the
body of the ram to nearly one-third, without in ar the
performance, are very important. .
The hydraulic ram is adapted to give motion to the hy-
droftatic preffes, which are in common ufe under the name
of Bramali’s prefles. For this purpofe, it is only neceflary
to apply the afcending-pipe to the cylinder of the hydraulic
prefs, and at each “ftroke of the ram a {mall quantity of
water will be forced or inje€ted into the cylinder of the
prefs, and will thus produce the afcent of the pifton of the
prefs in the fame manner as is now performed by the fmall
injection-pump worked by the force of men. But by the
application of the hydraulic ram to that purpofe, the prefs
can be worked in any fituation where there is a fmall fall of
water, and the ram may be fet in motion whenever the prefs
is wanted.
An Hydraulic Ram, or Momentum Machine a@ing by Su&ion,
is fhewn at fist. 2and 3. Plate Water-works. This is appli-
cable in cafes where the water to be raifed is below the level
of the main-pipe, and is to be difcharged at that level ; a cafe
which frequently occurs in the drainage of marfhy lands,
where the action of the current of water, in an embanked
river, or other ftream or fource of water on a higher level,
can be employed ; or this method can be applied in raifin
water out of the holds of fhips by the motion of the veffe
through the water; alfo to raife water out of a well of mo-
derate depth.
C reprefents a portion of the main-pipe; B, fig. 2. is
the ftop-valve fituated at the entrance of the pipe, and open-
ing outwards fo as to ftop the paflage of the pipe when it is
fhut ; D, the afcending or fucking-pipe, communicating
with the well at the bottom and with the main-pipe at the
top; J isthe air-veffel ; and E the weight of the ftop-valve
of the main-pipe. ‘There is likewife a valve A opening
from the air-veffel into the main-pipe. *
The water in the main-pipe having acquired a proper ve-
locity by the current, as in the former cafes, the ftop-valve
B fhuts, and the water in the main-pipe continuing its mo-
tion for a time, draws air out of the air-veflel J, through the
valve A. The momentum of the water in the main-pipe
being foon expended it recoils, the receiving-valve A fhuts
to prevent the return of the water into the air-veffel, and the
ftop-valve B opens by the action of the weight E, the water
thus regains its paflage, and foon acquires fufficient ve-
locity to clofe the ftop-valve again, and the operation is
repeated.
Thus in a few ftrokes the exhauftion is increafed till the
air-veffel fucks up water from below, through the afcending-
pipe D, or rather the preflure of the atmofphere on the fur-
face of the valve below forces it up, when the preffure on
the furface within the air-veffel is removed by the ex-
hauftion. This aétion being continued, the afcending-pipe
fills by degrees to the top, after which, at every fucceflive
ftroke, a portion of the water from below pafles into the
main-pipe, and is carried off into the pipe C, where it mixes
with the upper water.
In cafes where the water of the tide or other alternating
current is employed as the motive power, the apparatus may
be conftrufted in two ways, either by applying a ftop-
valve, air-veffel, and afcending-pipe, fuch as is fhewn at one
end in fig. 4. to each end of the main-pipe C, to be uféd al-
ternately, according as the tide fets in the one direGtion or
the other ; or otherwife by applying two main pipes to one
air-veffel, their mouths being placed in oppofite dire€tions
and to be ufed alternately, and applied to the raifing of water,
for the ufe of falt-works, or for other ufes, fuch as the fup-
ply of a country-houfe.
The firft machine above defcribed may be employed to
raife water to {mall heights by the motion of the waves of
the fea, or of any large pieces of water ; in which cafe the
mouth or receiving end of the main-pipe fhould be formed
like a {peaking-trumpet, as fhewn in fg. 4. and placed op-
pofite to the direction in which the waves beat upon the
fhore at the place where the machine is. The water of the
waves will enter the main-pipe, and rufh through it until
; the
WATER.
the ftop-valve fhuts; when the contained water will in part
enter the air-veflel by the action already defcribed, and the
next wave will produce another ftroke.
Momentum-Pump, or Momentum-Machine, to raife Water
by the Application of mechanical Power.—Where a fall of
water cannot be obtained, fig. 1. fhews an application of this
momentum principle, in lieu of pumps for raifing water, the
main-pipe being put in motion through the water by the
ftrength of men, or other mechanical power in default of a
current, as in the other cafes.
CC is the main-pipe bent in a fpiral form round the air-
veflel J; it may either be made to touch it, or be kept at a
diftance from it, and may make one or more revolutions
round the faid veflel; the whole of the main-pipe is im-
merfed in the external water which is to be raifed. Both
ends of the pipe are open to the water; but one of them
has the ftop-valve opening inwards, which will occafionally
clofe it, and near this latter end, a communication is made
by a fide-pipe with the air-veffel, the orifice being covered
by a valve opening into the yeflel. The whole turns upon
a pivot K, at the lower end of the afcending-pipe D, which
ferves as an axis, and is kept upright by a collar, in which it
turns, as fhewn at L. Upon this axis a toothed wheel M
is fixed, and is put in motion by another wheel N, turned
by a winch, crank, or other contrivance.
At the top, or upper end of the afcending-pipe, the
water is difcharged into a trough, which furrounds it, and
conveysit to the place of its deftination.
This apparatus is made to raife water by a continued ro-
tative motion, the open end moving firft, through the water
which paffes out again through the other end ; but whenever,
by that motion, the main-pipe has attained a proper velo-
city, the ftop-valve fhuts fuddenly, and by the concuffion
the water pafles into the air-veflel, from whence the egrefs
of the water is prevented by the fhutting of the exit-valve.
The ftop-valve then opens by means of a {pring in lieu of a
weight, as in the former cafes, and the apparatus continuing
to revolve in the fame direétion, more ftrokes are made at
intervals proportioned to the velocity with which it moves.
The {pring of the ftop-valve fhould be fo regulated in force
as to allow the relative motion of the water in the main-pipe
to fhut the ftop-valve at proper intervals. The perpen-
dicular feétion of the main-pipe is drawn {quare, but may
be circular, or of any other convenient figure. A horizontal
fe&tion of it is fhewn at fig. 6, with the main-pipe and the
air-veffel,
In lieu of the wheel N, which produces a continued
rotatory motion, the machine may be made to vibrate or
{wing upon an axis, backwards and forwards, the limits of
the vibration or ftroke being determined by a detent ftriking
againit a {tiff fpring. In this cafe, the main-pipe fhould
be provided with ftop-valves at both ends, and alfo have a
communication at each end with the air-veffel, which open-
ings fhould be clofed by valves to prevent the return of the
water from it. Such a machine may be put in motion by
the following means: upon the afcending-pipe D, a double
pulley is fixed, round which are wound the ropes, and by
pulling the ends of thefe alternately, the apparatus may be
made to revolve in either direGtion. The main-pipe and
the afcending-pipe being filled with water by hand or
otherwife, if the ropes are pulled alternately, they will
make the pipe move through the water with fufficient velo-
city to make the apparatus a@. It is found if the appa-
ratus makes about thirty vibrations in each minute, that it
will a& very completely.
Hydraulic machines are of the greateft importance to
fociety, whether we look to a fupply of the firft neceffity
for domeftic ufes, or to the advantageous ufes of negle@ed
though valuable firft movers. Thefe machines muft, in moft
cafes, be modified by localities, and other circumftances ;
and confequently the moft ufeful praétical knowledge will
not confift in any acquaintance with. one or more of the beft
engines, but with that great variety of happy contrivances
which inquiry and refleGtion muft point out. We have; as
far as our limits permit, given all the machines which are
practically ufeful, and we fhall conclude this article by
giving Dr. Young’s catalogue of the moft important and
valuable writings on hydraulic engines.
Ramelli’s Colleétion of Hydraulic Machines, in French
and Italian, 1588, folio.
Defcriptio Machine Hydraulice curiofe Conftruéta,
Joh. Georg. Faudieri, Venet. 1607.
Bates on Art and Nature, 1635.
Nouvelle inveution de lever Veau plus haut que la fource
avec quelque machines mouvantes par le moyen de Peau,
&c. par Ifac de Caus, 1657.
Jofephi Gregorii a Monte Sacr. Principia phifico-mecha-
nica diverfarum machinarum feu inftrumentorum pneumatics
ac hydraulices, Venct. 1664.
Nouvelle Machine Hydraulique, par Francini Journ. des
Scav. 1669.
[An account of this machine is likewife given in the
Archite&ture Hydraulique of Belidor, tom. ii. ; and in the
2d vol. of Defaguliers’ Experimental Philofophy : in both
which performances many other hydraulic machines are
defcribed. ]
An Undertaking for raifing Water, by Sir Samuel More-
land.. Phil. Tranf. 1674. N° 102.
An Hydraulic Engine. Phil. Tranf. 1675. N° 128.
A cheap Pump, by Mr. Conyers. Phil. Tranf. 1677.
N° 136. °°
M de Hautfeuille, Reflexions fur quelque Machines 4
elever les eaux, avec fa defcription d’une nouvelle pompe,
fans frottement, et fans pifton, &c. 1682. :
Elevation des eaux par toute forte des Machines, reduite
a la mefure, au poids, a la balance, par le moyen d’un nou-
veau pifton et corps de pompe, et d’un nouveau mouvement
cyclo-elliptique et rejetant Pufage de toute forte de mani-
velles ordinaires, par le Chevalier Morland, 1685.
A_new Way of raifing Water, enigmatically propofed
by Dr. Papin. Phil. Tranf. 1685. N° 173. The folu-
tions by Dr. Vincent and Mr. R. A. in N° 177.
M. du Torax, Nouvelles Machines pour épuifer eau
des foundations, qui, quoique trés fimples font un effet
furprennant, 1695. Joun. des Scav. 1695. p. 293.
An Engine for raifing Water by the help of Fire, by
Mr. Thomas Savery. Phil. Tranf. 1699. N° 253.
D. Papin nouvelle maniere pour lever eau par la force
du feu; a Caffel, 1707.
Memoire pour la conftru€tion d’une pompe qui fourni
continuelment de l’eau dans le refervoir, par.M. de la Hire,
Mem. Acad. Scien. Paris, 1716.
Defcription d’une machine pour elever des eaux, par M.
de la Faye, Mem. Acad. Scien. Paris, 1717.
Joh. Jac. Bruckmann’s und Joh. Heinr. Weber’s Ele-
mentar-mafchine oder univerfal-mittel bey allen waffer-hebun-
gen. Caffel, 1725.
Jacob Leopold, Theafri machinarum hydraulicarum,
1724 €t 1725.
Joh. Frid. Weidleri tra€tatus de machinis hydraulicis
toto terrarum orbe maximis Marlyenfi et Londinenfi, &c.
1727. Vide AG, erudit. Lipf. 1728.
A Defcription of the Water-works at London-bridge,
by H. Beighton, F. R. fs Phil. Tranf. 1731. N° a,
2 n
WATER.
An account of a new engine for raifing water, in which
horfes or other animals draw without any lofs of power
(which has never yet been practifed) ; and how the ftrokes
of the pifton may be made of any length, to prevent the
lofs of water by too frequent opening of valves, &c. by
Walter Churchman. Phil. Tranf. 1734.
Sur l’effet d’une machine hydraulique propofée, par M.
Segner, par M. Leon. Euler. Mem. Acad. Scien. Ber-
lin, 1750.
Seon de la machine hydraulique de M. Segner, a
toutes fortes d’ouvrages et de fes avantages fur'les autres
machines hydrauliques, par M. Leon. Euler. Mem, Acad.
Scien. Berlin, 1751.
[{M. Segner’s machine is no other than the fimple yet
truly ingenious contrivance known by the name of Barker’s-
mill, which has been defcribed in the 2d volume of Defa-
uliers’ Philofophy, fome years before the German pro-
fie made any preienfions to the honour of the invention.
The theory of it is likewife treated by John Bernouilli at
the end of his Hydraulics. }
Recherches fur une nouvelle maniére d’elever de l’eau
propofée, par M. de Mour, par M. L, Euler. Mem. Acad.
Berlin, 1751.
Difcuffion particulidre de diverfes maniéres d’elever del’eau
par le moyen des pompes, par M. L. Euler. Mem. Acad.
Berlin, 1752.
Maximes pour arranger le plus avantageufement les ma-
chines deftinées a elever de l’eau par le moyen des pompes,
par M. L. Euler, Mem. Acad. Ber. 1752.
RefleG@tions fur les machines hydrauliques, par M. le
Chevalier D’Arcy, Mem. Acad. Scien. Paris, 1754.
Memoires fur les pompes, par M. le Chevalier de Borda,
Mem. Acad. Scien. Paris, 1768.
Dan. Bernouilli, Expofitio theoretica fingularis machine
hydraulice. Figuris helvetiorum exftruéte. Nov. Com.
Acad. Petrop. 1772.
Abhandlungen von der Wafferfchraube, von D. Scherffer,
Priefter Wien. 1774.
Recherches fur les moyens d’exécuter fous l’eau toutes
fortes de traveaux hydrauliques, fans employer, aucun epuife-
ment, par M. Coulumb. 1779.
Saemund Magnuffen, Holm, Efterretning om fkye pum-
pen Kiobenhavn, 1779.
Moyen d’augmenter la vitefle dans le mouvement de la
vis d’Archimede fur fon axe, tire des mémoires manufcrits
de M. Pingeron, fur les arts utiles et agréables. Journ.
d@’Agric. Juin. 1780.
he Theory of the Syphon, plainly and methodically
iluftrated, 1781. ( Richardfon. )
Memoria fopra la nuova tromba funiculare umiliata, dal.
Can. Carlo. Caftelli. Milano, 1782.
Differtation de M. de Parcieux fur le moyen d’elever
lV’eau par la rotation d’une corde verticale fans fin Amfter-
dam et Paris, 1792.
Theorie der Wirzichen fpiral pumpe erlaitert von Heinr.
Nicander, Schwed, Abhandl. 1783. ;
Jac. Bernouilli, Effai fur une nouvelle machine hydrau-
lique propre a elever de l’eau, et qu’on peut nommer
machine pitotienne. Nov. Aét. Acad. Petrop. 1786.
K. Ch. Langfdorf’s Berechnungen iiber die vortheil-
heftere benutzung angelegter fammelteiche zur betreibung
der mafchinen. A&. Acad. Ele&. Mogunt, 1784, '1785-
Nicander’s Theorie de f{piral pumpe, 1789.
Nouvelle architecture hydraulique, par M. Prony, 1790,
1796.
A fhort account of the invention, theory, and pra@tice of
fire-machinery ; or introduétion to the art of making ma-
chines, vulgarly called fteam-engines, in order to extraét
water from mines, convey it to towns, and jets d’eaux im
gardens, to procure water-falls for fulling, hammering,
ftamping, rolling, and corn-mills, by William Blakey, 1793-
Egerton.
Machines aétuated by the Force of Currents or Streams of
Water.—Thefe are very numerous, but all may be reduced
to two kinds.
Firft, thofe which are adapted to receive the impulfe of
aie water ; that is, water which has been put in motion
in confequence of a defcent towards the earth previoufly to
its operating on the machine, which muft be provided with
parts proper to refift and take away fome of the motion of
fuch}water, and it will thereby receive motion which may be
applied to produce fome mechanical effe&t. Of this kind are
underfhot and horizontal water-wheels.
Secondly, thofe machines which are provided with fome
kinds of buckets or veffels to contain water, the weight of
which buckets, and the water they contain, is fupported by
the machine, fo that the water cannot defcend towards the
earth in confequence of its gravitation, without giving mo-
tion to the buckets or veffels which contain and fupport it-
Of this kind is the over-fhot water-wheel, breaft-wheel,
chain of buckets, and preflure-engine.
In either cafe, the motive force or power is the fame ;
viz. the gravitation and motion of fuch bodies or mafles of
water as are found more elevated above the furface of the
earth than the general level of the fea, or of fome other
water in its neighbourhood ; fuch water will defcend by the
force of gravity until it joins the fea, or until it is fupported
or held up by fome fixed obftacle. y
The difference between the two kinds of machines is, that
in the firft cafe the water is fuffered to defcend before it
operates upon the machine, and in confequence of its gra-
vitation, acquires motion with a velocity proportioned to
the fpace through which it has defcended ; and the office
of the machine is to take from the moving water as much
of its compounded weight and motion, or power, as it can
obtain.
In the other cafe, the machine receives its motion and
power at the fame time, when the water acquires it, by de-
{cending ; or, in other words, the machine moves with the
water.
The word power, ‘as ufed in praétical mechanics, fignifies
the exertion of ftrength, gravitation, impulfe, or preffure,
fo as to produce motion ; and a machine a€tuated by means
of ftrength, gravitation, impulfe, or preflure, compounded
with motion, is capable of producing an effe&t: and no
effe&t is properly mechanical but what requires fueh a kind
of power to produce it.
The mufcular power of animals, as likewife preffure, im-
pact, gravity, ele&tricity, &c. are looked upon as forces,
or fources of motion ; for it is an incontrovertible faé& that
bodies expofed to the free aétion of either of thefe are put
in motion, or have the ftate of their motion chan All
forces, however various, can be meafured by the effeéts they
produce in like circumitances; whether the effects be
creating, accelerating, retarding, or defleéting motions:
the effeét of fome general and commonly obferved force is
taken as unity.
The moft proper meafure of power is the act of raifing
fome weight with fome velocity of motion ; that is, the
overcoming of the gravitating force of a weight in fuch de-
gree as to produce motion in oppofition to gravity. In
confidering the quantum, the weight or ma{s of matter
operated upon muit be one quantity, and the velocity of the
motion communicated isthe other; the mechanical power A
the
WATER.
the contpound of both. We can only meafure the weight
of any body or mafs of matter by its relation to fome other
weight with which we are acquainted ; hence we fay, the
weight is equal to fo many pounds, or fo many cubic feet of
water. In like manner, we meafure the velocity or intenfity
of the motion, by ftating the height or perpendicular dif-
tance from the earth, (meafured by relation to fome known
diftance, as a foot or a yard,) through which height the
weight is raifed in fome known {pace of time, as a fecond or
a minute.
For inftance, 528 cubic feet of water is a known weight
or mafs of water: let a machine operate upon this, and raife
it upwards, through the {pace of one foot in the time of
one minute; then 528 x r x 1 = 528 is the number
which reprefents the power which the machine exerts. Sup-
pofe another machine to operate on 132 cubic feet of water,
and raife it four feet in one minute, then ufing the fame
meafures to determine the quantities of weight, height, and
time, we fay 132 x 4 x 1 = 528; hence thefe two ma-
chines are equal in the power which they exert ; for in all
cafes the weight raifed is to be multiplied by the height to
which it can be raifed in a given time, and the produ& ts the
meafure of the power expended in raifing it ; confequently,
all thofe powers are equal whofe produéts made, by {uch
multiplication, are equal; for example, take two powers,
if one can‘in any given time raife twice the weight to the
fame height, or the fame weight to twice the height, in the
fame time that the other power can, the firft power is
double the fecond; or, if one power can raife half the
weight to double the height, or double the weight to half
the height, in the fame time that another can, thofe two
powers are equal: but note, all this is to be underftood
only in cafes of flow or equable motion of the body raifed,
for in quick, accelerated, or retarded motions, the vis iner-
tie of the matter moyed will make a variation.
The machines a€tuated by the impulfe of flowing water
are, the underfhot water-wheel, horizontal wheels, and Dr.
Barker’s mill. It is a common expreffion to call all wheels
in which the water runs or fhoots under the wheel, under-
fhot ; but in this place we fhall only {peak of
Underfhot Water-Wheels, ating by the Impulfe of flowing
Water.—Thefe are the moft ancient and original forms
of water-machines, although if they had been invented from
the refult of reafoning, fuch as we have given, they would
have been the laft, becaufe their manner of action is lefs
obvious ; but this was not the cafe. The firft machines
were wheels placed in a river or running ftream, and pro-
vided with vanes or wings on the circumference, called
floats; the floats at the lower part of the wheel, dipped into
the itream to intercept the water. When the plane of the
floats became perpendicular to the direétion of the current,
or nearly fo, they would refift or oppofe the motion of the
water, and the wheel would obtain motion from it in pro-
portion to the quantity of motion, its floats abftracted from
the water of the ftream. The power thus obtained would be
found to be only a {mall proportion of the power of the
ftream, becaufe the water would eafily efcape fideways from
the floats, particularly if it were attempted to take away any
confiderable fhare of the velocity of the water, by refitting
or loading the wheel, fo as to make it move flowly. Hence
it became an obvious improvement to contraét the river to
the exaé& fize of the float-boards of the wheel, or to make
a clofe channel in which the wheel exaGtly fits. The next im-
provement would be to intercept the river or ftream of
water by a dam, or obftacle, in order to make it pen up, or
accumulate, till it had rifen to the greateft height which
could be obtained, and to let the water out of the dam or
refervoir into the channel or wheel-courfe, through a verti-
cal aperture or door, level with the bottom of the wheel-
courfe ; in this way, the water would be urged by the pref-
fure of thé water in the dam, and would rufh out from the
aperture in a ftream or fpout, with a velocity proportioned
to the perpendicular preffure, and would {trike the float-
boards of the wheel fo as to urge them forwards. Such is
the form of the underfhot wheels ftill generally employed in
France and on the continent ; but in England they have
been long fuperfeded by more effeétual applications of- the
power of the water, and it is very rarely we meet with
an underfhot wheel aéting by the impulfe of the water.
They are called ground-fhot wheels, becaufe the water runs
or fhoots along the ground or floor of the channels in which
the wheels work,
It was firft proved by Mr. Smeaton, in 1754, that
only a portion of the power of any fall of water could be
obtained by means of an underfhot wheel; for M. Beli-
dor had not long before {tated the underfhot wheel as the
beft mode of applying a fall of water. It was one of the
continual occupations of Mr. Smeaton, during forty years,
to improve the old water-mills, by fubftituting breaft-wheels
for underfhot ; and the advantages were uniformly fo great,
that thefe mills were copied by others, until fcarcely any of
the original conftru€tion remained. We do not mean that
Mr. Smeaton invented the breaft-wheel, for it is defcribed by
Leopold ; but he firft inveftigated its comparative ad-
vantages.
It is from this circumftance that we find, in all the mecha-
nical writings of foreign authors, much more mathematical
inveftigation relative to the underfhot water-wheels than the
importance of the fubjeét deferves, and we fhall difmifs it
more briefly.
The excellent paper by Mr. Smeaton, in the Philofophi-
cal Tranfactions for 1759, contains a numerous lift of expe-
riments moft judicioufly contrived by him, and executed
with the accuracy and attention to the moft important cir-
cumftances which are to be obferved in all that gentleman’s.
performances.
Mr. Smeaton’s rules were originally deduced from expe-
riments made on working models, which are the beft means _
of obtaining the outlines in mechanical enquiries; but in
every cafe it is neceflary to diftinguifh the circumftances in
which a model differs from a machine at large, otherwife a
model is more apt to lead from truth than towards it ; and
we muft not, without great caution, transfer the refults of
fuch experiments to large works. But we may fafely tranf-
fer the laws of variation, which refult from a variation of
circumftances, although we muft not adopt the abfolute
quantities of the variations themfelyes. Mr. Smeaton was
fully aware of the limitations to which conclufions drawn
from experiments on models are fubje&t, and has made the
applications with his ufual fagacity. The beft ftructure of
machines cannot be fully afcertained but by making trials
with them, when made of their proper fize.
Mr. Smeaton’s Principles for Underfhot Wheels.—In com-
paring the effe& produced by water-wheels with the powers,
producing them ; or, in other words, to know what part of
the original poweris neceffarily loft in the application, we muft
previoufly know how much of the power is {pent in overcom-
ing the fri€tion of the machinery, and the refiftance of the
air; alfo, what is the real velocity of the water at the in-
{tant it ftrikes the wheel; and the real quantity of water
expended in a given time.
The velocity Mr. Smeaton meafured in a moft fatisfaGtory
manner in every experiment, by applying a cord and weight
to the axle of the wheel, not to wind up the weight by the
motion
WATER.
motion of the wheel, but that the weight by defcending
fhould turn the wheel. He applied fo me 3 weight as would
make the wheel turn, and make its floats move with the ve-
locity which he defired or expeéted the effluent water to
have ; and this weight he adjufted until he found, by re-
peated trials, that the wheel moved juft at the fame rate,
whether the water was fuffered to flow and ftrike its floats, or
whether the water was ftopped, which proved that the floats
of the wheel moved with precifely the fame velocity as the
effluent water ; then by meafuring the circumference of the
wheel, and counting the number of turns it made in a mi-
nute, he obtained the meafure of the velocity.
From the velocity of the water at the inftant that it
ftrikes the wheel, the height of head produétive of fuch
velocity can be deduced from acknowledged and experi-
mented principles of hydroftatics; fo that by multiplying
the quantity ar weight of water really expended in a given
‘time by the height of a head fo obtained, which mutt be
confidered as the effeCtive height from which that weight of
‘water had defcended in that given time, we fhall havea pro-
du& ‘equal to the original power of the water, and clear of
all uncertainty that would arife from the friction of the water
in pafling {mall apertures, and from all doubts arifing from
thé different meafure of {pouting waters, afligned by dif-
ferent authors.
On the other hand, the fum of the weights raifed by the
‘action of this water, and of the weight required to over-
come the fri€ion and refiftance of the machine, multiplied
by the height to which the weight can be raifed in the time
given, the produ€& will be equal to the effeét of that
power ; and the proportion of the two produéts will be the
proportion of the power to the effect: fo that by loading
the wheel with different weights fucceffively, we fhall be
able to determine at what particular load and velocity of the
wheel the effet is a maximam.
From experiments conduéted in this mamer, Mr. Smea-
ton fettled the following maxims :
Maxim 1. That the virtual or effeCtive head of water, and
eonfequently its efluent velocity being the fame, the mechani-
cal effe& produced by a wheel a&tuated by this water will
- be nearly in proportion to the quantity of water expended.
Note. The virtual or effective head of any water which is
moving with a certain velocity, is that height from which’a
heavy body muft fallin order to acquire the fame velocity.
The height of the virtual head, therefore, may be eafily
determined from the velocity of the water; for the heights
are as the fquare of the velocities ; and the velocities, con-
fequently, as the fquare roots of the heights. Mr. Smea-
ton obferved the velocity of the effluent water in all his ex-
periments, and thence calculated the virtual head ; he {tates
that the virtual head bears no proportion to the real head or
depth of water; but that when cither the aperture is
eater, or when the velocity of the water iffuing therefrom ~
efs, they approach nearer toa coincidence ; and confequently,
in the large openings of mills and fluices, where great quan-
tities of water are difcharged from moderate heads, the
atual head of water, and the virtual head, as determined by
theory from the velocity, will nearly agree.
For example of the application of his firft maxim. Sup-
pofe a mill driven by a fall of water, whofe virtual head is
5 feet, and which difcharged 550 cubic feet of water per
minute ; and that it is capable of grinding four bufhels of
wheat in an hour. Now another mill, having the fame vir-
tual head, but which difcharges 1100 cubic feet of water
per minute, will grind eight bufhels of corn in an hour.
Maxim z. That the expence of water being the fame, the
effe& produced by an underfhot wheel will be nearly in pro-
portion to the height of the virtual or effeétive head. This
is proved in the preceding example. ae Lou,
Maxim 3. That the quantity of water expended being the
fame, the effect will be nearly as the {quare of the velocity
of the water; that is, if a mill driven by a certain quantity
of water, moving with the velocity of 18 feet per fecond,
is capable of grinding 4 bufhels of corn inan hour, another
mill, driven by the fame quantity of water, but moving
with the velocity of 22% feet per tecond, will grind nearly
7 bufhels of corn in an hour ; becaufe the fquare of 18 is
324, and the fquare of 223 is 5063. Now fay, as 324
is ee 4 bubhels, fo is 5 to 6% bufhels ; that is, as 4
to 6.
Maxim 4. The aperture through which the water iffues
being the fame, the effeé will be nearly as the cube of the
velocity of the water iffuing ; that is, if a mill driven by
water rufhing through a certain aperture with the velocity
of 18 feet per fecond will grind 4 bufhels of corn in an
hour, another mill, driven by water moving through the
fame aperture, but with the velocity of 224 fect per fecond,
will grind 51 buthels; for the cube of 18 is 5832, and the
cube of 22% is 11390$; then, as 5832 is to 4, fo is
113903 to 72.
Maxim 5. The proportions between the powerof the water
expended, and the effeé produced by the wheel, was 3 to 1.
Upon comparing feveral experiments, Mr. Smeaton fixed the
proportions between them for large works; that is, if
the weight of the water which is expended in any given
time be multiplied by the height of the fall, and if the
weight raifed be alfo multiplied by the height through
which it is raifed, the firft of thefe two produéts will be
three times that of the fecond.
Maxim 6. The beft general proportions of velocities
between the water and the floats of the wheels will be
that of 5 to 2; for inftance, if the water when it ftrikes
the wheel moves with a velocity of eighteen feet per
fecond, the wheel muft be fo loaded that its float-boards
will move with a velocity of 7.2 feet per fecond, and the
wheel will then derive the greateft power from the water,
becaufe as 5 to 18, fo is 2 to 7.2.
Maxim 7. There is no certain ratio between the load
that the wheel will carry when producing its maximum of ef-
feét, and the load that will totally {top it ; but it approaches
neareft to the ratio of 4 to 3, whenever the power exerted
by the wheel is greateft, whether it arifes from an in-
creafe of the velocity, or from an increafed quantity of
water; and this proportion feems to be the moit applicable
to large works. But when we know the effeét a wheel
ought to produce, and the velocity it ought to move with
whilft producing that effeG, the exaét knowledge of the
greateft load it will bear is of very little confequence in
practice.
Maxim 8. The load that the wheel ought to have, in order
to work to the moft advantage, can be always affigned thus:
afcertain the power of the whole body of water, by multiply-
ing the weight of the water expended in a minute bythe height
of the fall, take one-third of the product, and it gives the
effect of power which the wheel ought to produce: to find
the load, we muft divide this product by the velocity which
the wheel fhould have, and that, as we have before fettled,
fhould be two-fifths of the velocity with which the water
moves when it {trikes the wheel.
The wheel muft not be placed in an open river to be ac-
tuated by the natural current, in which cafe, after it has
‘communicated its impulfe to the float, it has room on all
fides to efcape: this is the fuppofititious cafe on which moft
mathematicians have proceeded; but in all thefe experi-
11 ments,
WATER.
ments, the wheel is placed in a conduit or race, to which the
float-boards are exactly adapted, and the water cannot
otherwile efcape than by moving along with the wheel. It
is obfervable in a wheel working in this manner, that as
{oon as the water meets the float, it receives afudden check,
and rifes up againft the float, like a wave againft a fixed ob-
je, infomuch that when the fheet of water is not a quarter
of an inch thick before it meets the float, this fheet will
a&t upon the whole furface of a float, whofe height is three
inches ; and confequently, where the float is no higher than
the thicknefs of the fheet of water, as theory alfo fuppofes,
a great part of the force would have been loft by the water
dafhing over the float. :
The wheel which Mr. Smeaton ufed had originally twenty-
four floats, and was afterwards reduced to twelve, which
caufed a diminution ‘in the effe&t, on account of a greater
quantity of water efcaping between the floats and the floor
of the channel in which it moved; but a circular {weep
being adapted thereto, of fuch a length, that one float en-
tered the curve before the preceding one quitted it, the
effe& came fo near to the former as not to give hopes of
advancing it, by increafing the number of floats beyond
twenty-four in this particular wheel.
Mr. Smeaton obferves that, in many of the experiments,
the refults were by different ratios than thofe which his
maxims fuppofed; but as the deviations were never very
confiderable, the greateft being about one-eighth of the
quantities in queftion, and as it is not praéticable to make
experiments of fo compound a nature with abfolute preci-
fion, he fuppofes, that the lefler powers are attended with
fome friétion or work under fome difadvantages, which have
not been duly accounted for; and, therefore, he concludes
that thefe maxims will hold very nearly, when applied to
works in large.
Application of thefe Principles to Pradice.—The firft thing
to be done in a fituation where an underfhot wheel is in-
tended to be fixed, is to confider whether the water can run
off clear from the wheel, fo as to have no back water to im-
pede its motion ; and whether the fall which can be obtained
by conftru@ting a proper dam to pen up the water and
fluice for it to pafs through, will caufe it to ftrike the float-
boards of the wheel with a fufficient velocity to impel them
forcibly forwards; and alfo, whether the quantity of the
fupply will be fufficient to keep a wheel at work for a cer-
tain number of hours each day.
When we have afcertained the height of the fall of water,
that is, the height of the furface above the centre of the
opening of the fluice, we muft find what will be the con-
tinual velocity of the water iffuing ont from fuch opening.
In fome cafes, we have the velocity of the water given
when it iffues from the opening of the fluice, and we then
require to know what height of column will produce that
velocity. Thefe two things we may find by a fingle rule,
and an eafy arithmetical operation, which is as follows :
1ft. The perpendicular height of the fall of water being
given in feet and decimals of feet, the velocity that the
water will acquire per fecond, expreffed in feet and decimals,
may be found by the following rule :
Multiply thé conftant number 64.2882 by the given
height, and the {quare root of the produé is the velocity
required.
Example 1.—If the height is two feet, the velocity will
be found 11.34 feet per fecond.
Example 2.—If the height is 16,0913 feet, the velocity
will be 32,1826 feet per fecond.
Example 3.—If the height is fifty feet, the velocity will
be 56,68 feet per fecond.
Note. 'The velocities thus obtained will be only the theoretic
velocity, that is, the velocity any body would acquire by
falling through fuch height in vacuo, the velocity in reality
will be lefs, generally fix or feyen-tenths.
The uniform velocity of a fluid being given, expreffed in
feet and decimals of feet per fecond, the height of the co-
lumn or fall to produce fuch a velocity may be found by
the following rule:
Multiply the given velocity into itfelf, and divide the pro-
du& by 64,2882; the quotient will be the height required,
exprefled in feet and decimals.
Example 1.—If the velocity given is three feet per fe-
cond, the height will be 0.139 of a foot.
Example 2.—If the velocity given is 32,1826 feet per
fecond, the height will be found 16,0913 feet.
Example 3.—Let the velocity be 100 feet per fecond,
the height will be 155,649 feet.
The knowledge of the foregoing particulars is abfolutely
neceflary for conftru€ting an underfhot water-wheel; but
the moft advantageous method of fetting it to work, and to
find out the utmoft it could perform, would be very dif-
ficult, if we were not furnifhed with the maximum which
Mr. Smeaton fettled, by fhewing, that an underfhot water-
wheel will aét to the greateft advantage,*when the velocity
of its float-boards is equal to two-fifths or four-tenth parts
of that of the water which gives it motion.
To illuftrate this, let us confider a wheel equally balanced
on all fides, and turning freely round upon its pivots, its
circumference would foon move as faft as the current it
was placed in. Suppofe the water to move at the rate of
three feet in a fecond, the circumference of the wheel
would pafs through three feet in a fecond. In this cafe,
the wheel performs no work, and the effeé produced is
nothing.
Now in attempting to apply the power of this wheel to turn
any kind of machinery, fuppofe the work to be fo proportion-
ed, that the refiftance would caufe the wheel to ftand {till and
{top the water, or make it run over the floats, in confequence
of its not having fufficient force to carry the float-boards
along with it. In this cafe alfo, there being no motion,
there could be no mechanical effe&t produced ; but if the
refiftance be diminifhed by degrees, the wheel would be-
gin to partake of the motion of the current of water, and
being loaded, would produce a mechanical effe€t propor-
tioned to the load and velocity. The wheel would increafe
in its velocity in proportion as the refiftance was dimi-
nifhed, and the mechanical effe&t would increafe alfo until a
certain point when the wheel moved fo faft, that the water
would not ftrike the float-boards quick enough to produce
the greateft effet: this is found to be as before mentioned,
when the floats move four-tenths as faft as the water, be-
caufe then fix-tenths of the water is employed in driving
the wheel with a force proportional to the fquare of its
velocity.
If we multiply the furface or area of the opening by the
height of the column, we fhall afcertain the body or column
of water which fhould prefs againft that float-board, which
is immediately under the wheel, fuppofing it has no motion ;
but it will be found, that a fmall proportion of the weight
of the original column hung on the oppofite fide of the
wheel, would arreft its motion entirely ; but when we would
have it to moye with a proper velocity, that is, two-fifths of
that velocity with which the water moves, +3, of the
weight of the original column, is the weight which the
wheel would raife with four-tenths of the velocity that the
water moves with, and the power which the wheel would
exert on the machinery to grind corn, lift hammers, raife
water,
WATER.
133
water, &c. is vr of the weight of the water multiplied
by +5 of its velocity.
Thus it appears that an underfhot water-wheel, conftruéted
after the foregoing manner, would only raife one-third part
of the water expended to the fame height, as the original
head or level. This is the utmoft that can be expected,
though often lefs is done ; becaufe here we fuppofe every
part exaétly performed, and the water applied to the wheel
in the belt manner; therefore, as we cannot come up to the
maximum, we muft come as near it as we can by lofing the
leaft poflible of the power’s impulfe.
It is no advantage to have a very great number of float-
boards round the wheel, becaufe when they are {truck by
the water, as applied in the beft manner poflible, the fum of
the impulfes exerted on the different floats, will but be equal
to the impulfe made again{t one float-board {truck by all the
water iffuing from the fluice at right angles to its furface.
But as this float-board muft move forward, there muft be a
fucceffion of float-boards to receive the impulfe of the
water, and fince they cannot receive it at right angles, there
will be fome lofs of impulfe in that fucceffion. Befides
when the firft float-board is fo far paft the perpendicular, as
to have the a@tion of the water intercepted by the fucceed-
ing one, it is‘checked by the back water through which it
mutt pafs in rifing out of the water, and thereby be fo far
retarded as to take from the full effeét of the impulfe on
the following float. Indeed if all the water could run off
immediately after having performed its office, this would
not. happen; but it can feldom be effe&ted in underfhot-
mills, efpecially thofe built upon rivers. All the remedy
in fuch cafe is, (when the diameter of the wheel 1s
fettled) to fix juft fuch a number of floats upon it, that
each one, after it has received the full impulfe of the
water, may come out of the water as foon as poffible,
that another fucceeding float may be brought to receive the
impulfe, otherwife the wheel would remain a moment with-
out any impulfe. . y
In the article Mixx we have given a table for the dimen-
fions and proportions for underfhot wheels, which was cal-
culated by Mr. Fergufon. Dr. Brewtter, in his new edition
of Mr. Fergufon’s works, has given an improved table,
which is calculated upon the following principles.
It is evident that the water-wheel muft always move with
lefs velocity than the water, even when there is no work to
be performed; for a part of the impelling power is necef-
farily {pent in overcoming the inertia of the wheel itfelf ;
and if the wheel has little or no velocity, it is equally mani-
feft that it will produce a very {mall effec.
There is confequently a certain proportion between the
velocity of the water and the wheel, when the effe& is a
maximum. Mr. Smeaton has fhewn the greateft effect is
produced when the velocity of the wheel is between one-
third and one-half, but the maximum is much nearer to
one-half than one-third. He obferves alfo that one-half
would be the true maximum, if nothing were loft by the
refiftance of the air, the fcattering of the water carried up
by the wheel, and thrown off by the centrifugal force,
and the leakages of the water between the floats and
the water-courfe, all which tend to produce a greater
diminution of the effe& at that velocity, which would
be the maximum if thefe loffes did not take place, than
they do when the motion is a little flower. The great
hydraulic machine at Marly, the wheels of which are un-
derfhot, was found to produce a maximum effe&t when
the velocity of the wheel was two-fifths that of the cur-
rent. Hence Dr. Brewiter concludes that in theory the velo-
city of the wheel is one-half that of the current, and that
12
in practice it is never more than three-eighths of the ftream’s
velocity, when the effeét is a maximum.
Dr. Brewfer’s Table of underfoot Water-Wheels, in which
the velocity of the wheel is three-fevenths of the velocity of
the water, and the effeéts of fri€tion on the velocity of the
ftream are reduced to computation. The wheel is fup-
pofed to be fifteen feet diameter.
Height of | Velocity of the Whealpe Set he What, ‘
‘ Fall of ‘a ~ being cir Minute, its Dia-
ater. de po evenths that of i
Pee aera she Water! fifteen Feet
Feet and Feet and i
Feet. | Decimals. Decimals. "pete
I 4.62 BZ
2 10.77 4.62
3 13.20: 5.66
4 15.24 6.53
5 17.04 7-30
6 18.67 8.00
b] 20.15 8.6.
8 21.56 9: ie
9 22.86 9-80
10 24.10 10.33
II 25-27 10.83
12 26.40 11.31 14-40
13 27-47 1.77 14-99
14 28.51 12.22 15.56
15 29.52 12.65 16.13
16 | 30.48 13.06 16.63
17 Weee3l.42 13.46 17.14,
18 32-33 13.86 17.65
19 33-22 14.24 18.13
20 | 34-17 14.64 18.64 |
Another Manner of applying Water to an underfhot Wheel.
—This was propofed by M. Fabre as the refult of much
mathematical inveftigation, and has been fo frequently re-
commended by authors of eminence, that we fhall give a
fhort defcription without entering into all his rules for the
proportions. The principal difference in this wheel from
that in common ufe is, that the water is made to run down
a rapid flope or inclined plane, in order to ftrike the floats
of the wheel, inftead of iffuing from an aperture or fluice
fituated beneath the furface of the water in the refervoir.
A mill is ufually fituated at a diftance from the river, with
a canal or water-courfe to conduct the water tothe mill; as
it is of the higheft importance to have the height of the fall
as great as poffible, the bottom of the canal or water-
courfe, which conduéts the water from the river to the mill,
fhould have a very {mall declivity; for the height of the
water-fall at the mill will diminifh in proportion as the
declivity of the canal is increafed: it will be fufficient to
make it flope about one inch in 200 yards, taking care to
make the declivity about half an inch in the firft 48 yards,
in order that the water may have a velocity fuffcient to
prevent it from flowing back into the river.
When the water is thus brought to the channel in which
the wheel is placed, the ‘water is recommended to be con-
duéted down a flope or inclined plane, making an angle of
644 degrees with the horizon ; that is, in a endicular of
ten feet, the flope fhould deviate from it 43 feet: at the
bottom of this flope the water is to be again conduéted
horizontally, and then to ftrike the float-boards of the
wheel.
WATER.
wheel. To render the fall of the water eafy, the flope is to
be rounded off by a convexity at top and a concavity at
_ bottom, to lead the water from the horizontal to the flope,
and again from the flope without abruptnefs. It is fup-
pofed that the water, in running down this inclined plane,
will acquire the fame velocity as if it had fallen perpen-
dicularly through a height equal to the perpendicular
height of the flope.
The diftance through which the water runs horizontally,
from the foot of the flope before it ats upon the wheel,
fhould not be lefs than two-or three feet, in order that the
different portions of the fluid may have obtained an hori-
zontal direétion ; but if this horizontal diftance be much
larger, the velocity of the ftream would be diminifhed by its
friGtion on the bottom and fides of the water-courfe. That
lefs water may efcape between float-boards and the bottom
of the courfe, it fhould be formed into the arch of a circle
concentric with the wheel, which {weep fhould be pro-
longed, fo as to fupport the water as long as it can a&t upon
the float-boards ; beyond this {weep fhould be a ftep or fall
of not much lefs than nine inches with a flope of about
45 degrees, that the water having {pent the greater part of
its force in impelling the float-boards, may not accumulate
below the wheel and retard its motion. After this ftep the
courfe of difcharge, or tail water-courfe to run off the water
from the wheel, fhould be floored with wood -or mafonry
about 16 yards long, having an inch of declivity in every
two yards.
The canal which conduéts the water from the courfe of
difcharge to join the river again, fhould flope about four
inches in the firft 200 yards, and three inches in the fecond
200 yards, and fo decreafing gradually till it terminates in
the river. But if the river to which the water is conveyed,
fhould be fubje& to be {wollen by the rains, fo as to force
the water back upon the wheel, the canal mutt have a
greater declivity, in order to prevent this from taking
place. Hence it will be evident, that very accurate levelling
is neceflary for the proper formation of the mill-courfe.
The tail water-courfe ought always to have a very confi-
derable breadth, which fhould be greater’ than that of the
wheel-race, or part in which the wheel aéts, that the water
having room to fpread may have lefs depth. The fection
of the fluid at the point where it ftrikes the wheel fhould be
reCtangular, the breadth of the ftream having a determinate
relation to its depth. If there is a great ftream of water,
the breadth fhould be triple the depth; if there is a mode-
rate quantity, the breadth fhould be double the depth; and
if there is very little water, the breadth and the depth fhould
be equal. The depth of the water here alluded to is its
natural depth, or that which it would have, if it did not
meet the float-boards. The effective depth is generally two
and a half times the natural depth, and is occafioned by the
impulfe of the water on the float-boards, which forces it to
{well, and increafes its ation upon the wheel.
As it is of great confequence that none of the water
fhould efcape, either below the float-boards or at their
fides, withont contributing to turn the wheel, the breadth of
the float-boards fhould be wider than the fheet of water
which ftrikes them. The diameter of the water-wheel
fhould be as great as poffible, unlefs fome particular circum-
{tances in the conitruétion prevent it; but ought never to
be lefs than feven times the natural depth of the itream or
thicknefs of the fheet of water, where it meets the float-
boards. The wheel will move irregularly, fometimes quick
and fometimes flow, according to the pofition of the floats
with refpeé to the {tream; unlefs the number of float-boards
is confiderable, the wheel muit have fo many floats, that
Vou. XXXVIII.
two floats will at leaft be always in the circular fweep at
the bottom of the wheel; .but in order to remove any
inequality of motion in the wheel, and prevent the water
from efcaping beneath the tips of the float-boards, it fhould
have as many float-boards as poffible, without loading it, or
weakening the rim on which they are placed. The float-
boards fhould not be perpendicular to the rim, or, in other
words, a continuation of the radius, but fhould be inclined to
the radius ; the water will thus heap upon the float-boards, and
act not only by its impulfe, but alfo by its weight. When
the velocity of the ftream is eleven feet per fecond, or above
this, the inclination fhould never be lefs than thirty degrees;
or when this velocity is lefs, the inclination fhould diminifh
in proportion ; fo that when it is four feet, or under, the
inclination fhould be nothing, that is, the float-boards fhould
point to the centre of the wheel.
It is a ftrong practical objeGtion to this manner of apply-
ing the water to the wheel, that when the water of the river
finks in dry weather from a deficiency of water, it would
not run over the top of the fall, and the mill could not work
at all even if it funk only ten or twelve inches: in like
manner, when the water rifes in floods, the water at the top
of the fall would become fo deep, as to require fome fhuttle
to prevent it from inundating the wheels, at the fame time
that the fagnant water in the mill-race would prevent the
wheel from working. Almoft all rivers are fubje& to
floods, and often they rife and fall, three, four, fix, and
eight feet above their ordinary level in fair weather; now
the water moftly rifes at the tail or difcharge of the water
as much as the head, and the wheel-race will therefore be
full of ftagnant water, which is called tail-water, and ob-
flructs the motion of the wheel.
In a ground-fhot wheel, where the water iflues from a
fhuttle on a level with the bottom of the wheel-race, it can
always work in dry feafons, as long as the river contains
any water, although the power diminifhes almoft to nothing,
when the water finks low, and will not rufh out with force
from the fhuttle. In floods of water, this wheel has a
greater advantage, becaufe the depth of head which urges
the flowing water is increafed when the water is high, and
this makes it drive the tail-water forcibly out of the wheel-
race, and enable the wheel to work, when a wheel with
an inclined fall would infallibly be ftopped.
Breaft-wheels and overfhot-wheels, properly conftruéted,
have ftill greater advantages, in clearing themfelves from
tail-water, and this is a very important object. :
Floating-Mill with underfhot Wheels—A. large floating
water-mill, to be worked by the tides or currents, was {ta-
tioned fome years ago in the river Thames, between London
and Blackfriars bridge, by permiffion of the Board of
Navigation. Such permiffion having been granted with the
view of reducing, if poffible, the price of flour in the
metropolis, and contributing to a conftant fupply of that
neceffary article of fubfiftence. The fimplicity of this in-
vention renders a long defcription fuperfluous, as it confifts
in merely applying the force of two large underfhot water-
wheels on each fide of a barge, or any other veffel calculated
to contain the interior part of the machinery ; the float-
boards are difpofed in a proper manner to be acted on by
the tide or current, fo as to give the wheels a rotatory motion,
and by conneCting them with proper machinery, to anfwer
the purpofes for which the mill is intended. :
Any fhip, brig, floop, or other veffel, may be ufed for
this purpofe, provided it is of fufficient fize to accommo-
date the works to be ereéted, yet in point of expence it will
be better to employ fuch as are rendered unfit for fea-
fervice.
L When
WATER.
When it is intended that the fhip or mill fhould be fta-
tionary, it muft be anchored, moored, or otherwife made
fait, fo as to {wing with the tide when neceflary ; but the
mill may be worked while the veffel in which it is erected is
failing, when wind and other circumitances permit.
The number and fize of the water-wheels to be ufed may
be varied, according to the fize of the fhip or veffel, or to
the ftrength of the tide or current, and the power required ;
and the wheels may be conftruéted as in common underfhot
mills, or with folding-floats, for the more readily freeing
them from the water: two wheels are to be placed vertically,
on an horizontal axis, of fuch length, that, the axis hein
placed acrofs the fhip or veffel, one wheel may run on eac
fide of it on the fame axis.
A mill conftru@ed in the manner above defcribed may
be moved by the ftrength of from two to fix large water-
wheels, or ach other number as the fhip or veffel will ac-
commodate. Thefe water-wheels may dip into the water
from three to four, or more feet deep; they fhould be
fo conneéted together as to be eafily engaged with and dif-
engaged from each other, fo that during the weak part of the
tide they may all: be made to aé on one pair of mill-ftones,
if neceflary ; and as the ftrength of the tide increafes, more
{tones or other machinery may be put in motion, fo as at all
times to do bufinefs in proportion thereto.
In amill of this kind the water-wheels do not admit of
having water-courfes, or any equivalent contrivances, to con-
dué@ the water to the wheels, as in other underfhot wheels ;
but the float-boards muft be large enough to receive the
power required from merely dipping into the current of the
tide-water.
The veffel of the mill in the Thames is the hull of an
old fhip of two or three hundred tons burthen, which being
moored in the river by chains, fo that it can {wing round
when the tide changes, the wheels will always turn the
fame way round ; one water-wheel is fixed on each fide of
the veffel, a long iron axis being common to both; the ex-
treme ends of the axis are fupported in a frame-work of
timber, and another very ftrong frame of timber is fixed
outfide of the wheels at the level of the water, which floats
in the water, and is only attached to the mill by chains ; this
is to proteét the wheels from injury, by veffels which pafs anc
repafs. Each water-wheel is 18 feet diameter, and 14 feet
broad ; the float-boards are each 3 feet deep, and are about
fixteen in number, affixed on the circumference of cart iron-
wheels, or circles, which are 12 feet diameter, there are three
of thefe circles for each wheel; hence we find each float-
board expofes a furface of 42 {quare feet to the ation of the
current, and if we fuppofe each wheel to have two floats in
aétion at the fame time, the power of the mill will be derived
from 168 {quare feet a€ted upon by the water, which feldom
exceeds a velocity of four miles ger hour, or 352 feet per
minute.
The iron axis of the water-wheels is a hollow tube of nine
intches diameter outfide, and five inches within, made in four
lengths of 12 feet each, properly joined together, and ex-
tending acrofs the veffel from one wheel to the other. On
the middle of this axis a large wheel of 11 feet diameter is
fixed, and furrounded by a brake or gripe like that ufed in a
wind-mill, the ufe of which is to ftop the mill when it re-
quires repairing. Near to this brake-wheel is a large be-
villed cog-wheel 13 feet diameter, with 89 cogs, which gives
motion to a bevilled pinion two feet eight inches diameter,
with eighteen cogs fixed on the to of a vertical axis. On
this axis is alfo a large horizontal {pur-wheel 12 feet dia-
meter, with 201 cogs, which gives motion to pinions of one
foot diameter, and 17 cogs fixed on the {pindles of the mill-
a
ftones. There are four pair of mill-ftones, two paix of
44 feet and two pair of 34 feet diameter, the mill alfo
works a dreffing-machine for the flour. mill-ftones
make 573 revolutions for one revolution of the water-wheels,
which move very flow, fcarcely two turns per minute, in the
moft favourable periods of the tide. The circumference of
each taken through the middle of the float-boards is 47 feet;
hence the float-boards move about 94 feet per minute, when
the mill-ftones make their proper number of revolutions to
grind with the greateft effect.
It was found that on a flood-tide, this mill would drive two
pair of 34 feet mill-ftones, and a flour dreffing-machine, but
on the ebb-tide only one pair of 4-feet ftones and the ma-
chine ; thus it is only the performance of a {mall mill, al-
though the wheels are of large dimenfions, and it would
require enormous wheels to make an effective floating mill
in the river Thames.
This machine is now removed from the river, becaufe it
was found to do fo much injury to the veffels which continu-
ally ran againft its floating frame, and the repairs of the da-
mages frequently done to the mill by ice and the craft took
away all the advantages of the mill.
Underfhot Wheels with oblique Floats.—Attempts have
been made to conftru&t water-wheels for tide-rivers which
receive the impulfe obliquely, like the fails of a common
wind-mill. This would in many fituations be a great ad-
vantage. A very flow but deep river could in this manner
be made to drive mills ; and although much power would
be loft by the obliquity of the impulfe, the remainder might
be very great. Dr. Robinfon {peaks of a wheel of this kind
which was very powerful ; it was a long cylindrical frame,
having a plate ftanding out from it about a foot broad, and
furrounding it with a very oblique fpiral like a cork-fcrew.
This was immerfed about one-fourth of its diameter (which
was nearly 12 feet), having its axis in the direétion of the
ftream. By the work which it was performing, it feemed
more powerful than a common wheel which occupied the
fame breadth of the river, Its length was not lefs than
20 feet ; had it been twice as muchit would have been nearly
redoubled in its power without occupying more of the
water-way. It is probable fuch a {piral continued quite to
the axis, and moving in a hollow canal wholly filled by the
ftream, might be a very advantageous way of employing a
deep and flow current.
In the Tranfa&tions of the Society of Arts, vol. xix. a
water-wheel is defcribed, in which the float-boards are placed
obliquely to the axis of the water-wheel at about an angle
of 40 degrees, being fixed to the rim in pairs, which are
inclined equally to the axis of the wheel, but in oppofite
direétions to each other; fo that the two float-boards of
each pair point towards each other in an angle of about
80 degrees, and if the pair of floats were continued they
would meet in the middle of the breadth of the wheel. The
water is made to ftrike the floats within this angle, and in
confequence all the water which is emitted by the fluice and
{trikes upon the oblique floats will be reflected from the fides
or ends of the two pair of float-boards towards the vertex
of the angle, which they make; but the pair of floats
do not touch each other, fo that the vertex of the angle is
open; but to prevent the water pafling freely through the
open angle, one of the float-boards is made to extend far be-
yond the vertex, or point, where they would interfe@, and
the other is made to fall fhort of it, neverthelefs the water
would certainly pafs through the opening. It is ftated, that
the motion of the ordinary wheel with parallel floats is
greatly retarded by the refiftance which they experience in
rifing up or quitting the tail-water of the Rream, from the
preflure
WATER.
preffure of the atmofphere on their upper furface before the
air gets admiffion beneath the floats ; but in Befant’s wheel
this refiftance is greatly diminifhed, as the floats emerge from
the ftream in an oblique direétion. The water-wheel is
conitruéted in the form of a hollow drum, fo as to refift the
admiffion of the water. Although this wheel is much hea-
vier than thofe of the common conftru¢tion, yet it revolves
more eafily upon its axis, as the ftream has a tendency to
make it float. We cannot recommend this wheel, but on
the contrary think it one of the worft forms, as it tends to
increafe that lofs which arifes in all underfhot-wheels from
the change of figure which the water muft undergo when it
ftrikes the float, and we fhould not have mentioned it, but
that it has been fo frequently copied and recommended by
different authors.
Horizontal Water-wheels actuated by the Impulfe of Water.
—Thefe have been confiderably in ufe on the continent, and
deferve our notice from the fimplicity of their conftruétion.
The wheel is conftru€ted in the fame manner as an under-
fhot-wheel, having float-boards fixed round its circumference
in the form of radii; it is mounted on a vertical axis, the
upper end of which is fixed to the fpindle of the mill-ftone,
if the mill is intended to grind corn ; but in fome cafes, it is
better to fix a cog-wheel on the upper part of the vertical
axis with teeth round its edge, to give motion to trundles
or pinions on the fpindles of the mill-ftones, becaufe the
floats of the wheel muft always be made to move with a
given proportion of the velocity of the water. The wheel-
race or water-courfe may be made nearly the fame as for an
underfhot-wheel, if we fuppofe it laid down in an horizontal
pofition; that is, a trough or channel of mafonry is con-
itruéted in which the wheel works, and the float-boards of
the wheel are exaétly fitted to it: at one end of this chan-
nel is the aperture or fluice through which the ftream of
water iffues, and ftrikes the floats of the wheel fo as to
turn it round, and the water pafles forwards and efcapes at the
other end of the channel. When the water is delivered upon
the wheel in an horizontal direétion, or perpendicular to its
axis, the float-boards fhould be inclined about twenty-five
degrees to the plane of the wheel, and the fame number of
degrees to the radius, fo that the loweft and outermoft fides
of the float-boards may be fartheft up the ftream and be met
by the water firft.
In many cafes, the water-courfe is made inclined to the
plane of the wheel in fuch a degree, that the water may ftrike
the float-boards perpendicular to their furfaces.
In the fouthern provinces of France, where horizontal
water-wheels are generally employed, the float-boards are
made of a curvilineal form fo as to be concave towards the
ftream ; they are generally fegments of fpheres, or hollow
wooden bowls or fadles fixed on the rim of the wheel : the
water, in this cafe, is condu€ted through a pipe, and pro-
jeted in a jet on a direétion a little inclined to the horizon.
When the height of water is very confiderable, this is,
perhaps, the beft form for the floats, or ladles, as they are
called.
The chevalier de Borda obferves, that in theory a double
effe&t is produced when the float-boards are concave, but that
the effect is diminifhedin pra¢tice, from the difficulty of making
the fluid enter, and leave the curve in a proper direétion.
Notwithftanding this difficulty, however, and other defeéts
which might be pointed out, horizontal wheels with con-
cave float-boards are always fuperior to thofe in which the
float-boards have plane furfaces.
Mr. Smeaton conftru@ted a {mall corn-mill with a hori-
zontal water-wheel, of which the following are the prin-
cipal dimenfions. Fall of water 524 feet; diameter, or
bore of the nofe-pipe through which the water iffued in
a jet to ftrike upon the wheel, 14 inch; diameter of the
water-wheel 10 feet to the centre of the floats or ladles,
which were twelve in number ; they were made of a concave
form, nearly fegments of f{pheres, and about 14 inches in
diameter ; and fixed round the circumference of the wheel,
fo that the planes of the circular rims, or edges of the
hollow ladles, were not perpendicular to the plane of the
wheel, but inclined thereto in fuch a degree, that the jet of
water ifluing from the nofe-pipe at an angle of 22 degrees
from the horizontal line, would ftrike the floats in the centre
and perpendicular to the circular edge of the hollow; the
internal furface of the floats being really {pherical, the water
would always ftrike peppendictibaly into the concavity of
the bowl. ‘The water-wheel axis rofe up perpendicularly
into the mill-houfe, and on the top a wheel of 4 feet 8 inches
in diameter, and 44 cogs, was fixed for giving motion to the
Pinions on the axis of the mill-ftones. ‘The largeft pinion
of 17 cogs was fixed on the axis of a pair of ftones 4 feet
6 inches in diameter, and the fmaller pinion of 13 cogs on
the axis of a ftone 3 feet 6 inches in diameter. It was
not intended to turn both thefe pairs of ftones at the fame
time, but it was neceflary to have two pairs for different
ufes.
When this mill moved with a proper velocity to grind
to the greateft advantage, if the 4 feet 6 inches ftones were
ufed, the water-wheel made 25 revolutions per minute, and
the ftones therefore made 65 revolutions fer minute, and
the float-boards moved with a velocity of 784 feet per mi-
nute ; but when turning the fmaller mill-ftones of 3 feet
6 inches diameter, the water-wheel went beft when it made
26 revolutions, and therefore turned the mill-ftone 88 turns
per minute ; and the velocity of the floats was 816 feet per
minute.
Mr. Smeaton calculated the velocity of the water iffuing
from the pipe at 3403 feet per minute, which is the velocity due
to a 50 feet feet, becaufe he allowed the 24 feet to overcome
fri€tion, and the expenditure of the 14 inch nofe-pipe at 30
cubic feet ger minute allowing for fri€tion. This mill ground
one bufhel of wheat fer hour, on the average of a great
many experiments, now 30 x 50 = 1500 cubic feet, falling
one foot per minute. It is found by repeated experiments,
that 600 cubic feet falling one foot per minute on a good
water-wheel is an ample allowance for grinding a bufhel of
wheat, as it may be done by 530; hence this fall of water
ought to have ground 24 bufhels per hour inftead of one.
The mill, however, admits of improvement in making the
floats of the wheel move quicker.
When the mill-ftone of an horizontal mill is fixed on the
upper end of the axis of the water-wheel, if the mill-ftone be
five feet in diameter, it fhould never make lefs than fixty turns
in a minute, and the wheel muft perform the fame number
of revolutions in the fame time; and in order that the
effe&{ may be a maximum, or the greateft poffible, the ve-
locity of the current muft be more than double that of the
wheel. ‘
Suppofe the mill-ftone, for example, to be 5 feet dia-
meter, and the water-wheel 7 feet, it is evident that the
mill-ftone and wheel muft at leaft revolve 60 times in a mi-
nute; and fince the circumference of the wheel is 22 feet,
the float-boards will move through that fpace in the 6oth
part of a minute, that is, at the rate of 22 feet per fecond ;
which being doubled, makes the velocity of the water
44 feet one fecond, anfwering, as appears from the rule,
for the velocity of falling water, to a fall of 30 feet. But
if the given fall of water be lefs than 30 feet, we may
procure the fame velocity to the mill-ftone, by diminifh-
L2 ing
WATER.
ing the diameter of the wheel. If the wheel, for inftance,
is only 6 feet diameter, its circumference will be 18.8
feet, and its floats will move at the rate of 18.8 feet in
a fecond, the double of which is 37-6 feet per fecond,
which anfwers to a head of water 22 feet high. The dia-
meter of the water-wheel, however, fhould never be lefs than
6 or 7 feet, becaufe the float-boards change their dire€tion
fo rapidly, in confequence of their proximity to the centre,
that they will not receive the full aGion of the water, be-
caufe it a@s in a perpendicular dire€tion to the float-board
only for a moment. Hence there will be a certain height
of the fall, beneath which the fimple horizontal wheel can-
not be employed ; and beyond that, wheel-work mult be
introduced to obtain the requifite velocity for the mill-
ftones. :
In the provinces of Guienne and Languedoc, in France,
another {pecies of horizontal wheel is employed for turning,
machinery. It confifts of an inverted cone, with {piral
float-boards of a curvilineal form winding round its furface.
The wheel moves on a vertical axis in a pit or well of ma-
fonry, to which it is exa@tly fitted, like a coffee-mill in its
box. It is driven chiefly by the impulfe of the water, con-
veyed by a fpout or canal ina ftream, which ftrikes the ob-
lique float-boards ; and when the water has fpent its impul-
five force, it defcends along the {piral float-boards, and con-
tinues to a& by its weight till it reaches the bottom, where
it is carried off by a canal. The idea of this machine is in-
genious. The jet of water, being firft applied to the upper
or largeft part of the cone, {trikes the float-boards at the
part where they move with the greateft velocity, in’ confe-
quence of their being on the largeft radius ; but as the water
lofes its velocity, in confequence. of the motion it has im-
parted to the wheel, it defcends im the cone, and aéts upon
the floats lower down, where, the radius being lefs, the
floats move more flowly, and are therefore better adapted
to receive the aGtion of the water with its diminifhed ve-
locity.
M. Mannoury Defot’s horizontal Water-Wheel, which
he calls Danaide.—This receives the impulfe of the water in
4 different manner from! any which we have deferibed, and
is defcribed in a report to the Inftitute of France in 1813.
The water-wheel is fixed in a horizontal pofition upon a
vertical axis, and fupported upon the pivots thereof, fo as
to be capable of turning round. Tt is not in reality a wheel,
but a hollow cylinder or drum capable of containing water 5
it is open at top, and united to the axis in the centre of the
circular plane, which forms the bottom. Within this drum,
and concentric with it, a folid cylinder is fixed ; it is of lefs
dimenfions than the drum itfelf, and occupies fuch portion
of the content of the drum as to reduce the open part which
ean contain water to a hollow ring or circular trough, open
at top, and of a confiderable depth, but only a few inches
in width. ‘The depth is defcribed as being nearly as great
as the diameter of the wheel. ;
The water coming from an elevated refervoir, is pro-
jeéted in jets from one or more pipes into this annular fpace
which furrounds the rim of the wheel. Thefe pipes defcend
in an inclined. direétion, till they are nearly on a level with
the furface of the water in the annular {paces and the ex-
tremities turn horizontally, fo as to project the jet horizon-
tally, and in the direétion of tangents to the mean circum-
ferenée of the water contained in the annular fpace.
Suppofe this {pace which furrounds the wheel is full of
water, then the ftream iffuing from the jet caufes the wheel
to turn round upon its axis, becaufe it takes hold or acts
upon the water in the annular {pace, and tends to give the
water a circulating motion within the annular {pace ; but the
friGtion, or refiftance, which the water would find in fucks
circulation, caufes the wheel to turn round with the water.
unlefs the load on the wheel, or refiftance to its motion is
too great. , i 2
The water which is continually. thrown into the’ wheel
efcapes from the annular {pace by paflages which proceed
from the bottom thereof to the centre of the wheel; and
there are openings at the centre, where the water can drop
out below. To form the paflages for this purpofe, the folid
cylinder which is fixed in the centre of the hollow drum is
of lefs seer than the other, and leaves a {pace between the
bottom of the folid and the bottoni of the hollow, which
is divided into compartments by diaphragms fixed upoi the
bottom of the trough, and proceeding like radii from the
circumference to acentral hole in the bottom*of the trough
which is left open to allow the water toefcape. The spore
ftates, that the velocity with which the water: iffues tom
the jets makes the machine move round its axis; and this
motion accelerates by degrees, till the velocity of the water
in the annular {pace equals that of the water from the re-
fervoir, fo that no fenfible fhock is perceived of the afluent
water upon that which is contained in the machine. ©The
motion of the wheel is regular, becaufe the aétion is con-
tinual; butin the cafe of other water-wheels, where the
water ftrikes againft float-boards, fuch boards muft necef-
farily be of a determinate number, and the motion muft’ be
given to the wheel by a fucceflion of impulfes, as the floats
arrive before the ftream. We might indeed fuppofe a wheel’
with an infinite number of floats, but it would then amount
toa plain cylindrical or flat {urface, wpon which the water
would not take fufficient hold to produce any fenfible effort
to turn it round.
_ Now in M. Deétot’s wheel, in place of float-boards, the
rim of the wheel is clothed with water, which is capable of
being aéted upon by the water iffuing from the jets. This
aétion tends to put the water in the annular fpace in motion
and to carry the wheel along with it, by the adhefion it
muft naturally have to the fides of the channel which con-
tains it. The velocity of the wheel will be in proportion to
the refiftance that the load makes to its motion.
The circular motion of the wheel communicates a centri-
fugal force to the water contained in the annular cavity of
its rim, which caufes it to prefs againft the outermoft fide
of the channel. This centrifugal force aéts equally upon
the water contained in the compartments at the bottom of
the faid rim; but its aétion diminifhes as the water ap-
proaches the centre.
The whole mafs of water is then animated by two op-
pofite forces, viz, gravity and the centrifugal force. The
firft tends to make the water run out at the hole in the bot-
tom of the wheel at the centre, and the fecond to drive the
water from that hole.
To thefe two ations are joined a third, viz. friction or
refiftance, which aéts an important and fingular part ; and
in this machine the fri€tion of the water produces its powers
of action, while in moft other machines it always diminifhes
their powers. The effeét in this machine would be nothing,
were it not for the refiftance which the water finds oppofed
to its free circulation in the annular fpace round the rim’ of
the wheel. “
By the combination of thefe three forces ‘there ought to
refult a more or lefs rapid flow of water from the hole in the
centre at the bottom of the wheel ; and the flower this water
iffues, the greater will be the effective power of the machine
for producing the ufeful effect for which it is deftined.
The moving power in this machine, like all others, is the
weight of the water which runs into the wheel, multiplied
by
WATER.
by the elevation the refervoir has above the bottom of the
wheel, or orifice from which it iffues in quitting the fame ;
but the ufeful mechanical effe& is ftated to be equal to that
produét, diminifhed by half the force which the water re-
tains, when it flows out at the orifice below, and quits the
machine. ‘ !
In order to afcertain, by dire&t experiment, the magni-
tude of this effect, Meflrs. Prony and Carnot fixed a cord
to the axis of the machine, which pafling over a pulley,
raifed a weight by the motion of the machine. By this
means the ohea was found to be +f)ths of. the power, and
often approached ,7,%,ths, without reckoning the friction of
the pulleys, which has nothing to do with the efle&. 4
We cannot help fufpeéting fome mittake in thefe experi-
ments, or in the ftatement of them, but think the machine
deferves a trial; and if it fhould produce near the refult
above ftated, it would be a moft valuable addition to our
‘means of employing falls of water; and its fimplicity would
be a great recommendation, particularly for corn-mills, be-
caufe the perpendicular axis 1s immediately adapted for that
purpofe, without any wheel-work. i
Horizontal Mill with oblique Vanes.—In Belidor’s Archi-
te€ture Hydraulique he defcribes a different form of hori-
zontal mill. The wheel is a circular rim, and the radii or
arms are all oblique vanes or floats, precifely the fame as the
common fmoke-jack.. This wheel is placed horizontally in
a well, to which it is exa@tly fitted, but the rim of the wheel
does not touch the circular wall of the well. The axis of the
wheel afcends upwards into the mill-houfe, and the {pindle
of the mill-ftone is fixed into it. A horizontal arch-way is
conduéted to the well fideways, and above the part where the
- wheel is fituated. This arch conveys the water into the
well over the wheel ; and beneath the wheel there is a fimilar
horizontal arch to carry away the water, after it has pafled
through the wheel, that is, in the {paces between its vanes
or floats. The weight of the water preffes upon them ina
perpendicular direction, and the planes of thefe floats being
all inclined to, the horizon, the aétion of the preffure tends
to turn the wheel round on its axis, by the fame a¢tion as
the {moke upon the vanes of a jack, or like a wind-mill.
The water is fupplied in fuch a body through the upper
arch, that the well 1s always kept full, with a confiderable
depth of water preffing upen the wheel; whilft the lower
arch, carries away the water fo freely, that it runs. away
from beneath the wheel.as fait as it can pafs through the
vanes of the fame.
The mill defcribed by Belidor was at Touloufe,. and
contained a number of fuch wheels ina row, each giving
motion to one pair of itones.
_ Horizontal Machines moved by the Reaction of Water.—
The reaGtion of water, iffuing horizontally through a {pout
or orifice, may be employed to communicate motion to
machinery ; and though this principle has, not yet been
adopted in practice, it appears from theory, and from fome
‘detached experiments on a {mall feale, that a given quantity
of water, falling through a given height, will produce greater
effects by its reaCtion than by its impulfe. If we fuppofe
a yertical pipe of any given height, open at both ends, and
that water is poured into it at the top, the water will iffue
at the bottom of the pipe with a velocity proportioned in a
certain manner to its altitude, becaufe every particle of water
which iffues is preffed upon and impelled by the weight of
all the particles which are above it. Now, fuppofe the
pipe, bent or curved at the bottom, fo that it will turn the
ftream of water into a horizontal pofition ; in this cafe, the
preffure and force, of which we have fpoken, will be de-
flected from the vertical dire€tion to the horizontal. Now
it is clear that the bent part of the pipe, or fome part of the
interior furface of the tube oppofite to the orifice, muft fuf-
tain all the preflure which is thus defle&ted or tranfmitted in
another direétion ; and if the tube is freely fufpended, it will
retreat before this preflure, and be put in motion, If we
fuppofe the tube to have no refiftance to motion, then it
would receive all the motion of the water, which would not
move at all after it iffued from the orifice, but the orifice
and tube would move away from the water. This is an im-
poflible cafe, and in reality the motion of the effluent water
will be divided between the pipe or tube and the iffuing
water, in proportion to the refiftance with which each is
loaded. Another and perhaps more familiar explanation is,
that the water prefles againft every part of the interior part
of the pipe, except againft the orifice or aperture, which is
open; and in confequence, the unbalanced preffure on the
part, oppofite to the orifice will tend to put the pipe in
motion. A fky-rocket mounts in the air from a fimilar caufe.
Dr. Barker’s mill by the reaftion of water was the firft of
this kind of machines, and is defcribed by Defaguliers, in
1743- In his Experimental Philofophy, vol. ii. p. 460, he
calls it a machine to prove Mr, Parent’s propofition experi-
mentally, viz. that an under-fhot water-mill does moft work,
when the water-wheel moves with only a third part of the
natural velocity of the water that drives it. He fays, that
Dr. Barker had this thought, and communicated it to him,
faying, that it would be an experimental proof of Mr. Pa-
rent’s propofition; in confequence of which, Defaguliers
made a working model of it, which he fhewed to the Royal
Society, and the experiments upon it, at their meeting in
1742.
It confifts of an upright pipe or trunk, communicating
with two horizontal branches, like an inverted T ; thus, is
This perpendicular pipe is poifed upon a pivot at the lower
end, and the upper end is conneéted with the f{pindle of the
mill-ftone, or other machine to which it is to communicate
motion. ‘The top of the pipe is formed into a funnel, into
which a ftream of water is conduéted, and runs down the
pipe: the water efcapes through a hole in each of the
horizontal arms, which holes are near the ends of the arms,
and open in oppofite directions, and in fuch a pofition that
they will direét the ftream of water horizontally, and nearly
at right angles to the length of the arms.
Suppofe water to be poured in at the top of the tube
from the {pout, it will then run out by the holes at the ends
of the arms, with a velocity correfponding with the depth
of thefe holes beneath the furface of the water in the vertical
pipe. The confequence of this muft be, that the arms
mult be preffed backwards, for there is no folid furface at
the hole on which the lateral preflure of the water can be
exerted, while it aéts with its full force on the infide of the
tube oppofite tothe hole. This unbalanced preflure, aGting
upon the oppofite fides of both arms, will make the tube
and the horizontal arm revolve upon the {pindle as an axis.
This will be more eafily underftood, if we fuppofe the
orifices to be fhut up, and confider the preffure upon a cir-
cular inch of the arm oppofite to the orifice, the orifice
being of the fame fize.
The preflure upon this circular inch will be equal to a
cylinder of water, whofe bafe is one inch in diameter, and
whofe altitude is the height of the fall; and the fame force
is exerted. upon the fhut-up orifice. Thefe two preffurea
being equal, and ating in oppofite direétions, the arm will
remain at reft; but as foon as the orifice is opened, the
water will iffue with a velocity due to the height of the fall.
The preffure of the water upon the orifice will now be re-
moyed, and as the preflure upon the circular inch oppofite
to
WATER.
to the orifice ftill continues, the’ equilibrium will be de-
ftroyed, and the arm will move in a retrograde direétion,
unlefs it is withheld by fome force greater than that pref-
fure.
In the original model made by Defaguliers, the vertical
tube was a cylindrical pipe, but the lower arms were of a
fquare figure in their crofs fection, and the apertures
through which the water iffued were likewife of a reGtan-
gular figure, and provided with fliders or fluices, which
were regulated by {crews fo as to increafe or diminifh the
openings.
It is clear that the machine muft prefs backwards, and
there is no difficulty in lal tesa the intenfity of this
preffre, when the machine is at reft. But when it is al-
lowed to run backwards, withdrawing itfelf from the pref-
fure, the intenfity of it is diminifhed; and if no other cir-
cumftances intervened, it might not be difficult to fay what
particular preffure correfponded to any rate of motion.
Defaguliers affirms the prefflure to be the weight of a co-
lumn, which would produce a velocity of efflux equal to
the difference of the velocity of the fluid and of the machine :
and hence he deduces, that its performance will be the
greateft poffible, when its retrograde velocity is one-third of
the velocity acquired by falling from the furface ; in which
cafe, it will raife ,%ths of the water expended to the fame
height.
But this is not a perfeét account of the operation; for
the water which iffues defcends in the vertical trunk, and
then moving along the horizontal arms, partakes of their
circular motion. This excites a centrifugal force, which
mutt be exerted againft the ends of the arms by the inter-
vention of the fluid. The whole fluid contained in the arms
is fubje& to this ation, each part in a degree proportioned
to its diftance from the axis, becaufe every particle is preffed
with the accumulated centrifugal forces of all the feétions
that are nearer to the axis. his increafes the velocity of
revolution, and this mutual co-operation would feem to lead
to a continual acceleration in the velocity of both motions.
But, on the other hand, this eircular motion muft be given
anew to every particle of water, when it enters the hori-
zontal arm. ‘This can be done only by the motion already
in the arm, and at its expence ; neither can the perpendicular
tube furnifh an unlimited fupply. ‘Thus there muft be a
velocity which cannot be exceeded even by an unloaded
machine.
Improved Form of Dr. Barker’s Mill.—This confifts in
introducing the fupply of water at the lower end of the
tube, inftead of the upper end. It was firft propofed by
M. Mathon de la Cour, in the Journal de Phytique, 1775 ;
and the invention was, 20 years afterwards, claimed by a
Mr. Ramfey, and very recently by M. Mannoury Deétot
in France. This laft machine is very highly recommended
by Mefirs. Perier, Prony, and Carnot, in a report to the
Inftitute, from which we make the following extraéts.
The water is introduced into the revolving arms at the
lower part, through the axle: the pipe which brings the
water enclofes the pivot, upon which it turns. This water
is brought to the refervoir obese a curved canal, by means
of which the revolving arms, and the mill which it puts in
motion, are placed by the fide of the refervoir, and neither
above nor below it, which would much injure the working,
and the fimplicity of the machine. By bringing the water
from below, by means of a canal, the machine is reduced to
a fimple water-wheel, the axis of which is fixed immediately
to the moving mill-ftone.
Although the water enters with little velocity into the
revolving arms, it caufes them to turn very faft, becaufe
the apertures for its egrefs being much fmaller than thofe
for its entrance, the velocity at the entrance is reciprocally
much fmaller than it is at the egrefs. But this ity at
the egrefs is not an abfolute motion; it is only a relative
motion with refpeé to the tube from which it iffues, other-
wife there would refult a fpontaneous augmentation of
power, which would not agree with the principles of me-
chanics.
The apertures for the entrance’and the egrefs of the water
being proportioned as they ought to be, in order to obtain
the greatett effe& ; then the report ftates,
1. The reaétion, that is, the force of preffure which aés
upon the revolving arms, at each of the apertures of egrefs,
is equal to the weight of a column of water of the fame
bafe as the aperture, and of the height of the level of water
in the refervoir.
2. The velocity of the rotation of the arms meafured at
the fame points is to the velocity due to the height of the
level of the water in the refervoir, as the aperture for the
entrance of the water into the mill-wheel is to the fum of the
apertures of egrefs.
Whence it follows, by multiplying this force and this
velocity, that the effe€t produced by the machine in a given
time is equal to the weight of all the water that the refervoir
can furnifh during this time, by the height of the level of
the water in the refervoir. Now this produd, it is well
known, is the utmoft that can be obtained by the belt hy-
draulic machines. :
This difpofition of Dr. Barker’s machine has a confider-
able advantage, which is, that the column of water which
enters into fhe arms, by prefling from below on the part
above, with all the weight of the refervoir, fuftains a great
part of the weight of the machine, and confequently greatly
diminifhes the fri€tion of the pivot again{ft the Saket in
which it turns; while, on the contrary, when the water
enters at the top, as in the old rea¢ting machines, which is
already very heavy of itfelf, this flowing water tonfiderably
augments the weight, and confequently the refiftance.
This difpofition cannot be ufed, except where the bulk of
water is not very confiderable. .
As the arms turn, while the conduit which brings the
water is immoveable, the pipe that brings the water to enter
the collar of the arms is rather lefs than the collar, fo as to
leave very little play between them, and is made tight by
furnifhing this {mall interval with a leather collar. Another
method is by furnifhing the tube at bottom, which is fixed,
and the moveable collar of the wheel, with feveral cylindrical
and concentrical furfaces, which fit one into the other with-
out touching. The water fills the deep and clofe grooves
formed by the cylindrical furfaces, and is fufficient to pre-
vent that which is forced into the wheel from efcaping by
the fides.
Dr. Robinfon defcribes a fuperior method of making fuch
a joint, as will admit of a free motion, without any lofs or _
leakage. This is to make the fixed and moveable tubes
very true at the joints, fo that one enters into the other, but
do not touch. The two tubes are to be made exaétly of
the fame diameter withinfide at the joint, fo that a band of
thin leather can be applied withinfide of the joint, to cover
the crevice: this muft be fixed to the interior of the fta-
tionary tube, and the revolving part being fmooth within-
fide, will have very little friétion, as it is only rubbed by
the leather ; but there can be no leakage at the joint,’ be-
caufe the water will prefs the leather Sofe to the movin
tube, but as much water will get in between the leather etd
the moving tube as to make it move {moothly.
Theory of Barker’s Mill.—This is a moft daliciti fubjeé,
and
WATER.
and upon which it does not appear that fufficient experi-
ments’ have been made to found a certain theory. '
Mr. Waring, of the American Philofophical Society, has
given a theory of Barker’s mill with the laft-mentioned im-
provement, and, contrary to every other philofopher, he
makes the effect of the machine equal only to that of a
ood underfhot wheel, moved with the fame quantity of
water falling through the fame height.
Mr. Gregory, in his Mechanics, vol. ii. has given this
paper with fome correétions, and recommends it as the beft
theory. The following rules, deduced from his calculus,
may be of ufe to thofe who may wifh to make experiments
on the effe&t of this interefting machine.
1. Make each arm of the horizontal rotatory tube or
arm of any convenient length, from the centre of motion to
the centre of the apertures, but not lefs than one-third (one-
ninth according to Mr. Gregory) of the perpendicular
height of the water’s furface above their centres.
2. Multiply the length of the arm in feet by .6136, and
take the fquare root of the product for the proper time of
a revolution in feconds, and adapt the other parts of the
machinery to this velocity ; or if the required time of a re-
volution be given, multiply the {quare of this time by 1.629
for the proportional length of the arm in feet.
3. Multiply together the breadth, depth, and velocity per
fecond, of the race, and divide the laft produé by 18.47
times (14.27 according to Mr. Gregory) the {quare root of
the height, for the area of either aperture.
4. Multiply the area of either aperture by the height of
the fall of water, and the produét by 413 pounds (55.775
according to Mr. Gregory} for the moving force, eftimated
at the centres of the apertures in pounds avoirdupois.
5- The power and velocity at the aperture may be eafily
reduced to any part of the machinery by the fimpleft me-
chanical rules.
The only account we have of an aétual machine, except
the firft model by Defaguliers, is by M. Mathon de la Cour,
who faw one at Bourg Argental, of the following dimen-
fions. Length of the revolving arms feven feet eight inches,
and diameter three inches; diameter of each orifice 1} inch;
fall of water, from the level furface in the refervoir to the
apertures in the revolving arms, twenty-one feet. The water
was introduced at the lower end of the revolving axis,
through an opening of two inches, the two furfaces being
fitted together by grinding.
When this machine was performing no work, and emitted
water by one hole only, it made 115 turns per minute.
This gives a velocity of (24 feet circumference x 115 =)
2760 feet fer minute for the hole; but the effluent velocity
by theory would be only 2215 feet per minute at 21 feet
height, and in reality would be little more than fix-tenths of
that velocity, or about 1370 feet per minute. Dr. Robin-
fon fuppofes even this to be much lefs than the velocity with
which the water iffued from the pipe, as we may readily be-
lieve, becaufe all the force of the machine was expended in
working like a centrifugal pump, to draw the water out of
the pipe of fupply, with a velocity greater than that with
which it would run by the preffure of the column alone.
The empty machine weighed 80 pounds, 284 pounds of
which would be borne up by the preffure of the column of
21 feet on a two-inch bafe, fo that the friction of the pivot
would be much diminifhed. We have no account of any
work done by the machine, as it was only employed to turn
a ventilator for a large hall.
Luler’s Machine to a@ by the Reaétion of Water.—His ma-
chine confifts of a hollow conchoidal ring, that is, a folid
thaped juft like a large church bell. Suppofe alfo another
bell, of fmaller dimenfions, placed within the former, and
leaving a {pace all round between the two, the two bells
are joined at the lower edges, fo that the water cannot
efcape from the fpace between them. This machine is
mounted on a perpendicular axis, and on the top is a fort of
funnel bafon, which receives the water from the fpout, not
in the direGtion pointing towards the axis, but in the direc-
tion of a tangent, and the water is delivered with the pre-
cife velocity of the wheel’s motion. This prevents any re-
tardation by dragging forward the water. ‘The water paffes
down from the funnel or bafon between the outer conchoid
or bell, and the inner conchoid, through fpiral channels
formed by partitions foldered to both conchoids. The
curves of thefe channels are determined by a theory which
aims at the annihilation of all unneceflary and improper motions
of the water, but which is too abftrufe to find a place here.
The water thus conducted arrives at the bottom of the
{pace between the two bells. On the lower circumference
of this bottom is arranged a number of fpouts, one from
each {piral channel, which are all direéted horizontally, and
turned one way in tangents to the circumference.
The fame effects will be produced, if we fuppofe only
one bell, with a number of tubes or pipes wound in a fpiral
dire&tion round its external circumference, the lower ends
of each tube being turned horizontally, and in the dire€tion
of tangents to the circle which it defcribes, alfo the upper
or higher extremities of the tubes, connected with a circu-
lar fuperficies into which the water flows from a refervoir.
When the machine has this form, it has been fhewn by Al-
bert that the effeét will increafe as the velocity is augmented,
and that the maximum effect would be produced if the ve-
locity could be infinite, and that then the effet would be
equal to the power. A confiderable portion of the power
mutt, however, be confumed, in communicating to the fluid
the circular motion of the tubes; and, as the portion thus
loft muft increafe with the velocity of the tubes, the effeé
will not in reality fuftain an augmentation from an increafe
of velocity, beyond a certain point.
It is plain that this form of the machine muft be a moft
cumbrous mafs; even in a {mall fize and height it would
require a prodigious veffel, and muft carry an unwieldy load.
If we examine the theory which recommends this conitruc-
tion, we find that the advantages, though real and fenfible,
bear but a {mall proportion to the whole performance of the
fimple machine, as invented by Dr. Barker. It is therefore
to be regretted, that engineers have not attempted to realize
the firft projeé.
Machines aduated by the Weight of Water.—The principal
of thefe are breaft-wheels, overfhot-wheels, chains of buckets,
and preffure-engines. All thefe have an effential difference
from the machines which we have yet defcribed, becaufe the
water is prevented from defcending, unlefs the machine
moves before the water. This is not the cafe with the ma-
chines which receive their motion from the impulfe of the
water, becaufe the water is fuffered to defcend and acquire
its full velocity before it ftrikes the machine.
In reafoning without experiment, we might be led to
imagine, that, however different thefe modes of application
are, yet whenever the fame quantity. of water defcends
through the fame perpendicular {pace, the effective powers
of two machines, which are aétuated by fuch fall of water,
would be equal, provided that the machines were free from
friétion, and equally well calculated to receive the full effe&
of the power of water, and to make the moft of it.
For if we fuppofe the height of a column of water to be
thirty inches, and that it refts upon a bafe or aperture of
one inch {quare, then every cubic inch of water that departs
from
WATER.
from the lower end of the column will acquire the fame
velocity of motion, from the uniform preflure of the thirty
cubic inches which are above it, that one cubic inch let fall
from the top would acquire in falling down to the level of
the aperture, viz. fuch a velocity as in a contrary direétion
would throw or projeét it to the level from whence it fell,
the weights and velocities in both thefe cafes being equal, the
products, or what we have called mechanical powers, will
alfo be equal. We might therefore be led to fuppofe, that
a cubic inch of water, let fall through a fpace of thirty
inches, fo as to inpinge upon a folid body, would be capa-
ble of communicating thereto an equal motion or mechanical
effe& by collifion, as if the fame cubic inch had defcended
through the fame {pace with a flower motion, and produced
the ofee gradually ; for in both cafes gravity ats upon an
equal quantity of matter through an equal fpace.
It is true that the gravitating force aéts a longer {pace of
time upon the body that defcends flowly, than upon the
other which falls quickly ; but this cannot occafion the dif-
ference in the effeét: for we find by experiment, that an
elaftic body falling through any given {pace will, by collifion
upon another elaltic body which is fixed, rebound nearly to
the height from which it fell: or, by communicating its
motion to a body equal to itfelf, will caufe that body to
afeend to the fame height. On thefe principles we might
_conclude, as fome authors have done, that whatever was the
ratio between the power and effeé& in underfhot wheels, the
{ame would hold true in overfhot, and indeed in all others.
However conclufive this reafoning may feem, it will ap-
pear, in the courfe of the following deductions, that the
effeét of the gravity of defcending bodies is very different
from the effet of the ftroke, of fuch as are non-elaftic,
though generated by an equal mechanical power.
It is true that, in the cafes we have above fuppofed, the
power of the fall of water is the fame; but the problem
propofed to the engineer is, to obtain from it all or as
much as poffible of the power, and render it applicable to
fome teh purpofe. We have already given our definition
of power, that it is weight or matter compounded with
motion. Now to obtain all the power from any ftream of
water, we muft abftra& from it all its weight and all its
motion. In underfhot wheels, or any others moved by the
impulfe of the water, we cannot come near this, becaufe
we have already fhewn, that the greatett effet is produced,
when the velocity of the wheel is two-fifths of the velocity
of the moving water. ‘The water, after it has finifhed its
effe&t,. is difcharged with that velocity ; hence it retains
and carries away with it three-fifths of its original power.
Neither can we obtain the full effe& of the weight of the
water, for another lofs is fuftained, in the change of figure
which the water experiences, when it ftrikes the float-board>
This is much greater than is ufually fuppofed, in confidering
machines, although it muft be familiar to any one who con-
fiders the refiftance of a boat, or other body, when drawn
through water. No weight is raifed in thefe cafes, unlefs
the motion be rapid, (fo as to raife a wave before the moving
body ;) but all the power is expended in changing the figure
of the water, by dividing the particles, and putting them
in new pofitions, fo that the body can pafs between them.
It is to this fource that we mutt look, for the difference
between two-fifths of the power, which we find is abftracted
from the whole power of the water by an underfhot-wheel,
and one-third of the power, which is the utmoft we can ob-
tain by means of an underfhot wheel.
In the other clafs of machines, which are a¢tuated by the
weight of water, we can obtain a much greater fhare of the
power of the defcending water. The weight of the water
is borne by the machine, which muft therefore receive the
whole weight of the water, and the lofs is chiefly in the
motion which the water {till retains after departing or
quitting the machine ; but as we are not confined, as in the
former inftance, to any fixed velocity of motion for the
. wheel, we may make it move almoft as flowly as we pleafe,
fo that the water will carry away with it a very {mall fhare
of the velocity which it would have acquired by falling
through the height of the fall. Indeed, if we could fup-
pofe a wheel to be without friction, and no water to leak
or efcape from thofe veffels, or parts of the wheel which
contain the water, it would be poffible to obtain an effeé&
from it very nearly equal to the power.
Breaft-Wheels.—Thefe are very commonly called under-
fhot wheels, becaufe the water runs beneath the wheel, but
improperly, becaufe the water does not fhoot againft the
floats of the wheel, or at leaft the principal power 1s derived
from the weight of the water. A brea{t-wheel partakes of
the nature of both an overfhot and an underfhot, and is con-
ftru&ted as is reprefented in {s 1. Plate 1. of Water-cwheels.
The lower part of the wheel is furrounded by a curved wall
or {weep of mafonry, which is made concentric with the
wheel, and the float-boards of the wheel are exactly adapted
to the mafonry, fo as to pafs as near as poffible thereto with-
out touching it; and the fide walls are in like manner
adapted to the end of the float-board or fides of the wheel,
the intention being, that as little water as poflible fhall be
able to pafs by the float-boards without caufing the boards
to move before it. ‘The water is poured upon the wheel
over the top of the breatting at I, the efflux from the mill-
dam R being regulated by the fluice or fhuttle M, which is
placed in the direction of a tangent to the wheel, and is pro-
vided with a rack N, and pinion P, by which it can be
drawn up fo as to make any required degree of opening, and
admit more or lefs water to flow on the wheel.
The water firft ftrikes on the float, and urges it by its
impulfe ; but when the floats defcend into the fweep, they
form as it were clofe buckets, each of which will contain a
given quantity of water, and the water cannot efcape from
thefe buckets except the wheel moves, at leait this is the in-
tention, and the wheel is fitted as clofe as it can be to t
race with that view. Each of the portions of water con-
tained in thefe fpaces bears partly upon the wall of the
{weep, and partly upon the floats of the wheel ; and its pref-
fure upon the floats, if not exceeded by the refiftance, will
caufe the wheel to move ; hence the aétion upon all the
floats which are within the {weep of the breafting is by the
weight of the water alone ; but the water is made to im-
pinge upon the firft float-board with fome velocity, becaufe
the furface of the water in the dam K is raifed confiderably
above the orifice beneath the fhuttle where the water
iffues.
The upper part of the fall at I is rounded off to a feg-
ment of a circle called the crown of the fall, and the water
runs over it. The lower edge of the fhuttle when put down
is made to fit to this curve, fo as to make a tight joint ; and
in confequence when the fhuttle is drawn up, the water will
run between its lower edge and the crown in a fheet or
ftream which {trikes upon the firft float that prefents itfelf,
nearly in a direétion perpendicular to the plane of the float-
board, or of a tangent to the wheel. The float-boards of
the wheel are dire¢ted to the centre, but there are other
boards placed obliquely which extend from one float-board
to the rim of the wheel, and nearly fill the fpace between
one float-board and the next. Thefe are called rifing-boards,
and the ufe of them is to prevent the water flowing over the
float-board into the ivterior of the wheel; but the edges e
thefe
WATER.
thefe boards are not continued fo far as to join to the back
of the next float, becaufe that would make all the boards of
the wheel clofe, and-prevent the free efcape of the air when
the water entered into the {paces between the floats.
As the water ftrikes with fome force, the rifing-board is
very neceflary, to prevent the water from dafhing over the
float-boards into the interior of the wheel.
This is the form of breaft-wheel employed by Mr.
Smeaton in the great number of mills which he conftruéted ;
but although he fpeaks of the impulfe of the water flriking
the wheel, he always endeavoured to make the top of the
breafting or crown of the fall as high as poflible, fo as to
attain the greateft fall and the lealt of the impulfive action.
All rivers and ftreams of water are fubje& to variation in
height from floods or dry feafons, and in fome this is very
confiderable ; it was therefore neceflary to make the
crown I of the fall at fuch a height as that in the lowelt
ftate of the water R, it would run over the crown in a fheet
of three or four inches in thicknefs, and work the wheel.
When the water rofe higher in the mill-dam, it would then
have a preffure to force it through, and in that cafe would
ftrike the wheel fo as to impel it by the velocity.
Mr. Smeaton was well aware that the power communi-
cated by this impulfe was very fmall. In fome cafes, where
the water was very fubject to variation, he ufed a falfe or
moveable crown, that is, a piece of wood which fitted to the
crown I, and raifed the furface thereof a foot or more, fo as
to obtain the greateft fall when the water ftood at a mean
height ; but when the water funk too low to run over this
moveable crown, it could be drawn up to admit the water
beneath it. This effe&t has ‘fince been produced in a more
perfeét manner by making the crown of the fall a moveable
fhuttle, to rife and fall according to the height of the water in
the mill-dam, by which means the inconvenience before-
mentioned is avoided.
Improved Breaft-wheel, in which the Water runs over the
Shuttle. —Fig. 7. is a feGtion of one of this kind. A is the
water which is made to flow upon the float-board B, and
urges the wheel by its weight only, the water being pre-
vented from efcaping or flowing off the float-boards by the
breaft or {weep D D, and the fide-walls which inclofe the
floats of the wheel. The upper part of the breaft D D is
made by a caft-iron plate, curved to the proper fweep to
line with the flone-work. On the back of the caft-iron plate
.the moving fhuttle eis applied ; it fits clofe to the caft-iron
fo as to prevent the water fram leaking between them, and
-the water runs over its upper edge. F is an iron groove or
channel let into the mafonry of the fide-walls, and in thefe,
the ends of the fliding fhuttle are received; f is an iron
rack, which is applied at the back of the fhuttle, and afcends
above the water-line where the pinion g is applied to it
to raife or lower the fhuttle. The axis of the pinion is fup-
ported in a frame of wood 11; 4 H isa toothed feftor and
balance-weight, which bears the fhuttle upwards, or it might
otherwife fall down by its own weight, and put the mill in
motion when notintended. G isa ftrong planking, which is
fixed acrofs between the two fide-walls, and retains the water
when it rifes very high, as in time of floods ; but in com-
mon times the water rifes only a few inches above the lower
edge of the planking. When the fhuttle is drawn up to touch
this lower edge, the water cannot efcape; but when the
fhuttle is lowered down, it opens a fpace e through which
the water flows upon the float-boards of the wheel. This
was the form firft adapted for the falling-fhuttle, but its
conftrugtion has fince been much improved.
Fig. 4. Plate 11. is afeétion of the moi improved form
for a breaft-wheel, taken from the Royal Armoury Mills, at
Vou. XXXVITI. .
Enfield Lock, ereéted by Meflrs. Lloyd and Oftel. - The
gourd defcription of this, is like the former, but it is con-
ruécted in a better manner, and unites ftrength with dura-
bility. The breaft of mafonry is furmounted by a caft-iron
plate A 24 feet high, which 1s let into the mafonry of the
fide walls at each end, and the lower part is formed with z
flanch, by which it.is bolted to the ftone-breait at top.
This plate is made ftraight at the back for the fhuttle B to
lie againft, and it flides up anddown. The ends of the gate
are guided by iron groove pieces or channels which are let
into the ftone-work of the fice wails, and being made wedge-
like, they fix the ends of the caft-iron breaft faft in its place.
‘The grooves are not upright, but inclined to the perpendicu-
lar fo much, thatthe plane of the gate is at right angles to
a radius of the wheel drawn through the point where the
water falls upon the wheel. D is a ftrong plank of wood,
extended between the iron grooves juft over the fhuttle.
When the fhuttle is drawn up it comes in conta with the
lower fide of this piece of wood, and ftops the water ; but the
piece D is fixed at fuch a height, that the water will run
clear beneath it, unlefs its furface rifes above its mean
height. :
The float-boards of the wheel do not point to the centre
of the wheel, but are fo much inclined thereto that they are
exa€tly horizontal at the point where the water firft flows
upon them. In this way, the gravity of the water has its full
effe& upon the wheel, and the boards rife up out of the
tail-water in a much better pofition, than if they pointed to
the centre of the wheel ; and this is more particularly ob-
fervable when the wheel is flooded by tail-water penned up
in the lower part of the race, fo that it cannot run freely
away from the wheel. ‘The dimenfions of this wheel are as
follow :—Diameter 18 feet to the points of the floats, and 14
feet wide ; the float-boards are 40 in number, each 16 inches
wide, and each rifing-board 11 inches wide. The wheel is
formed of four caft-iron circles or wheels, each 14 feet 8
inches diameter, placed at equal diftances upon the central
axis, which is 14 feet 8 inches long between the necks or
bearings, and g inches fquare; the bearing-necks are 9}
inches diameter. The wheel is calculated to make four re-
volutions per minute, which gives near 34 feet per fecond for
the velocity with which the float-boards move. The fall
of water is fix feet, and the power of the wheel, when the
fhuttle is drawn down one foot perpendicular, equal to
28-horfe power,
Breaft-Wheel with two Shuttles—In this wheel the piece
of wood marked D in the lalt figure, is fitted into the groove
of the fhuttle, and is provided with racks and pinions to
flide up and down, independently of the lower fhuttle.
The intention of this is, to make the lower fhuttle rife and
fall, according to the height of the water, fo that the water
fhall always run over the top of it, in the proper quantity
to work the mill with its required velocity, whillt the upper
fhuttle is only ufed to ftop the mill by fhutting it down
upon the lower fhuttle, and preventing the water from run-
ning over it. This plan is ufed when the mill is to be regu-
lated by a governor, or machine to govern its velocity ; in
that cafe the governor is made to operate upon the lower
fhuttle, and will raife it up, or lower it down, according as
the mill takes too much or too little water, and this regulates
the fupply ; but the upper fhuttle is ufed to ftop the mill,
and by this means the adjuftment of the lower fhuttle is not
deftroyed, but when fet to work again, it will move with its
required velocity. Fig. 3. Plate I1., Water-wheels, is a fec-
tion of one of the water-wheels at the cotton-mills of Mefirs.
Strutt, at Belper, in Derbyfhire, The width of this wheel
is very great, and to render the shuttles A B firm, a ftrong
M gratigg
WATER.
grating of caft-iron, is fixed on the 743 of the breaft K, and
the fhuttles aré applied at the back of the grating E, fo as
to flide up and down againft it, the ftrain occafioned by the
preffure of the water being borne by the grating. The
lower fhuttle is moted by means of long fcrews, a, which
have bevilled wheels, 5, at the upper ends, to turn them,
by a conneétion of wheel-work with the wheel-work of the
mill. The upper fhuttle, A, is drawn up or down by
racks and pinions, c, which are turned by a winch, or handle.
The bars of the grating E are placed one above the other,
like fhelves, but are not horizontal; they are inclined, fo
that the upper furfaces of all: the bars form tangents to an
imaginary circle of one-third the diameter of the wheel
defcribed round the centre thereof. Thefe bars are not
above half an inch thick, and the fpaces between them are
24 inches. The bars are of a confiderable breadth, the ob-
ject of them being to lead the water, with a proper flope,
from the top of the lower fhuttle A to flow upon the floats
of the wheel. This difpofition allows the fhuttles to be
laced at fuch a diftance from the wheel as to admit very
feat. upright bars of caft iron to be placed between the
wheel and the fhuttles, for the fhuttles to bear againft, and
prevent them from bending towards the wheel, as the great
weight of water would otherwife occafion them to do.
Thefe upright bars are very firmly fixed to the ftone-work
of the breaft at their lower ends, and the upper ends are
faftened to a large timber, D, which is fupported at its
ends in the fide walls, and has a trufs-framing applied to the
back of it, like the framing of a roof, to prevent it from
bending towards the wheel. The upright bars are placed
at diftances of five feet afunder, fo as to fupport the fhut-
tles in two places in the middle of their length, as well as
at both ends ; and large rollers are applied in the fhuttle,
where it bears againft thefe bars, to diminifh the fri&tion,
which would otherwife be very great.
Thefe precautions will not appear unneceffary when the fize
of the work is known. The wheel is 213 feet in diameter,
and 15 feet broad ; the fall of water is 14 feet, when it is at
a mean height ; the upper fhuttle is 23 feet high, and 15 feet
tong ; the lower fhuttle is 5 feet high, and the fame length,
fo that it contains 75 fquare feet of furface expofed to the
preffure of the water : now taking the centre of preffure at
two-thirds of the depth, or 3 feet, we find the preffure equal
to that depth of water aGting on the whole furface ; that is,
the weight of 3% cubic feet of water = 208 lbs. bears on
every fquare foot of furface, which is equal to 15,600 lbs.,
or near 7 tons on the lower fhuttle only ; but if we take the
two fhuttles together, the furface is 11 fquare feet, and
the mean preflure 312 lbs. upon each, or 16 tons in the
whole. The wheel has forty float-boards pointing to the
centre. The wheel is made of caft-iron. There are two
wheels of the dimenfions above ftated, which are placed in a
line with each other, and are only feparated by a wall which
f{upports the bearings ; for they work together as one wheel,
and the feparation is only to obviate the difficulty of making
one wheel of fuch great breadth as 30 feet, though this is
not impoflible, for there is a wheel in the fame works 4o feet
in breadth, but it is of wood and not in iron, framed in a
particular manner, as we fhall foon defcribe.
Mr. Buchanan’s Bucket Water-Wheel for a low Fall.—We
have already fhewn, that where water can be made to a@
on a wheel by weight, it is much more effe€tual than when
the fame water is made to a& by impulfe ; and we fhall thew
this more fully in fpeaking of overfhot-wheels.
Where the fall is lefs than half the diameter of the
wheel, if the buckets are made in the ufual form of the
buckets for overfhot-wheels, the difficulty of ‘filling them
-
with water, and the fhort time they are able to retain the
water, are fuch great defe€ts, that in fuch cafes breaft-
wheels, with open float-boards, fuch as we have defcribed,
have been found in praétice to be more advantageous than
bucket-wheels.
Mr. Buchanan fuggefts, that, by adopting another form
of the buckets, they might be fo made as to be eafily filled,
and at the fame time capable of retaining the water in a
fituation to produce nearly its full effect altogether by
weight, on a low fall.
In a wheel of this conftru€tion, contrary to the ufual
practice, the water muft be poured into the buckets from
within the circle of buckets inftead of from without the cir-
cle of buckets. How the filling of the buckets from with-
in can be accomplifhed may not at firft be obvious ; but it
may be done without the pentrough, which fupplies the
water, making any interference with the arms of the wheel,
if it is conftruéted as fhewn in figs. 4. and 5. Platel. Water-
wheels. Fig. 4. is an horizontal feétion of the wheel, and
plan of the pentrough; and fig. 5. an elevation of the
watér-wheel.
The buckets in the figure, empty themfelves by means of
apertures on the outfide of the wheel, which are the whole
length of the buckets, but no wider than juft fufficient to
difcharge the water from the buckets when they arrive at
the bottom of the wheel, and before they mie to afcend.
A A is the pentrough, into which the fupply of water is
condu€ted. From B to C a part of the wheel is reprefented,
with the fhrouding removed, to fhew the form of the
buckets, and the fituation of the water in them ; a, a, a, are
the apertures by which the water efcapes from the buckets ;
& the aperture by which the water enters from the pentrough
to the buckets. The plan, fig. 4., fhews, that the arms, NN,
of the wheel, and the circular rims which fupport the
buckets, occupy only a fmall part of the breadth of the
circular ring of buckets M ; fo that about one-third of the
length of the buckets at each end is expofed on the infide
of the circle, and againft thefe parts the penftock is applied,
as fhewn at A A, and the arms and rim of the wheel, move
clear of it; but the buckets, as they pafs, receive water,
which flows in a continual ftream at the orifices, 5, 4, of the
pentrough ; the buckets there become filled from the infide.
The partition-boards or plates which form the buckets are
reprefented by the white lines in fig. 5., and are fo fhaped,
that they will retain nearly the whole of the water until they
arrive at the loweft a; the water then begins to efcape, and
by the time that each bucket arrives at the loweft point of
the wheel, jt will have difcharged all the water, and will rife
up empty.
This is a truly ingenious contrivance ; but we fear that in
the execution it would prefent many difficulties, particularly
the ring of buckets M, which could not, we think, be fo
firmly affixed, fupported by the narrow Chee of the two
rings and arms N, as to preferve their circular figure for
any great length of time ; and any bending or warping of
fuch a heavy mafs as a water-wheel will foon deftroy it.
Neither is the advantage which could be derived from re-
ceiving the water in clofe buckets, inftead of open float-
boards, fo great as is generally imagined.
On the Power and Effe& of ke ei fhall
fully examine the different effe€ts of the power of water,
when acting by its impulfe and by its weight, under the
title of over/bot-wheels. In breaft-wheels of the common
conftruGtion, the effects of impulfe and weight are com-
bined ; but what is there defcribed being carefully attended
to, the application of the fame principles in thefe combined
cafés will be eafy. 4
A
WATER,
All kinds of machines, where the water cannot defcend
through a given f{pace, unlefs the wheel moves therewith,
are to be confidered as of the fame nature with overfhot-
wheels, and equal in power and effe& to an oyerfhot-wheel,
in which the perpendicular height that the water defcends
from is the fame. All thofe machines that receive the im-
pulfe or fhock of the water, whether in an horizontal, per-
pendicular, or oblique direétion, are to be confidered of the
fame nature as underfhot-wheels. ‘Therefore, in a wheel
which the water ftrikes at a certain point below the fur-
face of the water in the mill-dam, and after that de-
fcends in the arc of acircle, prefling by its gravity upon the
floats of the wheel, the power will be equal to the effeét of
an underfhot-wheel, whofe fall is equal to the difference of
level, between the furface of the refervoir and the point where
it ftrikes the wheel, added to that of an overfhot, whofe
height is equal to the difference of level between the point
where it ftrikes the wheel and the level of the tail-water.
It is here fuppofed that the wheel receives the fhock of the
water at right angles to its radii, and that the velocity of its
circumference is properly adapted to receive the utmoft ad-
vantage of both thefe powers; otherwife a reduction muft
be made on that account.
Mr. Oftel, an experienced engineer, informs us, that the
velocity of the water-wheel’s circumference fhould always be
between three and four feet per fecond ; but he has not been
able to determine which of thefe two velocities is the bett,
except in cafes where a wheel is fubjeé& to be flooded by
tail-water; and in that cafe four feet per fecond is beit.
Mr. Smeaton advifed 34 feet.
On overfhot Water-Wheels—An overfhot-wheel is fimply
acircular ring of open buckets, fo difpofed round the cir-
cumference of a vertical wheel, as to receive the water from
a {pout placed over the wheel in fuch a manner, that the
buckets on one fide of the wheel fhall be always loaded with
water, whilft the other fide is empty : in confequence, the
loaded fide will caufe it to defcend; and by this motion the
water runs out of the lower buckets, while the empty
buckets of the rifing fide of the wheel, in their turn come
under the fpout, and are filled with water.
A machine fo fimple does not appear to prefent any diffi-
culties in its execution, which fhould require any application
of theoretic reafoning to remove them ; but in reality it is
a matter of fome delicacy to conftruét a wheel in fuch a man-
ner as to obtain the greateft effe€t from a given fall of water.
It is probable, that the earlieft overfhot water-wheels con-
fifted of a number of wooden boxes or bowls, faftened on
the circumference of the wheel; but thefe would foon give
place to a better mode of conftrution, in which the cir-
cumference of the wheel being furrounded by a circular
ring at each fide, the {pace between them was divided into
feparate buckets by partition-boards. Thefe partitions
did not point to the centre of the wheel in the direc-
tion of radii, but were inclined thereto nearly in an angle
of forty-five degrees. By this means, the water which
ifued from the {pout of the trough above, nearly in an
horizontal dire€tion, as a tangent to the wheel, would run
into the buckets, and fill them as they arrived in fucceffion
at the top or higheft point of the wheel; but as the
buckets changed their pofition by the defcending-motion
of one fide of the wheel, they would become inclined, and
the water contained in the buckets would begin to run
over the edges of the partitions between the buckets, and
by the time the bucket arrived at the bottom point of the
wheel, the whole of the water would be run out and leave
the bucket empty, and they would remain empty whilft
they afcended on the oppofite fide of the wheel. By this
means, a con{tant preponderance of one fide of the wheel
would be kept up by the water falling into the buckets at
the top of the wheel, and flowing from it at the bottom.
The points chiefly to be confidered in conftru@ing an
overfhot-wheel are, firft, that the water fhall be applied
on the circumference of the wheel, fo as to be incapable
of defcending without communicating motion to the wheel,
until the water has defcended to its loweft pofition, and
that it fhall then quit the wheel entirely ; fecondly, that
the utmoft height of fall fhall be attained and ufefully em-
ployed ; and thirdly, that the load or refiftance to the
motion of the wheel fhall be fo adapted and proportioned
to the weight of water which is applied in the defcending-
buckets of the wheels, that the wheel will move flowly ;
becaufe we have before fhewn, that whatever velocity the
wheel moves with, fo much velocity the water mutt retain
when it quits the wheel, and will thus carry away fome
power with it.
We fhall now proceed to confider all the particulars
which contribute to the attainment of thefe objects, taking
Mr. Smeaton for our guide, and only adding fuch obfer-
vations as appear neceflary to render his maxims more
clear.
I. On the maximum Efe? which can be obtained from a
Fall of Water by Means of an overfhot-Wheel.—The effe&tive
power of the fall of water muit be reckoned upon the
whole defcent, becaufe it mutt be raifed that height, in
order to be in a condition to produce the fame effe& a
{fecond time. The ratio between the powers of the falling
water fo eftimated, and the mechanical effets produced
by the wheel at the maximum, deduced from the mean
of feveral of Mr. Smeaton’s experiments, is as 3 to 2
nearly. We have before, in our obfervations upon the
effeéts of underfhot-wheels, fhewn that the general ratio of
the power to the effeét, when greateft, was 3: 1. The
effect, therefore, produced by an overfhot-wheel, under the
fame circumftances of quantity: and fall of water, is at a
medium, double that produced by an underfhot. From
this, it appears that non-elaftic bodies, when aéting by their
impulfe or collifion, communicate only a part of their ori-
ginal power ; the other part being {pent in changing their
figure in confequence of the dtroke.
The ratio of the power to the effe&t, computed upon the
height of the wheel only, was, at a maximum, as 10: 8,
or as 5 : 4 nearly, becaufe Mr. Smeaton made the wheel of
a lefs height than the fall of water, in order to allow fome
run or defcent of the water through the fpout or trough,
which conduéted it into the buckets of the wheel. We
find the ratio, between the power and effeét, to continue
the fame, in cafes where the conftruétions are fimilar; hence
we mutt infer, that the effeéts, as well as the powers, are as
the quantities of water and perpendicular heights multiplied
together refpectively.
II. On the moft proper Height of the Wheel, in Proportion
to the whole Defcent.—The preceding obfervation fhews, that
the effe&t which can be obtained from the fame quantity of
water, defcending through the fame perpendicular fpace, is
double when it is made to a& by its gravity upon an over-
fhot-wheel, to what could be obtained from it when made
to a& by its impulfe upon an underfhot-wheel.
Hence it follows, that the higher the wheel is, in propor-
tion to the whole defcent, the greater will be the effeé ;
becaufe an overfhot-wheel depends lefs upon the impulfe of
the water when it firft ftrikes the wheel, and more upon the
gravity of the water in the buckets. The water which is con-
veyed into the buckets can produce very little effe&t by its
impulfe, even if its velocity be great ; both on account of
M 2 the
WATER.
the obliquity with which it {trikes the buckets, and in confe-"
quence of the lofs of water occalioned by a confiderable »
quantity of fluid being dathed over’ their fides. Inftead, °
therefore, of expecting an increafe of effe&t from the im-
pulfe of the water occafioned by its fall through fome part
of the whole height, we fhould caufe it toa through as
much as poffible of this height by its gravity, by eae
the diameter of the wheel as great as poffible. But a dif-
advantage attends even this rule; for if the water is con-
veyed into the buckets with a very {mall velocity, which
mutt be the cafe when the diameter of the wheel equals the
height of the fall, the velocity of the wheel will be re-
tarded by the impulfe of the buckets ftriking againft the
water, in order to put it in motion, and much power would
be loft by the water dafhing over them. In order, there-
fore, to avoid all inconveniences, the diftance of the {pout
fromthe receiving-bucket fhould, in general, be about two
or three inches, that the water may be delivered with a velo-
city a little greater than that of the wheel; or, in other
words, the diameter of an overfhot-wheel fhould be two or
three inches lefs than the greateft height of the fall ; and
yet it is no uncommon thing to fee the diameters of thefe
wheels fcarcely one-half of that height. In fuch a con-
ftruétion, the lofs of power is prodigious.
It is always defirable that the water fhould have fome-
what greater velocity, than the circumference of the wheel
in coming thereon, otherwife the wheel will not only be re-
tarded by the buckets ftriking the water, but thereby dafh-
ing a part of it over fo much of the power is loft.
The velocity that the circumference of the wheel ought
to have, will be known by what we fhall fay next, and the
depth of column réquifite to give the water its proper velo-
city, is eafily computed from the rules and tables given in
this article, and will be found much lefs than what is gene-
rally fuppofed.
This maxim obliges us to ufe a wheel, whofe diameter is
nearly equal to the whole fall; but we fhall not gain any
thing by employing a larger wheel. It is true, we could
then apply the water upon a part of the circumference
where the weight will a& more perpendicularly to the ra-
dius, but we fhould lofe more by the neceflity of difcharging
the water at a greater height from the bottom, becaufe the
water, in all cafes, begins to run out of the buckets long
before they arrive at the bottom of the wheel.
Suppofe the buckets of both wheels equally well con-
ftruéted in either cafe, whether the wheel is only as high as
the fall, or of a greater height, then the heights above the
bottom, where they will difcharge the water, will increafe
in the proportion of the diameter of the wheel. That we
fhall lofe more by this, than we gain by a more dire& appli-
cation of the weight, is plain without any further reafoning,
by taking the extreme cafe, and fuppofing our wheel en-
larged to fuch a fize, that the ufelefs part below would be
equal to our whole fall. In this cafe, the water would be
{pilled from the buckets as foon as it is delivered into them.
All intermediate cafes, therefore, partake of the imperfec-
tion of this. It was the obje& of Mr. Buchanan’s bucket-
wheel, which we have already defcribed, to avoid this dif-
ficulty, and employ a height of fall which bore only a fmall
proportion to the whole height of the wheel. This obfer-
vation neceflarily leads us to confider the beft form for the
buckets.
III. On the bef Form for the Buckets of overfhot Wheels.—
It is impoffible to conflrué& the buckets fo that they will re-
main completely filled with water till they reach the bottom
of the wheel: indeed, if the buckets were formed by par-
titions direéted to the axis of the wheel, the whole water
muft run out by the time they have defcended to the level
of the axis; and, in confequence, there muft bea great?
diminution sin the mechanical effe@ of the wheel. . Mill-.
wrights have, therefore, turned their chief attention to the’
determination of a form for the buckets which fhall enable
them to retain the water throhgh a great portion of the
circumference of the wheel. An infpeétion of figs. 2 and 3°
will fhew at once the proper form which has been ettablifhed
by long praétice. Thefe are called elbow-buckets, be-
caufe each partition is formed by two boards, which are
put together with an angle or elbow. The rule for fetting
thefe out is, to divide the wheel into the number of buckets
it is intended to have ; then take four-fifths of the {pace or
interval between two partitions for the depth of the fhroud-
ing, that is, the breadth of the circular rings at the fides of
the wheel, which form the ends of the buckets, and are
called the fhrouds; whilft the planking, which forms the
bottom of all the buckets, is called the fole of the wheel.
That board of each partition which is in the direétion of a
radius to the wheel, rifes from the fole half the depth of
the fhroud ; the other board of the bucket is fo inclined,
that its outer end fhall be advanced beyond the line of the
next radius-board, if it was produced.
It isa great advantage to make the partitions of the buckets
thin, particularly the edges of the partitions, which will
meet and divide the ftream of water flowing upon the wheel ;
and if thefe edges are not made fharp, they will {plafh the
water about; the edges are, therefore, finifhed by iron-
plate, or it is better to make all the inclined parts of the par-
tition of iron-plate. The greater number of buckets, and
the fhallower they are, the more regularly the wheel will
a&. The limits are, that the mouths of the buckets fhall
be of {uch width as to allow the air to efcape, at the fame
time that the ftream of water flows in; and alfo that the
breadth of the wheel fhall not be extravagantly great, to
make its buckets contain as much water as would produce
the power required from the wheel.
The lofs of water, at the lower part of the wheel, will
very much depend upon the proportion of water which is
poured into‘each bucket. It is evident, that if the buckets,
of whatever form they are made, were totally filled when at
the top of the wheel, they muft begin to fpill the water im-
mediately when they departed from that pofition. But, on
the other hand, if only a part of the content of each bucket
is filled with water, then it will bear a greater degree of in-
clination, and be a longer time before the water will begin
to fpill from the bucket. This is a reafon for making large
buckets, and filling only a part of their contents. In prac-
tice a medium mutt be itruck between thefe contending cir-
cumftances, and the wheel will a& to advantage.
It has been propofed to apply another bend to the parti-
tion-boards of each bucket which fhall be beyond the in-
clined board that we have defcribed, and fhall be concen-
tric with the rim of the wheel, in the fame manner as is
reprefented in Mr. Buchanan’s wheel, fig. 5. It is true
that this form would retain the water from fpilling for a
longer time, and thus be an advantage ; but it is not favour-
able for admitting the water into the buckets when at the
top of the wheel. .
The inclined boards, when made as we have defcribed,
may be exaétly in the line of the ftream of water, which
iffues from the {pout when it pafles beneath fuch ftream ;
and in this way, if the edge of the inclined board is made
thin, there will be as little {plafhing of the water as poffible.
But by the addition of another part to the edge of the par-
tition, which is concentric to the circle of the wheel, the
ftream of water cannot be made to proceed exactly in _
ine
WATER.
liné of the partition, and will therefore {plaih the water.
The fplathing may appear immaterial, but it is in reality
very prejudicial, becaufe the broken water fills the mouth
of the bucket, and prevents the air from getting out rea-
dily, and it is for this reafon that it is very neceflary to
allow fo much of the fall above the height of the wheel, as
will make the water run into the buckets, with a little
greater velocity than the motion of the wheel.
Dr. Robinfon, in the Encyclopedia Britannica, defcribed
a plan for the buckets of an overfhot wheel, which was in-
vented by Mr. Robert Burns, millwright, and executed by
him ata cotton-mill in Scotland : it is fhewn in fig. 5. Plate 11.
Water-wheels. In this way, the wheel has two ranks of
buckets, one within the other. The buckets confift of a
partition A B, in the direétion of a radius of the wheel,
which is joined to another BC, inclined to that, and alfo
to a third C D, which is concentric with the rim of the
wheel. .
The bucket is divided into two, by a partition L M, alfo
concentric with the rim of the wheel, and. fo placed as to
make the inner and outer portions of the bucket nearly
of equal capacity. | It is evident, without any farther reafon-
ing, that this partition will enable the double bucket to re-
tain its water much longer than the fingle one could. When
they are filled only one-third, they retain the whole water
at eighteen degrees from the bottom of the wheel, and they
retain half of the water at eleven degrees. The only ob-
jection is, that they do not admit the water quite fo freely
as buckets of the common conitruétion.
This arifes from the air, which muft find its way out to
admit the water, but is obftruéted by the entering water,
and occafions a great {pluttering at the entry. This may
be entirely prevented, by making the {pout confiderably nar-
rower than the wHeel, and will leave room at the two ends
of the buckets for the efcape of the air. It was found in
practice, that a flow moving wheel, allowed one half of the
water to get into the inner buckets, efpecially when the
partitions which form the inner buckets, did not altogether
reach thesradius drawn through the lip D of the outer
bucket. The doétor confiders this as a very great improve-
ment of the bucket-wheel ; and when the wheel is made of
a liberal breadth, fo that the water may be very fhallow in
the buckets, it feems to carry the performance as far as it
can go. Mr. Burns made the firft trial on a wheel of
twenty-four feet diameter, and its performance is manifeftly
fuperior to that of the wheel which it replaced, and which
was avery good one. It has alfo another valuable property.
When the fupply of water is very fcanty, a proper adjutt-
ment of the ftream of water ifluing from the fpout, will
dire& almoft the whole of the water into the outer buckets;
which, by placing it at a greater diftance from the axis,
makes fome addition to its mechanical energy.
IV. Concerning the proper Velocity of the Circumference of
an overfhot Wheel, in order to produce the greateft Effe@.—lf a
body of water is let fall freely from the furface of the
water in the upper refervoir to the bottom of the defcent,
it will take a certain time in falling ; and in this cafe, the
whole aétion of gravity will be {pent in giving the water a
certain velocity. But if this water in falling is intended to
aét upon fome machine, fo as to produce a mechanical
effect, the falling water muft be retarded, becaufe a part of
the ation of gravity is then fpent in producing the effeét,
and the remainder only will give motion to the falling water,
which motion it will retain, after it has quitted the machine.
On this principle, the flower a body defcends the greater
portion of the aétion of its gravity can be applied to pro-
2
duce mechanical effect, and in confequence the greater that
effet will be.:
If a quantity of water falls from a ftream, into each
bucket of an.overfhot-wheel, it is there retained until the
wheel, by moving round, difcharges it. Now, the flower
the wheel moves, the more water each bucket will receive,
becaufe’it remains a longer time beneath the {pout, fo that
what is loft in the fpeed with which the wheel moves, is
gained by the preffure of a greater quantity of water aéting
in the buckets at once; and if confidered only in this light,
the mechanical power of an overfhot-wheel to produce effeéts
will be equal, whether it moves quick or flow. The popular
reafoning adduced to prove-this has been of the following
kind. Suppofe that a wheel has thirty buckets, and that four
cubic feet of water are delivered in a fecond on the top of
the wheel, and difcharged, without any lofs by the way, at
a certain height from the bottom of the wheel.
It is clear that this ftream will fupply the fame quantity,
whatever is the rate of the wheel’s motion ; and the buckets
mutt be of a fufficient capacity to hold all the water which
falls into.them when the wheel moves very flow. Suppofe
this wheel employed to raife a weight of any kind, for in-
ftance to draw a bafket of coals out of a deep pit or mine,
and that the rope winds upon a barrel of fuch fize that the
bafket will be drawn up with the fame velocity as the water
in the buckets defcends. Suppofe, further, that the wheel
will make four revolutions in a minute, or one turn in fifteen
feconds, when the load or weight in the bafket which forms
the refiftance to the motion of the machine is one-third of
the load of water contained in the buckets of the wheel.
Now, during the time of one revolution, fixty cubic feet
of water will have flowed into the thirty buckets, and each
have received two cubic feet. In this cafe, the bafket may
contain a weight equal to twenty cubic feet of water, which
weight will be drawn up a height equal to one circum-
ference of the wheel, during one turn of the wheel, or in
fifteen feconds of time.
Now fuppofe the machine fo loaded, by making the
bafket more capacious, that the wheel can only make two
turns in a minute, or one turn in thirty fecends, then each
defcending bucket of the wheel will receive four cubic feet
of water. If the bafket contained a double weight, viz.
equal to forty cubic feet, the effe€t produced by the ma-
chine would be the fame as before, becaufe the velocity is
only one half; but we find in praétice, that it will raife
more than in this proportion when it moves flower, for if
we attend to what we have juft obferved of the falling body,
we find that fo much of the action of gravity as is employed
in giving motion and velocity to the wheel and water therein,
mutt be fubtraéted from its preflure upon the buckets.
The produ& made by multiplying the number of cubic
inches of water which a& on the wheel at once by its. velo-
city, will be the fame in all cafes; yet, as each cubic inch,
when the velocity is greater, prefles more lightly upon the
buckets than when the velocity is lefs, the power of the
water to produce effeéts will be greater in the lefs velocity
than in the greater. This leads us to the general rule, that
the lefs the velocity of the wheel, the greater will be the
effe&t produced by any given quantity, and fall of water.
A confirmation of this doétrine, together with the limits
it is fubje& to in praétice, is a matter of experiment and
obfervation which has been ably decided by Mr. Smeaton.
The velocity of the wheel fhould not be diminifhed, further
than what will produce fome folid advantage in point of
power ; becaufe, as the motion is flower, the buckets muit
be made larger, that the increafe of their weight may com-
penfate
-
WATER.
penfate for the flownefs of their motion. The wheel being
thus more loaded with water, the ftrefs upon every part of
the work will be increafed in proportion. ;
The beft rule for practice will be, to make the velocity
of the circumference a little more than three feet in a
fecond.
Experience confirms, that this velocity of three feet in a
fecond, is applicable to the greateft overfhot wheels “as well
as the {malleft ; and all other parts of the work being pro-
perly adapted to this velocity, the fall of a given quantity
of water, will produce very nearly the greateft effe& pofli-
ble. But it is alfo certain from experience, that large
wheels may deviate further from this rule before they will
lofe their power, by a given aliquot part of the whole, than
{mall ones can be admitted to do; for inftance, a wheel of
twenty-four feet high may move at the rate of fix feet per
fecond, without tafing any confiderable part of its power.
This may perhaps be accounted for, when we confider how
{mall a proportion of the whole fall is requifite to give the
water the proper velocity which the wheel ought to have ;
whilit in a fmaller wheel, the fame height muft be allowed
for that purpofe, and confequently, a greater proportion of
the whole height. On the other hand, Mr. Smeaton tells
us, that he had feen a wheel of thirty-three feet diameter
that moved very fteadily and well, with a velocity but little
exceeding two fect per fecond.
There is a natural wifh to fee a machine move brifkly ; it
has the appearance of aétivity: but a very flow motion al-
ways looks as if the machine was overloaded. For this rea-
fon, mill-wrights have always yielded flowly, and with reluc-
tance, to the advice of Mr. Smeaton, but they have yielded ;
and we now fee them adopting maxims of coniiru@ion more
agreeable to found theory, that is, making their wheels of
great breadth, and loading them with a great deal of work.
The relu@tance to adopt this fyftem did not arife folely
from prejudice, but from a real inconvenience attending
the flow motion of the wheel when the refiftance which 1s
oppofed to its motion, and which is the caufe that it
moves flowly, is not uniform in the different parts of a
revolution.
In all machines, there are fmall inequalities of aGtion
which are unavoidable ; and in fome machines very great in-
equalities arife, from the mtermitting motions of cranks,
ftatmpers, and other parts which move unequally or reci-
procally. "When a water-wheel is employed to give motion
to fuch machines, it may be fo refifted or loaded, as to be
nearly in equilibrio with-its work, in the moft favourable
pofition of the parts of the machine ; but when thefe change
mto a lefs favourable pofition, the machine may ftop the
wheel altogether, or at all events hobble, and work very
irregularly. And for the fame reafon that a water-wheel
accommodates its motion very quickly to the refiftance it
is to overcome, fo all tendency to irregular motion is in-
creafed. A wheel, when its load is increafed, moves more
flowly, and receives more water into each bucket; thereby
taking to itfelf a weight of water equal to overcome its
load, and on the other hand by moving quicker, it takes
lefs water into each bucket when the Acad is dimmmifhed.
But thefe changes do not take place inftantaneoufly, be-
éaufe it can be only in the moment that each bucket paffes
beneath the ftream, that the fhare of water it fhall have,
will be influenced by the rate of the wheel’s motion.
When a bucket is once filled it continues with that charge
until it arrives at the bottom of the wheel.
This felf-regulating property of the wheel can only ap-
ply m cafes af fmall and permanent changes of refiftance,
for it always comes too late to correét fudden and confider-
able changes in the refiftance ; then it aéts in the contrary
direction. Suppofe, for inftance, an overfhot wheel is em-
ployed to work a fingle pump by means of a crank, the
refiftance of this machine will be continually varying ; it
will be nothing during one-half of the period of the revo-
lution when the pump is not drawing any water, and during
the other half it will be in a conftant ftate of increafe and
diminution. Now, during the time this wheel has nothing to
do, it will turn round very quickly, and therefore each
bucket will receive very little water; confequently, when
the wheel comes to be refifted, the wheel will have fo little
water in its buckets, that it will perhaps be quite ftopped :
in this cafe, the bucket beneath the fpout will receive water
until it is quite full, and then the water will run over and
fill fo many of the buckets beneath it, as to put the wheel
in motion flowly; in confequence, the fucceeding buckets
will receive a large fhare of water during the half revolu-
tion when the pump makes its ftroke; but when this is
finifhed, and the refiftance ceafes, the wheel being well
loaded with water, will in confequence move very rapidly
for a half revolution, and its buckets will receive very little
water.
This is indeed an extreme cafe of irregular refiftance,
and muft be remedied by applying two pumps inftead of
one, or a balance-weight, or a fly-wheel; but the fame
principle will apply in cafe of fmaller irregularities. In all
cafes, the refiftance muft be reduced to a great degree of
uniformity, before a water-wheel can be applied to it with
advantage, particularly if the wheel is intended to move
flowly, with a view of obtaining the greateit power, the
irregularities will then have more ferious confequences.
A little more velocity enables the machine to overcome
thofe increafed refiftances by its inertia, or the great quan-
tity of motion inherent in it. Great machines poflefs this
advantage in a fuperior degree, and will confequently work
fteadily with a fmaller velocity. In all cafes, the machine
muft have fo much moving matter in it as is fufficient to
overcome the irregularities, and regulate the motion of the
wheel. If this is not already found in the machine, as in the
mill-ftones of a corn-mill for inftance, the weight muft be
placed in the water-wheel itfelf, or in a fly-wheel applied
for the purpofe.
Mr. Bucharan meafured the quantity of water which a
cotton-mill required, when going at its common velocity ;
and when going at half that velocity. The refult was, that
the laft required juit half the quantity of water which the
firft did. In the experiments, the quantities of water were
calculated from the depth of water and apertures of the
fluices.
From which experiments, he inferred that the quantity
of water neceflary to be employed in giving different de-
grees of velocity to a cotton-mill, muft be nearly as the
velocity. The water from the cotton-mill on which he made
the obfervation, falls a little below it, into a perpendicular-
fided pond, which ferves as a dam for a corn-mill. By mea-
furing the time which the water took to rife at a certain
height in that pond, he determined the expenditure of water
when the corn-mill moved at its common velocity; and alfo
when it moved at nearly half that velocity.
The refult of thefe experiments approached very nearly
to the former, and all the differences could be accounted for,
by a fmall degree of leakage, which took place at the
fluices on the lower end of the pond; and the time being
greater when the mill moved flower, the leakage would of
courfe be greater. :
n
WATER.
In thefe experiments, the motion of the water-wheel
being exa@tly proportioned to the quantity of water ex-
pended, the load upon the wheel muft have been equal when
it moved quick or flow, that is to fay, the buckets mutt
have been equally filled when the wheel moved at its ordi-
nary motion, or at half that motion.
The effe&, therefore, of letting more water on a wheel
when the refiftance continues the fame, is not to lodge a
treater quantity in each of the buckets, but to fupply the
fame quantity to each bucket when the wheel is in a
greater motion.
The greateft velocity that the circumference of an over-
fhot wheel can acquire, depends jointly upon the diameter
or height of the wheel, and the velocity of falling bodies ;
for it is plain, that the velocity of the circumference can
never be greater, than to defcribe a femicircumference, in
the time that a body let fall from the top of the wheel
would defcend through its diameter, nor indeed quite fo
great ; as a body defcending through the fame perpendicular
{pace cannot perform its courfe in fo {mall a time, when
pafling through a femicircle, as would be done in a per-
pendicular line. Thus, if a wheel is fixteen feet one
inch diameter, a body will fall through the line of its dia-
meter in one fecond: this wheel, therefore, can never arrive
at a velocity equal to the making one turn in two feconds.
An overfhot wheel can never come near this velocity, for
when it acquires a certain fpeed the greateft part of the
water is prevented from entering the buckets; and the rett,
at a certain point of its defcent, is thrown out again by the
centrifugal force. The velocity, when this action will be-
gin to take place, depends in a great degree upon the form
of the buckets as well as other circumftances ; fo that the
utmolt velocity that an overfhot wheel may be capable of is
not to be determined generally ; and indeed the knowledge
of it is not at all neceffary in practice, becaufe a wheel, in
fuch cafe, would be incapable of producing any mechanical
effect.
V. Onthe proper Load for an overfhot Wheel, in order that it
may produce a maximum Effed.—The maximum load or re-
fiftance for an overfhot wheel, is that which will reduce the
circumference of the wheel to its proper velocity, of three or
three and a half feet per fecond ; and this will be known, by
dividing the effet it ought to produce in a given time, by
the {pace intended to be defcribed by the circumference of
the wheel in the fame time ; the quotient will be the refiftance
to be overcome at the circumference of the wheel, and is
equal to the load required, the fri€tion and refiftance of the
machinery included.
VI. On the greateft Load that an overfhot Wheel can overcome.
—The greateft load an overfhot wheel can overcome depends
upon the magnitude of the buckets; and the retiftance
which will ftop the wheel, muft be equal to the effort of
all the buckets in one femicircumference, when quite filled
with water.
The ftru€ture of the buckets being given, the quantity
of this effort may be affigned, but is not of much import-
tance in practice, as in this cafe alfo, the wheel lofes its
power ; for though the water makes the utmoft exertion of
gravity upon the wheel, yet, being prevented by a counter-
balance from moving at all, it is not capable of producing
any mechanical effeét, according to our definition. An
overfhot wheel, generally ceafes to be ufeful before it is
loaded to that pitch, for when it meets with fuch a refift-
ance as to diminifh its velocity to a certain degree, its mo-
tion becomes irregular ;. yet this never happens until the ve-
locity of the circumference is reduced to lefs than two feet
per fecond, where the refiftance is equable, as appears not
only from the preceding fpecimen, but from experiments
on larger wheels.
VIL. Conftrudtion of the Pentrough for fupplying the Water to
overfhot Wee we have het whey “4 ie ftream of
water, as if it iffued from a {pout nearly in an horizontal direc-
tion, or with only fo much inclination as will make the line of
the ftream correfpond with the direGtion of the oblique part of
the bucket-board. This is the ancient, and ftill the common
way; Mr. Smeaton’s, which is a much better, is fhewn in
Jig. 2. Plate. Water-wheels. G reprefents the pentrough
through which the water flows, and F F ftrong crofs-beams on
which it is fupported ; the wheel is fituated very clofe beneath
the bottom of the trough, as the figure fhews. EE are two
arms of the wheel, which are put together, as fhewn in jg. 7.
DB is the wooden rim of the wheel ; the narrow circle beyond
this is the feétion of the fole planking, and on the outfide of
this the bucket-boards are fixed as the figure fhews ; one of
the bottom boards, 4, of the trough at the end is inclined, and
an opening is left between that end and the other boards of
the bottom, to let the water pafs through ; this opening is
clofed by a fliding thuttle, c, which is fitted to the bottom
of the trough, and can be moved backwards and forwards
by a rod, d, and lever, e, which is fixed into a ftrong axis f;
this axis has a long lever on the end, which, being moved
by the miller, draws the fhuttle along the bottom of the
trough, and increafes or diminifhes the aperture through
which the water iffues. The extreme edge of the fhuttle is
cut inclined, to make it correfpond with the inclined part 4,
and by this means it opens a parallel paflage for the water
to run through, and this caufes the water to be delivered in
a regular and even fheet; and to contribute to this the edges
of the aperture where the water quits it, are rendered fharp
by iron plates; the fhuttle is made tight where it lies upon
the bottom of the trough by leather, fo as to avoid any
leakage when the fhuttle is clofed. When the wheel is of
confiderable breadth, the weight of the water might bend
down the middle of the trough until it touched the wheel ;
to prevent this, a {trong beam, O, is placed acrofs the trough,
and the trough is fufpended from this by iron bolts which
pafs through grooves in the fhuttle, fo that they do not in-
terfere with the motion of the fhuttle.
Fig. 3. of the fame plate is an overfhot wheel, for which
Mr. Nouaille took a patent in 1813 ; he recommends that
the water-wheel be made the full height of the fall of water,
and that the water be applied upon the wheel at 53 degrees
from the vertex. The pentrough is made nearly on the
fame plan as Mr. Smeaton’s. OR is the trough, dg the
end inclined in the dire&tion in which the water is intended
to be direéted, f the fhuttle, fliding horizontally on the
bottom of the trough, cde the lever for drawing the fhut-
tle, : which motion is given by a regulating {crew a and
nut 4.
Fig. 9. Plate 11. Water-wheels, is the method of laying on
water, which has for feveral years been incommon ufe in York-
fhire and the north of England. In this the water is not ap-
plied quite at the top of the wheel, but nearly in the fame
pofition as the laft defcribed ; but the advantages of this wheel
over all others is, that the water can be delivered at a greater
or lefs height, according to the height at which the water
ftands in the trough ; but in all the preceding methods if the
water is fubje& to variations of height, as all rivers are, then
the wheel muft be diminifhed, fo that in the loweit ftate of the
water it will ftand a fufficient depth above the orifice in the
bottom of the trough to iffue with a velocity rather greater
than the motion of the wheel. In this cafe, when the water
rifes to its ufual height, or above it, the increafe of fall thus
obtained is very little advantage to the wheel ; the improved
wheel
“WATER.
wheel can at all times take the utmof fall of the water, even
when its height varies from three to four feet. A A is the
pentrough made of cait-iron ; the end of it is formed by a
grating of broad flat iron bars, which are inclined in the
proper pofition to dire& the water through them into the
buckets of the wheel. The {paces between the bars are fhut
up by a large fheet of leather, which is made fait to the bottom
of the iron trough at a, and is applied again{t the bars ; and
the preffure of the water keeps it in clofe contaé& with the
bars, fo as to prevent any leakage. This is the real fhuttle, and
to open it fo as to give the required ftream of water to the
wheel, the upper edge of the leather is wrapped round a
{mailer roller 6; the pivots at the ends of this roller are re-
ceived in the lower ends of two racks, which are made to
flide up and down by the aétion of two pinions fixed upon
a common axis which extends acrofs the trough ; this axis
being turned, raifes up or lowers down the roller, and the
leather fhuttle winds upon it as it defcends, or unwinds from
it as it afcends, fo as to open more of the {paces between the
bars, or clofe them as it is required. In order to make
the roller take up the leather, and always draw it tight, a
ftrap of leather is wound round thé extreme ends of the
rollers, beyond the part where the leather fhuttle rolls upon
it. ‘Thefe ftraps are carried above water and applied on
wheels, which wind them up with a very confiderable tenfion
by the aétion of a band and weight wrapped on the cir-
cumference of a wheel, which is on the end of the axis of
thofe wheels. —
The water runs over the upper fide of the roller, and flows
through the {paces between the grating into the buckets of
the wheel ; the defcent of the water pafling through the
bars, and afterwards in falling before it ftrikes the bottom
of the bucket, is found fully fufficient to produce the ne-
ceflary velocity of the water, for a fall of four inches pro-
duces a velocity of more than four feet per fecond.
We recommend this as the beit method of applying the wa-
ter, as we fee in all other forms that a much greater portion of
the fall is given up in order to make the water flow into the
wheel ; not that any fuch depth as is commonly given is at
all neceflary, but the aperture in the trough mutt be placed
fo low that the water will run through it in the very lowett
itates of the water, otherwife the wheel muit itop at fuch
times.
On the Manner of framing Water-wheels.—The weight of
every wheel mutt be fupported by its axis, which therefore
demands the firft confideration. If the axis is to be of wood
it fhould be made of a tree of hard and durable wood, of a
length and fize proportioned to the fize and weight of the
wheel ; into each end a gudgeon or centre fhould be fixed
for the wheel to turn upon. There are two methods of fixing
the gudgeon into a wooden axis ; one is, by forming the
gudgeon with.a crofs, which is let into the end of the tree,
and faftened by fcrews, and the wood is compreffed round
the crofs by two or three iron hoops, fitted on the end of
the tree and wedged ; this is explained in the article Mini-
Work. 'The other method is, to make a {trong iron box in a
piece with the gudgeon, into which box the end of the tree is
received and fecured by wedges. The box being of an o¢ta-
gon fhape, and the wood being cut to the fame figure, it
cannot flip round within the box.
Of late years it has been ufual to make the great axis of
water-wheels of caft-iron, which is a very good plan, pro-
vided the axis is made of fufficient dimentions. » This was
firft pra&tifed by Mr. Smeaton, but he was rather unfor-
tunate, as feveral of them broke after having been many
ears in ufe: he then employed hollow tubes of caft-iron of
ge dimenfions and conliderable thicknefs of metal. Even
now that the ftrength of cait-iron is better underftood, it is
not uncommon for the axis of a water-wheel to break, par-
ticularly in cold and frofty weather, and for this reafon fo
millwrights ufe wrought iron, but the hollow tube is fo muc
ftronger, as to be very fecure from accident.
In an iron axis it is advifeable to make the bearings of the
axis clofe to the fides of the water-wheel, and leave the ends
of the axis projeéting beyond the bearings, in order to attach
the cog-wheel, by which the power of the wheel is to be
communicated to other, machinery. This diminifhes the
length of the axis between the bearings, and renders it much’
ftronger ; wooden axes muft have the gudgeons at the ex-
treme ends.
The next point to be confidered is, the beft means of affix-
ing the arms of the wheel firmly to the axis. If the arms
are of wood, and the axis alfo, the moft obvious plan is to
mortife the arms into the axis; but this is the worft method
that can be adopted, becaufe the axis is much weakened, and
the water being admitted into the centre of the tree caufes it
foon to decay, nor can an arm be eafily replaced without
taking all the wheel to pieces.
A better way is to ufe eight.timbers for the arms, and put
them together fo as to interfe& each other at right angles,
(as is fhewn in fig. 7. Plate I.) leaving a {quare opening in the
centre for the reception of the axis, which is made up to a
{quare by adding pieces of wood to it, and the wheel is faf-
tened on by wedges. The only objeétion to this is, that
the arms are weakened by interfeéting each other, and
they fupport the circular rim of the wheel in unequal feg-
ments.
In Mr. Buchanan’s water-wheel, which we have before
defcribed in figs. 4 and 5, Plate 1. Water-qheels, is a parti-
cular conftruétion of the arms formed by thin planks of wood.
He ftates that this plan is applicable to any kind of water-
wheel ; and fince 1790, when he firft conttru&ed a wheel
with arms on that principle, a confiderable’ number of large
wheels have been ereCted in Scotland on the fame plan. It
is evident that arms, fuch as are commonly fixed in mortifes
in the axis, are weakeft in one dire¢tion, and that commonly
in the dire&tion of the ftrain. To remedy this defe& the
feather-pieces F F are applied all round, having their broad-
eft ends towards the centre of the wheel, and being at night
angles to the breadth of the principal arms. In order to
unite them ftrongly to the principal arms, and conned the
whole more firmly together, a ring of iron, R, is applied
on each fide ; blocks of wood being put in the vacant {paces
between, and the keys or wedges, K K, bind the whole clofe
to the axis. 4
The very beft method of uniting the arms to the axis is to
have a caft-iron centre-piece, or bah hoop, to fit on the
wooden axis with a broad projecting flanch round it, againtt
the flat furface of which the arms of the wheel are applied,
and the intervals between them filled up by wooden blocks
or wedges ; the arms and blocks are firmly bound to theiron
flanch by iron rings applied to the arms on the oppoiite fide
to the flanch, with icrew bolts to go through the whole.
This fame plan is applicable to an iron axis, and will be more
clearly underftood by a reference to the article Mint, and
Plate XXXIV. Mechanics ; but itis there defcribed that the
broad cire flanch to {crew the arms againtt, is caft in the
fame piece with the axis. This was Mr. Smeaton’s original
a but the flanch should be made in a feparate piece, and
aftened on the axis with wedges ;. for if caft in the fame
piece, the contraction of the metal contained in the flanch
when cooling, renders the metal of the axis {pongy at the part
where it joins to the flanch, and caufes them to break at that
part. Sometimes the caft-iron ceutre-piece is made with a
diftin®
WATER.
diftin& cell to receive each arm, and they are faftened into
the cells by wedges and fcrew-bolts, but a flat fanch with
the intervals filled up by blocks is more fimple and fecure.
Modern wheels are very frequently made with cait-iron arms,
which in this cafe are attached to the axis by a fimilar
centre-piece.
The circular rims of water-wheels are commonly made of
wood, put together in two or three thicknefles, the joinings
of one ring not coinciding with thofe of the other, and 8 or
10 fegments in each Alice Reis according to the fize of the
wheel ; the thickneffes are united together by rivets. The
arms are attached to the ring by notching them in, and fe-
curing them by bolts. Caft-iron rings are now generally ufed,
and with great advantage, becaufe the neceflary mortifes
can be made in iron, without weakening the ring ; but the
ftrength of a wooden ring is greatly impaired by the mor-
tifes through it.
The number of rings ina wheel depend upon its breadth;
when the wheel is four feet wide, two rings will fupport the
float-boards or buckets, but the rings fhould not be more
than five feet afunder, or the floats may bend and yield ; for
want of a fufficient fupport each ring is framed with its fet
of arms, fo that every one derives its ftrength from the
axis. When a wheel is of great breadth, the whole will be
very much ftrengthened, by applying oblique braces, ex-
tending from the centre-pieces of the outfide rings to the
circumference of the middle ring, by firmly attaching thefe
oblique braces to the arms of all the rings which they inter-
cept ; they form trufs-frames which prevent the wheel and
the axis from bending by its weight: this is. particularly —
ufeful in wide overfhot wheels. ~
In breaft and underfhot wheels the float-boards are nailed
to pieces of wood called ftarts, which are fixed into the mor-
tifes in the rings, and projeét outwards for that purpofe.
In overfhot-wheels, the rings of the wheels are covered by
boards laid parallel to the axis, well jointed together, and
{piked down to the rings like the boards of a floor to the
joifts. This boarding forms a clofe cylinder, which is called
the fole of the wheel, and is the foundation for the buckets.
When the rings of the wheel are of iron, holes are left in
the caltings in the edge of the rings, at regular diftances
round the circumference, and thefe are filled up with plugs
of wood, into which the nails can be driven to faften on the
boarding of the fole.. The fole of the wheel is fometimes
made of iron plates rivetted together, and rivetted alfo to
the rings of the wheel.
At the ends of the fole-boards, two circular rings of
wood or iron, called fhrouds, are fitted on perpendicularly
to the fole to form the ends of the buckets; and it is ufual,
if the wheel is wide, to apply a fhrouding over each ring of
the wheel, and then the buckets are divided into lengths of
about four or five feet. In the flat furfaces of the fhroud-
ings, grooves are made for the reception of the ends of the
bucket-boards. It is ufual to make the firft board, which
is in the direétion of a radius, of wood, and the outfide one
is generally. made of iron plate ; but fometimes the whole
are made of plate iron, and both parts of the buckets are
then bent up out of one piece, and the ends of the plate ; and
alfo that part of the edge which is to apply to the fole, is
turned fquare to lie flat againft the fole and the fhrouding,
fo that rivets and nails may unite all together, and make
water-tight joints.
When the fhrouding is of caft-iron, it is made to ferve
inflead of the rings of the wheel, becaufe it has fufficient
{trength to ferve both purpofes: the arms of the wheel are
in this cafe applied flat againit the ring of fhrouding, and
bolted to it.
Vou. XXXVITI.
The breaft-wheel, fig. 3. Platell. Water-qwheels, at Mefirs.
Strutt’s works, which we have already noticed, is deferving of
further notice from the manner of putting it together. The
rings of the wheel are made of caft-iron, and the float-boards
are included between the rings in the manner of an overfhot
wheel, but the arms are only of wrought iron, being made
of {mall round iron rods, which are very light, and have little
ftrength to refift bending ; but as they are all tied in from
the centre, the ring cannot deviate from its true circular
figure, and to fuftain the wheel fideways, oblique bars are
extended from the centre-pieces at each end of the axis, and
are united to the circular ring in the middle of its breadth,
which is 15 feet. We have feen two overfhot-wheels of 24 feet
diameter, and 9 feet broad, made in the fame way. It is
plain that in this conftruétion the axis of the wheel can do
no office but to fupport the weight of the wheel ; for though
thefe arms are fufficiently ftrong for that purpofe, they can
have little ftrength by way of levers to tranfmit the force
of the circular motion of the rim of the wheel to the axis ;
but the power is tranfmitted in a better way than from the
axis, viz. by a ring of cogs {crewed to the circular rim of
the wheel, and working in a pinion which conveys the mo-
tion to the mill. There is another fimilar ring of cogs at
the other fide of the wheel, which works into a pinion fixed
on the fame fhaft, by this means nearly all the ftrain is taken
from the axis of the water-wheel ; for the pinion is placed
on the defcending fide of the wheel, fo that the weight of the
water acting on the float-boards is immediately tran{mitted to
the pinions by the ftrength of the rings of the wheel.
This method of tran{mitting the power is alfo applied to
other wheels than thofe which are made with flight arms
like the above ; the ring of cogs is fometimes placed in the
middle of the breadth of the wheel, and then aéts upon one
pinion, but it is much better to place it at one fide or both
fides, if the wheel is very broad, becaufe the circle of the
teeth may then be made rather lefs than the diameter of
the rings of the wheel, and the fide of the ring being clofely
fitted to the ftone-work of the race, the water may be ex-
cluded from the cogs.
It is obvious that of the various conftrutions of water-
wheels, that is the {trongeft which communicates its motion
by means of a ring of cogs immediately attached to its rim,
where the power of the water is alfo applied, the leat pof-
fible {train being thus thrown on its arms and axis.
The only objeétion to this plan is, that as the teeth of
the cog-wheel are in moit cafes conftantly wet, which pre-
vents the greafe from adhering, the ufual mode of occa-
fionally greafing the cogs is of little or no ufe, and the dirt
in the water grinds away the teeth; or, were the water even
free from dirt, there would be much unneceffary fri@tion and
wafte of power.
Greafing Machine for the Cog-Wheel of a Water-Wheel.—
Mr. Buchanan mentions two water-wheels of this kind, in
which the rings of the teeth were wearing very faft, and
knowing the trouble and expence of renewing them, he was
folicitous to difcover fome means of rendering them more
durable. The only way which prefented itfelf was by fome
contrivance to keep them well greafed.
This he did by a machine fhewn in fig. 8. Platel. Water-
wheels ; it is nothing more than a kind of pinion, with one
or more of its teeth made hollow to contain the greafy fub-
ftance, and the metal plate of which the hollow cog is .com-
pofed is perforated with {mall holes, for exudating the
greafe through thofe parts which come in conta& with the
teeth of the wheel.
Fig. 8. is a feétion of the greafing machine; A B repre-
fents part of the ring of teeth on the circumference of the
N waters
WATER.
water-wheel. The greafing-pimion which works in thefe
teeth is mounted on an axis, as is clearly fhewn.
N O aretarding lever, of which N is the fulcrum, and O
a weight to make it prefs on the axis of the greafing-pinion,
fo as to caufe a refiftance, and make the cogs of the wheel
prefs forcibly on the cogs of the pinion.
GHIK, the hollow teeth for containing the greafe ;
they are made of copper-plate or iron ; and to make the per-
forated fides of the gréafing leaves come in clofe conta&
with the face of the teeth of the wheel, the lever NO,
with a fmall weight on it, ats ona pulley fixed on the axle
of the pinion, and ferves to retain it.
E F, &c. the folid teeth of the pinion, made of wood ;
there are fliders which open for admitting the greafe into the
hollow teeth at their ends.
The number of leaves in the greafer fhouid be fuch, that
thofe containing the greafe fhall apply themfelves in the
courfe of feveral revolutions of the wheel to each of its teeth.
Mr. Buchanan found a greafer of 12 leaves, 4 of which con-
tained greafe, had this effe& upon a wheel of 304 teeth ; and
one of” 13 leaves, with one tooth only filled with greafe,
ferved a wheel of 168 teeth. _
It is beft to ufe a mixture of tallow, oil, and black lead for
greafing, made of a confiftency to feed regularly, and frefh-
ened about twice in a week.
Conflrudtion of a Breaft-Whrel of very great Width—At
Meffrs. Strutt’s works is a very powerful breaft-wheel, made
of the extraordinary width of 4ofeet, and it deferves our notice
from the manner of framing it together ; its diameter is only
124 feet, and it is made without any axis, or rather the axis
is hollow, and fo large that the float-boards are fixed imme-
diately upon it. It is made like a very long cafk, 48 feet
long, compofed of 32 ftaves of fix inches thicknefs, bound
together by hoops like an ordinary cafk ; itis five feet in dia-
meter at one end and fix feet at the other, and in the middle
7 feet 2 inches ; the fmall end is made up folid for three feet
in length, and the gudgeon is fixed in this folid part ; the larger
end is folid for four Peet from the end, and on this part the
large cog-wheel is fixed to communicate the motion to the
mill; it is 14 feet diameter, and has 120 cogs, whilft the
water-wheel is only 124 feet diameter to the outfide of the
floats. The floats are fupported by 10 circular rings,
which are fixed on the outfide of the axis or cafk, at four
feet diftance from each other, and the float-boards are fixed
between thefe rings, 24 floats being arranged in each
circle ; but the floats in the different {paces are not made to
line with each other, becaufe if the water was to ftrike upon
the whole length of 4o feet of float-board at once, it would
give a fenfible fhock to the water-wheel, and work the mill
irregularly ; hence the floats between all the different rings
are placed oppofite to the intervals between the floats in the
adjoming fpaces, by which means the water aéts on the
floats in rapid fucceffion, fo that the ftroke upon any one
float is imperceptible.
The float-boards are not made to touch the central-barrel
or axis within two inches, in order to leave {pace for the air
toefcape. The float-boards in the middle of the wheel are
2 feet 4 inches wide, and at the ends are wider. This wheel
has two fhuttles, one above the other, like the breaft-wheel
before defcribed in fig. 3, and the fame dimenfions ; for the
wheel is placed in the fame mill, but is adapted to work
when the tail-water rifes in time of floods to fuch a height as
to prevent the other wheel from working.
A ver large overfoot Wheel.—The largeft overfhot water-
wheel of which we have heard, is that at Mr. Crawfhaw’s
iron-works at Cyfarthfa, near Merthyr Tidvil, in South
Wales: it is ufed to blow air into three of the large blaft
furnaces for fmelting iron; the water-wheel is fifty feet in dia-
me ter and fix feet wide : it is chiefly made of caft iron, and has
156 buckets. The axis is a hollow tube, and is ftrengthened
by twenty-four pieces of timber applied round it. On each
end of the axis is a cog-wheel of twenty-three feet diameter,
which turns a pinion. On the axis of thefe are two cranks,
and a fly-wheel twenty-two feet diameter, and twelve tons
weight ; each of the cranks gives motion to a lever, like that
of a large fteam-engine, and works the pifton of a blowing
cylinder orair-pump 524 inches in diameter, and five feet ftroke,
which blows air into the furnace, both when the pifton goes
up and down. The work on the other fide being the fame, it
aétuates in the whole four of thefe double cylinders ;- the
wheel makes about two and a half turns per minute, and
each cylinder makes ten ftrokes. It is called Aolus, and was
built in 1800 under the dire&tion of Mr. Watkin George.
At Aberdare, in South Wales, is an immenfe double water-
wheel, confifting of two wheels of forty feet in diameter, placed
one above the other like the figure 8, (fee our article Ca-
NAL, ) the water from the upper one aétuating the lower one,
and both being conneéted together by cog-wheels on their
refpeCtive rings. We underftand this machine has not an-
{wered, and we only mention it as an attempt to occupy a
fall of water of eighty feet; in fuch cafes, the Pre/Jure-engine,
defcribed under that article, is a better method, particularly
if the work will admit of a reciprocating motion.
Chain of Buckets—This is applicable in many fituations
where there is a confiderable fall of water. This fketch was
taken from one in Scotland ufed to give motion to a thrafhing-
mill; the fig. 6. Plate I. is fo obvious as to need little explana-
tion. The buckets C, D, G, H, &c. mutt be conneéted by
feveral chains to avoid the danger of breaking, and united
into an endlefs chain, which is extended over two wheels
A and B, the upper one being the axis which is to com-
municate motion to the mill-work ; E is the {pout to fupply
the water. The principal advantage of this plan is, that
no water is loft by running out of the buckets before they
arrive at the loweft part, as is the cafe with the wheel.
Another is, that the buckets being fufpended over the
wheel A of {mall diameter, it may be made to revolve
more quickly than a wheel of large diameter, and without
increafing the velocity of the defcending buckets beyond
what is proper for them. This faves wheel-work when the
machine is to be employed, as in a thrafhing machine to
produce a rapid motion. On the other hand, the fri€tion of
the chain in folding over the wheel at the top, and feizing
its cogs, will be very confiderable; thefe cogs muft enter
the {paces in the open links between the buckets, to pre-
vent the chain flipping upon the upper wheel. We think
this machine might be much improved by contriving it fo,
that the chain would pafs through the centre of gravity of
each bucket, whereas in the prefent form, the weight of
each bucket tends to give the chain an extra bend.
The Chain-Pump reverfed has been propofed as a fubfti-
tute for a water-wheel when the fall is very great, and we
think it would anfwer the purpofe with fome chance of
fuccefs. It would have an advantage over the chain-
pump when employed for raifing water, in the facility of
applying cup leathers to the piftons on the chain, in the
fame way as other pumps, which leathers expand themfelves
to the infide of the barrel, and are kept perfe&tly tight by
the preffure of the water. In the chain-pump fuch leathers
cannot be employed, becaufe the edges of the leather-cups
would turn down and ftop the motion, when the cups were
drawn upwards into the barrel. It is the defective mode
of leathering the piftons of the chain-pump which occafions
its great friftion. In the motion of a machine of this _
9 e
WATER.
the piftons would defcend into the barrel, and might there-
fore be leathered with cups like other pumps, fo as to be
quite tight without immoderate friGtion. This machine was
propofed by a Mr. Cooper in 1784, who obtained a patent
for it, and Dr. Robifon has again propofed it with re-
commendation.
Mechanifn for equalizing the Motion of Water-Wheels.—
When a part of the machinery of a mill is fuddenly de-
tached from the firft mover, or fuddenly connected with it,
the load of the machine is either increafed or diminifhed ;
and the moving power remaining the fame, an alteration in
the velocity of the whole will take place; it will move
fafter or flower. Every machine has a certain velocity, at
which it will work with greater advantage than at any other
fpeed ; hence the change of velocity arifing from the above
caufe, is in all cafes a difadvantage, and in delicate opera-
tions exceedingly hurtful. In the cafe of a cotton mill,
for inftance, which is calculated to move the fpindles at a
certain rate, if from any caufe the velocity is much in-
creafed, a lofs of work immediately takes place, and an in-
creafe of wafte from the breaking of the threads, &c.; on
the other hand, there muft be an evident lofs from the
machinery moving too flow. In fteam-engines this evil is
remedied by a contrivance called a governor, which we have
already defcribed in our article SrzEam-Engine.
Governors are fometimes applied to water-wheels, and
made on various conftructions. Smith-bellows have been
applied to that ufe, the upper board rifing and falling on
any augmentation or diminution of the velocity of the lower
board, which received its motion from the mill, and forced
air into the {pace beneath the upper board; from this {pace
the air was permitted to efcape by a pipe with a cock. If
the lower board worked fafter than the air could efcape,
the upper board would rife, but if it moved flower, then
the board would fink; and this rifing and falling was applied
to regulate the fhuttle of the water-wheel, not by the force
of the bellows alone, but the bellows were made to throw
the wheel-work of the mill into ation, either to raife or
lower the fhuttle.
Of late years a new kind of water-wheel governor has
been introduced, the principles of which are nearly the fame
as the governor of a iteam-engine. It has a revolving pen-
dulum, which receives its motion from the mill, and in pro-
portion as the machinery moves fafter or flower, the cen-
trifugal force aéts with greater or lefs force upon the balls
of the governor, making them approach to, or recede from,
the perpendicular axis. This raifes or depreffes an iron crofs,
which flides upon the perpendicular axis of the revolving
pendulum, and by acting on a lever, is made to engage the
fluice with a train of wheel-work, which is kept in conftant
motion by the power of the water-wheel. When this train is
conneéted with the fluice, it operates upon it fo as to enlarge
or leffen the paflage of the water to the water-wheel, and by
augmenting or leflening the quantity of water falling on the
wheel, increafes or diminifhes its {peed.
This fluice is made on the principle of the throttle-valve
of fteam-engines. In order that it may be moved bya {mall
power, it is poifed on an axis of motion pafling through the
middle of the fluice. When it is turned edgeways to the
ftream of water, it makes no obftruction; but if it is turned
perpendicularly, it clofes the paflage of water, or by placing
it more or lefs obliquely, it alters the area of the paflage for
the water.
The axis on which the fluice turns, if horizontal, fhould
be one-third of the height of the fluice from the bottom, in
order that the preffure of the water above the centre may
balance that below.
So long as the machinery is moving at a proper velocity,
this wheel-work of the fluice apparatus is not conneéted
with the fluice, and it remains at reft. But if the mill goes
too flow, the crofs is depreffed, and ftriking the lever in
an oppofite direétion, conneéts the fluice with a different
part or train of wheel-work, which has a motion in a contrary
dire¢tion to the former, and fo produces a contrary effe& on
the fluice.
The train of wheel-work is fo calculated, as to reduce
the aétion on the fluice to a very flow motion, and it is
found, from experience, that this is neceflary. Where the
area of the aperture is too fuddenly changed, the effe& on the
water-wheel would be too violent. See a more complete
defcription of this contrivance in Vol. XXIII. Miti-Work.
On the Conflruétion of the Wheel-race and Water-cour/e.—
The wheel-race fhould always be built in a fubftantial manner
with mafonry, and if the ftones are fet in Roman cement, it
will be much better than common mortar. The earth behind
the mafonry fhould be very folid, and if it is not naturally
foy it fhould be very hard rammed and puddled, to prevent
percolation of the water. This applies more particularly to
breaft-wheels, in which the water of the dam or refervoir is
ufually immediately behind the wall or breaft in which the
wheel works, a floping apron of earth being laid from the
wall in the dam to prevent the water leaking. The wall of the
breaft fhould have pile planking (fee CANAL) driven beneath,
to prevent the water from getting beneath, becaufe that might
blow up the foundation of the race. The ftones of the race
are hewn to a mould, and laid in their places with great care ;
but afterwards when the fide walls are finifhed, and the axis
of the wheel placed in its bearings, a gauge is attached to
it and {wept round in the curve, and by this the breaft is
dreffed fmooth, and hewn to an exaét arch of a circle:
the fide walls in like manner are hewn flat and true at the
place where the float-boards are to work. It is ufual to make,
the {pace between the fide walls two inches narrower at each
fide, in the circular part where the floats at, than in the
other parts. :
In fome old mills the breaft is made of wood planking,
but this method has fo little durability that it cannot be re-
commended. Inmodern mills, the breaft is lined witha caft-
iron plate, but we do not approve of this, becaufe it is next
to impoflible to prevent fome {mall leakage of water through
the mafonry, and this water being confined behind the iron
breaft cannot efcape, but its hydroftatic preffure to force up
the iron is enormous; and if the water can ever infinuate
itfelf behind, the whole furface of the plate rarely fails to
break it, if not to blow it up altogether. This is beft guarded
again{t by making deep ribs projecting from the back of
the plate, and bedding them with great care in the mafonry ;
thefe not only itrengthen the plate, but alfo cut off the
communication of the water, fo that it cannot aét upon
larger furfaces at once, than the ftrength and weight of the
plate can refift. Stone is undoubtedly the beft material for
a breafting. In overfhot-wheels the lols of water, by running
out of the buckets as they approach the bottom of the
wheel, may be confiderably diminifhed by accurately form-
ing a fweep, or cafing round the lower portion of the
wheel, fo as to prevent the immediate efcape of the water,
and caufing it to a& in the manner of a breaft-wheel, which
has been already defcribed. While this improvement re-
mains in good condition, and the wheel works truly, it pro-
duces a very fenfible effe&; but it is frequently objected to,
becaufe a itick or a ftone falling into the wheel would be
liable to tear off part of its fhrouding, and damage the
buckets ; and again, a hard froft frequently binds all faft, and
totally prevents the poffibility of working during its conti-
N 2 nuance 3
WATER.
nuance; but we do not think the latter a great objeCtion,
for the water is not more liable to freeze Bore than in the
buckets or on the fhuttle, and may be prevented by the
fame means, viz. by keeping the wheel always in motion; a
very {mall ftream of water left running all night will be fuffi-
cient. Mr. Smeaton always ufed fuch fweeps, and with
very good effet; it is certainly preferable to any intricate
work in the form of the buckets.
On fetting out Water-courfes and Dams.—The mott ancient
mills were underfhot-wheels placed in the current of an open
river, the building containing the mill being fet upon piles
in the river. It would foon be obferved that the power of
the mill would be greatly increafed, if all the water of the
river was concentrated to the wheel, by making an obftruc-
tion acrofs the river which penned up the water to a re-
quired height; and alfo to forma pool or refervoir of water.
A fluice or thuttle would’then become neceflary to regulate
the admiffion of water to the wheel, and other fluices would
be neceflary to allow the water to efcape in times of floods ;
for though in ordinary times the water would run over the
top of the obftruétion or dam, yet a very great body of
water running over might carry away the whole work, by
wafhing away the earth at the foot of the dam, and then
overturning it into the excavation. This is an accident
which frequently happens to mills fo fituated, and the danger
is fo obvious, that moft water-mills are now removed to the
fide of the river, and a channel is dug from the river to the
mill to fupply it with water, and another to return the water
from the mill to the river. The difference of level between
thefe two channels is the fall of water to work the mill, and
this is kept up by means of a weir or dam entirely acrofs
the river; but the water can run freely over this dam in
cafe of floods, without at all affeting the mill, becaufe the
entrance to the channel of fupply is regulated by fluices and
fide walls.
The dam fhould be ereéted acrofs the river at a broad part,
where it will pen up the water fo as to form a large pond or
reférvoir, which is called the mill-pond or dam-head. This
refervoir is ufeful to gather the water which comes down the
river in the night, and referve it for the next day’s con-
fumption ; or for fuch mills as do not work inceffantly, but
which require more water, when they do work, than the
ordinary ftream of the river can fupply in the fame time.
The larger the furface of the pond is, the more efficient it
will be ; but depth will not compenfate for the want of fur-
face, becaufe as the furface finks, when the water is drawn
off, the fall or defcent of the water, and confequently the
power of the water, diminifhes.
The dam for a large river fhould be conftruéted with
the utmott folidity; wood framing is very commonly ufed,
but mafonry is preferable. Great care muft be taken,
by driving pile planking under the dam, to intercept all
leakage of the water beneath the ground under the dam,
as that loofens the earth, and deftroys the foundation
imperceptibly ; when a violent. flood may overthrow the
whole. It is a common praétice to place the dam obliquely
acrofs the river, with a view of obtaining a greater length
of wall for the water to run over, and confequently prevent
its rifing to fo great a height, in order to give vent to the water
of a flood. But this is very objeGtionable, becaufe the cur-
rent of water con{tantly running over the dam, always acts
upon the fhore or bank of the river at one point, and will in
time wear it away, if not prevented by expenfive works.
This difficulty is obviated, by making the dam in two lengths
which meet in an angle >, the vertex pointing up the
ftream. In this way the currents of water, coming from
the two oppofite parts of the dam, ftrike together, and
4
fpend their force upon each other, without injuring any
part. A ftill better form is a fegment of a cinmle, which
has the additional advantage of ftrength, becaufe if the abut-
ments at the banks of the river are ae the whole dam be-
comes like the arch of a bridge laid down horizontally.
This was the form generally ufed by Mr. Smeaton.
The foot of the dam where the water runs down fhould
be a regular flope, with a curve, fo as to lead the water
down regularly ; and this part fhould be evenly paved with
ftone, or planked, to prevent the water from tearing it up,
when it moves with a great velocity.
When the fall is confiderable, it may be divided into more
than one dam; and if the lower dam is made to pen the
water upon the foot of the higher dam, then the water run-
ning over the higher dam will itrike into the water, and lofe
its force. There is nothing can fo foon exhautt the force of
rapid currents of water as to fall into other water, becaufe
its mechanical force is expended in changing the figure of
the water (fee circular weir in our article CANAL); but when
it falls upon ftone or wood, its force is not taken away, but
only refle&ed to fome other part of the channel, and may be
made to a&t upon fuch a great extent of. furface as to do no
very ftriking injury at any one time, but by degrees it wears
away the banks, and requires conftant repairs: for it is de-
monitrable that, as much of the force of the water as is not
carried away by the rapid motion with which it flows, after
paffing the dam, muft be expended either in changing the
figure of the water, or in wafhing away the banks, or in
the fri€tion of the water running over the bottom.
The cotton-works of Meffrs. Strutt at Belper, in Derby-
fhire, are on a large fcale, and the moft complete we have
ever feen, in their dams and water-works. The mills are
turned by the water of the river Derwent, which is very
fubjeét to floods. The great weir is a femicircle, built of
very fubftantial mafonry, and provided with a pool of water
below it, into which the water falls. On one fide of the
weir are three fluices, each 20 feet wide, which are drawn
up in floods, and allow the water to pafs fideways into the
fame pool; and on the oppofite fide is another fuch fluice,
22 feet wide. The water is retained in the lower pool by
fome obftruétion which it experiences in running beneath
the arches of a bridge ; but the principal fall of the water is
broken by falling into the water of the pool, beneath the
great femicircular weir.
The water which is drawn off from the mill-dam above
the weir paffes through three fluices, 20 feet wide each,
and is then diftributed by different channels to the mills,
which are fituated at the fide of the river, and quite fecure
from all floods. There are fix large water-wheels; one of
them, which is 40 feet in breadth, we have mentioned, from
the ingenuity of its conftruétion; and another which is
made in two breadths, of 15 feet each, we have alfo de-
fcribed. ‘They are all breait-wheels. The iron-works of
Meffrs. Walker at Rotherham, in Yorkfhire, are very good
{pecimens of water-works; as alfo the Carron works in
Scotland.
The largeft works for overfhot-mills are in Ruffia, at
Colpino, near St. Peterfburgh, on the river Neva. The
were ereéted principally under the direction of Mr. Gai-
coigne of the Carron works in Scotland, and have been
greatly improved by the prefent director, who is an engineer
of his {chool. An immenfe dam of granite is built acrofs
the river to pen up the water, until it makes a large refer-
voir. The wafte and flood waters do not run over this
dam, but are conducted out of the refervoir by a femi-
circular branch of the river, and run over a great weir to
join the original courfe of the river below the works. Ths
mills
WATER.
mills are fituated in the valley below the great dam, the
water being conveyed to the wheels by channels coming
through the dam, and conveyed away into a large tail bafon,
which is the original courfe of the river. The wheels,
which are very numerous, are all 22 feet diameter. They
are placed in feveral different mills, for rolling and forging
iron and copper, boring guns, making anchors, &c. Thefe
mills are arranged on the fides of the tail bafon, which is
navigable to bring the boats up to them. There are alfo
two large faw-mills at the end of the femicircular channel.
Thefe works are very complete, owing to the excellent
execution of the dam and water-works; but it is not a good
plan to place the mills beneath the dam, becaufe if it fhould
fail, or the water pour over it by an extraordinary flood,
the mills and buildings below would be in danger of being
carried away ; whereas, on the other conftruétion, the mills,
being placed at a diftance from the river, are perfeétly fafe,
and would not be injured if the,dam fhould be wholly carried
away. ‘This is nota fault imputable to the gentlemen we
have mentioned, as the foundations of thefe works were
commenced in the time of Peter the Great, and too far ad-
vanced to admit of altering the plan radically, when the em-
prefs Catherine invited Mr. Gafcoigne to Ruffia, in 1786,
to enlarge them to their prefent magnitude.
On the Diftribution of the different Falls of Water in Rivers.
—In ereéting a mill, care muft be taken to place it fo that
it fhall not be impeded by flood-waters, except when they
rife to excefs. When the water below will not run off
freely, but ftands penned up in the wheel-race, fo that the
wheel muft work or row in it, the wheel is faid to be tailed}
or to be in back water or tail water.
Upon moft rivers in this country all the falls of water are
fully occupied, and at every mill there is a weir, which pens
up the water as high as tbe mill above can fuffer it to
ftand without inconvenience. Each miller is anxious to ob-
tain the greateft poffible fall, and he can at any time aug-
ment the fall, by raifing the furface of his weir ; but as this
may produce an inconvenience to the mill above, in prevent-
ing the water from running freely away from its wheel, it
is a conftant fource of difpute and litigation. A mill may
be fubjeéted to tail-water by the concurrence of fo many
circumftances, that it is frequently very difficult to know
where to feek the beft remedy, whether the miller ought to
raife his wheel higher and diminifh his own fall, or infift
upon a diminution of his neighbour’s below him by lowering
his weir.
The following rule is that which Mr. Smeaton conftantly
followed, in placing fucceffive dams upon rivers, whether
for the ereétion of mills or for navigation. In flat countries,
where the falls of water are fmall, and confequently tail or
back water is moft troublefome, thofe dams muft be fo
built, that no one fhall pen the water into the wheel-race of
the mill next above it, when the river isin its ordinary fum-
mer’s ftate. The fame rule we have found generally fub-
fifting in ancient mills.
This rule is founded upon reafon ; for if the eretion of a
dam does not affe& the mill above by tail-water, in dry fea-
fons, when water is the moft fearce, it can do no material
injury at any other time. Every mill that is well and pro-
perly conftruéted will clear itfelf of a confiderable depth of
tail-water, provided it has at the time an increafe of the height
of water in the mill-dam or head, and an unlimited quantity
of water to draw upon the wheel; for if floods produce tail-
water, they alfo increafe the head water, and afford a fupe-,
rior quantity to be expended. This is the proper means by
which a number of mills on the fame river are to be cleared
of back-water, as far as is confiftent with the mutual enjoy-
ment of their feveral falls of water. This alone is a very
fufficient fecurity againft any one being injured. Common
breaft-mills will bear two feet of tail-water, when there js
an increafe of head, and plenty of water to be drawn upon
the wheel, without prejudice to their performance; but
mills well conftruéted, with flow moving wheels, will bear
three and even four feet and upwards of tail-water. Mr.
Smeaton mentions having feen an inftance of fix feet ; and it
is a common thing in level countries, where tail-water is
moft annoying, to lay the wheels from fix to twelve inches
below the water’s level of the pond below, in order to in-
creafe the fall of water; and, if judicioufly applied, is at-
tended with good effeét, as it increafes the diameter of the
wheel, and though it muft always work in that depth of
tail-water, it will perform full as well, becaufe the water
ought always to run off from the bottom of the wheel, in
the fame direGtion as the wheel turns.
The law refpeéting mill property is by no means fettled,
but is greatly influenced by the cuftom of the mills upon any
river or in any diftri@; fome few points however are eftablifhed.
Every one has a right to that fall which the water has, in run-
ning through his own grounds, and may make what ufe he
pleafes of the defcent of the water, provided that he does not
divert the water, at the tail of his eftate, into any other chan-
nel, or that he does not pen up the water higher than the
level at which it has always entered into his land ; he has alfo a
right to infift that the miller below ‘hall let the water depart
from his grounds, at the fame level at which it has always been
ufed todo. The knowledge of this is very neceffary, be-
caufe a miller very frequently finds himfelf ferioufly injured,
when he is not entitled to any redrefs. It fearcely ever
happens that any confiderable improvements or alteration in
mills can be made, without producing difputes among the
parties interefted. Suppofe, for initance, that there are
two ancient mills upon a river, with an unoccupied defcent
in running oyer the lands between them, the proprietor of
this land, by deepening the channel and ereéting a weir, may
bring all the fall into one place and ere& a mill, without in-
fringing the conditions we haye laid down; but {till the
miller below him may be confiderably injured: for in the
original ftate the river, in running down with a regular and
ealy flope, from the upper mill to the lower, held a great
quantity of water, which was a corps de referve for the miller
below, and tended to regulate his fupply. If the upper
mill {topped working, the water contained in the river would
{till run down to him, and fo long as that lafted he could
continue to work, perhaps until the upper mill began to
work again, and thus he would fuffer no interruption. The
eretion of an intermediate mill cuts off this refource, and
he will be obliged to ftop working very foon after the new
mill {tops working; and further, he is obliged to work
when the new mill is at work, or elfe the water poured
down will run over his mill-dam and be wafted; but, in the
former inftance, the water would have come down lefs fud-
denly, and he might be able to fet to work before the whole
of the water had efcaped over his weir.
In fuch a cafe the lower miller may be inclined to
appeal to the law, but he will find that he has no right to
prevent his neighbour above from ufing the water in the
fame manner as he does himfelf, and if he finds any altera-
tion in his own mill, it is for want of a capacious mill-pond
to referve the water. In the original ftate the channel of
the river in his neighbour’s ground above ferved him in fome
meafure as a mill-dam, by retaining the water for.a given time,
though it would not retain it permanently. The advantage
of this he had enjoyed for a long time, when it was no in-
convenience to his neighbour, but had acquired no right to
demand
WATER.
demand that his neighbour’s property fhould be facrificed
for his convenience, but he muft relieve himfelf by making
an artificial pond for his own mill.
The fame queftion arifes when any mill is altered or en-
larged, fo as to confume the water fafter than the river
brings it down, for {uch a mill can only work for fhort in-
tervals, and muft then ftop that the water may accumulate
in the dam until there is a fufficient quantity to fet to work
again. This is the fyftem of copper-mills and rolling-mille,
for during the time that the iron or copper is heating in the
furnace, the mill is topped, and the water gathered in the
dam ; but when the metal is ready, it is fet to work with all
the power of the water penned up. This is very prejudicial
to a mill below, particularly if it is a corn-mill, which can-
not confume the water fafter than the regular fupply of the
river, and fometimes alfo to mills above by frequently tailing
their water.
Much ufeful information on thefe points will be found in
Smeaton’s Reports, 3 vols. 4to. 1813.
We have not, in the preceding article, entered into any
of the mathematical inveftigations upon the fubje& of water-
wheels, becaufe we find few of them founded on experiment ;
but thofe who wifh to purfue this fubje& farther may con-
fult the following authors, which Dr. Young points out in
his catalogue.
Kiinflliche abrifs Allerhand, Waffer, Wind-rofs, und
Hand-muhlen, &c. von Jacob. de Strada a Rofberg,
1617.
Georg Chriftoph Luerner Machina toreutica nova; oder
befchreibung der neu erfundenen Drehmiihlen, 1661.
Theatrum Machinarum Novum; das ift, neu vermehrter
Schauplatz der Mechanifchen Kiinfte, handelt von Aller-
hand, Waffer, Wind, Rofs, Gewicht, und Hand-muhlen,
von Geo. And. Bocklern, 166r.
Contenta difcurfus mechanici, concernentis Defcriptionem
optimae formea Velorum horizontalium pro ufu Molarum,
nec non fundamentum inclinatorum Velorum in Navibus,
habita coram Societate Regia, a R. H. tranflata ex Collec-
tionibus Philofophicis M. Dec. num. 3. pa. 61, 1681.
Differtatio hiftorica de Molis, quam praefide Joh. Phil.
Treuer defend. Jo. Tob Miuhlberger Ratifbonens Jenae,
1695.
Martin Marten’s Wifkundige befchouwinge der Wind of
Wadermoolens, vergeleken met die van den heer Johann
Lulofs Amfterdam, 1700.
Vollftindige Miihlen-baukunft, von Leonhard Chriftoph.
Sturm, 1718.
Jacob Leopold’s Theatrum Machinarum Molinarum, folio,
1724, 1725.
Remarques fur les Aubes ou Palettes des Moulins, et
autres Machines mues par le Courant des Riviéres, par M.
Pitot, Mem. Acad. Roy. Paris, 1729.
Joh. van Zyl Theatrum Machinarum univerfale of Groot
Algemeen, Moolen-bock, &c. Amfterdam, 1734.
Jo. Caral. Totens. Differ. de Machinis Molaribus optime
conftruendis, Lugd. Batav. 1734.
Kurze, aber Deutliche anweifung zur conftruétion der
Wind und Waffer-muhlen, von Gottfr. Kinderling, 1735.
Defaguliers’ Experimental Philofophy, 2 vols. 4to. 1735.
1744-
Archite@ture Hydraulique, par M. Belidor, 4 vols. 4to.
1737- 1753-
Mr. W. Anderfon, F.R.S. Defcription of a Water-wheel
for Mills. Phil. Tranf. vol. xliv. 1746.
Leonh. Euleri, De Conftruétione aptiffima Molarum ala-
tarum difp. Nov. Com. Acad. Petrop. tom. 4. 1752-
Memoire dans lequel on démontre que Eau d’une Chite,
deftinée a faire mouvoir quelque Machine, Moulin ou autre
peut toujours produire beaucoup plus d’effe@ en agiflant
par fon poids qu’en agifs ant par fon choc, et que les roues
a pots qui tournent lentement produifent plus d’effet que
celles qui tournent vite, relativement aux chiates et aux
depenfes d’eau, par M. de Parcieux, Acad, Roy. Paris,
1754-
Jo. Alberti Euleri Enodatio queftionis: quo modo vis
Aque aliufve fluidi cum maximo lucro ad Molas circuma-
gendas, aliave opera perficienda impendi poflit, praemio &
Societate Regia. Sci. Gotting. 1754.
An experimental Enquiry concerning the Natural Powers
of Wind and Water to turn Mills and other Machines de-
pending on Circular Motion; by Mr. J. Smeaton, F.R.S.
Phil. Tranf. 1759.
This and Mr. Smeaton’s other papers are republifhed with
his reports, 1813, in 4to.
Memoire dans lequel on prouve que les Aubes de Roues
Mies par les courans des grandes Riviéres feroient beau-
coup plus d’effet fi elles etoient inclinees aux rayons, qu’elles
ne font etant appliquees contre les rayons memes, comme
elles font aux Moulins pendans et aux Moulins fur Bateaux
qui font fur les Rivieres de Seine, de Marne, de Loire, &c.
par M. de Parcieux, Mem. Acad Roy. Paris, 1759.
Joh Albert Euler’s Abhandlung von der bewegung ebener
Flachen, wenn fie vom Winde Getrieben Werden, 1765.
Schauplatz des mechanifchen Muhlenbaues, Darinnen von
Verfchiedenen Hand, Trett, Rofs, Gewicht, Waffer, und
Wind-miihlen Gehandelt Wird, durch Johann Georg Scopp,
1.C. iter Theil, 1766.
Theatrum Machinarum Molarium, oder fchauplatz der
Muhlenbaukunft, als der Neunte theil von des fel hrn Jac.
Leopolds, Theatro Machinarum, von Joh Mathias Beyern,
1767. 1788. 1802.
A Memoir concerning the moft advantageous Conftruc-
tion of Water-wheels, &c. by Mr. Mallet of Geneva. Phil.
Tranf. 1767.
Mémoire fur les roues Hydrauliques, par M. le Chevalier
de Borda, Mem. Acad. Roy. Paris, 1767.
Kurzer unterricht, allerley arten von Wind und Wafler-
miihlen auf die vortheilhaftelte weife zu erbauen, nebft eini-
gen gedanken iiber die verbeflerung des raderwerks, an den
miihlen, von Joh Konig, 1767.
= G. Bifchoff’s Beytrige zur Mathefis der Muhlen,
1767.
Determination generale de Effet des Roues mis par le
Choc de Eau, par M. l’abbé Boflut, Mem. Acad. Roy.
Paris, 1769.
Andreas Kaovenhofer, Deutliche abhandlung von den
radern der Waflermiihlen, und von dem einrandigen werke
der Schneidemihlen, 1770.
Manuel du Meuner et du Charpentier des Moulins, redigé
par Edm. Bequillet, 1775.
Remarques fur les Moulins et autres Machines, ou Eau
tombe en deffus de la Roue, par M. Lambert.
Experiences et Remarques fur les Moulins que Eau
meut par en bas dans une Direétion horizontale, par M.
Lambert.
Remarques fur les Moulins et autres Machines, dont les
Roues prennant 1’Eau a une certaine Hauteur, par M.
Lambert.
(The laft three articles are inferted in Mem. Acad. Roy.
Berlin, 1775-)
Ausfihrliche erklarung der Vorfchlage fiir die Lingere
dauer de Muhlenwerk, nebft ahnlichen gegenitander, in ein
gefprich verfaffet, von Johann Chriftian Fullmann Muhlen-
meifter, 1780.
'Tratado
WATER.
Tratado de los Granos y Modo de Molelos con Economie
de la Confervacion de Aftos y de las Harinas ; efcr. en Fr.
par M. Beguillet, y extraét. v trad. al Caft. con algun
Notas y un Supplem. por Ph. Marefcaulchi, Madrid,
~ 1786.
Suite de VArchiteCture hydraulique, par M. Fabre,
1786.
Meigen fur les Moyens de Perfeétionner les Moulins, et
la Mouture économique, par C. Bucquet, 1786.
Manuel ou Vocabulaire des Moulins a Pot, a Amft:,
1786.
Die Nothigften Kenntniffle zur Anlegung, Beurtheilung,
und Berechnung der Waffer-miihlen, and zwar der Mahl,
Oehl, und Sage-Muhlen, fiir Anfanger und Liebhaber der
Miuhlenbaukunft, von Joh. Chrift. Huth, 1787.
An Effay proving Iron far fuperior to Stone of any Kind
for breaking and grinding of Corn, &c. by W. Walton,
1788.
i MiiMlenteehtik, oder unterricht in dem Mahlen der Brod-
fruchte, fur Polizeybeamte, Gaverkfleute und Haufwirthe,
von L, Ph. Hahn, 1790.
The young Mill-wright and Miller’s Guide, by Oliver
Evans, Philadelphia, 1790.
Manuel du Meinier, et du Conftru@teur des Moulins a
Eau et a Grains, par C. Bucquet, 1791.
Praktifche anweifung zum Mihlenbau, von. Lr. Claufen,
1792.
Befchreibung zweir Machinen zur Reinigung des Korns,
von Lr. Clauferi, 1792.
Inftructions fur ? Ufage des Moulins a Bras, inventés et
PerfeGtionnés par les Citoyens Durand, Pére et Fils, Me-
chaniciens, 1793.
Theoretifch-praktifche abhandlung iiber die Beflerung
der Muhlrader, von dem Verfafler der Zweckmifligen,
Luftreiniger, &c. 1795.
A Treatife on Mills, in four Parts, by John Banks,
1795-
Handbuch der Mafchinenlehre, fur prakiker und aka-
demifche lehrer, von Karl Chriftian Langfdorf, 1797.
1799.
ee the Power of Machines; including Barker’s Mill,
Weltgarth’s Engine, Cooper’s Mill, horizontal Water-
Wheel, &c. by John Banks, 1803.
The experienced Mill-wright, by Andrew Gray, mill-
wright, 1804. 4
The Tranfaétions of the Society of Arts and Manufac-
tures ; feveral of the volumes of which contain improve-
ments in Mill-work. See alfo the Repertory of Arts, firft
feries 16 volumes, and fecond feries 31 volumes.
Hachette, Traité Elementaire des Machines, 4to. Paris,
1811.
Buchanan’s Effays on Millwork, 1811, 8vo.
Water, Column of, fignifies fo much of the mafs of
water which is contained in a pipe, or amy other veflel, as
prefies againft any plane furface ; which furface is called the
bafe of the column.
All columns of water are confidered as if they were ver-
tical prifms, of the fame fize and figure as the bafe, i. e. the
furface upon which they prefs, and as high as the greateft
height to which the water rifes in the pipe or other
veflel.
This is demonftrable in hydroftatics, (fee Fup, ) and alfo
that fluids prefs equally in all dire€tions, fo that the preffure
againft a vertical or inclined plane is the fame as againft an ho-
rizontal plane, provided that the planes are of the fame extent,
and that the water which preffes upon them rifes to an equal
height above them. This will be true whether the fize of
the veflel which contains the water is greater or lefs than
the furface upon which the preflure is exerted ; the preffure
will be neither more nor lefs than the weight of a perpen-
dicular column or prifm of water, having a horizontal bafe,
equal and fimilar to the plane or bafe upon which the pref-
fure is exerted ; and an altitude equal to the level of the
furface of the water above the bafe.
Rule to find the Preffure or Weight of any Column of Water
in Pounds ltwordipat te the bate t the bite of a
circular figure, fuch as the pifton of a pump, take the dia-
meter in inches, and alfo the perpendicular height of the
furface of the water above the bafe of the column in feet ;
then fquare the diameter in inches, to obtain the area of the
bafe in circular inches, and multiply this by the decimal .3.41
or by .34, this gives the weight of one foot in height of the
column ; laftly, multiply by the number of feet in the alti-
tude of the column, and the refult is the weight of the whole
column of water in pounds avoirdupois, or, what is equiva-
lent, the preffure exerted by the water upon the bafe or plane
again{t which it aéts.
If the bafe of the column is {quare or reCtangular, it will
be more convenient to find its area in {quare inches, and then
the conftant decimal is .434.
The reafon of thefe rules is, that a cylindrical column of
rain-water, of 1 inch in diameter and 1 foot high, weighs
-3408853 lbs. avoirdupois; and a fquare prifm, 1 inch
{quare, and 1 foot high, weighs .4340277 lbs. avoirdupois ;
the other multiplications are only to find how many of fuch
cylinders or prifms are contained in the whole column.
Example 1.—It is required to find the weight which bears
upon the pifton or bucket of a pump, whofe barrel is 9
inches diameter withinfide, and the height of the furface of
the water above the pifton 67 feet. Diameter 9 x 9 = 81
circular inches of area x .341 lbs. = 27.62 lbs., whichis the
weight of every foot in height x 67 feet = 1850.54 lbs.
which is the weight that bears upon the pifton, and which
mut be overcome to draw it up.
Lxample 2.—It is required to find the weight which bears
upon a reétangular valve, which is 7 inches by 5 inches,
and the water rifes 67 feet above it. 7x 5 = 35 {quare
inches of furface x .434 lbs. = 15.2 lbs. for every foot of
altitude x 67 feet = 1018 lbs.; the weight refting upon the
valve.
* Note.—In pumps it generally happens that there is a
column of water contained in the pipe, beneath the pifton
or valve, and is fufpended therefrom, becaufe the preffure
of the atmofphere is taken off from fuch column by the
valve or pifton, and the preffure of the atmofphere upon the
furrounding water forces the water up the pipe until it
touches the pifton, provided the height is not more than
33 feet. In all fuch cafes, the height of the column de-
pending beneath the valve or pifton muft be added to the
height of the column above the pifton, becaufe it is fo much
additional burthen or preffure.
Rule to find the Preffure which any Column of Water exerts
upon each fquare Inch or circular Inch of its Bafe, in Pounds
Avoirdupois.—Multiply the height of the column in feet by
-434, for the preffure on each fquare inch of the bafe, or
by .34 1bs. for each circular inch.
In large works it is more convenient to take the area of
the bafe in {quare feet, in which cafe the multiplier will be
62.5 lbs. ; or, if it is circular feet, 49,0875 lbs.
Example.—A tank to contain water, ten feet deep, is
lined with vertical walls of mafonry, each ftone of which is
one foot fquare in its vertical face ; required the preffure
which
WATER.
which will be exerted upon each ftone of the mafonry to
thruft. it outwards.
Depth beneath
the Surface
Preffure on each Stone,
or on every fquare Foot,
in Feet. in Pounds.
I 62.5
2 125
3 187.5
4 250
5 312.5
6 375:
7 437°5
8 500
9 562.5
10 625.
The length and width of the tank does not influence the
preflure upon each {tone ; becaufe, following our firft pro-
pofition, we are only to regard the magnitude of the plane
againft which the water aéts, and the depth at which it is
fituated beneath the furface. But in all cafes when the
plain is not horizontal, the depth of the water will be greater
upon fome parts of the plane than upon others. The
depths muft therefore be taken from the centre of preffure of
the plane ; fee that article in Vol. VII.
The knowledge of the centre of preffure is required, in
order to apply this calculation to wooden veffels, fuch as the
large backs ufed by brewers ; or to find the preffure againft
the gates of a fluice or lock, or in any other cafe where the
wood planks, or the ftones of the mafonry are fo united to-
gether into one mafs, that the whole fide of the veffel mutt
be removed together. If the plane againft which the water
aéts rifes up as high as the furface of the water, and is of a
reGtangular figure ; that is, if all its horizontal dimenfions,
whether taken at the bottom of the veflel or at the top, are
equal, then the centre of preffure is fituated at jds of the
greateft depth beneath the furface. :
Example.—A wooden vat is 18 feet long, and contains
water 6 feet deep ; required the force which the water ex-
erts againft the fide of the vat to force it outwards. ‘Two-
thirds of 6 feet is 4 feet, which is the depth of the centre of
preflure: 4 xX 62.5 = 25olbs. is the mean preffure upon
each fquare foot of the plane, 18 feet long x 6 feet deep
= 108 {quare feet of area x 250 lbs. 27,000 lbs., which ts
the force exerted againft the fide of the veffel, and muft be
refifted by the ftrength of the materials.
On the Means of meafuring or guaging the Quantity of run-
ning Water.—The ancients feem to have had no other mea-
fure of running water than that uncertain and fallacious one,
which depended wholly on the perpendicular fection of a
ftream, without confidering the velocity of the motion. The
firft who opened a way to the truth was Benedict Caftelli,
an Italian, and friend of Galileo. He firft fhewed that the
quantity of water, flowing through a given feGtion of a {tream,
is proportional to the celerity with which the water is carried
through that feétion. This obfervation engaged philofo-
phers to ftudy the doétrine of the motion of fluids with
much diligence, and after Caftelli’s time there was fcarcely
any mathematicians who did not endeavour to add fomething
thereto, either by experiments or by reafoning and argu-
ment.
But few of them, until the illuftrious fir Ifaac Newton,
had any fuccefs, becaufe of the exceeding difficulty of the
f{ubje&.
hofe who ftudied the theory laid down fuch theorems as
were found to be falfe, when brought to the teft of experi-
ments, and thofe who laboured in making experiments fre-
quently omitted to obferve fome minute circumftances, the
importance of which they had not yet perceived. Hence
they differed greatly from one another, and almoft all of
them erred from the real meafure.
The theory of hydraulics has never been carried to a very
high degree of perfe€&tion upon mathematical foundation
alone, nor-has it hitherto, even with the affiftance of experi-
ment, been rendered of much praétical utility. Newton
began the inveftigation of the motions of fluids on true
principles. Daniel Bernouilli added much valuable matter
to Newton’s propofitions, both from calculation and expe-
riment. D’Alembert, and many later authors, have exer-
cifed their analytical talents in inquiries of a fimilar nature.
Dr. Robifon obferves that thefe, and other mathema-
ticians of the firft order, feem to have contented themfelves
with fuch views as allowed them to entertain themfelves with
elegant applications of calculus. They rarely had any op-
portunity of doing more, for want of a knowledge of fa&ts,
but they have made excellent ufe of the few which have
been given them.
It requires much labour, great variety of opportunities,
and great expence, to learn the multiplicity of things which
are combined, even in the fimpleft cafes of water in motion.
Thefe advantages feldom fall to the lot of a mathema-
tician, and he is without blame when he enjoys the pleafures
within his reach, and cultivates the fcience of geometry in
its moft abftraéted form. Here he makes a progrefs which
is the boait of human reafon, being almoft ee from
every error, by the intellectual fimplicity of his fubje&.
But were we to turn our attention to material objects, we
know neither the fize and fhape of the elementary particles
of water, nor the laws which nature has prefcribed for their
action. We cannot, therefore, prefume to forefee their
effects, calculate their exertions, or direét their ations, with
any reafonable expeétations of certainty.
A different and more practical mode of attaining hy-
draulic knowledge, has been attempted by a diftinét clafs
of inveftigators.. Thefe have begun from, experiment alone,
and have laborioufly deduced, from very ample obfervations
of the aCtual refults of various particular cafes, the general
laws by which the phenomena appear to be regulated, or
at leaft the formulas by which the effeét of new combina-
tions may be predifted. But it mult be confeffed, that
thefe formulas, however accurate, are almoft too intricate
to be retained in the memory, or to be very eafily applied to
calculations from particular data.
There are two gentlemen whofe labours in this refpe&
deferve very particular notice, profeffor Michelotti, at Tu-
rin, and abbé Boffut, at Paris. The firft made a pro-
digious number of experiments, both on the motion of
water through pipes and in open canals. The experi-
ments of Boffut are alfo of both kinds, and though on
a much fmaller feale than thofe of Michelotti, they feem
to deferve equal confidence. The chevalier de Buat, who.
has taken up this matter where the abbé Boffut left it,
has profecuted his experiments with great affiduity and fin-
gular fuccefs.
Mr. Eytelwein, a gentleman honoured with feveral em-
ployments and titles relative to the public architecture of
the Pruffian dominions, made a tranflation of Buat’s works
into German, with important additions of his own; and he
alfo publifhed “* Handbuch der Mechanik und der Hydrau-
lik,” Berlin, 1801. In this compendium of mechanics and
hydraulics, he has colleted the principal faéts that have
been afcertained, as well by his own experiments as by thofe
of former authors, efpecially fuch as are the molt capable
of practical application. He appears to have done this in
fo judicious a manner, as to make his book a moft valuable
abftract
WATER.
abitrat of every thing that can be deduced from theory,
refpecting natural and artificial hydraulics. The elegant con-
cifenefs of his manner deferves fo much the more praife, as
his countrymen too often make a merit of prolixity.
In our article Discuarcr, we have given the general
principles of the motion of {pouting fluids ; and under River
the theory of water running in rivers. 'The objeé of the
prefent article will be to lay down fuch rules as may be im-
mediately applicable to the ufe of the engineer.
In all cafes of gauging ftreams, the quantity which flows,
in any given time, is obtained by meafuring the area of the
aperture, or channel, through which the water flows, and
finding the velocity with which the water moves through
that aperture. To find the area of the aperture is a fimple
operation of menfuration, but to afcertain the velocity is not
fo eafy. There are two different methods of determining
the velocity. The firft is, by obferving the rate of motion
of the furface, either by means of {mall light bodies thrown
into the ftream, or by employing inftruments adapted to
meafure the rate at which the ftream moves. This method
is only applicable in cafes of open canals and rivers, where
the water flows with a flow motion. The other method is
more general, and is applicable to the greateft velocities ;
becaufe it is derived from calculation, according to the depth
of water, or height of column, which urges the flowing
water, and occafions its motion.
Lo meafure the Quantity of Water running in a River or Ca-
nal, Firft Method.—Choofe a part of the channel where the
banks are of a determinate figure, and where they continue
of the fame breadth and depth for a ae of ten, twenty,
or, thirty feet, the longer the better, and the more regular
the banks are, the better the obfervations willbe. Meafure
the breadth and the depth, or other dimenfions which may
be neceffary, to find the area, or fection of the paflage,
through which the water flows. ‘Take thefe meafures at
feveral different points, and if there is any difference at dif-
ferent places, find the area at each place, and take a mean
between them.
Then proceed to find the velocity of the motion, by
throwing in a cork, or other light body, and obferving, by
a ftop-watch, or pendulum, what number of feconds it takes
to flow through a given length of the channel; for in-
ftance, the length of ten, twenty, or fifty feet, which was
chofen in the firft inflance for the experiment, and marked
out by itretching two ftrings, parallel acrofs the river. This
trial muft be repeated feveral times, and as the inftant when
the floating body arrives at the laft ftring, can be very
exadtly noted, this method admits of confiderable exaéinefs.
A mean of the different refults muft be taken for the true
velocity.
It is true that this only gives the velocity of the water
at the furface, and the water moves with different velo-
cities at different depths, beneath the furface ; (inftead of
a fingle light body to float upon the furface of the water),
we are recommended to employ a cylindrical rod of wood,
of a length fomething lefs than the depth of the water:
this is to be ballafted by a weight at the lower end, fo
that it will fwim juft upright in ftanding water, and with
the upper end of the ftick about an inch above water. By
ufing this, inftead of a fingle cork, we are fuppofed to attain
the mean velocity of the ftream at its different depths, inftead
of the velocity of the furface.
Inftead of a cylinder of wood, three or four apples,
ftrung together by a ftring, will. anfwer the purpofe very
well, the lower ones being loaded by putting nails in
them till they are rather heavier than water, fo that the
apples, when put into ftanding water, will hang in a per-
Vor. XXXVIII.
pendicular line. Goofeberries are very nearly the weight of
water, and may be employed fingly, to fhew its velocity at
different depths.
Lxample.—A canal meafured eight feet in width, and
four feet in depth, the fides being perpendicular; then the
area of the fection is thirty-two f{quare feet. It was found,
by experiments with three apples, that the current ran
through a {pace of fifteen feet in five feconds, in another
experiment fix feconds, and in a third four feconds and a half.
What is the quantity of water paffin through this canal ?
The mean of all thefe is five Cone and one-fixth,
during which the water moved fifteen feet. Now as five
feconds and one-fixth is to fifteen feet, fo is fixty feconds to
a hundred and feventy-four feet, which the ftream flows in
the {pace of a minute. Then thirty-two {quare feet (the
area), multiplied by 174 feet, gives 5568 cubic feet, which
is the quantity of water flowing through the canal every
minute.
This is the method recommended by Defaguliers, and
if carefully executed, and the trials frequently repeated,
is tolerably exaét. Several authors have fuppofed this
method might be much improved, by employing fome in-
ftrument to fhew the velocity of the ftream by infpetion.
There are many ingenious inventions for this purpofe.
Stream-Meafurers.—M. Pitot invented a ftream-meafurer
of a fimple conftruétion, to find the velocity of any part
of a ftream. This inftrument is compofed of two lotig
tubes of glafs open at both ends, and placed in a perpen-
dicular direGtion in the ftream of water: one of thefe
tubes is cylindrical throughout and ftraight; but the
other has its loweft extremity bent nearly at right angles,
fo as to form a horizontal branch, which gradually en-
larges like a funnel, or the mouth of a trumpet ; both
thefe tubes are fixed to the fide of a triangular prifm of
wood, with the lengths of the tubes parallel to the length
of the prifm, and their lower extremities both on the fame
level ; the horizontal branch of the tube is carried through
the prifm, fo that the end of the trumpet-mouth opens in
one of the angles of the prifm. The upright parts of the
tubes ftand one befide the other, and are let into grooves
in the prifm, fo as to be tolerably well preferved from ac-
cidents. The face of the priim in which thefe tubes
ftand, is graduated on the edges clofe by the fides of
them into divifions of inches and lines.
To ufe this inftrument, it is placed perpendicularly in
the water in fuch a manner, that the opening of the trum-
pet-mouth at the bottom of one of the tubes, fhall be com-
pletely oppofed to the direGtion of the current, in order
that the water may pafs freely through the funnel up into the
perpendicular tube, Then by obferving to what height the
water rifes in each tube, it will be found to rife higher in
the tube with the trumpet-mouth than the other, and the
quantity of this difference will be the height due to the ve-
locity of the ftream.
It is manifeft that the water will rife in the ftraight cy-
lindrical tube to the fame height as the furface of the fireane <
this is by the hydroftatic preflure. But the water of the
current entering by the funnel into the other tube, will be
compelled to rife above that furface to fome certain height,
at which height it will be fuftained by the impulfe of the
moving fluid; that is, the momentum or impulfe of the
ftream will be in equilibrio with the column of water fuf-
tained in one tube above the furface of that in the other.
In eftimating the velocity by means of this inftrument, we
mutt have recourfe to the following rules: if the height of
the column fuftained by the ftream, or the difference of
heights in the two tubes be taken in feet, the velocity es
QO the
WATER.
the ftream per fecond in feet will be 6.5 times the fquare root
of the height. ohn cm
If the height be meafured in inches, then the velocity in
feet per fecond will be 1.88 times the fquare root of the
height, nearly. It will be eafy to put the funnel into the
moft rapid part of the ftream, by moving it about to different
places, uotil the difference of altitude in the two tubes be-
comes the greateft. In fome cafes, it will happen that the
immerfion of the inftrument will produce a little eddy in the
water, and thus difturb the accuracy of the obfervation ;
but keeping the inftrument immerfed only a few feconds
will correét this. The wind alfo would affe&t the accuracy
of the experiments ; it is therefore advifeable to make them
when there is little or no wind. }
By means of this inftrument, the velocity of water at va-
rious depths in a canal or river may be found with tolerable
accuracy, and a mean of the whole drawn. Where great
accuracy is not required, the bent tube with the funnel at
bottom will alone be fufficient, becaufe the furface of the
water will be indicated with tolerable precifion, by that
part of the prifmatic frame for the tube which has been
moiftened by the immerfion. ae
M. Pitot likewife propofed that a fimilar inftrument fhould
be ufed inftead of a log, to determine the rate at which a
fhip fails. For this purpofe, in the middle of a veffel, or as
near as can be to the centre of its ofcillations, place two
tubes of metal of three or four lines in diameter, one of
them being ftraight, and the other bent at bottom and
enlarged into a conical funnel. The lower ends of both
are to dip into the water in which the veffel fails, and
there will be no evil to apprehend from orifices fo minute.
Into thefe metallic tubes, two others are clofely fitted at
a convenient height for the obfervations. ‘The water will
rife, in the firft of thefe tubes, up to its level on the outfide
of the fhip ; and in the fecond, up toa certain height, which
will indicate as above the velocity of the veffel. For the
funnel being turned towards the prow of the fhip, it will, in
confequence of the motion, be affeéted in like manner, as
if it were plunged into the ftream of arunning water. The
aétual velocity of the veffel is found by the fame rules as
that of the current. This method has been repropofed in
this country, without any acknowledgments to M. Pitot.
We do not, however, recommend its adoption on board a
fhip ; for, notwithftanding its theoretical ingenuity, it is liable
to many fources of error in practice, and would not, it is
robable, furnifh more accurate meafures of a fhip’s way,
than thofe deduced from the common log.
In the praétical ufe of M. Pitot’s inftrument, a great
difficulty is experienced from the ofcillations of the water
in the tubes, which it is not eafy to prevent, and a mean
height of the ofcillating water muft be taken. ;
M. Du Buat made trials of the inftrument, and found it
could not be trufted for any other purpofes than to give the
ratios of different velocities. He found the inftrument was
better without the ftraight tube, and he employed only one
tube with its lower end turned horizontally, in the direc-
tion of the ftream, it was made of tinned plate inftead of
glafs, and fufficiently large to admit a float to fhew the
height of the water in the tube. Inftead of making the end
of the tube an open trumpet-mouth, he ufed to clofe it by
a flat plate, with a {mall perforation in the centre to admit
the water through it, or in fome cafes feveral {mall perfora-
tions. In this way, the water will rife in the tube, juft the
fame as if it was open; but the ofcillations of the column
will be avoided, or greatly diminifhed.
The hydraulic quadrant has been recommended by feve-
ral authors, for meafuring the velocity of water.
12
Tt confifts of a fmall quadrant with a divided arch, and
having two threads moving round its centre. One of thefe
is fhort, and carries a plummet which always hangs in air,
and ferves to place the quadrant in its true pofition. The
other thread is longer, and carries a weight whofe fpecific
gravity is greater than that of water, and which plunges
more or lefs.deep in the current as the thread is lengthened.
The inftrument is held over the water, fo that the plummet
of the long thread hangs in the water, and the force of the
current will remove it from the perpendicular, whilft the an-
gular diftance from the other thread, which is a vertical
line can be afcertained by the divifions on the arch of the
quadrant ; the quantity of this deviation from the perpendi-
cular is the meafure of the force, and confequently of the
velocity of the current. Boflut has fhewn, that the’force
of the current is as the tangent of the angle which one
thread makes with the other, and gives direGtions for ufing
this inftrument to try a current at different depths.
Dr. Brewfter, in his edition of Fergufon’s leCtures, re-
commends a {mall and light wheel, like an underfhot water-
wheel, with float-boards on its circumference. It is provided
with an apparatus to afcertain and record the number of
turns it makes, and is held in the ftream, fo that the water
may a¢t upon the float-boards to turnit round ; and from the
number of turns it makes in any given time, the velocity
of the ftream may be computed. He direéts the wheel
to be made of the lighteft materials, and about ten or
twelve inches in diameter: it is furnifhed with four-
teen or fixteen float-boards. The centre of the wheel is
perforated with a hole, and tapped to receive a delicate
{crew or wire, which forms the axis upon which it re-
volves, with as little fri€tion as poffible. At each end
of the ferew or axis, is a handle to hold it by, and to fup-
port the wheel; and to one of thefe handles an index is
fixed, pointing to divifions on the circumference of the
wheel, which contift of 100 parts. This index fhews
the aliquot parts of a revolution, whilft the number of
threads which the wheel advances on the {crew fhews the
number of whole turns it makes.
To prepare this inftrument for ufe, the wheel muft be
turned round upon the {crew until it arrives quite at one end
of it, and till the index points to zero of the divifions on the
rim of the wheel; then hold the axis or {crew horizontally
by the two handles, fo that the floats dip in the water and
turn the wheel round upon the fcrew.
By means of a ftop-watch, or a pendulum, find how
many revolutions of the wheel are performed in a given
time, a minute, for inftance. Multiply the mean cir-
cumference of the wheel, i. e. the circumference deduced
from the mean radius, meafured from the centre of im-
pulfion upon the float-boards to the centre of the wheel,
by the number of revolutions, and the produ& will be the
number of feet which the water moves through in the given
time. On account of the fri&ion of the fcrew, the refift-
ance of the air, and the weight of the wheel, its circum-
ference, will move with a velocity a little lefs than that of
the ftream; but the diminution arifing from thefe caufes,
may be eltimated with fufficient precifion for all the pur-
pofes of the praétical mechanic.
This, we think, is one of the beft ftream-meafurers, becaufe
it will give a correct meafure of the motion at the furface
of the water; but it will not give the velocities at the dif-
ferent depths beneath the pitas) nor do we know any
machine which will effeCtually anfwer that purpofe.
By means of this inftrument, we can obtain the velocity
of the furface with greater accuracy than perhaps by any
other means ; but to afcertain the quantity of water vat
al
WATER.
fhall be difcharged, we muft know the mean velocity of the
water.
Ratio between the mean Velocity of running Water and the
Velocity of the Top and Bottom of a Channe!.—M. Du Buat
ftates, that the fuperficial velocity of a ftream of water
always bears a certain relation to the mean velocity, fo that
we can derive one from the other by an arithmetical rule.
From a great number of experiments, he difcovered the
following laws: 1{t, That the velocity at the furface in the
middle of the {tream, (in flow motions, ) is to the velocity at
the bottom of the ftream, in a ratio of confiderable inequa-
lity. 2d, This ratio diminifhes as the velocity increafes, and
in very great velocities approaches to the ratio of equality.
3d, What was moft remarkable, was, that neither the mag-
nitude of the channel, nor its flope, had any influence in
changing this proportion, whilft the mean velocity remained
the fame. Whether the ftream ran in a channel with the
bottom covered with pebbles, or coarfe fand, the propor-
tions between the two velocities was, as nearly as poffible,
the fame as when it ran in a fmooth channel. 4th, If the
velocity at the furface in the middle of the ftream be con-
ftant, the velocity at the bottom will be alfo conftant, and
will not be affeted by the depth of water or magnitude of
the ftream. In fome experiments, the depth was thrice the
width, and in others the width was thrice the depth. This
changed the proportion of the magnitude of the feétion,
to the magnitude of the rubbing part, but made no change
in the ratio between the velocities at the top and bottom.
The place of the mean velocity in the fection of the
ftream could not be difcovered with any precifion. In
moderate velocities, it Was not more than one-fourth or one-
fifth of the depth diftant from the bottom. In very great
velocities, it was fenfibly higher, but never in the middle of
the depth.
In all cafes he computed the mean velocity by meafur-
ing the quantities of water difcharged in a giventime. His
method of meafuring the bottom velocity was fimple, and
probably juft; he threw in a goofeberry, as nearly as poffible
of the fame fpecific gravity with the water; it was carried
along the bottom without touching it. We have already ob-
ferved, that the ratio between the velocity at the furface in
the middle, and the velocity at the bottom, diminifhed as the
mean velocity was increafed. This variation he was enabled
to exprefs in a very fimple manner, fo as to be eafily re-
membered, and to enable us to find any one of them from
having obferved another.
Dr. Robifon ftates, that if we take unity from the {quare
root of the fuperficial velocity, in the middle of the ftream,
expreffed in inches fer fecond, the {quare of the remainder is
the velocity at the bottom; and the mean velocity is the
half fum of thefe two. Thus, if the velocity of the furface
in the middle of the ftream be twenty-five inches fer fecond,
its {quare root is five; from which if we take unity, there
remains four. The fquare of this, or 16, is the velocity
at the bottom, and = + aS
» or 203, is the mean velocity.
This is a very curious and moft ufeful piece of inform-
ation. The velocity of the furface in the middle of the
ftream, is the eafieft meafured of all, by any light {mall body
floating down it, or by a ftream-meafurer ; and the mean
velocity is the one which regulates the difcharge, and all
the moft important confequences.
Dr. Robifon gives the following table of thefe three
velocities, which will fave the trouble of calculation in fome
of the moft frequent queftions of hydraulics.
Velocity in Inches per Second. Velocity in Inches per Second.
Surface.| Bottom. Mean Surface.| Bottom. Mean.
I 0.000 | 0.5 51 | 37-712 | 44.356
2 0.172 1.081 52 | 38.564 | 45.282
3 | 537 | 1-768 | 53 | 39-438 | 46.219
4 re 7a'5 54 | 40.284 | 47.142
5 1.526 3-263 55 | 41-165 | 48.082
6 2.1 4.050 56 | 42.016 | 49.008
7 | 2-709 | 4.854 | 57 | 42-968 | 49.984
8 3-342 5.67 58 | 43-771 | 50.886
9 4. 6.5 59 44.636 | 51.818
10 | 4-674 -| 7.337 | Go | 45.509 | 52.754
II 5-369 3.184 61 | 46.376 | 53.688
12 6.071 9.036 62 | 47.259 | 54.629
13 6.786 9-893 63 | 48.136 | 55.568
14 |. 7-553 | 10.756 | 64 | 49. 56.5
15 8.254 | 11.622 65 | 49.872 | 57-436
16 9. 12.5 66 | 50.751 | 58.376
17 | 9-753 | 13.376 | 67 | 51-639 | 59.319 |
18 | 10.463 | 14.231 68 | 52.505 | 60.252 |
19 | 11.283 | 15.141 69 | 53-392 | 61.1906
20 | 12.055 | 16.027 70 | 54.273 | 62.136
21 | 13.674 | 16.837 | 71 | 55-145 | 63.072
22 | 13.616 | 17.808 72 | 56.025 | 64.012
23 14.202 | 18.701 73 | 56.862 | 64.932
24 | 15-194 | 19-597 | 74 | 57-799 | 65.895
25 eros 20.5 75 | 58-687 | 66.843
26 | 16.802 | 21.401 76 | 59-568 | 67.784
27 | 17.606 | 22.303 77 | 60.451 | 68.725
28 | 18.421 | 23.210 78 | 61.340 | 69.670
29 | 19.228 | 24.114 79 | 62.209 | 70.605
30 | 20.044 | 25.022 80 | 63.107 | 71.553
31 | 20.857 | 25.924 81 4. 72.5
32 | 21.678 | 26.839 82 | 64.883 | 73.441
33 | 22.506 | 27.753 | 83 | 65.780 | 74.390
34 | 23-339 | 28.660 84 | 66.651 | 75.325
35 24.167 | 29.583 85 | 67.568 | 76.284
36. | 25. 30.5 86 | 68.459 | 77.229
37 | 25-827 | 31.413 | 87 | 69.339 | 78.169
38 | 26.667 | 32.333 88 | 70.224 | 79.112
39 | 27-51 33-255 89 | 71.132 | 80.066
40 | 28.345 | 34.172 go | 72.012 | 81.006
41 | 29.192 | 35.096 gt | 70-915 | 81.957
42 | 30.030 | 36.015 92 | 73-788 | 82.894
43 | 30-880 | 36.940 | 93 | 74-719 | 83.859
44 | 31-742 | 37-871 | 94 | 75.603 | 84.801
45 | 32-581 | 38.790 | 95 | 76-51 | 85.755
46 | 33-432 | 39.716 | 96 | 77-370 | 86.685
47 | 34-293 | 40.646 | 97 | 78.305 | 87.652
48 | 35-151 | 41.570 98 | 79-192 | 88.596
49 | 36. 42.5 99 | 80.120 | 89.56
50 | 36.857 | 43.428 | too | 81. 90.5
The knowledge of the velocity at the bottom is of ufe to
an engineer, toenable him to judge of the aétion of a ftream
on its bed. Every kind of foil will bear a certain velocity
without changing the form of the channel. A greater velo-
city would enable the water to tear it up, and a fmaller ve-
locity would permit the depofition of more moveable mate-
O2 rials
rials from above. It is not enough, then, for the perma-
nency of a river, that the accelerating forces are fo adjufted
to the fize and figure of its channel, that the current may ac-
uire an uniform velocity, and ceafe to accelerate. It mutt
alfo be in equilibrio with the tenacity of the channel.
It appears from obfervation, that a velocity of three
inches per fecond at the bottom, will juft begin to work upon
fine clay fit for pottery, and howeyer firm and compaét it may
be, it will tear it up. Yet no beds are more {table than
clay, when the velocities do not exceed this, for the water
foon takes away the impalpable particles of the fuperficial
clay, leaving the particles of fand fticking by their lower
halfin the reft of the clay, which they now protect, making
a very permanent bottom, if the ftream does not bring down
gravel or coarfe fand, which will rub off this very thin
cruft, and allow another layer to be worn off. A velocity
of fix inches per fecond, will lift fine fand ; eight inches will
lift fand as coarfe as linfeed ; twelve inches will {weep along
fine gravel; twenty-four inches will roll along rounded
pebbles an inch in diameter ; and it requires three feet per
fecond at the bottom to {weep along fhivered angular {tones
of the fize of an egg.
Dr. Young gives an excellent fimple rule for the fame ob-
je&t, which is only a trifle different from Dr. Robifon’s ; he
{tates, that from a mean of all the beft experiments, he found
that, if the fquare root of the mean velocity of any ftream
(running in an uniform open channel) be added to fuch mean
velocity, it will give the fuperficial or top velocity in the
middle; or if deduéted therefrom, it will leave the bottom
velocity : whence we have deduced the following praétical
rule, viz. ;
1. Having found the top velocity, expreffed in any con-
venient le which will correfpond with the refult
required.
To find the bottom velocity, add the conftant number .25
(or 4) to the top velocity ; extra& the fquare root of the
fum, and double it; again add 1 to the top velocity, and
from the fum dedu@& the double root before found : the re-
mainder is the bottom velocity of the ftream.
2. To find the mean velocity from the top velocity, add
the conftant number .5, (or 4) to the top velocity, and from
their fum dedu& the fquare root found in the firft rule :
the remainder is the mean velocity.
Or, 3. To find the mean velocity from the bottom velo-
city, add the conftant number .25, (or }) to the bottom ve-
locity, and extract the fquare root of the fum; then to this
{quare root add the bottom velocity, and the conftant num-
ber, .5, and their fum is the mean velocity.
Thefe are true in all cafes, provided the top and bottom
velocities are related to each other, as Dr. Young ftates.
For example, Mr. Watt obferved the furface of the water
in an open canal to move with a velocity of 17 inches per fe-
cond: What was the bottom velocity ?
By our firft rule 17+ .25 = 17.25, of which extrac the
{quare root; it is 4.15; twice this is 8.3. Again, to
the top velocity 17 add 1 = 18, and dedué 8.3, it leaves
9-7 for the bottom velocity. Mr. Watt obferved the bot-
tom velocity to be so inches per fecond.
2. To find the mean velocity, add .5 to the top velocity
17, it gives 17.5; dedu& 4.18, and we get 13.32 inches
per fecond for the mean velocity.
3. If wetake Mr. Watt’s obfervation of the bottom ve-
locity of 10 inches per fecond, inftead of the top ; then to
findthe mean velocity 10 + .25 = 10.25, of which the fquare
root is 3.201; and 10 4.5 = 10.5; add thefe together,
thus (3-201 + 10.5) = 13,701 inches per fecond i the
WATER.
mean velocity ; which only exceeds that deduced from the
top velocity by little more than 4d of an inch in a
fecond.
By the aid of this rule, and the wheel ftream-meafurer
before defcribed, great accuracy may be obtained. Care
mutt be taken to apply the iota the centre of the ftream,
on the furface, or rather at that place where the velocity of
the furface is found to be the greatett.
Second Method of meafuring the Flowing of Water in an
open Canal.—When a river flows with an uniform motion,
and is neither accelerated nor retarded by the aétion of
gravitation, it is obvious that the whole weight of the water
muit be employed in overcoming the fri€tion of the water
againft the bottom and fides.
The principal part of this fri€tion is as the fquare of
the velocity, and the friction is nearly the fame at all depths :
for profeflor Robifon found, that the flow of the fluid
through a bent tube was not increafed by increafing the
preffure againft the fides, being nearly the fame when the
bended part of the tube was fituated horizontally, as when
vertically, the fame difference of level being preferved.
The quantity of fri€tion will, however, vary, according
to the furface of the fluid which is in conta& with the folid,
in proportion to the whole quantity of fluid; that is, the
fri€tion for any given quantity of water will be, as the fur-
face of the bottom and fides of a river dire€tly, and as the
whole quantity of water in the river inverfely; thus, fup-
pofing the whole quantity of water to be {fpread on a hori-
zontal furface equal to the bottom and fides of the river,
the fri&tion is inverfely as the depth at which the river
bere then ftand. This is called the hydraulic mean
epth.
If the inclination or flope of the furface of water in a
river variés, the defcending weight, or the force that urge
the particles down the inclined plane, will vary as si
height of the fall in a given diftance; confequently, the
friétion, which is equal to the defcending weight, muift
vary as the fall; and the veloeity being as the {quare root
of the friGtion, muft alfo be as the fquare root of the fall.
Suppofing the hydraulic mean depth to be increafed or
diminifhed, the inclination remaining the fame, the friction
would be’ diminifhed or increafed in the fame ratio; and,
therefore, in order to preferve its equality with the defcend-
ing weight, the fri€tion muft be increafed or diminifhed, by
increafing the velocity in the ratio of its fquare to the
hydraulic mean depth ; that is, increafing the velocity in the
ratio of the fquare root of the hydraulic mean depth.
Mr. Eytelwein’s Rule is, that the velocity of a ftream will
be in the joint proportion of the fquare root of the hydraulic
mean depth, and the {quare root of the fall in a given diftance ;
or as a mean proportional between thefe two quantities.
Taking two Englifh miles for a given length upon a
ftream, we muft find a mean proportional between its hy-
draulic mean depth and its fall in two miles in inches, and
inquire what relation this bears to the velocity in a par-
ticular cafe. We may thence expe& to determine it in any
other. According to Mr. Eytelwein’s formula, this mean
proportional is +;ths of the velocity in a fecond in inches.
In order to examine the accuracy of this rule, we may
take an example, which could not have been known to Mr.
Eytelwein. r. Watt obferved, that in a canal 18 feet wide
above, and 7 below, and 4 feet deep, having a fall of 4 inches
in a mile, the velocity was 17 inches fer fecond at the fur-
face, 14 in the middle, and 10 at the bottom. The mean
velocity may be called 13% inches, in a fecond. Now to
find the hydraulic mean danch, we muft divide the area of
the
WATER.
the feGtion ( east x 4) = 50 {quare feet, by the breadth
of the bottom and length of the floping fides added toge-
ther ; whence we have * 2 GF 29-13 inches; and the fall
in two miles being 8 inches, we have ,/ (8 x 29.13) =
15.26 for the mean proportional; +?ths of which is 13.9,
agreeing nearly with Mr. Watt’s obfervation. Profeflor Ro-
bifon has deduced from Buat’s elaborate theorems 12.568
inches for the velocity, which is confiderably lefs accurate.
For another example we may take the river Po, which
falls one foot in two miles, where its mean depth is 29 feet,
and its velocity is obferved to be about 55 inches in a fecond.
Our rule gives 58, which is perhaps as near as the degree
of accuracy of the data will allow.
On the whole, we have ample-reafon to be fatisfied with
the unexpected coincidence of fo fimple a theorem with ob-
“fervation ; and in order to find the velocity of a river from
its fall, or the fall from its velocity, we have only to recol-
le& that the velocity in inches per fecond is {ths of a mean
proportional between the hydraulic mean depth and the fall
-in two Englifh miles in inches. This is, however, only true
of a ftraight river flowing through an equable channel.
For the flope of the banks of a river or canal, Mr. Eytel-
‘wein recommends, that the breadth at the bottom fhould be
7ds of the depth, and at the furface £°ds; the banks will
then be in general capable of retaining their form. The
area of fuch a feétion, is twice the fquare of the depth, and
the hydraulic mean depth 3ds of the aGtual depth.
M. Du Buat’s Rule.—In our article River, we have
given the theorem of M. Du Buat for calculating the motion
of water in a river or other regular channel, or through
pipes. It has been obferved by the late Dr. Robifon,
that the comparifon of the chevalier Du Buat’s calculations
with his experiments is very fatisfaGtory ; that it exhibits a
beautiful fpecimen of the means of expreffing the general
refult of an extenfive feries of obfervations in an analytical
formula; and that it does honour to the penetration, {kill,
and addrefs of M. Du Buat, and of M. De St. Honore,
who affifted him in the conftruétion of his expreffions.
Dr. Young’s Rule.—Dr, Young juftly remarks, in an ex-
cellent paper in the Philofophical Tranfa¢tions for 1808, that
the form of Du Buat’s expreffions is not fo convenient for
practice as they might have been rendered ; and are liable to
great objeCtions, in particular cafes: for when the pipe is ex-
tremely narrow, or extremely long they become completely
erroneous. Dr. Young has, therefore, fubftituted for the
formule of M. Du Buat others of a totally different nature ;
and he profeffes to have followed Du Buat only, in his general
mode of confidering a part of the preffure, or of the height
of a given fall, as employed in overcoming the frition
of the pipe, through which the water flows out of it; a
principle which, if not of his original invention, was cer-
tainly firt publifhed by him, and reduced into a practicable
form. We find Mr. Smeaton ufed it in conftructing his
MS. tables. By comparing the experiments which -Du
Buat has colle&ted, with fome of Gerftner’s, and fome of his
own, Dr. Young difcovered a formula, which appears to
agree fully as well as Du Buat’s, with the experiments from
which his rules were deduced, and at the fame time accords
better with Gerftner’s experiments ; and which formula ex-
tends to all the extreme cafes with equal accuracy. It feems
to reprefent more fimply the aGtual operation of the forces
concerned; and it is dire& in its application to practice,
without the neceflity of any fucceflive approximations.
He began by examining the velocity of the water dif-
charged through pipes of a given diameter, with different
degrees of preffure ; and found that the fri&ion could not
be reprefented by any fingle power of the velocity, although
it frequently approached to the proportion of that power
of the velocity, of which the exponent is 1.8; but that it ap-
peared to confift of two parts, the one varying fimply as the
velocity, the other as its fquare. The proportion of thefe
parts to each other muft, however, be confidered as dif-
ferent, in pipes of different diameters; the firft part being
lefs perceptible in very large pipes, or in rivers, but be-
coming greater than the fecond in very minute tubes; while
the fecond alfo becomes greater, for each given portion of
the internal furface of the pipe, as the diameter is dimi-
nifhed.
If, with Dr. Young, we exprefs all the meafures in
Englifh inches, calling the height employed in ~ over-
coming the fri€tion f, the velocity in a fecond v, the
diameter of the pipe d, and its length /; we may make
yee “ uv" + 2¢ = v: for it is obvious, that the fric-
tion muft be direétly as the length of the pipe; and fince
the preflure is proportional to the area of the feGion, and
the furface producing the friétion to its circumference or
diameter, the relative magnitude of the fri€tion muft alfo be
inyerfely as the diameter, or nearly fo, as Du Buat has
juftly obferved.
We fhall then find, that 2 muft be .oooooo1 (413 + 3B
ats oe a aoa) and ¢ muft be .oooo001
900 dd I 13.21 1.0563
dd +1136 + Tq (1085 aaa de )).
_Hence it is not difficult to calculate the velocity for any
given pipe, open canal or river, with any given column
of water: for the height required for producing the velo-
2
city, including friGtion, is, according to Du Buat, w ;
510
or rather, as it appears from almoft all the experiments
v? ‘
586 3 and the whole height 4
which the doétor compared,
is, therefore lt Be, rh= aul : =
8, » equal to f + 586° ° = at aaa
Zes » and alfo
a
: I
v; and afluming 6 = eg ooee
é bel
affluming e = 7? we have vw? -- 2e¢v = 54; whence,
v= (64 +c") —e; which is a general theorem.
In order to adapt this formula to the cafe of rivers, we
muft make / (the length) infinite; by which 4 becomes =
and 64 = £ x = = 7 s being the fine of the in-
clination of the water’s furface, and d = 4 times the hy-
draulic mean depth. The hydraulic mean depth is the area
of the fection of the moving water, divided by as much of
the circumference of that area, as the water touches. And
J (ads +c") —c¢
a
fince e is here = = 3 and in moft
rivers, v becomes nearly ,/ (20000ds).
Another ufeful rule by Dr, Young, is to find the fuper-
ficial velocity ef the water in a river by adding to the mean
velocity
WATER.
velocity of a river its fquare root; this gives the velocity
at the furface; and by fubtra@ting the fame f{quare root,
we get the velocity at the bottom. .
- B. 2.618 — ,/ 2.618 = 1, and .382 + 3821;
which it may be ufeful to remember, with reference to this
laft rule.
Dr. Young made a comparifon of his general theorem, as
above, with forty experiments extracted from the colleétion
which ferved as a bafis for Du Buat’s calculations ; and he
found that the mean error of his formula is ,th of the whole
velocity, and that of his own =,thonly. But, omitting the
four experiments, in which the fuperficial velocity only of a
river was obferved, and in which he calculated the mean velo-
city by Du Buat’s rules, the mean error of the remaining 36
is but y,th, according to Dr. Young’s mode of calculation,
and ,4,th according to M. Du Buat’s ; fo that, on the whole,
the accuracy of the two formule may be confidered as pre-
cifely equal with refpeé to thefe experiments.
In the fix experiments which Du Buat has wholly reje&ed,
the mean error of his formula is about j&th, and that of
Dr. Young’s ==th. In fifteen of Gerftner’s experiments,
the mean error of Du Buat’s rule is 3d, that of Dr. Young’s
#th; and in the three experiments which Dr. Young
made with very fine tubes, the error of his own rules is ;!-th
of the whole; while in fuch cafes Du Buat’s formule com-
pletely fail.
It would be ufelefs to feek for a much greater degree of
aecuracy, unlefsit were probable that the errors of the expe-
riments themfelves were lefs than thofe of the calculations.
But if a fufficient number of extremely accurate and fre-
quently repeated experiments could be obtained, it would
be very poffible to adapt Dr. Young’s formula ftill more
correétly to their refults.
In order to facilitate the computation, Dr. Young made
tables of the co-efficients a and ¢ for 44 different values of
a, both in French and Englifh inches, which may be feen
in the Philofophical TranisAiions for 1808 ; but inftead of
inferting them, we fhall give a far more extended table,
which we have carefully deduced from Dr. Young’s formula
and table, and put it in a form more dire@ly applicable to
practice. :
Let d reprefent four times the hydraulic mean depth of
an open canal.
Note.—T he hydraulic mean depth is the area of the fe&tion
through which the water runs, divided by fo much ‘of the
circumference of that feétion as is touched by the water.
Note alfo.—In cafe of clofe pipes running a full bore of
water, the diameter of the pipe is four times the hydrau-
lic mean depth.
sreprefents the fine of the inclination of the water’s
furface ; that is, the height of the head or rife, divided by
the length or diftance of the flope in which fuch rife takes
place.
v, the mean velocity per fecond, in inches.
The other fymbols ufed in the theorem are {hewn at the
head of the different columns of the Table.
Dr. Thomas
WATER.
Dr. Thomas Young’s Theorem, with a new and enlarged Table deduced therefrom, exprefsly for our Work, tor
calculating the Velocity of Water flowing in Rivers, Channels, or Pipes.
: < : if da a
T'roreM. The mean Velocity per Second, in inches or v, is = < Ve iG 5s + = a
d 2 Eas a d d@ o hed
a a’ a a a? a
0.5 20410 41.477 6.441 64 1629000 4.576 2.139
1.0 39840 19.171 4.37 65 1654000 4.611 2.147
1.5 56820 11.468 3.386 66 1679000 4.645 2.155
2.0 72730 7.922 2.815 67 1703000 4.678 2.163
2.5 88030 5-972 2.444 68 1728000 4.709 2.170
3 102720 4-129 20075 69 1752000 4-739 aif)
4 131600 4.363 2.089 70 1777000 4.769 2.184
5 159700 2.624 1.620 71 1801000 4.796 2.190
6 186900 2.153 1.467 72 _| 1826000 4.823 2.196
7 214100 1.885 1-373 73 1850000 4.848 2.202
8 241000 1.701 1.304 74 1875000 4.872 2.207
9 267900 1.570 1.253 15 1899000 4.894 2.212
10 295000 1.506 1.22 76 1923000 4.915 2.217
II 321600 1.469 1.212 Tih 1947000 4.936 2.222
12 347800 1.450 1.204 78 1971000 4.956 2.226
13 373600 1.443 1.201 19 1996000 4.976 2.231
14 398900 1-418 * TIT 80 2020000 4-995 25235
15 423700 1.476 1.215 81 2044000 5-013 2.239
16 449400 1.521 1.233 82 2068000 5-030 2.243
17 474900 1.566 1.251 83 2093000 5-046 2.246
18 500000 1.612 1.269 84 2117000 5-061 2.249
19 524900 1.664 1.290 85 2141000 5-076 2.253
20 549500 1.717 1.310 86 2165000 5-091 2.256
25 673900 _ 2.010 1.418 87 2189000 5-106 2.259
30 795800 2.508 1.584 88 2213000 5-121 2.263
35 918600 2.929 1.711 89 2237000 5-135 2.266
40 104.2000 3-304 1.818 go 2261000 5-149 2.269
45 “1163000 3.636 1.907 gi 2285000 5-162 Zee
50 1285000 3-939 1.984 g2 2309000 5-175 2.275
51 1310000 | 3-988 1.997 93 2333000 5-188 2.297
52 1334000 4.041 2.010 94 "2357000 5-200 2.280
53 1359000 4.093 2.023 95 2381000 5-212 2.283
54 1383000 . 4-144 2.036 96 2405000 5-224 2.286
55 1408000 4.194 2.048 97 2429000 5-236 2.288
56 1433000 4.243 2.060 98 245 3000 5.248 2.291
57 1457000 4.290 2.071 99 2477000 5-260 2.293
58 1482000 4°335 2.082 100 2501000 5-272 2.296
59 1506000 4.380 2.093 200 4950000 5-541 2.354
60 1531000 4-423 2.103 300 7371000 5.460 * 2.337
61 1556000 4.465 2.113 400 9780000 5-372 2.318
62 1580000 4-504 2.122 500 12200000 5-301 2.302
1605000 A541 2 Infinite 4-749 2.179
WATER.
Ufe of the Table.—To render this theorem ufeful to thofe
who are not familiar with the ufe of algebraic expreffions,
we fhall give an example of the manner of calculating a
ftream of water, all the operations being performed by com-
mon arithmetic, with the help of the preceding Table.
1. If it is a ftream of water running in an uniform chan-
nel, take a fufficient number of dimenfions of the tranfyerfe
{eGtion of the channel, and by the rules of menfuration cal-
culate the area of its crofs feétion in fquare feet. Calculate
alfo, how much of the circumference of fuch crofs fe&tion is
touched by the water, not including its level top.
Then divide the area in f{quare feet by that sees of the
circumference in feet, in order to obtain the yydraulic mean
depth; this muft be multiplied by 12, to reduce it to inches.
ultiply the quotient by 4, and the refult is d, the number
which is to be fought in the firft column of the preceding
Table.
If it is a circular pipe of uniform bore, running full of
water, its internal diameter, taken in inches, is already
equal to four times the hydraulic mean depth, without any
computation ; and accordmgly the diameter of the pipe in
inches is to be fought for in column 1.
2. Bya fpirit-level or otherwife, afcertain the perpendi-
cular fall or difference of level, between any two diftant
points on the furfiace of the water, if it is an open ftream,
and find the diflance between thefe paints of levelling, by
meafuring upon a parallel to the furface of the ftream.
Thefe may be taken in any convenient meafures; but the
fall and the diftance muft be reduced to the fame meafures :
then divide the fall by the diftance, and the quotient is s, or
a decimal number, which is the fine of the inclination of the
ream.
If it be aclofe pipe, the perpendicular fall muft be the dif-
ference of level between the furface of the refervoir and the
place of difcharge ; divide this by the length of the pipe.
3. Having found d, in column 1 of the Table, take out
the number oppofite to it in the fecond eolumn, entitled
- (that is, d divided by a), and multiply this tabular num-
ber by the decimal number s.
Note.—It will fometimes happen that the exa& amount of
d is not to be found in column 1, but it will fall between two
of the numbers therein ; then take out the leaft of thofe num-
bers before d, and find how much is to be added thereto, by
the following rule: Take the difference of the two numbers
in col. 1. between which d falls ; alfo the difference of the
numbers oppofite to them in col. 2.; alfo take the difference
between the number d, and the leaft of the two numbers be-
tween which it falls. Now, by the Rule of Three, fay, as
the whole difference of the two numbers in col. 1. is to
the fame in col. 2., fo is the difference between d and the
number above it in col. 1. to a fourth number, which is
the proportional part to be added to the number of col. 2.
before d.
4. Take out the tabular number from col. 3. which is
entitled <3 (that is, the fquare of c divided by the {quare
of a).
But here note, in cafe of calculating a proportional part,
(as direéted in the laft rule,) it is not always to be added (as
in col. 2.) ; but fometimes, on the contrary, it is to be fub-
trated, accordingly as the numbers in that part of col. 3.
are increafing or decreafing ; and for greater eafe of difco-
vering this, a* is placed oppofite 14, and between 200 and
300 of col. 1., to fhew the places where thefe changes take
place, from decreafe to increafe, and the contrary.
1e
5- Multiply s, the refult of the fecond operation, and =
a
the refult of the third operation, together, and to the pro-
2
du& add = as found by the fourth operation : then extract
the {quare root of this fum.
6. Take out < from col. 4., and apply the proportional
part as before, if neceflary ; dedu& this number ~ from
a
the {quare root laft found, and the remainder or refult is the
mean velocity of the ftream in inches per fecond, which was re-
quired.
Should this refult be afterwards wanted in feet per minute,
the numbers laft obtained muft be multiplied by 60, and di-
vided by 12 ; or rather, multiplied at once by 5, which is
the fame thing. .
To obtain the quantity of water difcharged in a minute,
multiply the area of the feétion of the ftream by the velo-
city now found ; taking care, if the area is in {quare feet,
to exprefs the velocity of the water in feet ; or if the area is
in {quare inches, the velocity muft be expreffed in inches,
and the produ& or refult will be in cubic feet or cubic
inches, accordingly.
Example 1.—The Academy of Sciences at Paris were ec-
cupied, during feveral months, with an examination of a
plan propofed by M. Parcieux, for bringing the water of
Yevette into Paris ; and, after the moft mature confideration,
gave in a report of the quantity of water which M. De Par-
cieux’s aquedu& would yield. Their report was afterwards
found erroneous in the proportion of at leaft 2 to 5; for
when the waters were brought in, they exceed the report in
this proportion. Indeed, long after the giving in the re-
port, M. Perronet, the moft celebrated engineer in France,
affirmed, that the dimenfions propofed were much greater
than were neceffary ; and faid that an aquedué& of 54 feet
wide, and 3} deep, with a flope of 15 inches in a thoufand
fathoms, would have a velocity of 12 or 13 inches fer
fecond, and would bring all the water furnifhed by the
propofed fources. The great diminution of expence occa-
fioned by the alteration, encouraged the community to under-
take the work. It was accordingly began, and partly exe-
cuted. The water was found to run with a velocity of near
19 inches, when it was 33 feet deep.
M. Perronet founded’ his computation on his own expe-
rience alone, acknowledging that he had no theory to in-
ftrué& him.
Let us examine this cafe by our theorem.
Firft, The area of the fection is 3.5 feet deep x by 5.
feet wide = 19.25 {quare feet.—The circumference vie
the water touches, confifts of the two fides of 3.5 feet each,
added to 5.5 feet, the bottom = 12.5 feet. The area 19.25
{quare feet divided by 12.5 feet gives 1.54 feet, for the hy-
draulic mean depth x 12 = 18.48 inches ; four times this
is d = 73.92, which we are to feek in the firft column of
the table ; and may take 74.
Secondly, To find s, take the fall 15 inches, or 1.33 feet,
and divide it by the diftance, 1000 fathoms, or 6000 feet ;
the refult is .00022, for s, or the fine of the inclination.
Take out from the table
the numbers correfpond-
ing to 74.
74 [1875000 4.872 2.207
We
; WATER.
We now have all the neceffary quantities for making the
éalculation thus : multiply = 1875000 by s = .00022,
2
and we have 416.25. To this add — = 4.872, and it makes
421.122, of which extraét the {quare root, and it is 20.52 ;
dedu@ © = 2.207 from this, and it leaves 18.313 inches
a
per {econd for the mean velocity of the water. __
This agrees pretty well with the obfervation of 19 inches,
and Dr. Robifon made very nearly the fame refult by a diffe-
rent mode of calculation.
The velocity of 18.313 inches per fecond x 5 gives
91.56 feet per minute, and again multiplied by 19.25 fquare
feet, (the area of the feétion,) gives 1761.6 cubic feet of
water which flow through this canal every minute.
This example is comparatively eafy, becaufe the table
affords the numbers required; but in fome cafes the exa&
numbers cannot be found in the table, we fhall therefore give
another example.
* Example 2.—Mr. Watt meafured a canal in the neigh-
bourhood of Birmingham, which was 18 feet wide at the fur-
face of the water, 7 feet wide at the bottom, and 4 feet deep.
The water had a declivity of four inches in a mile ;—required
the velocity with which the water moved, and the quantity
which the canal afforded.
To have a complete knowledge of the feétion, find the
length of each floping fide, thus take the projection of the
top width over the bottom width on each fide, that is, half
the difference between the top and bottom width (18 — 7)
—- 2 = 5.5 feet: now the fquare of 5.5 is 30.25, and the
{quare of 4 feet the depth is 16, the fum of the two is
(30.25 + 16 =) 46.25; and the fquare root of this is 6.8,
the length of each floping fide.
Firft, To find the area and the hydraulic mean depth.—
The mean between the widths of the top and bottom is
(18 + 7)--2 12.5 x 4 feet deep = 50 {quare feet for the
area of the feGtion. To find the circumference which the
water touches, add the two floping fides, each 6.8 feet, to 7
feet, the width of the bottom, and it makes 20.6 feet.
The area, 50 {quare feet, divided by 20.6 feet, gives 2.4272
feet = 29.126 inches for the hydraulic mean depth ; 4 times
this is 116.504, which is d, and muft be found in the firft
column of the table. The neareft which can there be found
is 100 inches.
Secondly, The fall is 4 inches in the diftance of a mile,
= 63360 inches, divide 4 by 63360, and it gives .00006313
for s, the fine of the inclination.
Thirdly, The value of ss in the fecond column, oppofite
a
to 100 in the firft column, is 2501000, to which fomething
muft be added for the 16.5 inches. To find this quan-
tity, take the difference between the adjacent numbers in
column two, viz. 2501000 and 4950000 = 2449000, and,
laftly, the difference between 100 and 116.5 = 16.5 ; then
fay, as 100 is to 2449000, fo is 16.5 to 404085, which num-
ber is to be added to 2501000, = 2905085, which is f
for 116.5. ;
Fourthly, The value of = in column third oppofite to
100, is 5.272, to which add .oq43, as found by a rule of
Vou. XXXVILI.
proportion fimilar to the above, and it gives 5.276, which is
— for 116.5.
Fifthly, Multiply s
z
gives 183.395; add — or 5.276, as found by the pre-
-00006313 by 2905085, and it
ceding operation, and it gives 188.671 ; and the fquare root
of this number is 13.736.
Sixthly, The value of -; in column fourth, is 2.296 for
100, or for 116.5 it is 2.297 ; dedué this from 13.736, the
refult of the laft operation, and we have 11.439, which is the
velocity of the ftream in inches per fecond, andthis x 5 =
57-195 feet per minute. To find the quantity, multiply
the velocity, 57.19 feet per minute, by 50 fquare feet the
area, and we fhall have 285.97 cubic feet, which quantity
will flow every minute through this canal.
The velocity here found is confiderably {maller than what
was obferved by Mr. Watt ; he found the velocity at the
furface 17 inches per fecond, and at the bottom 10 inches,
the mean velocity we have already calculated at 13.32.
Dr. Robifon, in the Encyclopedia Britannica, gives a
calculation of this fame cafe by Du Buat’s formula, which
we have given in the article Rrver. He makes the velo-
city 11.85 feet per fecond, which differs fo little from our
computation, that the two theorems may be confidered
equally accurate ; but both appear, by Mr. Watt’s obferva-
tion, to be rather too {mall in very {mall declivities of
rivers and canals. This is not furprifing when we confider,
that the experiments, which are the foundation of both
thefe formule, were made on. fmall canals; but for this
reafon, we may expeét they will be more accurate when
applied to fmaller channels, fuch as mill-courfes, aque-
duds, &c.
In taking obfervations to apply this method of calculation
to practice, it muit be recollected that it always proceeds on
the fuppofition, that the canal is of a regular width and
depth, and of an uniform flope throughout. If this is not
the cafe, the canal muft be confidered in different portions,
and each calculated feparately. We think greater accuracy
will be attained by meafuring and carefully levelling 100
yards in which the width and depth are quite regular, than
by taking a mile in length, if there are any irregularities
in the dimenfions, or in the flope in that diftance.
On the other hand, the theorem cannot apply at all, unlefs
the length of the channel is fuch, that the water in it will
arrive at an uniform motion without any acceleration of the
motion, as it proceeds down. In fhort and rapidly inclined
channels, the water accelerates in confequence of defcending
further down the fall ; but when the canal is long, the ve-
locity arrives at a certain point; and then the friétion pre-
vents any farther acceleration ; in this cafe, the theorem ap-
plies. We fhall not err fenfibly in ufing this theorem for
canals of 30 yards in length, or lefs, if the fall is fmall.
Method of gauging the Water running through clofe Pipes.—
Dr. Young’s theorem and our table, apply with equal, per-
haps greater accuracy, to the cafe of clofe pipes than to open
canals.
All that is neceffary is, to meafure the internal diameter
of the pipe in inches, the length of the pipe, and the diffe-
rence of the level between the water in the refervoir and the
place at which the water is difcharged, and proceed as in
the former inflance ; but to render it more clear we fhall
give two examples. ; :
Lxample 1.— The city Edinburgh is fupplied with
waters
WATER.
water, from {prings at Comifton, which is a confiderable dif-
tance ; this is conveyed by two pipes, the firft of which was
laid in 1720, under the direétion of Defaguliers. Dr. Ro-
bifon mentions one of them, which is 5 inches diameter,
14,637 feet in length; the refervoir at Comifton is forty-
four feet higher than the refervoir on the Caftle-Hill, in the
town of Edinburgh.
Firft, to find the fine of the inclination, or s, divide the
fall 44 feet by 14,637, and it gives .00301, which is s,
Now take five inches, the diameter of the pipe in col. 1.,
and oppofite to it in col. 2. find ss = 159700, which mul-
tiply by .c0301, gives 479.1 ; to this add — = 2.624 taken
from the third column, and the fum is 481.724.
Extra& the {quare root of this, and it is 21.948, from
which dedu& _. or 1.620, taken from col. 4., and the re-
a
{ult is 20.328, which is the velocity in inches per fecond,
and this x by 5 = 101.64 feet per minute.
To find the quantity, find the area of the feétion of the
pipe in fquare feet, by dividing the fquare of the diameter
25 by 183.3, and it gives .1364 {quare feet, and this x by
101.64 feet velocity, gives 13.86 cubic feet per minute for
the difcharge from the pipe.
Dr. Robifon’s calculation of this fame cafe by Du Buat’s
formula, gives a velocity of 20.08 inches per fecond.
In Mr. Smeaton’s Reports, we find the other pipe ftated at
four and a half inches bore, and that it yielded 160 Scots
pints per minute, each 103.4 cubic inches = 9.58 cubic feet.
Mr. Smeaton’s own calculation was 159 pints.
Example 2.—Mr. Smeaton ftates, that this pipe was im-
proved by obtaining an increafe of fall, making it 51
feet, and that it then yielded 200 Scots pints 11.98
cubic feet per minute, the bore being 44 inches, and the
length 14,637 feet as before. Mr. Smeaton’s calculation
was 173 pints 10.36 cubic feet per minute. What
would it be by Dr. Young’s theorem? viz. velocity =
/ d (i c
Cae 1+5)-<.
a a a
To find s, divide the fall 51 feet by the length 14,637
feet ; it gives .003484.
To find rd anfwering to 4.5 inches in col. 1., take half
the difference between the numbers in the fecond col. op-
pofite to 4 and 5, and add it to the number an{wering to
43 thus, © for 4 is 131560, and £ for 5 is 159700,
difference 28200, which — 2 = 14100, and this x 131500
= 145600, which is cs for 4.5. Multiply this 145600
by s, or 003484, and it is = 507.67: to this add ent
; a
To find <; for 4.5, take half the difference between the
numbers in the third column for 4 and 5, which is .869,
and fubtraé& it from 4.363, the number anfwering to 4;
the refult is 3.494, which is S for 4.5; this added to
507-67 18 511.164.
The fquare root of that number is 22.609, from which
dedué& < » = 1.854, and it leaves 20.755, which is the velo-
city per fecond in inches.
(Note. < is found by fubtraGting half the difference be-
tween the numbers for 4 and 5 in the fourth column, from
the number anfwering to 4.)
20.755 inches per fecond x 5 = 103. feet mi-
nute, for the velocity. The Vis of fie ie it, x
4-5 = 20.26 circular inches, which +-by 183.3, the circular
inches in a {quare foot, is = .1104 fquare feet for the area
of the pipe. Multiply this by 103.775 feet per minute, and
we get 11.46 cubic feet per minute for the difcharge, which
agrees very nearly with the experiment.
Dr. Brewfter, in his Encyclopedia, has calculated this
fame pipe, except that he ftates it 300 feet longer; he
makes the velocity by Du Buat’s theorem 20.385 inches per
fecond, and fays that on an average of five years, from 1738
to 1742, its maximum difcharge was 11.3 cubic feet per
minute ; he has alfo calculated the fame cafe by five different
formule ; thus,
Cubic Feet
Scot’s Pints
per Minute. | per Minute.
The quantity of water actually |? 200 11.968
difcharged - - - t 189.4 eer
Calculated by Eytelwein’s for-
male wehbe = N52 | 189.77 11-355
Calculated by Girard’s formula 188.26 11.265
Calculated by Du Buat’s formula} 188.13 11.257
Calculated by M. Prony’s fimple
Coma ee Cee eee 11.502
Calculated by M. Prony’s table -| 180. 10.81
To which we may add Mr. Smea- : :
ton’s calculation - - - i "73: san
And by Dr. Young’s theorem -} 191.5 11.459
It is fatisfactory to find the refults of fo many different
proceffes agree fo nearly, and Fe us great confidence
in the truth of the principles. ere is in this cafe fo little
difference amongft theorems that any one may be taken ;
but we think it needlefs to enter into farther particulars, as
the one which we have given effects all that can be defired,
and by the help of the table, is the moft ready in the appli-
cation.
We fhall only add Mr. Smeaton’s table on the friction of
water running through pipes, which we find in his manu-
{cript papers, and which he computed from his own
obfervations alone, without knowing the experiments on
which the other theorems are founded. They will give ra-
ther lefs than the theorems, and perhaps may approach more
nearly to aétual practice, in which pipes are not laid with the
fame care, to avoid roughnefs withinfide and fudden bends, as
when prepared purpofely for experiments ; we may confider
the theorems as the maximum difcharge, and Mr. Smeaton’s
table as the fair average of practice.
_Ufe of the Table.—¥ind the velocity of the water per
minute in feet and decimals in the firft column, or in bee
per fecond in the next column, and on the fame line under-
neath the diameter of the bore in inches, you will ‘find the
perpendicular height of a column of water in inches and roths,
neceflary to overcome the friction of that pipe for 100 feet
in length, and obtain the given velocity,
9 Mr,
WATER.
Mr. Smeaton’s Tasve for fhewing the Friction of Water in Pipes ; the Bore of the Pipe being given, and the Velocity —
of the Water therein ; the Column or Height of Head neceflary to overcome the Friétion, and produce that Velocity,
is fhewn by this Table for 100 Feet in Length.
Bore of the Pipes in Inches.
Velocity.
In Feet} In Feet
per per
Minute.| Second.
Depths of Water neceflary to overcome the Friction of the Water ina Pipe 100 feet
long, and produce the Velocities marked in the two firft Columns.
Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. } Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. Inches.
-083 0.2 hk h 0-07 0.04
-166 0.7 ° : 5 5 . . . b 0.12
+25 1.2
333 2.0
+416 3-2
45
6.0
8.0
9:5
11.7
14.2
16.7
19-5
22.2
25.0
28.5
31-5,
35-0
38.5
42.0
45-7
49-5
53-7
577
66.5
75:7
85.7
96.5
108.5
121.0
134-5
149.0
164.0
180.0
196.5
214.0
_
~
_— >
SRO SUE C\U se Sas
OH mwa O O
ONO OA ea NS
in Gos BMH A~T\O N~I O
COST OAS GS BING Ee
eB OOH BAI
no ee
BO TOE
90ONw
2 HATA POw DPD
ORD ADOWNOWAN AH Ow OUAS
SO HRUOWTORODH DHS DI
AOKh ACOH OK RAK DPOUYD OK
PH OOM DAIWA UVNPWW NH HH
HOO SIT ANNE EOW DD DH
WATER.
Mr. Smeaton’s Table for the Fri@ion in Water in Pipes—Continued.
i
Bore of the Pipes in Inches.
Velocity.
|
pel gee Peel Ph ee ee
In Feet| In Feet
win per
inute.| Second.
Depths of Water neceflary to overcome the Friction of the Water in a Pipe 100 feet
long, and produce the Velocities marked in the Two firft Columns.
Inches. Inches. Inches. | Inches, Inches. liiches. | Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches.
0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 Q.04 0.04 0.03 0.03
0.15 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05
0.25 0.2 0.2 0.17 0.14 0.12 O.11 0.10 0.09 0.08
0.4 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.14
0.6 0.5 0.4 0.4. 0.3 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.20 0.19
0.8 0-7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0-4 0-3 0.3 0.27 0.25
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 +0.4 0.4 0.36 0.3
1.2 I.I 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4,
1.5 0:3 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5
1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 O.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.6
2.1 1.9 1.7 1.4 1.2 1.0 °.9 0.8 0.8 0.7
2.4 2.2 1.9 1.6 1.4 1.2 Ist 1.0 0.9 0.8
2.8 2.5 Zz 1.9 1.6 1.4 1.2 I.I 1.0 0.9
3.1 2.8 2.5 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 I.I 1.0
3-6 3.2 2.8 2.4 2.0 1.8 1.6 |* 1-4 1.3 1.2
4:0 ay 3.1 2.6 2.2 2.0 1-7 1.6 1.4 1.3
44 3.9 a5 2.9 2.5 2.2 1.9 1.7 1.6 1.5
4.8 4.3 3.8 3.2 2 264 2.1 1.9 1 1.6
5.2 4.7 4.2 3-5 3-0 2.6 2.3 2.1 1.9 1.8
5-7 Sek 4.6 3.8 an 2.9 2. 2.3 2.1 1.9
6.2 5°5 4-9 4.1 3-5 3-r 2.7 2.5 2.2 2.1
6.7 6.0 5-4 4.5 3.8 3-4 3-0 2.7 2.4 2.2
Ja2 6.4 5.8 4.8 4.1 3-6 3-2 2.9 2.6 2.4
8.3 104, 6.6 5.5 4:7 4.2 3.9 363 2.9 2.8
9-5 8.4 7-6 6.3 5-4. 4:7 4.2 3.8 3.4 3.2
0.7 9°5 8.6 7a 6.1 5-4. 48 4-3 3-9 3-6
12.1 10.7 9-6 8.0 6.9 6.0 5.4 4.3 4.4 4.0
13.6 12,1 10.8 9.0 7-7 6.8 6.0 5-4 4-9 4:5
15-1 13.4 TZet. | DOr 8.6 7.6 6.7 6.0 5-5 5-0
16.8 15.0 13.4 11.2 9-6 8.4 75 6.7 6.1 5.6
18.6 16.6 14.9 12.4 10.6 9-3 8.3 704 6.8 6.2
20.5 18.2 16.4 13-7 11.7 10.2 Ql 8.2 of 6.8
22.5 20.0 18.0 15.0 12.9 11.2 10.0 9.0 8.2 705
24.6 21.8 19.6 16.4 14.0 12.3 10.9 9.8 9.0 8.2
26.7 23.8 21.4 ,| 17:8 15-3 13.4 11.9 10.7 9-7 8.9
30.1 26.8 24.1 20.1 17-2 15.1 13-4 12.0 11.0 10.1
33.8 30.1 2701 22.6 19.3 16.9 15.0 13.5 12.3 11.3
ee | | | | | | | |
Ha Bais rt lee 2
Bore of the Pipes in Inches.
WATER.
We have fearched in Mr. Smeaton’s papers for the experi-
ments by which this table was made, and we find an invefti-
gation, from the experiments of M. Couplet, as recorded by
Belidor, on the flow of water through a large pipe at Ver-
failles. From thefe he deduced the following rule, to find
the height of column in inches, correfponding with the ve-
locities in inches per fecond, through a pipe of any diameter
given in inches, and too feet long.
48 x (velocity) + velocity* _ ] :
52.66 x (diameter) ep eee
or, {till more nearly, taking 47.873 for the conftant number
inftead of 48.
It appears that he found this rule did not agree with his
own obfervations ; and, in confequence, he made the follow-
ing experiments himfelf-with a pipe of 14 inch bore and 100
feet in length; and we believe he arranged them into the
table, by projeéting and drawing a curve, at leaft we find
that was his ufual method in like cafes.
Velocity Depth of the Column.
er (oe
Seond: By the Table. | By Experiment. |
Inches Tuches. Inches.
64 2.1 2.0
g 3:0 2.8
= 3-7 3-8
10 4.7 4.8
115 6.2 6.2
13-4 79 7:8
153 10.4 10.7
185 14.7 14.5
21 18.3 18.1
232% 22.7 23.0
27 28.4 27.6
284 | 30.8 30.5
3 8 5
205 33 Bats)
30% 34.8 35-6
35:5 ae 47-0
435 71.2 71.0
This is ufeful information, becaufe it fhews what part of
the table may be depended upon. He affumed, that the
depth of the column in pipes of other dimenfions, was as the
length of the pipe directly, and as the diameters inverfely.
The form of this table renders it immediately applicable
to a great variety of purpofes ; for inftance, an engine is re-
quired to pump water to a height of 60 feet ; but the water
muft pafs through 1800 feet of horizontal pipe of 5 inches
bore, and with a velocity of 140 feet per minute. The table
fhews, that for every 100 feet of this pipe the fri@tion will be
equal to a column of 7.6inches ; multiply this by 18.6, and
we find the whole friétion will be 141.36 inches, this added
to 60 feet makes 71.78 feet for the real column which the
pump mutt overcome.
Rules for meafuring the Quantity of Water flowing through
Sluices or Apertures.—In this, like the former inftances, we
muft multiply the area of the aperture by the velocity with
which the water rufhes through it.
Sir Ifaac Newton, in his Principia, book ii. theo. 8.
prob. 36. has demonftrated, that the velocity of water,
flowing through holes in the bottom or fide of a veffel,
ought to be equal to the velocity which a heavy body would
acquire, in falling through a {pace equal to the diftance be-
tween the furface of the water and the place where it is
difcharged.
Hence, at the depth of 163, feet, a ftream of 323 feet
in length, ought to flow out in a fecond of time. And from
the laws of falling bodies, it follows, that as the fquare
root of 16,4, is to the velocity of the ftream flowing out at
that depth, fo is the {quare root of any other depth to the
velocity of that depth.
Hence, the velocity of water flowing out of a horizontal
aperture, in the bottom of a ciftern or refervoir, is as the
{quare root of the height, or the depth of water above
the aperture.
That is, the prefflure, and confequently the depth, is as
the {quare of the velocity ; for the quantity flowing out m
any given time is as the velocity, and the force required to
produce a velocity in a certain quantity of matter in a given
time, is alfo as that velocity ; therefore, the force muft be
as the fquare of the velocity.
The propofition is fully confirmed by Boflut’s and Mi-
chelotti’s experiment ; the proportional velocities, with a
preflure of 1, 4, and g feet, being 2722, 5436, and 8135,
inftead of 2722, 5444, and 8166; very inconfiderable dif-
ferences.
There is another mode of confidering this propofition,
which is a very good approximation. Suppofe a very thin
cylindrical plate of water, like a wafer, fituated in the ori-
fice ; and fuppofe a conftant fucceffion of fuch plates to be
put in motion, one at every inflant, by means of the pref-
fure of the whole cylinder ftanding upon it; let all the
gravitating force of the column be employed in generating
the velocity of each {mall cylindrical plate, (negleéting the
motion of the cylinder itfelf,) this plate would be urged by
a force as much greater than its own weight, as the column
is higher than itfelf, and this through a Pace fhorter in the
fame proportion than the height of the column, But where
the forces are inverfely as the {paces defcribed, the final
velocities are equal: therefore, the velocity of the water
flowing out muft be equal to that of a heavy body falling
from the height of the head of water.
This velocity may be found very nearly by the rule
which we have before given in underfhot water-wheels, or
by extraéting the {quare root of the depth in feet, and mul-
tiplying it by 481.2: the produé is the velocity fer minute
in feet.
In praétice it is more convenient to take the depth in
inches, inftead of feet; then to obtain the velocity in feet
per minute.
Extra& the fquare root of the depth in inches, and mul-
tiply it by 138.88: the produét is the velocity in feet
per minute.
As this rule is the foundation of all calculations for
velocities, when fri&tion is not confidered, it is conftantly
wanted: we fhall, therefore, give a table, calculated by
Mr. Smeaton from the above rule, fhewing the theoretic
velocities correfponding with different depths.
A TABLE
WATER.
A Tasie thewing the Velocity in Feet per Minute, or per Second, with which Water fliould iffue from an Aperture at
any given Depth beneath the Surface, from } Inch to 20 Feet, calculated according to the Theory of falling Bodies.
Depth.
WwW Ww
edie
np
3
Dawu
Popeyes te)
wie
i)
+o
PORTA
| Velocity per
Minute.
Feet.
69-7
98.6
120.0
138.6 |
155-1
170.1
183.8
196.2
208.2
219.6:
230.0
240.6
250.5
259.8
268.8
277-8
286.3
294.6
302.5
310.3
318.1
325.8
A332
340.2
354-0
367-4
380.4
392-7
405.0
417.0
428.4
439-3
450.1
460.8
471.0
481.2
491-4
501.0
510.6
529.2
538.3
547-2
555-6
564.0
572-6
519.6
Diff.
ace oS ees ca SO Ne
mrnn~s © DOWN O Ov
i]
Velocity per
Second. |
Feet.
1.16
|
Diff. | Depth] VGacity per
bakes) Feet. |
17% | 580.8
Be. 18 589.3 ea
{3° | gz 7.6 3 |
| ay 2 59 7.3 |
"37 f'19. |. 605-4 | -2"9 |
sa | 1oke| 613-2 |)
+25 Serer os | a)
20 621.1 c
23 20% | 628.8 a
aa 21 636.6 "3
{ 215 | 644.4 :
79 las. 651.6 I
18 j————|_ 7.2
224 | 658.8 =
ue 23, | 666.1 ee
Le 235 | 673-2 fi
; 24 680.5 ee
S25 .| Vado?
+15 j-————} 13.8
|! 26 | FOR.On|)_ .
14 | a7 | 721.8 13:8
ac 28 | 735.0 a
“13 29 748.2 oe
13 30 760.9 a
/+13 ————_| 12.5
31 773-4
3 32 786.0 12.6
12 12.1
12 | 33 7a8s 11.9
22 | 34 810.0 | 135
73135 | 822.0 :
-22 |—— 12.0
36 834.0
+22 37 844.8 ne
+e 38 856.2 ve
ed 39 867.6 my
+20 10.8
40 | 878.4
“19 10.8
pee 4 SPH 10.8
6r4. 4 99:8 < if roe
118 | 43 1B aA
ee 44 921.6 10.3
"7 145 | 931-9
17 10.1
| 46 942.0 ‘
Z| a | See | 122
“16 at Shame 10.2
ye | 49. [69825 oh git
2} 50 | 982.2
16 9:9
51 992-1
23 52 1002.0 oe
ae 53 1011.6 .
a 54 | 1020.8 “i
14 455 1030.2 9.0
14
Velocity per Dif.
. |Velocity per
pi Second.
os
er Second.
Feet.
i
17-48
17-63
17.78
17.93
18.38
18.80
19.22
19.65
20.05
20.45
20.84
21.22
21.60
21.96
22.33
22.68
23-04
23-38
23-71
24.06
24739
24.72
25.04
25-36
25.68
25°99)
26.30
26.60
26.90
27.20
27-49
27-78
28.36
28.92
29.47
30.01
39:54
31-06
31.58
32.08
33-07
34-03
34-96
35-87
Diff.
If
WATER.
If we were to calculate the expence or difcharge for
any orifice by this table, we fhould in every inftance find
it much greater than nature really gives us.
It mutt be recolleéted, that this table is not calculated
from experiment, but from the theory of falling bodies,
which makes no allowance for the lofs of velocity, which
arifes from the friction of the particles of water againft
the edges of the aperture, and againft the neighbouring
particles of water which are not put in motion.
Sir Ifaac Newton, in making experiments, found the
velocity thus determined to be too great, which in one cafe
he corrected. The friction againft the fides of the aperture,
and the oblique direétion of the particles of water before
they reach the aperture, both tend to diminifh the velocity of
the ftream ; and if thefe caufes could be removed, efpecially
the latter, the Newtonian theory would be confirmed by
experiment, or rather experiment would exaétly agree with
theory.
For, if we fuppofe water running into the top of a cy-
lindrical tube, and that there is no attraction or friétion
between the particles of water and the interior of the tube,
the velocity of the water, or of each of the particles at the
bottom, would be the fame, or equal to that which they
would have acquired in falling through the fame {pace with-
out the tube, towards the earth.
Hence, to obtain the true velocity, under different circ-
sumftances, we muft correét the computed velocity by
experiments.
It is ftated in fome elementary works on hydroftatics,
that the velocity of the water at the orifice is only equal to
that which a heavy body would acquire by falling through
half the height of the fluid above the orifice. ‘This was firft
maintained by fir Ifaac Newton, who found that the dia-
meter of the ftream is contracted, after it has quitted the
orifice; and at the fmalleft part, the diameter was to that
of the orifice as 21 to 25. ‘The area, therefore, of the one
was to the area of the other as 21* to 25”, which is nearly
the ratio of 1 to the fquare root of 2. By meafuring
the quantity of water difcharged in a given time, and alfo
the area of the vena contraéta, fir Ifaac found, that the velo-
city at the vena contra&ta was that which was due to the
whole altitude of the fluid above the orifice. He, there-
fore, concluded, that fince the velocity of the orifice was to
that at the vena contracta as 1 to the fquare root of 2, the
velocity in the vena contraéta was that which was due to the
whole altitude of the fluid; and that the velocity at the
orifice muft be that which is due to one half that altitude,
becaufe the velocities are as the fquare roots of the heights.
From this, fir Ifaac ftated the atual velocity of flowing
water to be =%%%, or .707 of the theoretic velocities.
But the real quantity of the reduétion varies in different
cafes, according to the nature of the aperture: hence, it is
neceffary to confider all different forms of apertures, and
make a different allowance for each cafe. To do this, the
circumftances of the aperture muft be carefully examined.
A, fig. 8. Plate 11. Water-works, explains the manner
in which the filaments of water may be {uppofed to move,
when a ftream flows through an aperture in a thin plate.
B fhews the motion, when a tube of about two diameters
in length is added to the orifice, and when the water flows
through the tube with a full ftream. This does not always
happen in fo fhort a pipe, and never in one that is fhorter ;
but the water will frequently detach itfelf from the fides of
the pipe, and flow through it with a contraéted jet.
C fhews the motion, when the pipe projets into the in-
fide of the veffel. In this cafe, it is difficult to make the
tube flow full,
D reprefents a mouth-piece fitted to the hole, and formed
agreeably to that fhape which a jet would aflume of itfelf.
In this cafe all contraGtion is avoided, becaufe the mouth
of this pipe may be confidered as the real orifice ; and no-
thing now diminifhes the difcharge but a trifling friGtion of
the fides.
When water iffues through a hole in a thin plate, the
lateral columns, prefling into the hole from all fides, caufe
the iffuing filaments to converge to the axis of the jet, and
contraét its dimenfions after it has quitted the hole, and at
a little diftance from the hole; and it is in this place of
greateft contraétion that the water acquires that velocity
which we affume as equal to that acquired by falling from
the furface: therefore, that our computed difcharge may
beft agree with obfervation, it muft be calculated on the
fuppofition that the orifice is diminifhed to the fize of
this {malleft fection. But the contraGion is fubje& to
variations, of which the reafons are not apparent.
The following are the meafures of the contraéted vein, as
afcertained by different authors; the area of the aperture
being 1000, the area of the contraéted vein at the {malleft
will be as follows :
Sir Ifaac Newton = = =
: 797
Poleni - - - - - 714
Greateft found by Boffut - - 667
Mean of fix experiments by Boffut 664
Lowett found by Boffut - - 666
Bernouilli - - - - - 641
Michelotti - - - - 641
Du Buat - - - - - 666
Venturi - - - - - 636
Eytelwein - = ce is 2 642
The meafures piven by Boffut were taken by a pair of
{pherical compafles, with which he meafured direétly the
diameter of the contraéted vein, which he found to preferve
the fame diameter for fome lines. The altitude of the water
in the refervoir which Boffut ufed was 12 feet 6 inches.
He meafured the vena contraéta alfo, when the water iffued
by vertical orifices placed 4 feet 3 inches below the furface
of the fluid, and he obtained the very fame refults. The
ratio between the area of the orifice and the area of the vena
contracta appears from the above, to be by no means con-
ftant. It undergoes perceptible variations, by varying the
form and pofition of the orifice, the thicknefs of the plate
in which the orifice is made, the form of the veflel, and the
velocity of the iffuing fluid.
The dimenfions of the fmalleft fe&tion of the contraéted
vein are at all times difficult to be afcertained with precifion.
It is, therefore, much more convenient to compute from the
real dimenfions of the orifice, and to correét this computed
difcharge by means of an a¢tual comparifon of the computed
and effective difcharges, in a feries of experiments made in
fituations refembling thofe cafes which moft frequently
occur in practice.
We have made a colle¢tion of experiments by. various
authors, and from them we have deduced the following rule
for the real velocity with which water iffues from an aper-
ture in a thin plate.
Rule.—Meafure the depth of the centre of the orifice be-
neath the furface of the water in the refervoir in inches,
extraét its {quare root, and multiply it by the conftant number
85.87: the produét is the velocity in feet per minute.
If the velocity, as marked in the preceding table, is mul-
tiplied by .618, the fame refult will be obtained. For the
contraction of the ftream or vein of water, running out of a
fimple orifice in a thin plate, reduces the area of its fection,
at
WATER.
at the diftance of about half its diameter from the orifice,
from 1 to .665, according to the mean different itatements
above quoted: hence the diameter is reduced to .815.
The quantity of water difcharged is very nearly, but not
quite, fufficient to fill this feétion with the velocity due, or
correfponding to the height. For finding accurately the
quantity difcharged, the area of the orifice mutt be fuppofed
to be further diminifhed to .619 on account of friction.
In regard to the accuracy of this rule, we mutt refer to
the following table, which contains the refults of 35 experi-
ments, and alfo the calculation for each. We have bee
as to reje&t about 12 other experiments, becaufe they
would not accord with the theorem; but in nearly all of
them, the velocity was greater than the rule, and thofe
which are lefs we have preferved. This was done, becaufe
we fufpec that many of the cafes were not apertures in thin
plates; but in wood planks of confiderable thicknefs, fuch
as fluices, the difcharge would then be greater than our
rule fuppofes, and fuch cafes fhould be clatfed with another
defcription of aperture.
Tasve of Experiments on the Eflux of Water from Apertures on thin Plates.
Depth in Inches
of the Centre of
the Orifice beneath
the Surface.
Authors.
Smeaton and Brindley rho & - 12.5
Boffut - - - - - - 12.8
Poleni_ - - - . - - 22.7
Smeaton - - - - - ; 245
Defaguliers —- pe - 25.
Boffut - - - - . 25.6
; } 29-3
Venturi - - - - - - 34.
34.6
Boffut - - - - - - 38.4
Venturi - - - - - - 42.6
Smeaton - - - - - - 48.5
Boffut - - - . - - ez
Smeaton - - - - - - 60.5
Bofflut - - - - - - 64.
Boffut iat 4d dsitws Adee - 76.8
: 84.5
Michelotti - - A gow - 86.5
87.8
87.9
89.6
acta 21 he Pro ont ie NR «92S OS
115.
128,
Iq].
Anereatt! '0 Fo it ae oe } 148.3
149-2
Boffut - - - - - - 150.
f 150.2
275-1
276.4
Michelotti - . : 2 -d 277-4
277°7
280.1
l 281.6
Thefe are the refults of the difcharge through orifices in
athin plate. If we apply to the orifice the fhortett cylin-
drical pipe, that will caufe the flream to adhere every where
to its fides, we fhall find that its length muft be twice its dia-
meter. The difcharge through fuch a tube will be about
4jths of the full quantity, and the velocity may be found
by multiplying the full velocities marked in our firft Table
by -8125-
The greateft diminution of velocity is produced by in-
1
Velocity caicu-
Velocity of the |)... d, by multi-
effluent Water Defeription of the
E Gniie plying the Square
P ae ——— perwure,
307 + 304 1 inch fquare.
Soins 307
381 — 410 24 circular
432 + 425 1 inch fquare.
432 + 429 1 inch fquare.
434 o= 434
460 — 464. 1,5; inch fquare.
5is- + 500 +c inch circular.
508 + 505 14 inch circular.
53a 532
553 — 560 1° circular.
608 + 598 1 inch fquare.
613,4= 615 % an inch circular.
680 + 668
| 685 = cert 1 inch fquare.
1) oc75iLy = 752
790 = 790 3 inches fquare.
; 807 + 798 1 inch fquare.
805 = 804 3 inches {quare.
803 = 805 )
510% = 813
866 = 869 Fane
g18 = 920 1 inch circular.
967 = 971
101A = 101g J
LOg haces 1045 3 inches circular
1035. — 1049 3 inches {quare.
{ pony? ‘se } 1051
10505 <=
LORS io 1053 1 inch circular.
1438) + 1425 1 inch {quare.
mie — 1428 | 3 inches circular,
1416 —
~ i ua er 3 inches {quare.
1404 — 1437 2 inches circular.
1446 + 1441 1 inch circular.
ferting the pipe fo as to per within the infide of the re-
fervoir ; probably becaufe of the greater interference of the
motions of the particles approaching its orifice in all direc-
tions: in this cafe, the velocity is reduced nearly to half of
the full velocity.
It was one great aim of the experiments of Michelotti
and Boffut to determine the effects of aonitattiod in diferent
cafes. Michelotti, after carefully obferving the form and
dimenfions of the natural jet, made various mouth-pieces re-
fembling
WATER.
fembling it, till he obtained one which produced the fmalleft
diminution of the computed difcharge, or till the difcharge
eomputed for the area of its fmaller end approached the
neareft to the effective difcharge. And he at lait obtained
one, which gave-a difcharze of 983, when the natural dif-
charge would have been 1000. This piece was formed by the
revolution of a trochoid round the axis of the jet, and the
dimenfions were as follow :
Diameter of the outer orifice =
inner orifice = 46
Length of the axis = 96
Eytelwein ftates that a conical tube, approaching to the
figure of the contra¢tion of the ftream, procured a difcharge
equal to .92 of the full velocity ; and when its edges were
rounded off, of .98, calculating on its leaft fe€tion.
Venturi has aflerted, that the difcharge of a cylindrical
pipe may be increafed by the addition of a conical tube at
the end of it nearly in the ratioof 5 toz. (See his experi-
ments in our article Discuarce.) But Mr. Eytelwein
finds this affertion fomewhat too ftrong, and obferves, that
Vou. XXXVIITI.
when the pipe is already very long, fearcely any effet is pro-
duced by the addition of fuch atube. He made a number of
experiments with different pipes, where the ftandard of com-
parifon was the time of filling a given veffel out of a large re-
fervoir, which was not always kept full, becaufe it was difficult
to avoid agitation in replenifhing it ; but this circumftance
was rendered indifferent to the refults of the experiments by
the application of an ingenious theorem. They prove that
a compound conical pipe may increafe the difcharge to twice
and a half as much as through a fimple orifice, or to more
than half as much more as would fill the whole feGtion with
the velocity due to the height ; but where a confiderable
length of pipe intervenes, the additional orifice appears to
have little or no effeét.
The refults of the inveftigations of Boflut, Michelotti,
and Eytelwein, agree in a very fatisfaCtory manner refpeét-
ing the diminution of the difcharge in different cafes; and
we have arranged them>in the following Table, which we
recommend to engineers, as affording all the neceflary in-
formation to calculate the difcharge from fluices and
orifices,
O
Defcription of the Aperture through which
the Water flows.
Note—In taking the meafare for the depth
of the column which produces the velocity,
we may in general teke it from the furface
of the water to the centre of the aperture ;
but if the aperture is in a perpendicular
plane, and of a height greater than one-
fourth of the whole depth, then the velo-
city muft be found for the top of the aper-
ture and alfo for the bottom of the aperture,
and the mean of both taken for the mean
velocity of the water.
For orifices in a thin plate -
For the openings of fluices or
apertures in the fide or internal
walls of the refervoir, without
any fide walls which can ferve
to condué the particles of wa-
ter in a ftream to the aperture
1. When it projects
withinfide the veffel
and does not run
with a full bore of
ge Haat water, but in form
y -feeens of acontraéted vein
ig within the tube
two to
Sonic teen 2 When it projects
«i ER withinfide the veflel
the — but runs with a full
° bore of water =
3. When it does not
proje& withinfide
of the veffel -
For narrow openings, of which the
bottom is on a level with that of
the refervoir. Alfo for {maller
openings of fluices, when pro-
vided with fide walls to condu&
the water to the aperture; alfo
for the water-paflage under
bridges which have fquare piers
with abrupt projeCtions, which
do not conduét the water regu-
larly into the paflage -
For wide openings, of which the
bottom is on a level with that
of the refervoir ; alfo for large
fluices with conduéting walls
in the dire&tion of the ftream
and for the water-way beneath
bridges with pointed piers,
which condu& the water into
the paflage
Foracircularorifice or tube formed
correfpondent to the contraéted
ftream = ’ 2 x
For the whole velocity due to the
height according to the theo-
rems for falling bodies -
|
|
{|
WATER.
‘ To find the Velocity of the iffuing Water. To find the Numbe:
‘ Ratio i Rule.—Extra& the Square Root of the Demh, (meafured from} Cubic Feet of wae
etween the} the Centre of the Orifice to the Surface of the Water,) and which flow per Minute
re Cees multiply by fome One of the following Numbers, according] through each Square
oan to the Circumftances of the Cafe. Ine of the Area,
velocity, or
that which is
due to the
I.
When it is required to know
the Velocity in Feet per Second.
Il.
Whien it is required to know eee Sank
the Velocity in Feet per Minute.
in Feet | in Inches
as thewn by extract th ct ,
our firt | Ifthe Depth Ifthe Depth | If the Depth | If the Depth Sadie pret
Table. is in Feet | is in Inches is in Feet is in Inches | Root and | Root and
multiply by | multiply by | multiply by | multiply by | multiply by} multiply by
-618 4:957 1.431 297-45 85.87 | 2.065 | .59633
-636
5-1 1.472 306. 88.32 | 26125 | .6133
5137 247-14 71.40 1.716 | .4958
327.6 94:56 | 2-275 | .6566
8125 390.9 112.86 | 2-729 | .7837
860 414. 119.52 2.875 | .830
-960 462. 133-38 | 3-208 | .9262
+983 473:04 | 136.56 | 3-285 | .9483
.000 481.14 138.888 | 3.349 | .9645
WATER.
To apply thefe rules for gauging fluices, the following
meafures muft be taken. 1. The perpendicular depth of
the bottom of the aperture beneath the furface of the water.
z. The perpendicular depth of the top of the aperture.
3. The horizontal width of the opening. Then, taking the
difference between the two firft meafures leaves the height
of the opening.
Wote.—If the aperture is not in a vertical plane, but in-
clined, as is frequently the cafe in mill-fluices, then the
width of the opening muft be meafured on the flope; but
the depths muft always be taken perpendicularly beneath
the furface of the water.
To make the calculation, find the mean velocity of the
effluent water, by calculating the velocity due to the depth
of the top of the aperture, and alfo for the bottom of the
aperture, and take a mean of the two.
Note.—When the height of. the aperture is lefs than one-
fourth of the whole depth, then the velocity due to the depth
of the centre of the aperture will be very near the truth.
Having found the mean velocity in feet, multiply it by
the number of fquare feet in the area of the aperture, and it
will give the quantity difcharged, in cubic feet.
Example 1.—A fluice, which is four feet wide, is opened
or drawn feven inches, and the depth of water above the
centre of the orifice is ten feet. The edges of the fluice
are cut fharp, fo that the borders of the orifice are like a
thin plate. What is the velocity and difcharge per minute
in cubic feet ? “
The {quare root of 10 is 3.162,.which x 297.45 from the
table, gives 940.6 feet per minute, for the mean velocity of
the water.
Theareaof the aperture is 4 feet, which x 7inches, = 28 —
12 = 2.333 {quare feet, for the area of the aperture ; there-
fore, multiply 940.6 by 2.333, and we have 2194 cubic >
feet per minute, for the quantity difcharged.
If the depth had been expreffed in inches, it would have
been120. The fquare root of this is 10.95, and this multiplied
by 85.87, gives 940.6 feet per minute for the velocity, as be-
fore. In like manner, the table gives the proper multipliers
for finding the velocity in feet per fecond, if it is required.
If it was only required to obtain the quantity difcharged,
we may proceed more direCtly, thus. The depth is ro
feet, and the fquare root is 3.162, x by 2.065, the number
taken from the laft column but one of the table, and we
have 6.529 cubic feet, which are difcharged fer minute
from every {quare inch of the aperture. ‘The aperture is
48 inches, this x 7 = 336 f{quare inches, this x 6.529 =
2194 cubic feet difcharged as before.
If the depth had been 120 inches, then the fquare root of
that number =: 10.95, and this x .5963, the number in the
laft column gives 6.529, as the laft.
Another method is, to calculate the theoretic difcharge,
and then make a proper redution, by multiplying by the
decimal number in the firft column. Thus, by our firft
table of velocities, 120 inches deep = 1521.8 feet per
minute, this x by 2.333 {quare feet, the area of the aperture
gives 3550 cubic feet ad minute for the theoretic difcharge.
The firft column of the prefent table fhews that the real
difcharge is only .618 of the theoretic difcharge ; therefore,
multiply 3550 cubic feet by .618 = 2194 cubic feet for
the real difcharge, as in all the former cafes.
This latter method is very convenient, becaufe we can
apply a different correétion in different cafes, according to
difcretion, and the table of velocities facilitates the calcula-
tien very much.
Example 2.—A flour-mill was worked by the water
which ran through a fhuttle four feet wide, the depth to thie
bottom of the aperture was 22 inches, and the fhuttle was
drawn up one inch and one-quarter, fo that the depth to the
top of the aperture was 20.75 inches; what is the expen-
diture per minute ?
The full velocity due to 22
inches depth is by the table
Ditto - - for 202 632.7
} 651.6 feet per minute.
2)1284.3
642.15 mean velocity per min,
Note.—As 20.75 is not to be found in the table,
take 203 = 628.8, and add to it half the difference between
20% and 21, viz. 3.9 = 632.7 feet per minute velocity for
20.75, as above.
The area of the aperture 48 inches, x, 1.25 inches = 60
{quare inches, ~ 144 = .4166 {quare feet. Multiply this
by the velocity = 642.15 feet, and it gives 267.5 cubic feet
per minute difcharged according to theory.
To reduce this to the practical difcharge, multiply by
fome of the numbers in the firft column of the 'Table oppo-
fite, according to the nature of the aperture. The fluice was
in a trough, nearly of its own dimenfions ; fo that the bottom
and fides nearly correfponded with the aperture; therefore,
take .860, and x 267.5 gives 238 cubic feet per minute.
It is very convenient to an engineer to be able to calculate
the difcharge of water by means of the flide-rule. This
he may do by means of the two lines ufually marked C and
D; C being a line of logarithms, and D a line fimilarly
divided on a fcale twice as large, By means of thefe, the
{quare root of any number can be extraéted and multiplied by
any number at one operation. To ufe it, find the multi-
plier which is to be ufed, upon the line D, and fet the
flider fo that ro upon C will correfpond with it ; then feek
for the depth upon C, and oppofite: to it upon D, the re-
quired velocity will be found.
Thus,
Line on the flider marked C, depth in inches, io
Line on the rule marked D, velocity in feet per minute, 85.8
_ And in like manner for any other multipliers: for
inftance,
Line on the flider marked C, depth in inches r0
difcharged through a
{quare inch,
Mr. Eytelwein obferves, from Du Buat, that the difcharge
through an orifice communicating ‘between two refervoirs,
and fituated beneath the furface of the water in the lower
refervoir, is the fame as if the water run into the open air,
taking the difference of level between the two furfaces, for
the depth of the column ; he calculates the difcharge when
the water has to pafs through feveral orifices in the fides of
as many refervoirs open above. In fuch cafes, where the
orifices are fmall, the velocity in each may be confidered
as generated by the difference of the heights in the two
contiguous refervoirs ; and the fquare root of the difference
will therefore reprefent the velocity which muft be generated
in the feveral orifices, inverfely as their refpe€tive areas, fo that
we may calculate from hence the heights of the different
refervoirs when the orifices are given. Mr. Eytelwein alfo
confiders the cafe of a lock, whieh is filled from a canal of
33 an
Line on the rule marked D, cubic feet per maha
«596
WATER.
an invariable height, and determines the time required, by
comparing it with that of a veffel emptying itfelf by the
preflure of the water that it contains, obferving, that the
motion is retarded in both cafes in a fimilar manner, and
he finds the calculation agree fufficiently well with expe-
riments made on a large f{cale.
Rules for meafuring the Quantity of Water which flows over
a Weir, or through an Aperture in the Edge of a Board, the Stream
being open at Top.—If we fuppofe water running in a regular
theet over the edge of a large ciftern or refervoir, or through
a reGtangular aperture made in the perpendicular wall or
fide of the ciftern, but open at, top, we may take the area
of the aperture, and proceed to find the velocity by calcu-
lation.
When this fubjeé&t has been confidered theoretically,
it has been afflumed, that the furface of the water at
the place where it runs through the aperture, is with-
out motion, becaufe it ftands at the fame level with the
flagnant water in the refervoir, and that the velocity
of the water at different depths will always be as the
{quare root of the depth; that is, beginning at nothing at
the furface, the velocity at different depths will increafe by
that law.
We can find the velocity at the bottom of the aperture, or
at any intermediate depth, by the rules and table we have
already given; but what we require is the mean velocity of
the whole fheet of water. We could obtain this nearly by cal-
culating the velocities for a great number of different depths,
increafing by regular intervals, and taking a mean of the
whole ; but we can effe@ the fame with exaétnefs, if we take
two-thirds of the velocity at the bottom, and confider it as
the mean velocity of the whole body of water; or, the ve-
me due to four-ninths of the depth, will give the fame
refult.
In praétice we muft make allowance for lofs of motion by the
friGtion of the water in pafling through the aperture, and alfo
becaufe the water does not fill the aperture to the fame level
as the ftagnant water in the refervoir. The motion of the
water extends fome diftance into the refervoir, and the water
will confequently have a floping furface from that part of
the furface where the motion begins ; the flope will con-
tinually increafe as the motion oF the water accelerates, fo
as to form a convex furface, which is a portion of a para-
bolic curve; hence the furface of the water where it is
pafling ame the aperture will be in rapid motion, inftead of
being motionlefs as the theory fuppofes, and the furface will
be much lower than the furface of the ftagnant water, fo
that the aperture will only be half full of water; at leaft this
is the aflertion of M. Du Buat. But Dr. Robifon ftates,
that he always found the depth of the water in the aperture
about .715 of the whole depth from the bottom of the aper-
ture to the level of the water in the refervoir.
M. Du Buat’s theorem for the difcharge through an open
aperture, when reduced to Englifh meafures, is this : having
given the depth from the level furface of the water to the
bottom of the aperture, and alfo the width of the aperture
in inches, to find the difcharge in cubic inches per fecond.
Let it be remembered that 11.4491 cubic inches of
water, or 11.5, will be difcharged in a fecond, through every
inch in width of the aperture, when the bottom of it is ex-
aGtly one inch beneath the level furface of the refervoir.
To obtain the difcharge for any other depths, this number
muft be multiplied by the f{quare root of the cube of the
depth in inches, and it will give the cubic inches difcharged
per fecond through each inch in width of the aperture.
Example.—Suppofe the depth of the bottom of the aper-
3
ture beneath the level furface of the water in the refervoic
to be 4 inches. The cube of this is 64, the fquare root of
which is § ; therefore, at that depth each inch in width will
difcharge 8 x 11.5 = 92 cubic inches per fecond ; if the
width of the aperture was 3 feet, then 92 x 36 inches
= 3312 cubic inches, or 1.917 cubic feet, which x 60 fe-
conds = 11.502 cubic feet per minute.
Dr. Robifon gives the following table, which is rather
greater than from the above theorem, and will be found
very exaGt, when the aperture is made in a plank or
board half an inch or an inch thick, and fo fituated that the
fides and bottom of the refervoir do not correfpond with the
edge of the aperture, to lead the particles of water in a
current to the aperture.
See
Cubic Feet difcharged per Minute through each
Inch of the Width of the Aperture.
Depth from the Bot-
tom of the Aperture
to the level Surface
of the Water, in
.
In {mall Apertures of |
Inches. lefs ye Inches eae Peo
I 0.403124 0.428
2 1.140 1.211
3 2.095 2.226
+ 3-225 3-427
5 4:507 4-789
6 5-925 6.295
7 7-466 7-933
8 g-122 9.692
9 10.884 11.564
ni snes 13-535
II 14.707 15.632
12 16.758 17.805
13 18.895 20.076
14 21.117 22-437
15 23-419 24.883
16 25.800 27-413
17 28.258 30.024
18 30.786 * 32.710
In taking the depth, if it does not exceed four inches, it
will not be exact enough to take proportional parts for the
fractions of an inch. ‘The following method is exa&: if
there be odd quarters of an inch, look in the table for as
many inches as the depth contains quarters, and take the
éighth part of the anfwer. Thus, for 3} inches take the
eighth part of 23.419, which correfponds to 15 inches.
This is 2.927.
If the aperture is not in the fide of a large refervoir, but in
arunning {tream, we mu{t augment the difcharge, by multi-
plying the feCtion by the velocity of the ftream. But this
correétion can feldom occur in praétice, becaufe in this cafe
the difcharge is previoufly known.
The amount of the allowance for friftion and lofs of
motion mutt be different in different cafes, according to the
kind of aperture, or board over which the water flows ; but
will always be very nearly the fame as the allowance, for lofs
in an aperture or orifice of fimilar nature. For inftance, if
the edges of the aperture through which the water runs be
a thin plate, then we may find the velocity in feet per
minute due to the whole depth from the bottom of the
notch to the level furface of the water in the refervoir ; mul-
tiply the {quare root of the depth in inches by 85.87, 4 we
ave
WATER.
have before dire¢ted, and take two-thirds of the product for
the mean velocity ; this multiplied by the number of fquare
feet in the area of the fe€tion of the aperture, will give the
cubic quantity of water which flows fer minute in cubic
feet. Note, in taking the area of the fe€tion, we muft meafure
the whole depth from the level furface, and multiply it by the
horizontal width of the aperture, and not fimply the fection of
the water. This is becaufe, the theory upon which the rule
is founded fuppofes the water in the aperture to have no ve-
locity at the furface, and to be upon the level of the ftanding
water. Neither of thefe fuppofitions is true in reality,
but the refult is very nearly true, becaufe the fection
of the moving water is diminifhed in proportion to the ve-
locity which the water has at the furface, and in confequénce
the errors of the two aflumptions always correét each
other.
We have therefore only to apply a correét theorem to
obtain the velocity due to the whole depth, according to the
nature of the aperture, and take two-thirds of the produé.
All the neceflary information for this purpofe may be taken
from the table of multipliers laft given, for the velocity of
the difcharge through apertures; or otherwife, if we take
the velocity at the bottom, and multiply it by the depth,
and take two-thirds of the produét, we fhall have the mean.
velocity. But to make the fubje& clear we fhall give
another table for this objec.
Rules for obtaining the Velocities and Quantities of Water difcharged through re¢tangular Apertures, which are open
at Top.
a iaeoth asset: aba: | kiaa’ UG: EU, GT VERE AGT oe efor)? RRS POR at
Defeription of the Aperture.
Note. —The depths are fuppofed to be meafured from the level furface of the water
to the bottom of the aperture, in inches.
4 For a fmall aperture in one fide of a large refervoir, the bottom
and fides of which do not correfpond with the aperture, fo as to
lead the particles of water thereto in a ftream; the edges of the
aperture again{ft which the water runs is fuppofed to be fharp and
made of thin plate; the aperture not to exceed 18 inches long
and nine inches deep - ¢ e
For an aperture under the fame circumftances as the former, but
made in a plank with edges from half to one inch thick - :
For an aperture of great breadth and more than nine inches deep,
fuch as the weir or dam in a river; it is fuppofed that the
water runs over the edge of a plank or wafte board, one or two
inches thick ~ = 4
For an aperture of which the bottom is on a level with the bottom
of the refervoir, or for a weir which occupies the whole breadth
of a river, and where the water flows over the top of a broad
ftone-wall fo floped as to conduét the water to the paflage
For the full difcharge according to theory, fuppofing no lofs
fri@tion.. Very large and deep weirs will come near to this
When the aperture occupies nearly or the whole width of
the refervoir, there is no level furface of the water above the
aperture, becaufe the water is continually running towards
the aperture in a ftream ; fuch is the cafe of a weir acrofs a
river, or when water {pouts out of the open end of a re&t-
angular trough.
It is extremely difficult to meafure the exaé& height of
the water above the bottom of the aperture, for the curva-
ture of the furface of the water will begin feveral feet up
the ftream before it arrives at the aperture ; and there mutt
be fomething arbitrary in the meafurement, becaufe the fur-
face of the water, even where there is no curvature, is not
horizontal but floping, when the water isin motion. In
fuch cafes, the depth muft be taken beneath the inclined fur-
face of the water, if we fuppofe the fame prolonged until it
reaches the aperture, which can eafily be done, by ftretching
To find the mean Ve- | To find the Number of
locity of the Water | Cubic Feet difcharged
running through the} per Minute through
Aperture in Feet per | each Inch in Width
Minute. of the Aperture.
Rule. — Multiply the | Rule. — Multiply the
Square Root of the | Square Root of the
Depthin Inches, by Cube of the Depth
P fome one of the fol- in Inches; by fome
lowing Numbers, One of the fullow-
according to» the ing Numbers, ac-
Cafe. cording to the Cafe.
57-246 39754
58.0493 -40312
58.88 -40886
88.92 -6174
pics: |
a |
a line along the furface of the water fo as to correfpond
therewith, at the part above where the curvature com-
mences.
We mutt alfo make fome addition to the difcharge, on ac-
count of the motion which the water poffeffes before it comes
to the aperture; to do this with accuracy, we may meafure
the regular velocity of the ftream, by throwing in floating
bodies, and obferving the diftance they pafs through in a
given time, taking care that we make this obfervation at a
part of the channel, where the furface is in a regular motion
and not in a ftate of acceleration, becaufe what we want is
the velocity of the water at that point where the curvature
begins, in confequence of the defcent through the aperture.
Now when the channel is not of an uniform breadth and
depth, as in a mill-dam for inftance, the velocity of every
part of the flream is different, we fhall then find difficulty in
meafuring
WATER.
meafuring the velocity by floating bodies, and mutt apply the
wheel ftream-meafure before defcribed; this will give the pre-
cife velocity of the furface at any given {pot, and we fhould
choofe that place where the curvature be ins. The velocity
fo obtained we mutt add to the mean mh and find the
difcharge by multiplying the fum by the area of the aper-
t
ure.
Example.—Suppofe the depth of the bottom of the aper-
ture to be eight inches beneath the line of the furface of
the water; that the width of the aperture is four feet, and
that the aperture is in a thin plate with fharp edges. Alfo
that the ftream is found by the wheel to move with a velo-
city of thirty feet per minute, at the place where the furface
of water begins to deviate from its regular flope, and to af-
fume a curvature.
Then take the numbers 57-246 from the firft cafe in our
laft table, and multiply it by 2-83, which is the {quare root
of eight (the depth) ; thus 57.246 x 2.83 = 162 feet per
minute, for the mean velocity of the water; to this add
30 feet for the previous motion = 192 feet per minute. The
area of the aperture is 8 inches, or .66 feet x 4 feet =
2.66 {quare feet. Multiply 192 feet velocity by 2.66, and
we have 510.72 cubic feet per minute, for the quantity dif-
charged.
Weater-Gauge for meafuring the Quantity of Water afforded
by any Spring or Brook.—The molt accurate and convenient
method for this purpofe, is to conftruét a temporary bank
or dam to intercept the ftream, and pen it up into a pond,
then in the bank or dam fix a board with an aperture in it
for the water to flow through. By meafuring the width and
depth of the aperture as before explained, the quantity can
be calculated by the rules already given.
This is what Mr. Smeaton called the water-gauge, and is
of moft important ufe, to afcertain the quantity of water
which can be procured to fupply a canal, or for a town, or
a mill, or any other purpofe: it is the neceflary prelude for
undertaking any fuch kind of work, and all perfons em-
ployed in fuch purfuits, fhould underftand the manner of
fixing up a gauge, and making the neceflary obfervations.
The dam mutt be of fuch a height as to pen up the water
into a tolerable large pond compared with the aperture, fo
that the furface of water fhall have no fenfible inclination or
yun towards the aperture ; and to avoid this, the larger the
pond is the better. The water muft have fo much fall
down from the aperture, as to flow away in a clear ftream
perfeétly free from all obftru€tion of the water below; but
it fhould not {pout out fo as to fall far in the air.
The aperture fhould be a reétangular notch cut in the
edge of a broad plank ; it will be belt to make the length of
the notch fome even number of inches, as 6, 8, 12, or 24,
and the depth correfpondent to the quantity expeéted to
flow through the aperture.
We recommend that the edges of the aperture be cut
fharp, or even faced with a flip of metal plate, and then
our firft rule in the laft table will apply with great accu-
. ‘The more common praétice is, to ufe a plank of one
inch thick, and leave the edges of the aperturé of that
thicknefs, only rounding off the fharp angles: in this cafe,
the fecond theorem in our table mutt be ufed; but this is lefs
certain, becaufe the lofs of motion from refiftance will not
bear a conftant portion in different depths, for the thicknefs
of the plank is a conftant quantity, and therefore bears a
different proportion to the quantity difcharged, in every
eafe of a different depth.
The accuracy of our rules, when applied to water-gauges,
will appear from the following table.
Refults of Thirteen Experiments on the Difcharge of Water!
through an Aperture open at Top, made by Mefirs. Smea-
ton and Brindley, and M. Du Buat.
Cubic Feet difcharged
Minute by each Inch a
Width, as afcertained by
Depth, in
Inches, from
the level Sur-
Cubic Feet difcharged per
Minute, afcertained by
© Obfervation,
fibe'td the Calculation,
Bottom of the Sha pth
Notch, being fix by each Inch | by the Num- | by theNum-
Inches. Inches wide.| '™ Width, | ber .403124,] ber .39754.
The two laft columns of the table are deduced from cal-
culation, and agree fo well with the obfervations as to give
every confidence in the rules. The laft column is caleulated
on the fuppofition that the aperture is made in a thin plate;
but the laft column but one is according to Dr. Robifon’s
number, and agrees more nearly with the truth, We believe
that Mr. Smeaton’s experiments were made on an aperture
in a board one inch thick; the aperture was fix inches wide.
M. Du Buat’s four experiments, denoted by * in the
table, were in an aperture 18] inches wide, which we
have reduced to fix inches, in order to compare them
with Mr. Smeaton’s. In making this comparifon, we
have not rejected any experiment, as we were obliged to
do in the cafe of difcharge through the apertures beneath
the furface.
Self-regifiering Water-Gauge.—W hen the produce of a {pring
or ftreamis required with great accuracy, the depth of the wa-
ter flowing through the gauge muift be taken very frequently
during a whole feafon, and a mean of all the refults obtained.
This would require the conftant attendance of an intelligent
perfon, and would be liable to miftakes; but a {mall ma-
chine may be made to fhew the depth by infpeétion, fo that
any careful perfon can keep the account. Thus, at the
fide of the water-gauge, fix up a wooden or tin cylinder or
trunk, which is open at the bottom, fo that the water can en-
ter freely. In this trunk, or tube, let a float be placed, having
a {mall light rod attached to the float that will rife up from
it, and appear above the top of the trunk ; this part muft
be divided into inches and tenths, and muft have fome
index fixed to the trunk to read the divifions by. This
apparatus mutt be carefully adjufted ; in the firft inftance, by
the perfon who fixes the gauge, fo that its divifions will corre-
fpond with the depth of water meafured very exactly in the
way we have direéted ; then the float will ever after rife and
fall with the furface of the water, and will fhew the depth
without any neceffity of referring to the original mode of
meafurement, unlefs it be to verify the adjuftment. It is
obvious that fuch an apparatus mutt be fixed fo, that it can-
not be deranged either by defign or accident. The tube
2
in
WATER.
in which the float a&ts fhould be in the {till water fome feet
above the plank in which the aperture is made, and have a
proper box, or cover, which can be locked up, to fecure the
whole. The float fhould be a hollow copper ball, or a glafs
bottle, becaufe wood or cork floats abforb the water, and fink
deeper therein ; and the rod of wood fhould be well painted.
A {till more perfeé&t water-gauge is obtained by a {mall ma-
chine to keep the regifter ; for this purpofe, let an eight-day
clock of the ordinary conftruétion be fixed up in a kind
of centry-box, or {mall houfe, over the gauge ; this is to be
conneéted by wheel-work, with a cylindrical barrel, which
is to be placed in a perpendicular direction, and made to turn
round once ina week by the clock; a fheet of paper is
wrapped round the barrel, and faftened upon it in the fame
manner as paper is faftened on a drawing-board.
The perpendicular ftem of the float muft have afmall pencil
attached to it, with a flight {pring to caufe it to bear againft
the paper on the circumference of the cylinder, fo as to mark
upon it: in this way the pencil marks, at a different part of
the length of the cylinder whenever the float rifes or falls, and
the cylinder turning regularly on its axis by means of the
clock, caufes thefe rifings and fallings to be marked on dif-
ferent parts of the fheet of paper, fo that when it is removed
from the cylinder it will have a curved line traced upon it,
which fhews all the increments and decrements of rife and
fall, and affords an exa& regifter of the flow of water,
which may be reduced to cubic meafure, by our rules already
given.
A different kind of water-gauge has been propofed by M.
De Baader: two large cafks or other veffels are to be fixed
fide by fide, in fuch pofition, that the ftream of water may
be poured into either of them by a {pout or trough. The
{pout is fo contrived, as to turn the f{tream into one or other
of the veffels at pleafure, with the greateft eafe, but the
{tream cannot run into both at once. In each veflel is a
large float which is conneted with a perpendicular ftem,
fo that the ftem rifes or falls with the float, as the veffels
fill or empty; alfo at the bottom of each veffel is a valve,
or fluice, to allow the water to run out from it, and the
perpendicular ftem from the float is provided with means to
open this fluice, whenever the veffel is full of water, and the
float rifes to the top, or to fhut the fluice whenever the vef-
fel is empty ; and the fame aGtion turns the ftream of fupply
from the veffel which is full, into that which isempty. In
this way, the two veffels aé& alternately to receive the water,
and meafure it, for while the {pout runs into one veffel its
float ‘rifes until the veffel is quite full; the float then turns
the fpout and ftream into the other veffel, which we fup-
pofe to be already empty, and at the fame moment it will
open the valve in the bottom of the full veffel ; the water
then begins to run out of the full veffel and to fill the other,
which becoming full in turn, its float opens the valve in its
bottom. In this way the machine continues to meafure the
water, and is provided with a {mall counting machine to re-
gifter the number of reciprocations it has made.
We have now, as far as our limits will allow, given all the
moft ufeful and praétical rules for meafuring flowing water ;
and fhall conclude by obferving, that this is one of the moft
intricate and difficult fubjeéts in hydraulics, and that no en-
gineer can. be fully competent to direé& the execution of large
works without ftudying the fubje& much farther than we have
been able to enter intoit. Many untried cafes, and combina-
tions of cafes, will continually arife, which cannot be decided
by any previous knowledge. “Asa refource for fuch occafiens,
he fhould be well verfed inthe theory of the fubje&, fo as to
modify the rules laid down for fimple cafes, and adapt them
to his particular-cafe, as-far-as theory-can affit him.
If he only purfues the rules laid down by others, without
any knowledge of theory, and without entering into the
reafon and origin of the rules, his experience will not be
of much avail, becaufe he will be unable to corre& and im-
prove the rules by his own obfervations, or if he attempts
to do fo, he may completely fpoil them, by making them
falfe in many cafes, in order to obtain truth in fome one cafe.
_ To attain the knowledge to which we allude, the follow-
ing authors may be confulted.
Julius Frontinus, De Aqueduétibus urbis Rome Com-
mentarius ; written about the year 100, in the time of the
emperors Nerva and Trajan. This contains all the know-
ledge of the ancients on this fubje@. It is printed in
Grevii Thefaurus Antiquitatum Romanorum, vol. iy.
1630 and 1780. A new edition was alfo publifhed.
Caftelli, a difciple of Galileo, Della Mefura dell’ acque
correnti, 1628.
Torricelli De Motu Gravium Naturaliter Accelerato,
1643- In this work we find the origin of the propofition,
that the velocities of iffuing fluids are as the {quare roots of
the depths.
Raphel Fabrettus de Aquis et Aquedu@tibus veteris
Roma, 1679.
Marriotte, Traite du Mouvements des eaux, 1686. This
work contains a great number of experiments on the motion
of fluids, and particularly on jets of {pouting fluids; but
the reafoning is frequently erroneous.
Guglielmini, La Metura dell’ acque correntii—Alfo,
Della Natura dell Fuimi, Bologn. 1697.
Guglielmini de Fluviis et Cajftellis Aquarum. Thefe
contain a theory which has long fince been exploded. He
firft attempted to apply the principles of falling bodies to
the motion of waters in open canals and rivers.
Polenus, De Motu aque Mixto, Patav. 1697, 1718, 1723.
Parent Mem. Acad. Par. 1700.
Newton’s Principia, 1687. This work contains the doc-
trine, that the velocity of a fpouting fluid is equal to that _
which a heavy body acquires in falling through half the depth
of the column ; but which is not corre&t. And in-the fecond
edition, 1713, Newton firft points out the contra&ed vein,
and the proportion of its area to that of the orifice to be, as
707 to 1.
Polenus De Caftellis per que derivantur fluviorum aquz,
Padua, 1718. He ftates the area of the contraéted vein to. be
+571 of the area of the orifice, and he difcovered, that more
water is yielded by a cylindrical pipe than by a fimple
orifice.
Michelotti, De Separatione Fluidorum in Corpore Ani-
male, 1719.
Dr. Jurin, “On the Motion of running Water,’? pub-
lifhed in the Philofophical Tranfactions for 1718 and 1722.
Lowthorp’s Abridgment, vol. vi. p. 341.
Raccolta De Autori che Trattano dell Moto dell’ acque,.
3 tom. 4to. Florence, 1723. This moft valuable collec-
tion contains the writings of Archimedes, Albizi, Galileo,
Caftelli, Michelini, Borelli, Montanari, Viviani, Caffini, Gug-
lielmini, Grandi, Manfredi, Picard, and Narducci; and an
account of the numberlefs works which have been carried
on, in the imbankment of the river Po in Italy.
M. Couplet, Des Recherches fur le Mouvement des eaux
dans les tuyaux de conduit. Memoires de Acad. 1732.
This is on the motion of water in pipes, and is given by
Belidor in his Arch. Hydraulique.
Archite&ture Hydraulique ou l’ Art de Conduire d’elever
et de ménager les eaux pour les differens befoins de la vie,
in. 4 vols. 4to. par M. Belidor, Commiflaire Provincial
d'Artillerie, Paris, 1739.
Daniel
WATER.
Daniel Bernouilli, Hydrodynamica feu de viribus et
motibus Fluidorum Commentarii, Strafbourg, 1738. He
gives a beautiful mathematical theory.
John Bernouilli fupported the fame theory in his Hy-
draulica mine primum deteéta et direété ex demonftrata ex
principiis puré mechanicis.
~ Maclaurin, in his Fluxions, Edin. 1742, has followed the
fame tract. sa alee
D’Alembert difputes the theory of Bernouilli in his
Dynamics, 1743, and gives a new theory in his Traité de
VEquilibre et du Mouvement des Fluides, 1744, which he
has farther improved in his Effai fur la Refiftance des
Fluides, 1752. é
Euler, in his Opufcules Mathematiques, has brought the
theory of d’Alembert to perfection, 1752. F
Lecchi Idroftatica efaminata ne fuoi principi e ftabilita
nelle fue regole della mefura delle acque correnti, 1765.
Nuova Raccolta di autori che trattano del moto dell’
acque, 7 vols. Parma, 1766. This extenfive work contains
the experiments and theorems of a vaft number of the pre-
ceding authors on the fubje of running waters, the
courfes of rivers, &c. &c. and in a great meafure fuper-
fedes all the Italian books of older date.
Michelotti, Sperimenti Idrauliche, 1767 and 1774.—
Alfo, Mem. Taurinens, 1788. This work contains a moft
valuable feries of experiments made at Turin, fome of which
we have quoted. :
Silberfchlag Theorie des Fleuves avec l’art de batir dans
leur eaux et de prevenir leur ravages, 1769. Tranflated from
the German.
Boffut Traité Theorique et Experimental d’ Hydrody-
namique, 2 vols. 8vo. 1771, 1786, 1796.
Du Buat, engineer to the French king, Principes d’Hy-
draulique, 1779- His theory was firft founded on the ex-
periments of Boffut and others; but in 1786 he gave an-
other edition containing many experiments of his own, and
that valuable theory of the motion of water in rivers, which
we have given in our article River, and which has made the
firft approach to accuracy. The honour of this difcovery
is in part due to M. S. Honoré, an officer of engineers.
Dr. Robifon’s Syftem of Mechanical Philofophy ; and
the articles Hypropynamics, River, REsISTANCE, and
Warer-Works, which he prepared for the Encyclopedia
Britannica. Thefe are the moft valuable colleftion of
experiments, theories, and praétical rules of any in the
Englifh language: the learned profeffor took the trouble
to colle& and arrange all the experiments of Boflut, Du
Buat, and others, into one fyftem.
Ximenes, Nuova Sperienze Idrauliche fatte ne canali e
né fiumi per verificare le principale leggi e fenomeni delle
acque correnti, Siena, 1780. Id. A&. Sien. iii. 16. iv. 3I-
vii. I.
Lorgna, Memorie intorno all’ acque correnti, Veron.
1777+
afd Ricerche intorno alla diftributione delle velocita
nella fe€tione de Fiumi. Id. Soc. Italian, iv. p. 369.
Vv. 313. vi. 218.
Dr. Matthew Young, Irifh TranfaGtions, 1788, vol. ii.
p- 81. and vol. vii. p. 53.
Prony, Recherches Phyfico-Mathematiques fur la Theorie
des Eaux Courantes, 4to. Paris, 1804. This work con-
tains a valuable colleétion of experiments and theorems.
M. Venturi of Modena, Recherches experimentales fur la
Communication lateral du Mouvement dans les Fluides, 1797,
contains fome important difcoveries and experiments on the
lateral communication of motion in fluids. It was tranflated
by Mr.‘ Nicholfon, in his 4to. Philofophieal Journal, 1798,
vol. ii. and iii. It has been reprinted.
Fabre, Sur les Torrens et les Rivieres, Paris, 1797-
Eytelwein Handbuch der Mechanick und der Hydraulik,
Berlin, 1801. This is principally known in England by
the abftraé, publifhed by Dr. Young in the Journals of
the Royal Inftitution, from which it appears to be a moft
valuable work.
Dr. Thomas Young’s Elements of Natural Philofophy,
2 vols. Lond. 1807.
Dr. Thomas Young’s Hydraulic Inveftigations on the
Friétion and Difcharge of Fluids running in Pipes, and of
the Velocity of Rivers. Phil. Tranf. 1808. Valuable '
papers, of which we have largely availed ourfelves.
Water, Weight of. It is neceflary to afcertain the
weight or abfolute gravity of fome known quantity or
meature of water with great precifion, becaufe we ufually
exprefs the weight of different bodies by their fpecific
gravity, that is, their relative weight to the weight of water.
Hence, by knowing the weight of any required quantity of
water, we may obtain the weight of the fame quantity of
any other fubftance, by means of the fpecific gravity of
fuch fubftance.
It is recorded in the Philofophical TranfaGtions, N° 169,
that fome gentlemen at Oxford, in 1685, determined the
weight of a cubic foot of {pring-water to be 1000 ounces
avoirdupois. It was not obferved at that time that the
denfity of water would increafe or diminifh according to
the temperature. By a recent experiment by Dr. Wollaf-
ton and Mr. Playfair, the cubic foot was found to weigh
1000 ounces, or 624 pounds avoirdupois, at the tempera-
ture of 564 degrees of Fahrenheit. This we have made
the foundation of the following tables.
Tastes of the Weights of different Quantities of diftilled
Water, the Cubic Foot being affumed 624 Pounds
Avoirdupois, or 1000 Ounces, which is the exact
Weight, when at the Temperature of 562° of Fahrenheit.
Cubic Pounds Pounds
Inches. Avoirdupois, Avoirdupois.
I -03616898 62.5
2 -07233796 I 112.0
3 -10850694. 2 125.0
4 -14467592 3 187.5
5 -18084490 4 250.0
6 +21701388 5 312.5
7 +25318286 6 375-0
8 -28935184 | 7 437°5
9 +32552082 8 500.0
10 -36168980 9 562.5
12 *43402777 625.0
24 -86805554 1250.0
36 1.302083 31 1875.0
2240.0
equal 1 ton
A Prifm whofe A Cylinder whofe
Pounds
Bafe is 1 Inch : + Bafe is 1 Inch
aie. PO: Thitievas,:
10 feet high | 4.3402777 3.40885 32
6 feet high 2-6041666 2-04531210
3 feet high 1.30208 33 1.02265605
1foothigh | .43402777 -34088535
1 inch high -03616898 +0284071
A Prifm
WATER.
r A Prifm whofe
Pouuhe A Cylinder whofe
afe is 1 Foot P A Bafe is 1 Foot
Me repre, Deaconess
rinchhigh 5-208333 4.090625
1 foot high 62. "49.0875
3 feet high 147.2625"
6 feet high 294.5250
10 feet high 490.8750
20 feet high 981.7500
Weight of different Quantities of diftilled Water.
Wine Meafure.
eer in Contents in Contents in
Denomiuation. ee Cubic Inches. | Cubic Feet.
Avoirdupois.
A pint - 1.044 28.875
A gallon - 8.355 231 -13368
Arundlet - 150.390 4158 2.40625
Abarrel - 263.182 7276.5 4-2109375
AMtierde) = 350.910 9702 5-614.533
A hogfhead - 526.365 14553 8.421875
A puncheon - 701.823 19404 11.229166
A butt or pipe | 1052.734 29106 16.84.3749
A tun - | 2105.469 58212 33-687498
ne tt
Ale Meafure.
encmninati Woes Contents in Contents in
Aa Midinicuokt Cubic Inches. | Cubic Feet.
A pint - 1.2749 35-25 020398
A gallon - 10.1996 282 + -16319
A firkin - 81.597 2256 1.3055
A kilderkin - | 163.194 4512 2.6111
| Abarrel - | 326.388 9024 5.2222
A hogfhead - | 489.583 13536 7-8333
Beer Meafure.
WetoninatiGn pao Contents in Contents in
: Availupow: Cubic Inches. | Cubic Feet.
A pint - 1.275 35-25 -0203987
A gallon - 10.1996 282 16319
A firkin - 91-796 2538 1.46875
A kilderkin - 183.593 5076 2.9375
Abarrel = - 367.187 10152 5-875
A hogfhead - 550.781 15228 8.8125
A butt - | 11o1.562 30456 17.625
Thefe tables ferve to afcertain the weight of any required
quantity of any fubftance whofe fpecific gravity is known.
Thus by our tables of fpecific gravities, in the article
Gravity, we find the proportion which the weight of any
required fubftance bears to that of water. Then to obtain
the weight in pounds avoirdupois of any given quantity of
Vou. XX XVIII.
fuch fubftance, multiply the number which expreffed the
fpecific gravity of the fubftance, by the number of pounds
weight in the given quantity of water, as fhewn by the pre-
fent tables, and we have the weight of the fubftance in
queftion.
For example, it is required to know the weight of a
piece of caft-iron, which contains feven cubic inches: the
{pecific gravity of caft-iron, or its weight compared with that
of water, is as 7.207 to 1; alfo by the above table we find
7 cubic inches of water weigh .253 pounds avoirdupois:
now multiply 7.207 by .2§3 pounds, and we have 1.823371
pounds weight for 7 cubic inches of caft-iron.
What is the weight ofa block of Portland-ftone, which
is found by meafurement, to contain 9 cubic feet? The
weight of g cubic feet of water is by the table 562.5
pounds, multiply this by 2.570, the {pecific gravity of Port-
land-ftone, and we have 1445.6250 pounds for the weight
required.
What is the weight of a wrought iron bar, 1 inch {quare,
and 10 feet long ? The above table fhews that a prifm of
water of that fize weighs 4.340 pounds, multiplied by
7.788, the {pecific gravity of bar iron, gives 33.7999.
Tn like manner, if it was a round bar of 1 inch diameter,
and 3 feet long, the fame table fhews fuch a quantity of
water weighs 1,0226 pounds ; or, if it was a round plate of
metal, 1 foot diameter, and 1 inch thick, the table fhews
the weight of its bulk in water is 4.090 pounds.
The fourth, fifth, and fixth table is equally ufeful for
commercial purpofes, to determine the weight of different
quantities of liquids, as wine, oil, f{pirits, &c.
Required the weight of an ale gallon of linfeed oil. The
fpecific gravity of linfeed oil is .g403 ; the weight of an
ale gallon of water is 10.1996 pounds, (as appears from
the foregoing table,) multiply that number by .9403, and
we have 9.5907, which is the weight of an ale gallon of lin-
feed oil.
What is the weight of a pipe of Bourdeaux wine? The
weight of as much water is 1052.73 pounds, multiplied by
-994, the fpecific gravity, gives 1046.41362 pounds.
On the conduéting of Water from a Diftance for the Supply of
Towns.—This is a fubje& of the utmoft importance, and
involves much curious inveftigation.
It frequently happens that the only fupply of frefh water
for a town is from a diftant {pring, or that the quality of
water which can be brought from a diftance is fo fuperior
to the water on the fpot, as to induce the inhabitants to ex-
pend vaft fums in procuring good water. The Romans
were famous for their works of this kind, and many ruins
ftill remain as monuments of the enterprifing fpirit of that
people ; the moft celebrated of thefe we have mentioned in
our article AquEDUCT.
The works of modern times are more numerous, though
on a lefs fcale ; every great city has its water-works ; of all
others, London is the moft plentifully fupplied. ‘The New
River, which conduéts water from Ware, in Hertfordhhire, is
a great work, which was executed in the reign of James I. ;
fince that time a great many water-work companies have
been eftablifhed, and moft of them draw their water from
the river Thames by hydraulic machines. We believe that
there are 16 large fteam-engines, befides the water-wheels at
London-bridge, employed in this work, and almoft every
ftreet has water-pipes laid in it.
The city of Paris is fupplied by the Canal de L’Ourcq, and
by three fteam-engines ; but the pipes are only laid to the
palaces and public fountains, and in grand houfes.
Edinburgh is. fupplied by i conveyed a vaft aie
TOR
.
WATER.
from Comifton and. Swanfton, in leaden and iron pipes ;
but the fupply is very inadequate to the fize of the
city.
When water is to be conyeyed in an open canal, like the
New River, the manner of fetting out and executing the
work is fo nearly the fame as for a navigable canal, that it
is unneceflary to fay more than we have already given in
our article CANAL, except the rules for calculating the ne-
ceflary flope or defcent to produce the required velocity of
the water ; and the beft theorem for this purpofe we have
already given in the preceding part of the prefent article.
We fhall only add a few particulars of fome of the largeft
modern aquedudts for conveying water.
Aqueduéis.—Belidor ftates, in his Archite@ure Hydrauli-
que, that one of the fineft fubterraneous aqueduts in France
is that of Arcueil, which conduéts the water from many
colle&ting channels in a ftone channel. It is fituated in the
countries of Rungis, Paret, and Coutin. This aqueduct is
14,920 yards in length, and is conftruéted in free-{tone ; it
extends from the valley d’Arcueil to an elevated water-ciftern,
or chateau d’eau, which is at the Porte St. Jaques. The chan-
nel has an inclination of 6 inches in 400 yards, or 1 in 2400.
On each fide of the water-courfe is a raifed foot-path
9 inches wide, upon which a perfon can walk as far as the
village d’Arcueil. The height of the paflage from the bot-
tom of the water-trough to the under fide of the arch is 6
feet, except in fome places where they have been obliged
to make them lefs, in confequence of the high roads beneath
which it pafles.
Another fubterraneous aquedué& of this kind is that of
Rocquancourt, which conveys water to Verfailles; it is
3623 yards in length, and in all the length has an inclination
of only 33 feet, which was the utmoft that could be given
it. To conftruét this aqueduG, they were obliged in many
places to dig to a depth of 30 yards, which rendered the
execution of it very difficult. One hundred and fifty fhafts
were made in the length of this aqueduét. They were not
made at equal diftances, but only in fuch places as would
facilitate the conveyance of materials ; eighty of them were
lined with ftone, and the other feventy, which were not
required to laft longer than during the conftruétion, were
only lined with wood, and ftopped up afterwards with a
dome of mafonry, and filled up with earth to the level of the
furface.
This aquedu& coft 325,000 livres. From 1675 to 1678
it never yielded more than 6 pouces of water, and fome
times gave only 5, 4, 3, or even 2 pouces, according as the
dry feafons were of greater or lefs duration. The pouce de
fontainier is a meafure of running water ufed by French en-
gineers, which amounts to about .48 Englith cubic feet
per minute ; hence the 6 pouces would be 2.88 cubic feet
per minute. ;
A pond was made in 1685 at the head of this aquedud,
to drain a country called Trou d’Enfer; and fince then it
has given 10 and 12 pouces, i. ¢. 4.8 and 5.76 cubic feet per
minute.
When water is conduéted in an open channel, it fre-
quently becomes neceflary to crofs deep valleys ; in this cafe,
the channel mutt be fupported on arches like a bridge. This
was the obje& of thofe vaft Roman aqueduéts, of which we
find the remains at Nimes, Arles, Frejus, &c. The great-
eft modern works of this kind are thofe conftruéted in the time
of Louis XIV. to condué water to Verfailles and Marly.
Ore of thefe is the aqueduét of Maintenon, for conveying
the river Bure to Verfailles: it confifts of three courfes of
arches, raifed one above the other, to fupport the water-
courfe, which is a channel of ftone, and on each fide of it is
a narrow path with a parapet, which renders it fafe to walk
along the fide of the aqueduét when it requires cleaning or
repairing. :
In the Philofophical Tranfa@tions, it is ftated that this
aqueduét is 2560 fathoms in length, and confifts of 242
arches ; the fpan of each is 64 fathoms, and the thicknefs
of each pillar to fuftain the arches 4 fathoms, On the fide
of the valley next to Maintenon, there are thirty-three fingle
arches, afterwards feventy-one double ones, (that is, haying
one arch upon another,) then forty-fix treble ones ; at this
part the water-courfe is generally 216 feet 6 inches high from
the ground up to the floor of the water channel ; afterwards
there are feventy-two double arches, then twenty fingle ones,
which laft reach to a mound of earth, which is raifed 50 feet
high above the ground for a great diftance.
The general height from the ground up to the fecond ar-
cade or row of arches is 16 fathoms; from the fecond row
to the third or upper arcade 14 fathoms ; in the upper ar-
cade, the arches are double the number of thofe they ftand
upon ; above this is 6 fathoms 6 inches more to the floor of
the channel, which is at leaft 7 feet high befides the pa-
rapet.
The pillars at the ground are 8 fathoms thick, but with
the flopes and fhortenings, which are made in every ftory ;
the top where the channel runs is reduced to 20 feet broad.
There is likewife at each pillar a buttrefs projeGting one
fathom, and two fathoms wide to ftrengthen the pillars.
There is another great aqueduét raifed on arches in the
Plaine de Bue, which conducts water to Verfailles from the
Plaine de Scale. This is built with two ranks of arches,
and the lower ones are fo much wider than the upper, as to
afford room for a carriage-way acrofs the valley about half
as high up as the water-courfe. Drawings of thefe great
works are given by Belidor.
It is difficult to determine the exa& flope which fhould
be given to a water-courfe, in order to conduét a given quan-
tity of water; it can only be known by calculation aecord-
ing to the rules we have already given, and which are founded
upon experience. Vitruvius recommended a flope of 1 foot
fall in 200 feet in length; but Belidor fays this is much more
than is neceffary, and that 1 foot fall in 3600 feet of length is.
quite fufficient, when the channel is ftraight without elbows,
or fudden angles, or if the bends at fuch angles are by eal;
curves, fo that the water is not retarded in changing its di-
rection. He remarks, that the canal from the pool of
Trappes, made by M. Picard to condué& the water to Ver-
failles, had 9 inches flope in 1000 fathoms, or 1 foot fall in
7998 feet long. When the water was run into this, it took
four hours to run 8526 yards, though it was urged by a pref-
fure of 38.3 inches. Alfo that the aquedu& of Rocquan-
court before mentioned has only 3 pieds fall in all its length,
which is 1700 toifes, that is, 1 foot fall in 3400 feet of length.
Whence Belidor direés as a general rule to make the fall
1 inch in 100 yards, that is, 1 footin 3600 feet, provided the
bottom of the trough is of fmooth ftone, and not muddy.
This is the leail which can be allowed, and more may be
given when the relative levels between the two places will
admit of a more rapid defcent.
On the Conveyance of Water in Pipes. —This is an obje& of
great importance. The ancients conduéted water in pipes
only down hill; but never carried it up again, not knowin
that water would rife to its own level ; but we can condu
water to very great diftances, and bring it from one moun;
tain to another in pipes, which defcend into the intermediate
valleys and rife again, provided that the {pring or place from
which
WATER.
, a
which the water comes is fomewhat higher than the other
end where the water is to be delivered. The water would
indeed fhew itfelf at the fame level at one end of the pipe as
at the other, but it would not run out ; and in all cafes with
the fame fize pipe, the quantity of water given will increafe
in proportion as the receptacle at the difcharge is below the
{pring at the other end of the pipe. Hence, if there is a
eat deal of water to be conveyed to a place fituated but
Rrttle lower than the level of the original {pring, a very large
pipe muft be ufed to convey any given quantity. But the
fame quantity may be conveyed in a {maller pipe, and con-
fequently at lefs expence, if the refervoir is much below the
original level. ; ;
If the diftance is great, the length of the pipes will con-
fiderably diminifh the quantity of water brought through
them, in confequence of the friction of the water againft the
fides of the pipes; this cannot be prevented, and we mutt
make the bore of the pipe larger, in proportion to the length,
if the water be in fuch quantity and fo much wanted as to
make it worth the expence. The rules for calculating the
proper fize of pipes we have already given.
Defaguliers mentions an experiment which he made upon
a leaden pipe, whofe inward diameter was 14 inch, and found
that at 1400 yards diftance from the {pring of water that
fupplied it, it did not give a tenth part of the water that it
would have given at thirty yards from the fpring, though
both places were at the fame depth below the furface.
All care fhould be taken in the conftruétion of a conduit-
pipe, to avoid obftructions occafioned by lumps of folder hang-
ing in the infide of the pipes, or by roughnefs at the joints,
if the pipes are put together by {crew-joints, All the cocks
and plugs in the pipe fhould have water-ways fully equal to
the feétion of the pipe.
Thofe who execute water-works are moft tempted to fail
in this point by making the cocks too fmall, becaufe large
cocks are very expentive.
The engineer fhould be fcrupuloufly attentive to this, for
a fingle contraétion of this kind may occafion the extra ex-
pence of many hundred pounds in making a large pipe to be
thrown away, becaufe if the pipe will yield no more water
than can pafs through the {mall cock, it would have been
as well to have laid a {mall pipe all the length.
It is of the moft material confequence that there be no con-
traétion in any part of a conduit, and it is alfo prudent to
avoid all unneceflary enlargements ; for when a pipe is full
of water moving along it, the velocity in every feétion mutt
be inverfely proportional to the area of the fection : hence
the velocity is diminifhed wherever the pipe is enlarged ; and
it muft again be increafed where the pipe contraéts.
This cannot be done without expending force in the ac-
celeration; and confuming part of the impelling power,
whether it be that of a column of water, or the force of a
machine.
No advantage can be gained by the flow motion which
takes place at every enlargement in a pipe ; but every con-
traction, by requiring a reftoration of the former velocity,
employs a part of the impelling force ; this force mult be
equal to the weight of a column of water whofe bafe is the
contracted paflage, and whofe height is fufficient to produce
that velocity with which the water mult pafs through the
contra¢tion.
This point has often been overlooked by engineers of the
firft eminence ; and has, in many initances, impaired the per-
formance of their beft works.
Another point, which muft be attended to in the condu&-
ing of water through pipes is, that the motion of the water
fhould not be by pulfations, but continuous. When the
water is to be driven along a pipe by the ftrokes of a reci-
procating engine, it fhould fit be forced into an air-veffel,
that the elafticity of the confined air may preferve an uniform
motion along the whole length of pipe. If the water is
fuffered to reft at every fucceffive ftroke of the pifton, the
whole mafs muft again be put in motion through all the
length of the pipe. This requires a ufelefs expenditure of
power, over and above the force which may be neceflary for
raifing or conveying the water to its deftination. By employ-
ing an air-veffel and double or treble ating pumps we remove
this imperfection, becaufe it keeps up the motion in the
intervals between the ftrokes of the pifton. The com-
preflion of the air by the ative ftroke of the pifton muft be
fuch as to continue the impulfe during the momentary inac-
tivity of the pump.
Pipes are fubje& to obftru€tions from the depofition of
fand or mud in the lower parts of the pipes, and from the
collection of air in the upper.parts of their bendings. The
velocity of the water fhould always be very moderate, and
then fuch depofitions of heavy matters are unavoidable ;
care fhould therefore be taken to have the water freed from
all impurities, before it enters the pipe by proper fil-
tration ; and to difcharge the fediment which is unavoidable,
there ought to be cleanfing plugs at the lower parts of the
bendings, or rather a very little way beyond them. When
thefe are opened, the water will iffue with greater velocity,
and carry the depofitions with it.
It is much more difficult to get rid of the air which
chokes the pipes, by lodging in their upper parts. This air
is fometimes taken in along with the water at the refervoir,
when the entry of the pipe is too near the furface ; but it is
eafy to avoid this fource of the air, by making the water
enter the pipe beneath the furface, For if the entry of the
pipe is two feet under the furface of the water at the {pring,
no air can ever get in, and a float may be placed over the
entry, with a lid hanging from it to fhut the pipe before the
water runs too low.
Air is difengaged from fpring-water by the motion of the
water in paffing along the pipe. Wheh pipes are fupplied
by an engine, air is very often drawn in by the pumps. It
is alfo difengaged from its ftate of chemical union, when
the pumps have a fution-pipe of ten or twelve feet, which
is very common. In whatever way it is introduced, it col-
leéts in all the upper part of bendings, and accumulates
till it will choke the paffage, fo that fcarcely any water will
be delivered. :
To illuftrate this, fuppofe that the water of a fpring, or
collection of f{prings, is to be conveyed through a pipe to
the place of delivery, at a mile or half a mile diftant from
the {pring ; and that the ground, over which the pipe is
carried, has many undulations, and afcents and defcents,
where it paffes over fmall intermediate hills and valleys.
We will fuppofe the place of declivity to be but a little
lower than the water at the fpring, for example g or 10
feet. Ifthe furface of the water in the {pring comes down
to the entrance-mouth of the pipe, or only near it, much
air will run down with the water into the pipe; and where-
ever the ground rifes in the courfe of the pipe, this air will
lodge itfelf in the upper parts of the bends of the pipe,
and thereby diminifh the water-way fo as to force the
water to pafs through a paffage of one-fifth or one-fixth,
fometimes one-tenth of the proper bore of the pipe when
full.
Sometimes, though no air fhould get into the mouth at
the fpring, there will be thefe lodgments of air from the
firlt running of the water ; for when the water firft enters
into the pipe, if after coming down from the {pring it has
Rz to
WATER.
to rife again, to pafs the fummit of a {mall hill, it will run
over the eminence without carrying all the air before it, as
it had done in other parts of the pipe, before it arrived at
fuch eminence. Hence fome air is left in the higheft part of
the bend, but the water which pafles by the air runs forward
and fills the pipe again in the defcending part, and fo goes
on in a full bore, till it comes to the next eminence, where
it again runs over the highelt part of the rifing pipe, leav-
ing a {pace of air at top, which diminifhes the water-way.
Then filling the pipe full again, it proceeds till its next
rifing, and there the water-way is again contraéted by the
To clear the pipe of this air, if the pipe is of lead, the
common way, as practifed by plumbers, is thus: at every
rifing ground the pipe is laid bare at the higheft place, and
a nail is driven into the upper fide of the pipe, fo as to make
a hole through the metal. Whilft the nail is fticking in, the
lead is hammered all round the nail, with the pen of the ham-
mer, fo as to make a little button or fpout. When the nail
is withdrawn, the air will blow out violently, till at laft the
water will fucceed the air; and with a ftroke or two with
the face of the hammer the hole can be quite ftopped up.
"This is done at every eminence of the pipe, until all the
air is difcharged, and the full quantity of water will be de-
livered at the oppofite end of tke pipe. If the mouth
of the pipe at the {pring never receives any air, by the defcent
of the furface of the water, the pipe may give its full quan-
tity for years. ; : ,
The way to know when the whole water is delivered is to
meafure it, when, the pipe has been fully cleared of air, as
above-mentioned ; and when by meafare, the quantity of
water appears to be deficient, the pipe muft again be cleared
of air or other obftructions.
If the {pring is much higher than the place of delivery,
the places where the air will accumulate in the pipe will not
be juft at the higheft part of the pipe, but a little beyond
it; becaufe the water running with more velocity and force,
drives the lodged air ftill forward down the pipe, and it
muft lodge in the part where the pipe begins to defcend
again, its own tendency to afcend to the top being counter-
acted by the motion of the water. In this cafe, the nail-hole
muft be made beyond the greateft elevation, or elfe the run
of the pipe muft be ftopped for fome time, fo that the
water may ceafe to be in motion, the air will then go back
gradually to the higheft part of the pipe, where it may be
let out.
Suppofe that the water, inftead of coming from an ele-
vated {pring, be forced up its whole way from a place much
lower by an engine, and up the conduit, then the places
where the air will lodge will be beyond the eminences of the
pipes, but nearer to the upper end. In thefe cafes, it will not
be fufficient to prick the pipe with a nail, becaufe air will
be continually forced in with the water, and will refill thofe
places in the pipe from which the air had been emptied.
The obftruétions thus happening often occafion the burit-
ing of the pipe, or it gives too {mall a quantity of water,
and does damage to the engine.
In fuch a cafe, the following contrivance muft be ufed:
a {mall leaden pipe, about thirty feet in length, which is
called a rider or air-pipe, is laid at the higheit part of the
main-pipe, and extends along the top thereof. It commu-
nicates with the main at the top of the eminence, and alfo
at two other places, at fifteen feet on each fide of the emi-
nence. This air-pipe has a little branch and cock. Now if
the cock is opened when the engine is working, the air will
be pufhed forward till it is difcharged by the air-pipe and
cock. If the air goes beyond the eminence, the pipe of
12
communication will certainly difcharge it. When water
comes out at the cock it muft be fhut, and the main-pipe
will then be full of water, but after fome time, the cock
being left fhut, air will gather again in the eminence of the
main-pipe and lodge; but, if the air-cock is again opened,
the air will be difcharged.
When water is forced up by an-engine into an elevated
ciftern, from which it is to run down a main-pipe to the re-
fervoir where it is wanted, this air-cock will alfo be very
neceflary, becaufe the water in the ciltern fometimes covers
the entrance-mouth of the defcending pipe, and fometimes
not. In that cafe, air goes down with the water.
In leaden or iron pipes of conduit, the difcharge of air is
abfolutely neceffary if there are any rifes in the pipe. In
wooden pipes the air often pafles through the wood and
efcapes ; but if the pipes are tight and thoroughly foaked,
the air-pipes and cocks are very ufeful. When water runs
from a raifed ciftern through a diftance of a mile or two,
fome perfon fhould turn the air-cocks two or three times a
day.
This trouble may in fome cafes be avoided, by carrying
the air-pipe perpendicularly upwards, to an equal or greater
height than the entrance mouth of the main-pipe. In this
cafe, the water will rife up in the air-pipe to near the fame
level as the water at the entrance, but cannot run over.
Neverthelefs, if any air paffes along the main-pipe, when it
arrives at the air-pipe, it will rife up therein in bubbles
through the water contained in the perpendicular air-pipe
and efcape. By taking advantage of fome tall building, or
large tree to fupport the perpendicular air-pipe, this ex-
pedient may in general be applied.
Defaguliers contrived a valve which fhould open to let out
the air, and fhut again when the water came. It was an in-
verted brafs valve fhutting upwards, and falling down by its
own weight, with cork fixed to the under fide of it, to make
it rife and fhut when the water came. This fucceeded in
firft clearing the pipe of air, but it did not anfwer to keep
it clear; becaufe, when the valve had been fhut fome time,
if air fhould extricate itfelf from the water, it would be
denfe air, whofe force would be equal to that of the water,
and would keep the valve fhut as well as the water did be-
fore, although the air at firft could not fhut the valve. The
only remedy for this difficulty is to make the valve ve
{mall, and make a hollow copper veflel for a float. This
will rife with confiderable force to fhut the valve, when the
water aéts upon it; and it will be fufficiently heavy, when
the water forfakes it, to pull open the valve.
The fame author afterwards made a better contrivance.
It is a {mall fquare box of caft-iron, made tight on
all fides, except where the air-pipe communicates with the
bottom of it, and alfo where a {pout is fixed on the top to
let out the air. This {pout is provided with a cock, fitu-
ated withinfide of the box, and to the plug of the cock a
{mall arm or lever is fixed, having a hollow ball of copper
at the extremity of the arm or aor, This ball floats on
the furface of the water in the box, and when it rifes opens
the cock, or fhuts it when it falls. When the air in the
pipe accumulates, it pafles along the air-pipe and enters
into this box, and as the quantity increafes, the furface of the
water in the box fubfides, until the float at the end of the
lever, opens the cock and allows the air to efcape, and this it
will always do before any air can accumulate in the pipe.
It is beft to place the air-box near to the main-pipe, but
it muft have communication by an air-pipe with the main-
pipe, at two or three different places, in order that it may
certainly receive all the air which gathers in the great pipe.
On the Difcharge of Water by lateral Branch-Pipes from a
Main«
WATER.
Main-Pipe.—It is 4 common cafe in water-works, that water
is required to be drawn off through a {mall pipe, from the
fide of a main-pipe, in which the water is not at reft, but in
motion, with a much greater velocity than the flow occa-
fioned by the water which is drawn off through the fmall
pipe. It is often required to know what quantity fuch
{mall pipe will yield. When water is pafling along a pipe,
its preffure on the fides of the pipe is diminifhed in confe-
quence of its velocity ; and if a pipe is derived fromit, the
quantity drawn off muft alfo be lefs than if the water in the
great pipe was motionlefs. It is therefore of great im-
portance to determine what is the diminution of preflure
which arifes from the motion along the main-pipe.
It is plain, that if the water fuffered no refiftance in the
main-pipe, its velocity would be that which is due to the
height through which it had defcended, and it would pafs
along without exerting any preflure. Alfo, if the pipe were
fhut at the end, the preflure within the pipe would be
equal to the whole depth of water. Between thefe limits we
fhall find what we feek. If the head of water remains the
fame as when the pipe was ftopped, and the end of the tube
be contraéted, but not ftopped entirely, the velocity in the
pipe will be fmall; and the natural velocity due to the
defcent being checked, the particles will re-a& on what ob-
ftru&ts their motion. This aétion will be uniformly pro-
pagated through the fluid in every dire€tion, and will
exert preflure on the fides of the pipe. Now obftru@ions
of any kind, arifing from friétion or any other caufe, will
produce a diminution of velocity in the pipe. The refiftance,
therefore, which we afcribe to fri€tion, produces the fame
lateral preflure which a contraétion of the orifice would do,
provided that it would diminifh the velocity in the pipe, in
an equal degree.
We will firft confider the cafe of an horizontal pipe, in
which the whole impelling force is applied at one end of the
pipe, either by a pump or by a column in a perpendicular
pipe at that end. This force mutt be tranfmitted or carried
by the water through the whole length of the pipe, wherein
part of it will be abforbed in overcoming the obftruétion
and fri€tion, and the remaining force will produce the velo-
city with which the water iffues at the open end of the pipe.
It isevident that every part of the horizontal length of fuch a
pipe mutt bear a different degree of preflure, when the water is
in motion; thus, at the end where it is difcharged, there is
no preffure exerted on the pipe to burft it open, becaufe
the water can efcape freely ; but at every other part a force
mutt be exerted, which is fufficient to overcome all the re-
fiftance which the water will meet with, in running from fuch
part to the open end, where it is difcharged.
In fhort, whatever part of the column of water in the re-
fervoir, or of the preflure which impels it along the pipe, is
not employed in producing velocity, muft be employed in
acting againft fome ob{ftruétion ; and by the re-aCtion of this
obftruction, an equal preffure is tranfmitted to all parts of
the pipe. The chief queftions will be, in what part of the
pipe are thefe obftruétions fituated, and at what part is the
force applied which is to overcome them ; becaufe that part
of the pipe which is between the two, mutt bear the ftrain
of tranfmitting the force from the place where it is applied,
to the place where it is to operate.
In the cafe where the impelling force is all applied at one end
of the pipe, and the only refiftance is the fri€tion of the water
in running through the horizontal pipe, the preflure to burft
the pipe, will begin at nothing at the open end of the pipe,
and regularly increafe from that to the other end. Its quan-
tity for 100 feet in length may be afcertained for any given
bore of the pipe, and velocity of the water, from Mr. Smea-
ton’s table of friétion already given, and may be adapted to
all other lengths by a fimple rule of proportion.
If in addition to the refiftance by fri@ion, which takes
place equally in all parts of the length of the pipe, there
are any particular caufes of obftruétion at the extreme end
or at any other part, the force neceflary to overcome fuch
refiftance muft be added to that required to overcome the
friétion, as found by the table; and all this tends to burft
open the pipe, or that part which is between the impelling
force and the obftru€tion, which may arife either from a
perpendicular column or lift, up which the water is to be
forced, or from a contraétion.
Example 1.—A fteam-engine with a forcing-pump is em-
ployed to force water through a pipe, which proceeds hori-
zontally for 1800 feet, and then rifes up 60 feet perpendi-
cular, to a ciftern at the top of a tower; the diameter of
the pipe is five inches, and the motion of the engine is fuch,
that the water moves with a velocity of 140 feet per minute
through the pipe. » It is neceflary to fupply a ciftern in a
houfe from the middle of the main-pipe, by a {mall branch-
pipe of one inch bore and 100 feet long ; this ciftern is 55
feet above the great horizontal-pipe, or five feet beneath the
elevated ciftern ; required the velocity with which the water
will flow through the {mall branch-pipe, when the engine is
not at work, and when it is at work.
When the water in the great pipe is motionlefs, there is
the preffure of a column of five feet to force the water
through the branch-pipe. Mr. Smeaton’s table fhews, that
for one inch bore and 100 feet long, a preffure of five feet,
or fixty inches, will produce a velocity of 180 feet per mi-
nute ; but when this pipe is running, the water in the great
pipe muft move alfo. The area of the pipe of five inches, is
twenty-five times as great as the pipe of one inch ; therefore,
the motion of the water in the great pipe, will be only one
twenty-fifth of 180 feet, or 7.2 feet per minute. Find the
neareft velocity to this in the table, or ten feet per minute,
and under five inches bore, we find .o7 inches the height ne-
ceffary to produce that motion, if the pipe was 100 feet
long; but as it is g60 feet, the height required will be
-07 X 9.6 = .672 of aninch. This fhould be deduéted
from the five feet preflure which urges the water through
the {mall pipe ; but fo {mall a quantity is not worth notice :
hence we may ftate the velocity when the engine is not at
work at 180 feet per minute, and the difcharge from a bore
of one inch, will be -98 of a cubic foot per minute.
When the engine is at work, the fame preflure will be ex-
erted with the addition of all the preffure neceflary to over-
come the friétion of the water, in running along the great
pipe with a velocity of 140 feet per minute. Look for this ve-
locity in the table, and for five inches bore it fhews, that a co-
lumn of 7.6 inches muft be allowed for every 100 feet of the
‘pipe. The length of the pipe meafured from the place where
the branch-pipe proceeds to the ciftern at the top of the
tower, is goo feet horizontal, and 60 perpendicular, viz. 960;
therefore, multiply 7.6 by 9.6, and we have 73 inches for
the height, which muit be added to the five feet; and makes
133 inches for the whole column or force, which urges the
water to flow through the branch-pipe, when the engine is
at work: laftly, by referring to the table in the column of
one inch bore, we find that 135 inches will produce a velo
city of 270 feet per minute, and the difcharge will be 1.47
cubic feet per minute.
The fame inveftigation fhews us, that the main-pipe at the
place where the branch-pipe proceeds from it, muft bear the
preffure of a column equal to 66 feet one inch when the
engine
WATER.
engine is at work, although it bears only 60 feet when it is
at reft. But if we confider the whole length of 1860 feet,
the friGion will be equal to a column of eleven feet ten inches,
fo that the preffure, when the engine is at work, will be near
72 feet, at that end of the pipe which joins to the pump.
Example 2.—We will now confider the reverfe of this cafe,
that is, take away the pump and fteam-engine, and let the water
be propelled through the great pipe, by the water defcending
from the ciftern, with a fall of 60 feet. What will be the
preflure which caufes the water to flow through the fmall
branch-pipe ? J
To find this, we muft calculate with what velocity the
water will flow through the whole length of the great pipe,
by the theorem and example we have already given for
water in pipes. Having found this, calculating on the
whole length of the pipe, we muft make another calculation,
reckoning only as much length of the pipe as is contained
between the ciftern of fupply, and the place where the
branch-pipe joins the main-pipe.
Then take the difference between thefe two velocities,
and it fhews what refiftance or fri€tion the water muft over-
come in running along the remainder of the pipe, viz. from
the place where the branch-pipe joins to the open end of
the pipe, where the water is difcharged. Now if a fimple
orifice was to be made at that part of the great pipe where
the branch-pipe joins, the water would flow out with a ve-
locity equal to the difference of the two velocities, making
the proper deduétion for the fri€tion of the water in paffing
through the orifice.
But if we wifh to know the velocity with which the water
will flow through the branch-pipe, we muft find the depth
of column neceffary to produce the velocity equal to the
difference of the velocities of which we have before fpoken,
calculating according to theory, without regard to friétion ;
and then with the depth fo found, we can feek in the table
of friction in pipes, for the refult or flow of water through
the {mall branch-pipe.
The cafe of a regularly inclined pipe is confiderably dif-
ferent,, becaufe the impelling force is not all applied at one
end of the pipe; but every portion of the pipe ape a
defcent, has alfo a portion of the impelling power applied
to it. When this pipe is of a certain length, the water
arrives as its maximum velocity without accelerating as it
proceeds further down the flope; becaufe the accelerating
power of the water is in equilibrio with the obftruétion,
that is, the power of defcent acquired in a foot or an inch
of the flope, is jult equal to the refiftance in the fame dif-
tance; confequently, the water exerts no preflure on the
pipe to burft it open, any part of the water would continue
to flide down the flope with its uniform velocity, even if it
was detached from that water which followed or which pre-
ceded, and it derives no impelling power from any co-
lumn of water. The effect would be juft the fame, if
the pipe was fplit down the middle’and converted into two
open troughs.
It is clear, that in this cafe, no water can be obtained from
any lateral branch-pipes, unlefs they defcend from the pipe.
Let us confider the fame pipe when the inclination is not
a regular flope, but when fome parts flope more rapidly than
others. In this cafe, the impelling force is not applied re-
gue upon every part of the length of the pipe, as in the
ormer inftance; the confequence is, that in thofe parts
which have a more rapid flope than the inclination of
a line drawn from one end of the pipe to the other, the
water will have a tendency to accelerate beyond the regu-
lar velocity which is due to the regular flope, and with
which it muft ultimately flow out of the pipe; and on the
other hand, in places where the flope is lefs rapid than this
line, the tendency of the water will be to flow more flowly
than the regular velocity. Now the pipe ep clofe and of
an equal bore, the water muft flow with the fame velocity
in every part of the length; and although fome portions of
the contained water tend to run forwards fafter than the
regular velocity, yet other portions tend to hang back ;
by means of the pipe, the force is tranf{mitted from one
place to another, and thefe forces become all combined to-
gether to produce an uniform velocity.
We fhall find, on farther confideration of thefe a&tions, that
fome parts may be fubjeéted to a preflure or ftrain to force
or burft it open, and other parts may at the fame time be
ftrained in an oppofite direétion, viz. to crufh the metal of
the pipe inwards.
Thus at every point where the pipe fuddenly changes its
flope or rate of inclination, from an eafy flope to avery rapid
defcent, then the water will have a tendency to run down fuch
floping part of the pipe, and pafs away fafter than other
water can come down the eafy flope ; the confequence is, that
a {ution or afpiration takes place within the pipe, and if a
{mall branch-pipe were applied in fuch a fituation, water
may actually be drawn up from a confiderable depth. This
has been fhewn by M. Venturi, who calls it the lateral com-
munication of motion between fluids.
This is a certain proof that the bore of the pipe is too
fmall at fuch places. An attentive confideration of thefe
circumftances, will fhew the propriety of making a long
pipe with different bores at different places, where the flope
is different; for, by judicioufly increafing the bore of the
pipe where the flope is lefs, the ation may be made uniform
throughout. But this cannot be done in cafes where the
changes of flope are exceffive; for inftance, when the pipe
defcends rapidly into a deep valley, and muft rife again with
a rapid flope in an oppofite dire&tion. This is the cafe with
the pipes which fupply Edinburgh, and in many fituations
is unavoidable.
The refiftance arifing from fri€tion is greater or lefs ac-
cording to the velocity of the motion ; but whatever is the
inclination of a pipe, provided it is long enough, the rae
with which the water runs through it will fo adjutt itfelf,
that the fum of all the refiftance in the whole length of the
pipe, will exatly balance the fum of all the forces, which
the water exerts by its defcent. But if the pipe is
too fhort, the forces of defcent down the pipe may over-
balance all the refiftances. In this cafe, the water will tend
to accelerate, and the water which has defcended near to the
bottom of the pipe, will draw after it that water which has
juft entered the upper part of the flope, inftead of the water
in the upper part, forcing forwards that water which is
beneath it.
Dr. Robifon obferves that there are fome curious cir-
cumftances in the mechanifm of thefe motions, which makes
a certain length of pipe neceffary, for bringing it into the
equilibrium of motive force, and refiftance, which he calls
train. A certain portion of the interior furface of the pipe
muft aét in concert in obftru€ting the motion. We do not
completely underftand this circumftance, but we can form
a pretty diftinét notion of its mode of a€ting. ‘The film of
water contiguous to the pipe is withheld by the obftruc-
tion of friction, but glides along ; the film immediately within
this is withheld by the outer film, but glides through it,
and thus all the concentric films glide within thofe around
them, fimilar to the tubes of a telefcope, when we draw it
out by taking hold of the end of the innermoft. Thus the
10 fecond
WATER.
fecond film pafles beyond the firft or innermoft, and becomes
the outermoft, and rubs along the tube. The third does
the fame in its turn, and thus the central filaments will at
laft come to the outfide, and fuitain their greateft poffible
obftru€tion. When this is accomplifhed, the pipe is in
train.
This requires a certain length of pipe which we cannot
determine by theory ; but it is evident that pipes of greater
diameter muft require a greater length, and this is probably
in proportion to the number of filaments, or as the {quare of
their diameter.
Du Buat found this fuppofition agree with his experi-
ments. A pipe of one inch in diameter fuftained no change
of velocity by gradually fhortening it, until it was reduced to
fix feet, and then it difcharged a little more water. Buta
pipe of two inches in diameter gave a fenfible augmentation
of velocity, when fhortened to twenty-five feet; he there-
fore fays, that the {quares of the diameter in inches, mul-
tiplied by 72, will exprefs the length in inches neceflary for
putting the water in any pipe in /rain.
When pipes are of any confiderable length, the waters of
a larger pipe will run with a greater velocity than thofe of a
{maller pipe having the fame flope. A pipe of two inches
diameter will give much more water than four pipes of one
inch diameter ; it will give as much as five and a half of fuch
pipes, or more, becaufe the {quares of the difcharges are
very nearly as the fifth powers of the diameters.
On the requifite Strength for Water-Pipes.—We have fhewn
that, in certain cafes, the water running through a pipe will
exert little or no ftrain to burft the pipes. This may be
the cafe in great portions of the length, or even in the
whole length ; neverthelefs we may obferve, that at all parts
fo fituated, an open canal would anfwer all purpofes as well
as aclofe pipe. It is not neceflary to employ a clofe pipe
in any cafe, except where it is fubjeéted to a ftrain. We
may alfo obferve, that it is prudent in all cafes to make the
pipe fufficiently ftrong to refift the full preflure of the im-
pelling column, when the motion of the water is {topped ;
becaufe this may happen accidentally, and then the pipe
will burft.
In order to adjuft the ftrength of a pipe to the ftrain, we
may conceive it as confifting of two half cylinders joined by
feams, parallel to the axis or length of the pipe; the
ftrength of fuch feams to refilt the feparation of the two half
cylinders will be equal to the ordinary ftrength of the ma-
terials of which the pipe is made. The infide preflure tends
to burft the pipe by tearing open thefe feams, and the force
which aéts upon any given length of the pipe (as an inch or
a foot), is the weight of a column of water whofe bafe is
the diameter of the pipe, by the given length (as an inch or
a foot), and whofe height reaches up to the furface of the
water in the refervoir. This follows from the common prin-
ciples of hydroftatics, and may be calculated by the rules
for columns of water already given.
Suppofe the pipe to be of lead, one foot in diameter,
what will be the force to burft open one inch in length, at
the depth of roo feet under the furface of the refervoir?
Water weighs 624 pounds per cubic foot, the bafe of the
column is 1 foot by 1 inch, or 4,th of a fquare foot, and the
tendency to burft open an inch long of the pipe is 100 x
62k xa = 2s = 521 pounds nearly.
Therefore, an inch long of each feam is ftrained by 2603
pounds. A rod of caft lead, one inch f{quare, is pulled
afunder by 860 pounds. (See SrrenetH of Materials.)
Therefore, if the thicknefs of the feam is = fe inches, or
‘O
one-third of an inch, it will juft withftand this ftrain. But
we make it much thicker than this, efpecially if the pipe
eee from an engine which fends the water along it by
arts.
M. Montgolfier ftates, that a pipe one inch in diameter,
and one line in thicknefs, will bear a column of 50 feet,
French meafure, from which if we defire to know the
proper thicknefs for any other diameter, with the fame pref-
fure, we fhall find it by fimple proportion. Thus, if the
diameter be 4 inches, the thicknefs muft be four lines ; or
if the preffure is augmented we proceed in the fame man-
ner, by direé&t proportion, fo that for 100 feet it muft be
two lines thick for one inch diameter, and 8 lines thick for
4 inches diameter.
To make full ufe of this mode of reckoning, he gives the
following table of the preflure which pipes of different fub-
ftances will fuftain.
Feet
highs
Copper pipe, 1 inch bore, and 1 line thick, will
fupport a column of water - - - aA
Brafs pipe of good quality, and the former dimenfions 300
Lead pipe, made of fheet lead - - - 50
Caft-ron pipe, 2 inches bore, and 4 lines thick, will
fuftain at leaft - - - - - ane
Elm wood 14 inch diameter, and 2 inches thick, 30 or 40
That is, they may fafely be made of that fize, but
will bear fometimes 110 feet preffure.
Lead Pipes—The plumbers ufe caft pipes of lead, and
alfo make pipes of tough fheet lead turned up, and burned
or melted together in the longitudinal joints ; the different
lengths of lead pipe are fometimes burned together with
lead at the joints, when they are laid in the field, inftead of
foldering, becaufe this is much cheaper. Leaden pipes may
be turned up of any fize, but are not ufually caft of more
than four inches bore. Unlefs the caft pipes are very
found, they are not fo good as turned-up pipes ; hence it 1s
not advifable to ufe caft pipes of more than 23 inches bore.
There muft be great care taken in making the turned-up
pipes, that they may be perfeatly eaitincal
Small lead pipes are made by cafting and drawing them
through a plate, like wire. See our article Pirxs.
The proper thicknefs for lead pipes, according to Defa-
guliers, is as follows: a pipe, 7 inches diameter, fituated
from 140 to 80 feet below the refervoir, muft be 2 of an
inch thick ; that part which is from 80 to 60 feet beneath
the refervoir, muft be half an inch and an eighth thick ; from
60 to 30 feet Zan inch ; and the remainder from 30 feet up
to the refervoir 3 of an inch.
For pipes of four inches diameter, half an inch will do
froma depth of 200 feet to 100 feet ; from 100 to 40 feet
depth 3 a an inch thick ; and from 40 feet deep up to the
refervoir + of an inch in thicknefs.
Defaguliers defcribes a method of proving the ftrength
of pipes experimentally, by a {mall forcing-pump, to inje&
water into a piece of the pipe at one end, whillt a valve is
applied to the other, which valve is loaded with fuch a
weight as will equal the weight of the intended column of
water ; therefore, if the pipe bears this preflure, it will bear
the column of water.
Lead pipes are very improper for water-works, where the
water is forced by an engine ; for at every ftroke or pufh
from the engine, the water raifes the ftop-valve of the pump,
and
WATER.
and when the valve fhuts. again, the water falls with it, and_
gives a fudden blow againft all the fides of the pipe. By
the lateral preffure, this force aéts in a diretion perpen-
dicular to the fides of the pipe, with the weight of a pillar
of water whofe bafe is the fe€tion of the pipe, at the place
of the ftroke, and the height is equal to the whole height of
the water above that place; and it ftrikes with the fame
velocity that the valve falls. Now if the firlt ftroke of this
water makes the lead {well outwards but the rooth part of
an inch, the lead having no elafticity, will remain in that
pofition, and not fhrink back; then fuppofe the next flroke
{wells the lead outwards the 1ooth part of an inch more, the
diameter of the pipe will become fo much larger and remain fo,
The next ftroke will ftill make it wider, and fo on for many —
ftrokes, till at laft the lead becomes fo thin that it mutt
break. This is inevitable if the force is great enough to
begin the enlargement, for after every ftroke the force of
the water ftriking will be greater than the preceding, in
confequence of the enlargement, and will foon burft the pipe.
An iron pipe is beft to be ufed, for even if it were in itfelf
as weak as the lead, it would not be liable to be enlarged,
although each ftroke fhould make it yield, but by the
elafticity of the metal it would return again to its own
dimenfion after every ftroke. The fame will happen in
pipes of copper or wood, becaufe thofe fubftances are
elattic.
Wood pipes are made of elm or oak, bored through the
middle with a fucceffion of augres, increafing in fize until
the defired bore is attained. Belidor fays a man can bore
39 feet of elm pipe, two inches diameter, in a day, but only
= feet of oak pipe. The manner of laying and joining
pipes is fully explained in our article PipE.
Care muift always be taken that wood pipes are bored in
the heart of the wood, and that the heart is of fufficient
thicknefs about the bore of the pipe. Elm pipes of nine
inches bore, that are from 80 to 140 feet beneath the fur-
face of the water in the refervoir, muft have the heart of
elm three inches thick after it is bored: therefore, a tree
muft be chofen of no lefs than 18 inches diameter in the
{malleft part. For a depth from 60 to 80 feet, the heart
mutt be 23 inches thick, which a tree of 17 inches in dia-
meter will afford ; for a depth of from 30 to 60 feet, the
heart muft be two inches thick, and the tree 16 inches in
diameter ; and for any height under 30 feet, the heart need
be but 13 inch thick, for which a tree of 14 inches will
fuffice.
From thefe proportions it may be determined what thick-
nefs the heart of elm fhould be for pipes of lefs bore at the
fame depths, taking it thinner in proportion to the diameter.
Belidor recommends, in laying wooden pipes, to ufe a
compofition of mutton fat beaten in a mortar with powder of
brick-duft, fo as to make a fort of wax. When there are
cracks in the wood, {mall wedges wrapped with tow, and
ares with this compofition, are to be driven in to ftop
them.
Earthen Pipes—M. Belidor ftates, that the beft kinds in
France are made at Savigny, near Beauvais ; they are in
lengths of two feet, which enter three inches into one an-
other, and are made of all diameters, from two to fix inches ;
when the pottery is feven lines thick, they will bear a co-
lumn of twenty-five feet of water. The joints are made of
a compofition of pitch, afhes, and brick-duft with mutton
fat : this is applied hot ; but for larger pipes, a cement of
lime is ufed.
One of the lengths of the pipes for the fupply of Edin-
burgh is made of pottery.
Tron Pipes—The methods of joining and laying Yon
pipes will be found in our Tega Pire; but we fhall
give a
Tasce of the Weight of Iron Pipes caft at Carron Iron-
Works in 1769, being their Standard for dried Sand
Caftings, allowing every 36 Cubic Inches of Caft Iron
to be equal to 10 lbs.
Diameter
of the ba Diameter lane Thickuefs of) Weight of the
Infide, or | of the Flanch. Pipe. the Pipe. Pipe.
Bore. |
Inches. | Fr. In. Feet. Cwis. qr3. lbs.
2p |; 0 San 6 23 Ot2 to
ae, |. O) | AGE 6 ae Oe oe.
3 °o 9 6 i I .o 10
35 o gf 6 2 Ti pOu27
4 rome 6 4 lo ie ae
5 oO, 12 6 4 I g2e D8
6 Ti 2 8 2 PS
7 ey 8 8 3 @ »3.3, 20
8 x steal 9 3 6 o10
9 Biy2 8 9 $ 6 3 4
10 i... ¥ 9 : yak ee
Ir E69: 9 3 9 217
12 TiG 9 3 Io I 12
13 Teen Gi 9 3 Il 0 26
14 25 4,10 9 3 + Gare
It was afterwards found that, in a long courfe of praétice,
it was better to make iron pipes rather thicker ; becaufe in
moulding there is fome uncertainty if the metal is equally
thick all round.
Warer, Jets of, fountains were formerly the ornaments
of all garden and pleafure-grounds ; but are now fo far out
of fafhion, that we only find them in the gardens of the
greateit palaces.
The moft celebrated are thofe of Verfailles and St. Cloud
in France, Frafcati, near Rome, and Peterhoff in Ruffia.
The fubje& of the latter is the conteft of Jupiter with the
Titans ; it contains a column of nine inches diameter, which
fpouts fixty feet high.
The fountains of Verfailles, which are very numerous and
magnificent, are fully deferibed by Belidor.
They confift of four grand pieces, which contain excellent
bronze ftatues, reprefenting fome fubje& of the mythology,
befides a great number of jets for the ornament of fmaller
pieces of {fculpture. The bafon of Latona confifts of many
jets, which throw up water obliquely 30 feet high, into three
large bafons, from which it pours down in cafcades. The
water-piece of Neptune and Amphitrite confifts principally
of perpendicular jets, which are very numerous. The bafon
of Apollo contains the god in his chariot, drawn by four
horfes ; the great jets of this piece rife 57 feet, and the aller
jets 47 feet. The baths of Apollo contain moft excellent
{culpture, and large fheets of water in cafcade. There are
alfo the pyramids of water, mountains of water, alleys of
water, theatre of water, &c.
We have no room left for treating this fubje&, which is
of fome intricacy, and fhall conclude with Mr Mariot’s
table, which fhews the altitude of a refervoir neceflary to
produce a jet of a certain height ; and alfo the quantity ne-
ceflary to fupply jets of a certain bore, meafured in Paris
feet and Paris pints, 42-36 of which are equal to a cubic
foot Englthh.
WATER.
Quantity of { Diameter of
Water difcharged] the Conduit-
Altitude of | Altitude of the jin a Minute from} Pipe, fuited
the Jet. Refervoir. | an Adjutage fix to the
Lines ia two preceding
Diameter. Columns.
Paris Feet. Ec). in:
Paris Pints. Lines.
5 Gul 21
10 Io 4
15 T5, 9
20 hie fi
25 by et
39 33,42)
35 Bteyee
40 454:
45 Syne)
5° 58 4
55 65 1
60 72 0
65 79 1
70 86 4
75 SW ee)
80 Iol 4
85 Iog I
90 117 Oo
95 E25uat ,
100 TA3 0 A)
See our article Jer p’Eau, Vol. XVIII. ay
Water, in Gardening, a well known ufeful article in gar-
dening, as applicable to numerous forts of young plants and
trees, feed-beds, &c., efpecially in the droughty {pring and
fummer feafons, both fuch as grow in the full ground and
in pots in the open air, as well as thofe in green-houfes,
ftoves, hot-beds, &c.: and alfo in ornamental defigns, in
pleafure-grounds, parks, &c., either when formed into re-
gular pieces, circular, oval, or in oblong or ferpentine ca-
nals, &c.; likewife when varied in a fomewhat natural ex-
panfe, in curves and bendings.
In forming defigns of this fort, the nature of the fupply
fhould be firft confidered, whether it be by fprings in or
near the place, by currents or ftreams pafling through, or
fo nearly adjacent as to admit of being conduéted to the
lace ; or by being conduéted by fome neighbouring river,
Eeook, or lake, &c. by means of pipes or {mall cuts, or
by being colleéted iffuing from higher grounds, and con-
duGed by proper channels. And another circumftance,
equally neceflary, is to confider the means by which it
may be retained afterwards. In aloofe earthy, fandy, or gra-
velly bottom, it will foon fink away, efpecially in dry wea-
ther, unlefs there is a conftant current or flow of water run-
ning in; but in a naturally ftrong clayey bottom, of pro-
per thicknefs, both at the fides and below, it may be retained
in fome tolerable degree. In moft cafes, fome art, however,
will be neceffary in this bufinefs. See Basons, &c.
Where it is eafily attainable in any of the above modes,
it fhould not be omitted, on a fmaller or larger fcale, efpe-
cially in grounds of any confiderable extent ; but where in-
tended principally as refervoirs for watering gardens, they
may be of much more moderate dimenfions than when de-
figned for ornament, and may be formed either in a circular
manner, an oblong canal, pond, or cut, &c.; the ftiffnefs
of thefe forms being always broken by varying curves of
the margins or borders, conftantly forming them where the
fupply of water can be moft conveniently procured.
Ornamental plats, or pieces of water in pleafure-grounds,
VoL. XXXVIII. :
are very defirable, as being great additions to the beauty, va-
riety, and embellifhment of them, when properly difpofed
“and contrafted with fome nearly adjoining detached clumps
of plantation, and bounded with a proper expanfe of grafs-
ground, fpreading from the verge confiderably outwards.
In general, when any {paces of water, on a larger or {maller
{cale, are intended, they fhould be difpofed, as confpicu-
oufly as poffible, in fome principal divifion ; either fometimes
at or near the termination of a {pacious open lawn, or occa-
fionally in fome other fimilar open fpace ; and fometimes
difpofed more or lefs internally, in fome central er other
grand opening ; in all of which an ezpanfe of water has a
fine effet. ‘The particular forms may be adapted to the na-
ture of the fituation, and the extent to that of
ef water that can be had.
In parks and pleafure-grounds, the moft proper fituations
for plats, or other forms of water, are fome rather low con-
venient places for containing and fupplying it, which are fo
difpofed as to difplay an agreeable rural view of the water
from the refidences and principal lawns and walks belong-
ing to them, either near at hand, or at fome confide ee
diftance from them ; and where there are occafionally other
accidental fights and views of it, from other parts of the
ground, unexpectedly taking place in an abrupt or fudden
manner. In thefe fituations the forms and appearances of it
may likewife be greatly varied and diverfified, according to
their particular nature and other concurring circumftances,
fo as to take off any fort of formal regularity which they
may have naturally. They may alfo have oval, oblong,
winding, curving, or bending ferpentine diretions given to
them, as may be the moft natural and fuitable ; and they
may be of fmall or very confiderable extents, in propor-
tion to the nature of the fituations, and the fizes of the
grounds, as well as the fupplies of water which can be com-
manded. They are fometimes in large grounds, formed
in the manner of natural bending rivers or {treamlets, which
{weep round rifing {wells of land, planted with trees in the
form of clumps, or other modes, fo as to produce a natural
and agreeable effect.
Mr. London, in his ingenious work “ On forming, im-
proving, and managing Country Refidences,”? thinks that
water, in whatever point of view it may be taken, whether
as neceflary to the produce of a country, the delight of the
traveller, or the intereft of romantic rural {cenery, is one
of the moft lovely ornamental materials of nature. Its
effets in all thefe ways are highly ufeful, interefting, and
beautiful ; without it all foils are barren and unproduétive,
roads are dull and uninterefting to the tafteful traveller, and
rural fcenes are 6ften tame and difgufting. For as it occurs
in {pringy banks, purling rills, or winding brooks, it
equally engages and delights; while in the more diftant
view, in larger expanfes, as thofe of great rivers, glafly
lakes, or the extent of the ocean, it exalts and fills the mind
with aftonifhment. And in fecluded country fcenery it is
not lefs fuccefsful in affording variety and pleafure, either
by the beauty of its varied appearance, the roar of its fall
among rocks and cliffs, the foam and din of it in the {mall
cafcade, or the melancholy of it in the ftagnant pool, fhaded
by over-hanging boughs. ;
But though much has been ingenioufly and ufefully writ-
ten on this interefting material of ornamental rural improve-
ment, and the neceflity and means of a better tafte inculcated
in the management of it, little alteration has yet been effe&-
ed in the modes of praétice, as few examples of artificial
water rendered piéturefque have been fet before the public,
The former old, naked, tame, fhaving, formal methods,
{till continue to prevail too much in the diftribution and
manner
the fupply
WATER.
manner of conduéting it. ‘There are {till not a few who
are infeéted with
that ftrange difeafe
Which gives deformity the’power to pleafe :
Colleétions of ornamental water may, it is faid, properly
be confidered as of two kinds ; as thofe defigned to be feen
in a general view, and in conneétion with the adjoining
feenery ; and thofe to be feen only when near. The former
forts chiefly confift of lakes, rivers, ponds, bafons, and
others of fimilar kinds; the latter of fprings, rills, rivu-
lets, cafcades, ava others of the fame nature. There are
fearcely any fituations in which waters of the fpring, rivu-
let, and others of the fame nature, may not be placed. In
nature, rills are ufually found deep funk in dells, as im in-
{tances where they run down the fides of hills, or pafs
through foils of the fandy kind. Where they pafs through
a fertile valley, or level meadow, they have commonly a very
regular ‘courfe ; and when they are met with in hollow
places, their courfe is for the moft part ftraight, or ap-
proaching to it. The fituations of rivers, lakes, and ponds,
are almott invariably in the lowett parts of the furface of the
land. It is, indeed, impoffible that they could be other-
wife. Water, whenever it occurs, is conftantly a ftriking
feature in grounds, and in this way has always its peculiar
fituation : when that fituation is changed, every feature is per-
verted ; truth, nature, and harmony, are fet at defiance, and
the moft glaring difcord fubftituted in their place, ftriking
inftances of which prefent themfelves in many different or-
namented fituations.
The general fhape of pieces of water muft depend upon
the nature of the chara&ter which is to be created or given
them. Whatever may be the magnitude or dimenfions of
lakes or ponds, they fhould be of irregular fhapes, more or
lefs wooded, and never entirely naked, being conftantly dif-
tinguifhed by prominences and maffes ; and as often as oc-
cafion may ferve, further varied by iflands managed ina
fimilarity of manner. And the forms and directions of
rivers fhould be given by their fizes, and the nature and kind
of country through which they are to pafs. Large rivers,
in fertile plains, are, for the moft part, much lefs varied in
their courfes than thofe of the fmaller kind ; and both are a
great deal lefs fo than thofe which have their dire¢tions
through hilly uneven furfaces, or through land of a rocky
nature. Large rivers can never be imitated where there does
not exift a very confiderable ftream ; as without this, the
neceflary degree of motion ean never be given; but the di-
re@tions or courfes of natural rivers may, it is fuppofed, be
frequently altered, varied, improved, or divided, with the
moft advantageous effeéts in the *way of ornament ; in all
which cafes the remarks here given will be applicable,
Much might be effeéted in this way_at many of the fine an-
cient feats of this country, and a high degree of grandeur
and magnificence of effeét be produced.
In regard to the margins or borders of waters, and the
accompaniments of them, it is fuggefted that there are two
arguments or reafons, which clearly thew that the former, in
every piece of water, whatever may be its eharaéter, fhould
be broken and diverfified. The firft of whichis, that there-
by intricacy, variety, and harmony in form, colour, and
difpofition, are produced, in the place of monotony or dif-
cord ; the fecond is, that this mode prevails in nature. In-
tricacy, variety, and harmony, are produced in the outline,
by making the {mall parts irregular, confiderably fo in
fome places, and lefs fo in others, according to the kind of
water ; in the ground by producing breaks clofe to and
alfo at fome diftance from the water ; by fhewing the naked
or various-coloured earth and gravel interfperfed among
abruptneffes, fmooth flopes, levels, and by every form and
difpofition of furface: it is further heightened by the in-
troduction of {tones of different fhapes, and placed in va-
ried or intricate difpofition; and alfo by roots, decaying
trunks, or branches of trees. It is further fuggelted,
that another fruitful fource of thefe beauties is plants,
graffes, low growths, fhrubs, andtrees. Plants and graffes
may, it is fuppofed, be employed both for cloathing fuch
parts of the furface as are {mooth, for varying others, and
affifting difpofition. Shrubs and trees may be ufed for the
laft purpofe upon a more enlarged feale. Plants, grafles,
and low growths, give intricacy and fhade to {mall breaks,
and the interftices among itones, rocks, &c. Shrubs and
trees give intricacy to large receffes, either of fimple mar-
gin, or containing thefe lefler enrichments, which, fhaded
by trees; will be heightened in effe&. All this, it is fup-
pofed, we fee sccomplifhed in nature in fuch a beautiful
manner, as far furpaiies every fort of defcription ; it may,
it is believed, be admired by perfons of feeling alone, with-
out much judgment or knowledge of the principles by
which it pleafes or produces the effe& noticed ; but this
kind of knowledge and judgment is highly ufeful in direét-
ing what to copy from nature, and how to apply it to arti-
ficial pieces of water. Without it, perfons, it is contended,
may argue either for copying the deformities or fingularities
of nature, or for mifapplying them when copied, as has
been done by feveral. There is a difference of charaéter in
the margin and accompaniments of a lake, river, and brook,
though each is varied or harmonious. Each differs alfo ac-
cording to the nature or ftyle of the country, or foil of the
land through which they may have to pafs, as is evident from
a great number of different inftances fcattered over the coun-
try, in which there are particular differences in the banks,
adjacent grounds, and accompaniments, that give an inte-
refting variation of charaéter to each individually.
There are fome other ornamental appendages which are
occafionally placed near to or upon water, fuch as ereétions of
the bridge, and other kinds. There is no greater ornament
to a piece of water of the nature of a river than a bridge, and
few objects fo generally pleafing, becaufe fo univerfally ufe-
ful. This notion has been taken advantage of, it is fug-
gefted, by improvers, but for the moft part in a very inju-
dicious manner. Their bridges are too commonly formal,
and unconneéted with the fcenery, either by their unfuitable
magnitude, or by the loftinefs of their arches, ftraddling
acrofs a fhallow ftagnated river, as is the cafe in many well-
known fituations. They want, it is contended, that beau-
tiful fimplicity, connection, and pitturefque effect, which
may be feen in many highway bridges acrofs ftreams or
rivers, and which is produced there by nece/fity and time.
Thus the arches, it is faid, are made low when the banks
on each fide are tame and level, becaufe otherwife carts and
carriages would have greater difficulty in afcending them.
The archite&ture is fimple, becaufe, in general, the builders
were not allowed to incur the expence of ornaments. The
plants, ivy-bifhes, and trees which group with them, have
{prung up in the’ courfe of time, but they may be fpeedily
imitated by art. The broken parapets, piers, or arches,
fupplied by open railing, or a few pales, are the effects of
time, or accident, and in fome cafes are worth imitating in
the f{cenery of a refidence. ‘Thefe circumftances might
eafily be copied in ornamental fcenery, and if judicioufly
fupplied, it 1s faid, will invariably fucceed in producing a
good effeg. Foot-bridges of planks, or rude boles and
trunks of trees, fuit well, it is fuppofed, with many feenes
of the rural kind. They have frequently been attempted,
it is aflerted, but feldom with complete fuccefs, owing to
the tafteleffnefs of thofe who contrived them.
The
WATER.
‘The other forts of ereGtions which have been ufually em-
ployed for the purpofe of ornamenting water, it is contend-
ed, have rarely either picturefque effe&, or any ufe; fuch,
for inftance, as thofe of aquatic temples, {tatues, river-gods,
and other fimilar abfurdities, or what may be called falfe de-
corations. Boat-houfes, however, of fimple conftruétions,
and for the moft part all ufeful forts of ereétions, may oc-
cafionally be introduced with propriety and good effeét.
The Perfian-wheel, the forcing-wheel, the corn-mill, and
fome others of fimilar kinds, are had recourfe to with ex-
cellent effef&ts in different places. ‘* The water-wheel and
corn-mill at Warwick-cattle, it is faid, is perhaps the grandeft
appendage to that noble building; whether in refpeét to
the train of ideas which it awakens in the mind ref{peéting its
former compared with its prefent ufe, &c., or its effect in
conneétion with the cafcade, for which it forms an excellent
apology. And though cafcades of this kind be formal of
themfelves, yet the idea of their utility, it is fuppofed,
compenfates, in a confiderable degree, for the want of
picturefque grandeur ; and ftill the roar meets the ear
through woods, or diftance, with the fame force as in thofe
which are natural.”
Mr. London further fuppofes, that the pi€turefque im-
provement of the pieces of water which already exift will
be attended to by all thofe who at prefent have artificial
waters, in imitation of rivers, lakes, ponds, or brooks,
and who are in the habit of making improvements of this
kind upon their grounds. Such proprietors may, he
thinks, be affured that no part can ftand in greater
need of alterations than fuch waters; and fhould they
go on with others, except planting, to the negleé& of
this, they will not certainly merit the approbation of men
of tafte, as tafte always prefers excellence to quantity.
“cf, it is faid, any proprietor fhould hefitate to alter a
piece of water which he has long been accuftomed to fee
without being fenfible perhaps of any great deformity, in
confequence of habit, if he looks from his windows to a
ferpentine river, winding among f{mooth naked turf, with
only here and there a few clumps placed at fome diftance
from its margin ; if the water prefents one uniform glare of
light, clear blue, or dull green, and feldom varied by any
fhadows or reflections but thofe of clumps and {ky, let him,
before he decides in favour of the tame river, imagine that
in, place of this a broad irregular lake, forming bays and
recefles, retirmg among thick woods, and with its margin
in fome places abrupt, broken, and varied by ftones, plants,
and creepers; in one place {mooth, floping, and covered
with grafs ; and in another clothed with fhrubs, trees, and
low growths ; then let him imagine that he fees thefe trees,
woods, and the different coloured earths and {tones of the
banks, reflected upon the till furface of the water, which, in
fome places, was covered with dark fhadows from the wood,
and in others was bright and: clear as the heavens : let him
confider how interefting this would appear, even at a dif-
tance, and how long he might be employed in tracing with
the eye the various recefles, dark places, and reflections,
while ftill much remained indiftin& or unfeen, and therefore
either employed the imagination in completing it according
to its own ideas, or awakened curiofity to walk down and ex-
amine it minutely, by tracing, as far as could be done without
the interruption of thickets and briars, the various windings
and intricate margin of the whole. Let him only. contrait
this with the effet of the piece of water already there,
which he can /ée and £now, as completely by a fingle glance
as if he viewed it an hour; and could examine the two ex-
tremities, which are all that could be difcovered by walking
down to it, as completely in a few minutes as if he were to
encompafs it a whole day. If the contraft does not {trike
him; he certainly, it is contended, as far as regards his own
tafte, is juftified in preferving his water as it is; but if
otherwife, he ought to commence improvement immediately,
not only in gratification of his own fentiments, but alfo in
juitice to every attempt to promote and introduce good tafte
in a country where he is a proprietor, and among a people
upon whom he is dependent for his rank and affluence.
Different ftyles of improvement may, it is obferved, be or-
namental, and admired while they are in fafhion ; but it is
only fuch as this, which are piéturefque, or natural, that
can ftand the teft of time.’
The firft thing to be confidered in the alteration of artifi-
cial pieces of water, is the charaéter which ought to be
adopted ; and the next, the execution of that chara@ter in
the beft manner poffible, and with the leaft expence of
labour and money. The former has been already fully no-
ticed, and the latter will be particularly confidered below.
In many cafes, however, the alterations required are fo very
fimple, asto ftand in need of little art, either in the defigns or
the practical parts, as has happened in altering the waters of
different fine ceuntry-feats.
In fhort, the management of natural pieces of water,
where they come within the province of pi€turefque im-
provement, moftly confifts in rendering them more charaéter-
iftic, and by the occafional introduétion of particular effeds.
The leading principles in effeGting the firft of thefe im-
provements have been made fufficiently obvious already ; and
the latter are derived from what takes place in nature ; as
in the cafes of waterfalls, cafcades, {prings, and droop-
ing banks or rocks, on the margins of large brooks or
rivers, all of which may, itis {uppofed, be imitated in parti-
cular inftances. Alfo, in rills and fmaller ftreams there
are dank-pools, ponds, and little lakes, which often occur
in their courfes, that are highly worthy of imitation for
their intrinfic beauty, their contraft with the narrow rills,
and their ufe in landfcape. Betides, it is fuggefted that a
great advantage of fuch pools, or little lakes, 1s, that they
may be made to appear natural where no other variety of
ftill water could poffibly be attempted. Avnd that, in nature,
they are found on the fides of declivities, where they are,
for the moft part, covered by wood, and feen only ona
near view. In level places or fituations, or fuch furfaces as
are not ftrikingly inclined, they are or may be opened in
fome parts, for the purpofe of being feen from diftant
places in the grounds, as is admirably done in fome
cafes, ,
Another fort of occafional appearance or effe& is
iflands, and they are particularly deferving of imitation,
efpecially in lakes and ponds; nay, even in large rivers or
brooks they have often a good effe&t... In large rivers they
are moftly long and narrow ; and in brooks frequently: fo
large as to be wholly out of proportion to the ftream,
containing much extent of furface ; but fometimes th ey ar
extremely {mall, and only contain a fingle bufh, a few
bufhes, trees, or ftones and plants; each of which cafes
may be feen in almoft every brook, and they deferve imita-
tion. Iflands in ponds, it is fuppofed, fhould rather be nu-
merous and near together, than large and diltant, and be
fituated rather approaching the fides than the middle parts :
the apparent magnitude of a piece of water may, it is fug-
gefted, be greatly heightened from the main point of view,
by placing moft of the largeft iflands next the eye, as well
as by the mode of planting them. In regard to planting
iflands in general they fhould be wooded, but not wholly,
and never in fuch.a way as to exclude the appearance of
furface, broken ground, rocks, roots, and ftones, which
S2 are
WATER.
ar€ miore natural to iflands than to fhores, becaufe it: muft
always be fuppofed that it has been fome of thefe ma-
terials which have either occafioned the accumulation of
the ifland, or prevented it from being wafhed away after-
wards.
Waterfalls and cafcades are alfo occafionally introduced in
extenfive pleafure-grounds, where there is the crt of
a rivulet, by which they may be formed either in one large
fall, or in two or three fmaller ones in fucceffion, having
large rough ftones placed below to break the water, and in-
creafe the found of the torrent in its fall and: paflage over
them, in fome degree fimilar to that peculiar to natural caf-
cades. And fountains, {pouting water from images, &c.
are fometimes introduced in the centre of {mall or moderate
bafons; or other refervoirs of water in gardens or grounds,
where a fupplying head of water is conveniently fituated
fufficiently high to raife and throw the water from the jet
or fpout, in a continued full ftream, to a confiderable height,
which falling in the bafon, keeps the water of it in motion,
prevents ftagnation, and is thereby rendered more proper for
keeping and breeding fifh of the gold and filver kinds, &c.
and the {pouting and falling of the water have a refrefhing
effe& in the heat of fummer. In parterres, fhrubbery
unds, and particular kinds of gardens, water is intro-
ced either in the forms of {till ponds, drooping fountains,
or jets d’eau; but as thefe are all artificial, no perfe&
mode can be afforded for imitation. They, however, moft
of them proceed in fome meafure on the principle of con-
traft, which, in every modification of matter, is capable of
producing either ak at variety, or harmony ; confe-
quently, of effecting fcenes which fhall difguft, pleafe, or
highly intereft the beholder. Jets d’eau are not at prefent in
fuch difrepute as they were formerly in this country; but
they are, for the moft part, lefs underftood, and their pro-
per ufe lefs comprehended.
Mr. London, in the above work, remarks, that the epi-
thets waterfalls and cafcades denote different chara¢ters in or-
namentalimprovements. Where the water falls over a ridge
of rock in one or more /heets, they are properly denominated
waterfalls; and where its fall is broken and interrupted by
the irregularity of the ridge, and by other fragments of
rocks and ftones, they are properly cafcades. Both kinds,
it is fuggeited, may be imitated in improved fcenery, though
hitherto this has feldom been well accomplifhed, on account
either of the reftri&ted pra@ical knowledge of perfons of
tafte, or the limited or vitiated tafte, or deficiency of judg-
ment, in thofe who have had the neceflary practical expe-
rience in matters of this kind.
However, waterfalls may either, it is fuppofed, be imi-
tated direGtly, by being copied from nature, or indire&ly,
by the introduétion of weirs for the ufe of water-mills, as
already hinted. In imitating nature, the /frength or durabi-
lity of the whole muft be equally taken into confideration
with that of the beauty. The firft depends upon the gene-
ral form of the whole materials, and the fecond principally
on the foundation ; but in a partial way alfo, on the quality
of the materials, and the execution. In every cafe which is
upon a large feale, the foundation ought to be the natural
rock, if poffible ; but on a more moderate or {mall {cale,
it may be a fecure caufeway, fixed by oak piles and crofs-
planks, the work bein pertanoed with great care, and in an
exat manner ; ufing fuch mortar, where neceflary, as is.ca-
pable of refifting water.
-It is noticed, that there is one variety of waterfall which
may be occafionally feen in nature, and which is highly
worthy of imitation, though it is not known to have ever
yet been attempted to be introduced. It is that where a
{mall rivulet or rill, at its junction with a river or brook,
falls over a rock in one {mall fheet. It is ftated that, * at
Matlock Bath, the noife of a {mall waterfall of this kind
forms one of the fineft circumftances of the fcenery about
that place ; — borne upon the breeze, its grateful harmony
meets the ear in almoft every part of the adjacent fcenery,
in murmurs as varied as their paflages through woods and
open glades, along the furface of the Dove, under the
echoing cliffs of the Tor, or afcending the heights of
Abram. This remarkable effe&, it is contended, produced
by fuch a fmall quantity of water, ought to be the greateft
encouragement to fuch as poffefs bibs or rivulets, as few
cafes can occur where it may net be imitated; not indeed
with fuch remarkable fuccefs, becaufe the furrounding
{cenery may not be fo varied, but ftill with fuch an effe& as
would amply compenfate for the expence, which in every
cafe could be but trifling.’ Others are fuggefted, and the
beft manner of forming them clearly explained by drawn
figures.
The nature of waterfalls for the purpofe of driving ma-
chinery are, it is obferved, generally pretty well under-
ftood ; and that as no difguife in the mafonry is requifite,
but art is commonly to appear; the principles of ftrength
and durability noticed above are what chiefly demand atten-
tion. But it is remarked that it is to be regretted that fo
few who have rivers take advantage of it, and that fo many
make cafcades equally formal and unnatural, without any
real ufe, and with littlé beauty, either of charaéter in them-
felves, or fitnefs and conneétion with the fcenery about
them.
As to cafcades, what has been faid in refpe& to water-
falls willin general apply. In thofe which are upon a {mall
fcale, and where there is a plentiful fupply of water at all
feafons of the year, the fame forms may be built with fimi-
lar care in re{pe& to foundation, folidity, and mortar, they
being then difguifed by rocks of different fizes in a natural
manner, in different ways, according to the different circum-
ftances of the places. ‘The fame general principles in relation
to form will be applicable to all kinds of Aeads, fifh-ponds,
&c.; only in thefe cafes the materials are commonly clay or
gravel ; which laft fhould always be well puddled with clay
or {tiff loam on the fide next the water. In defigning
waterfalls and cafcades, one principal confideration is, it is
faid, to adapt them properly to the fcenery. In fome cafes,
they are quite inadmiffible, as in all rivers or brooks without
ftones or rocks in their beds or margins; and in others
where they are few, or where the ground on each fide is
level, they can never be made of any great magnitude. An
attention to nature is, however, fufficient to guide us*in
this, as well as in every thing elfe which relates to the fub-
je& ; a fubje& which, it is faid, is fo highly interefting and
comprehenfive, that it would require a very great {pace to
give a complete elucidation of it in every refpe&. See
Warer-Falls.
It may be noticed, that in the bufinefs of forming ground
for water, the earth mutt be excavated to a proper depth, gra-
dually loping from the verge to the middle, from three to four
or five feet deep ; fometimes, however, in low fituations, the
place is naturally hollowed in fome degree, fo as not to re-
quire a general excavation, or only in particular parts, and
{ome general regulations to the whole, which in extenfive
defigns is a confiderable advantage. Where the fides and
bottom are of a fandy, gravelly, or ftony nature, or abound
in loofe foil, and there is not a conftant fupplying ftream,
they muft be well fecured by the application of a thick coat
of well-wrought clay. And where this claying is neceffary
in the preparatory excavation, a proper allowance fhould be
made
WATER,
made for the additional coat of clay, to the extent of twelve
or fifteen inches in thicknefs, and of feveral inches of gravel
over it, to preferve the clay from being wafted by the mo-
tion of the water, and keep it clear, which would otherwife
be muddy. But previous to the claying, the loofe and
uneven parts in the bottom and fides of the cavity fhould be
well rammed, to make the whole firm, even, and fmooth ;
then beginning in the middle fpace with the clay, and pro-
ceeding gradually outward, being careful that no ftones,
fticks, or other matter, get mixed with it, to occafion fif-
fures, or cracks, by which the water-may efcape, laying it
evenly, a {mall thicknefs at a time, and fpreading it regu-
larly, treading it well with the naked feet; and if dry
weather, cafting water on it occafionally, ramming it well
from time to time with wooden rammers; then gradually
applying more clay, in the fame manner, to the proper
elijgedelee being careful that every part is fo well puddled
and rammed, as not to leave the {malleft vacancy. Thus
continuing the claying in a regular manner each way, from
the bottom to the top of the circumference, {moothing the
furface evenly, and in dry weather covering it, as the work
proceeds, with matts or ftraw litter, or with the {tratum of
pebbly gravel. When the whole is finifhed, the water
fhould be let in,
When this has been done, the top or verge mult be regu-
lated and levelled, forming it evenly from the edge of the
water, ina gradual regular expanfion to fome extent out-
ward, without any {tiff flope clofe to the water, diftiné&
from the furrounding fuperficies ; laying the ground with
grafs turf, efpecially along the margin, continuing it as far
down as the general level of the water. Where the extent
is confiderable it may be fown with grafs-feeds.
In conftruéting the excavations foe a body of water in
fuch fituations as are deficient of materials in fome of their
parts, as too low in fome of their boundaries, as either at
the ends or fides finking below the general furface of the
ground, or the height at which the water is intended to
itand ; thefe parts muft be ftrongly banked up to the ne-
ceffary height in a fubftantial manner, having a fufficient
body of proper materials applied, efpecially where the part
is to form a head at the end of a canal, or other fimilar
piece of water; the whole being inwardly faced with a
ftrong body of well puddled clay.
It is well known by every one, the above writer fays,
that the expence attending the formation of artificial water
by the modes which have hitherto been chiefly praétifed is
enormous, and in fome inftances fearcely fupportable ; but
by adopting improved methods, fuch as thofe which have
been fuggelted, it will in almoft every cafe be greatly re-
duced, and become much cheaper, often to a very remark-
able degree. This will be rendered quite evident by con-
fidering the different neceflary operations in their formation,
as they relate to each method of proceeding ; fuch, for in-
ftance, as the excavation of the bed for the water, the form-
ation of the head, the fpreading of the earth taken out, and
the management of the furrounding furface. In regard to
the firft, the principal reafon why it becomes fo expenfive
is, that a river is commonly imitated inftead of a lake, which,
on account of the natural flope of all grounds, requires not
merely larger heads, but a far greater number of them.
By in a great meafure imitating lakes, one head is, for the
mott part, all that is required; and this alfo, many times,
of a far fmaller dimenfion than thofe in the cafes of rivers.
Tiaaielone often makes a very material difference in the
coft.
In what relates to the {preading of the excavated earth,
and the regulation of the furrounding furface, as in the me-
thods hitherto purfued in landfeape gardening, whatever
may be the natural charaéter or tendency of the furround-
ing furface, it is to be reduced, by levelling, to a {mooth,
even lawn, or pafture, floping in a gradual manner from
the margin of the water. This of courfe caufes a prodi-
gious expenditure of money ; and what is {till more dif-
agreeable, it is too frequently quite uncertain, and only
capable of being calculated after the finifhing of the whole
work. The quantity of cubical yards to be removed in the
work of excavating“can be eftimated very nearly to a cer-
tainty ; but the bufinefs of levelling is intricate, trouble-
fome, and often of great extent ; hence the great excefs of
expence which is frequently incurred beyond the eftimate in
this refpeét in pieces of made water. If any one plan ever
had the advantage over another, it is contended that certainly
picturefque or natural pieces of water have the full and
complete fuperiority over thofe of other kinds in what re-
gards expence. In them, it is maintained, the natural cha-
racter of the ground is preferved or improved, and confe-
quently no expence of levelling is incurred; the fuperflu-
ous earth produced in the procefs of excavating being
formed into irregular inequalities, or diftributed along the
banks in fuch a manner as to augment or increafe their cha-
rater and pi€turefquenefs, as is evident in numerous inftances.
Under other circumftances, vaft expence may often be run
into, without much, if any, beauty being produced; when
it could have been effected to a great extent by the modes
which are here advifed without laying out much money.
Farther information on this very interefting fubje&t may be
gained by confulting Mr. London’s excellent work.
Water, Rain, ColleBing of, for Farm Ufe, in Rural
Economy, the providing it in proper fituations for the
purpofe. This praétice was formerly adopted in different
parts of the country: as in mott towns, and in the yards,
ponds for the ufe of cattle, are ftill to be met with, which
have an artificial appearance. In extenfive pafture heavy
or about the houfes of many old farm-lands, pools or
land diftri€ts, pits have evidently been formed by art
for the purpofe of catching fuch rain-water as may be
brought to them by the ridge-furrows, ditches, or other
fuch means, as well as that of land-{prings. The art too
has been long praétifed on the fouthern chalk-hill parts of
the kingdom, and {till continues, in a great meafure, to pre-
vail; and on thofe, in fome northern diftri@s, it has been
more lately eftablifhed, and {preads itfelf on the neighbour-
ing heights with vaft benefit. It is certainly neceflary and
ufeful in all dry high fituations. It may probably, in fome
cafes, alfo be collected into fuch pits, from the roofs of the
buildings, for fuch purpofes, with much advantage ; though it
has been much too common to draw it up, at great labour
and expence, from deep wells formed in the bowels of the
earth.
Lately much more attention has been beftowed on this.
matter than was formerly the cafe, in moft places, and in
fome with the greateft fuccefs and benefit. It fhould never
be negle&ted where the want of it is confiderable, as live-
ftock never do well under fuch circumftances. See Ponp,
Made Streams, and WaterinG Live-Stock.
Water, Sea, Management of Land gained from, in Agricul-
ture, the bringing ground of this fort into cultivation. It
has been obferved, that the principal difficulty that can oc-
cur in any fituation will be to keep off the water of the
rivulets or rivers that may come from the furrounding lands,
and to carry away and deliver to the fea the furface-water
colleGed from the land gained; the next important con
fideration is that of clearing this land of furface incum-
branees. » It will often happen, it is faid, that the ground
12 to.
WATER.
to be defended is interfe&ted by a river. This is, it is
thought, the moft expenfive and difficult cafe that can occur;
but it is here only neceffary,to carry the defence along each
fide of it to the fea; and there, where it interfeéts the other
line of defence, to place a flood-gate, which may prevent
the tide from entering, except when it may be neceflary to
admit veffels or other things, and which fhall allow the water
of the river to pafs into the fea. Small rivulets and {prings
may either be turned along the margin of the land gained,
and be let out at one end of the defence where it joins the
Jand, or be led the mott convenient way to one or more of
the valves or flood-gates, which it is neceflary to make in all
defences for excluding the water within. The water col-
le&ted on the furface of the land gained, may generally be
let off by the above flood-gates or valves; but where the
defence is,extended into the water, this cannot be the cafe,
as the level of the fea will moftly be above that of the land.
In this cafe, wind-mills for driving pumps muft be placed at
proper diftances, according as the particular cafe may be.
Perhaps, in general, one {mall wind-mill driving four pumps,
may be fufficient for freeing a thoufand acres of ground of
water. The expence of fuch a pump-mill would not, it is
faid, be above twenty or thirty pounds. By making a
{mall defence-bank, from two to four feet high, fome dif-
tance within the larger one, all the water colleéted between
that and the original fhore would be accumulated ; and it
might be led in a raifed canal in the fame level to a flood-
gate in the outer defence. This would, it is thought, leave
very little water to be drawn up by the pump ; and in this
way, though twenty thoufand acres were gained, one wind-
mill only would be neceflary. Often, and indeed in moft
eafes, in place of a wind-mill, the brooks, rivulets, or {prings
colleéted within, might eafily, it is faid, be made to turn a
water-wheel, which would be more permanent and uniform
than that turned by the wind. A bafon might alfo be con-
ftruéted, fo that the ebb and flow of the tide would turn a
draining-wheel ; and a great many other methods might, it
is f{uppofed, be fuccefsfully adopted. Thus, in land gained
from the fea, there cannot, it is thought, be any difficulty
in preferving it from water, from whatever quarter it may
come. When the land to be gained is more or lefs covered
with ftones, thefe fhould be put in flat-bottomed boats at
low water ; and when the tide floats them, they fhould be
rowed to the propofed line of bank defence, and be then
dropped. This mode of conveyance will generally be found
the moft economical for all the folid materials which are at
a diftance. Where the groundis fandy or poor on the fur-
face, and argillaceous earth or rich loam below, it may be
trench-ploughed to fuch a depth, as to tura up the good
and bury the bad foil. If the foil be fhallow, and even
rocky, it may ftill, it is faid, be rendered valuable. The
moft rocky parts may be covered five or fix inches
deep with mouldy matters, and the whole be fown with
either meadow graf{s-feeds, to be floated with frefh water, or
kept as meadow ; or with other proper and fuitable grafs-
feeds, and kept as falt-marfh. When mud of a good quality
and confiderable depth is gained, it may, in fome cafes, it is
thought, be defirable to Gmeetlion it for one or more
feafons, after it has been fecured from the fea. At other
times it may be better to fow it with rape-feed for the firft
feafon, and to fummer-fallow it the next, as a preparation
for a corn-crop, &c.
It is obferved that no fort of land can be gained from
the fea but what is of great value for the purpofe of culti-
vation, and efpecially as it. ean for the moft part be flooded
by freth water as well as by that of the feaat all times. By
flooding, the moft barren fend or rock, with only an inch or
two of foil upon it, will bear excellent’ pafture. Indeed,
much of the fand in thefe fituations that is often reckoned
barren and ufelefs, is mixed with broken fhells, and on being
examined will be found to contain three or four parts in ten
of calcareous matter. Moft of the large rocks, too, within
the falt-water mark are, it is faid, in a as of rapid decom-
pofition, and fo fragile on the furface, as to be eafily pene-
trated by the roots of grafs-plants; more particularly after
they have been expofed for fome length of time to the
aGtion of the atmofphere. The large detached ftones often
found within the water-mark are not here meant, as thefe
are fuppofed to be either buried in the ground, or boated
off as above ; but thofe continued rocks which frequently
conftitute the bafis of the fea-fhore for great. ditances,
the furface of which is fo completely oxydated, and occa-
fionally decompofed and reduced fo as to be called rotten,
that they are capable of affording either an excellent ma-
nure for certain foils, or are fit and proper for fupporting
the vegetation of faline plants in their aCtual condition,
The quantity of land of this fort that is eafily capable of
being obtained and thus cultivated is very confiderable
indeed, perhaps not lefs than fome millions of acres in the
whole ifland. See Waste Land, and Warerine Land.
Alfo Sarr-Marfh.
Water, Gum.) See Mucitace.
Water, Hungary. See Huncary Water.
Water, Laurel. See Lauren.
Warer, Lime, is common water, in which quicklime
has been flaked. See Lime-Water.
Warers, Ophthalmic, or Eye, are fuch as are good in dif,
orders-of the eyes. See Cortyrium, Eyer, and OPHTHAL,
MIA.
Waren, Zar. See Tar-Water.
Water, in Anatomy, &c- is applied to divers liquors, or
humours, in the human body.
Such is the agua phlegmatica; phlegmatic water ; which is
a ferous fluid contained in the pericardium.
Water, in Geography and Hydrography, is a common, or
general name, applied to all liquid tranfparent bodies, flow-
ing on the earth.
sei this fenfe, water and earth are faid to conftitute our
terraqueous globe.
Some authors have rafhly and injurioufly taxed the diitri-
bution of water and earth in our globe as unartful, and not
well proportioned ; fuppofing that the water takes up too
much room.
The quantity of water on this fide our globe, Dr. Cheyne
fufpeéts to be daily decreafing ; fome part thereof ‘ being
continually turned into animal, vegetable, metalline, or mi-
neral fubftances ; which are not eafily diffolved again into
their component parts.”” Philofoph. Princip. of Relig.
Many modern philofophers are of the fame opinion.
An inundation, on overflowing of the waters, makes a
Deluge; which fee.
Warer, among Jewellers, is properly the colour or luftre
of diamonds and pearls; thus called, by reafon thefe were
anciently fuppofed to be formed, or concreted of water.
The term is foraeines alfo ufed, though lefs properly, for
the colour or hue of other precious ftones.
Waser is alfo ufed in divers ceremonies, both civil and
religious, Such are the bapti/mal water, holy water, &c.
Water, Holy, is a water prepared every Sunday in the
Romifh church, with divers prayers, exorcifms, &c. ufed
by the people to crofs themfelves with at their entrance,
and going out of church; and pretended to have the virtue
of wafhing away venial fins, driving away devils, Briere
rom
WATER.
from thunder, diflolving charms, fecuring from, or curing
difeafes, &c.
The ufe of holy water appears to be of a pretty ancient
ftanding in the church: witnefs St. Jerom, in his life of
St. Hilarion, and Gretfer, de Benedi&. cap. x. &c.—M.
Godeau attributes its original to Alexander, a martyr under
the emperor Adrian.
Many of the reformed take the ufe of holy water to have
been borrowed from the luftral water of the ancient Romans:
though it might as well be taken from the fprinkling in ufe
among the Jews. See Numbers, xix. 17.
Urban Godfrey Siber, a German, has a diflertation,
printed at Leipfic, to fhew, by proofs brought from church
hiftory, that one may give holy water to drink to brutes.
Bitter Waters of Jealoufy.—in the Levitical law, we find
mention made of a water, which ferved to prove whether or
no a woman were an adultrefs. The formula was this: the
prieft, offering her the holy water, denounced, ‘‘ If thou
haft gone afide to another, inftead of thy hufband, and if
thou be defiled, &c. the Lord make thee a curfe and an
oath amoug thy people, by making thy thigh to rot, and
thy belly to fwell; and this water fhall go into thy bowels,
to make thy belly to {well, and thy thigh to rot.””? And
the woman fhall fay, Amen. Thefe curfes the prieft fhall
write in a book, and blot them out with the bitter water.
When he hath made her drink the bitter water, it fhall come
to pafs, that, if fhe be defiled, the water fhall enter into
her, and become bitter, and her belly fhall fwell,”’ &c. If
fhe be not defiled, fhe fhall be free, and conceive feed.’
Numbers, chap. v.
Water, Interdiion of Fire and. See INTERDICTION.
Water of Flax and Hemp, &c. that which is ufed for
fteeping or raiting them in, in the view of procuring the
pure vegetable fibrous matters that they contain. The wri-
ter of the “Elements of Agricultural Chemiftry”’ has ob-
ferved, that this water pofleffes confiderable fertilizing
powers. It appears, it is faid, to contain a fubftance ana-
logous to albumen, as well as much vegetable extractive
matter, It putrefies very readily. And that as a certain
degree of fermentation is abfolutely neceflary for obtaining
the matters of the flax and hemp in a proper ftate; the
water to which they have been expofed fhould on that ac-
count be ufed as a manure as foon as the vegetable fibre
is removed from it.
Water, Black, a difeafe in neat cattle and fheep, which
ig not unfrequently of a ferious nature. It has not, how-
ever, been yet properly or fully invettigated.
In neat cattle it is faid to arife from fudden changes in
the ftate of the weather from heat to great cold, the taking
of cold on being turned into low wet paftures in the early
{pring feafon, and the want of proper water in long dry
times. Some fuppofe too that it may be caufed by frefh
paftures of particular forts, and that certain vegetables
picked up by the cattle may produce it. It confilts of a
difcharge of a dark black bloody nature from the kidneys,
and fometimes probably from other parts of the body. It
is moft probably produced by inflammation terminating fud-
denly in a ftate of great debility and relaxation of the parts,
fo as to admit the dark grumous blood thrown out to pafs
away in this manner.
In flight cafes of this nature the cattle do not feem to be
a great deal affeGted by the difeafe, but where the bloody
fluid pafled away is confiderable, and lafts for fome length of
time, the animals become reduced to a very low {tate or con-
dition, and great weaknefs is the confequence, which if not
{peedily removed by fome proper remedy, the cattle foon
Gnk. under the preflure of the complaint.
In the cure, except the difeafe be taken at its commence-
-ment, bleeding will feldom be ufeful or neceflary, but the
bowels fhould be well cleared out by powerful evacuating
remedies of the falt kind, and kept properly open by their
repetition, fo that the cattle do not become in the leaft con-
ftipated, which would be hurtful and dangerous. When
the difcharge continues, balls compofed of alum, ruft of
iron, and armenian bole, made up with Venice turpentine,
may often be of fervice, when given in fufficient quantities ;
but a more powerful and effeétual remedy will be found in
a {trong decoétion or infufion of bark, with yitriolic acid,
and the tinéture of opium, given in the proportion of a pint
of the firft, two drachms of the fecond, and three drachms
of the laft. This may be repeated once or twice in the
courfe of the day where neceflary, the bowels being always
well kept open.
By fome of thefe means the difeafe may moftly be re-
moved without any great difficulty. .
Some think that much benefit often arifes from the ufe
of nitre in full dofes in this diforder, as well.as from the
change of pa{ture, in fome inftances, as from low to fuch
as are rather high in their fituation. i
In fheep the difeafe is charaGterized by much the fame ap-
pearances, taking place fuddenly, moft commonly among
thofe of the hog kind, and fuch as are apparently ftrong,
while feeding in rank paftures of the clover or other luxu-
riant grafs kinds. In thefe cafes, there is fometimes much
dark bloody watery fluid met with in the ftomachs of the
fheep after death. The difeafe in thefe animals is moftly
. very rapid in its sl hare therefore the fheep. in fuch paf-
tures fhould be cont{tantly well looked to, in order to dif-
cover if any of them be indifpofed.
In the prevention of the black water in thefe animals,
fome have found great benefit by the ufe of about half a
tea-fpoonful of fulphuric or vitriolic acid in mixture with a,
fmall {poonful of the compound tin@ure of cinnamon, when
given in a cup of cold water to each fheep in the morning,
and cotting or houfing them in the night feafon. ‘
In other cafes, when the difeafe appeared to be prefent,
much advantage has been faid to be produced by giving a
ftrong infufion of pak-bark with aromatics, well acidulated
with the fulphuric acid, and to which has been added a little
of the tin@ure of opium. The bowels are to be kept in aa
open. ftate at the fame time.
The immediate removal of the fheep into clofer fed and
drier paftures, will always be attended with great benefit in
this difeafe, and the fupplying them with dry food might
perhaps in fome cafes be of utility.
Waren, White, a name often given to a dangerous difeafe
in fheep. ;
Waver in the Head, a denomination frequently applied
to a difeafe in the head ef fheep. See Gip and Sturpy.
Water Braxy, among Animals, a difeafe in fheep, which
has been difputed by fome; but which the writer of the
‘* Shepherd’s Guide’’ is confident exifts, having feen and
diffe&ted feveral cafes of it after death ; and is aflured, too,
that it does confiderable damage on fome particular farms,
in fome fituations; but that whether it be a {pecies of the
common braxy or not, will, it is thought, admit of a doubt,
though it is always viewed and confidered by the shepherd
as fuch. It is ftated in addition alfo, that in two external
appearances it has a refemblance to it. The firft of which
is, that the animal, when living, feems affeGted much in
the fame way, lying frequently down, and, loitering be-
hind the reft of the flock, appearing likewife fomewhat
{welled in the body. And that the next is, that, like all
others affected with the braxy of any kind, it will not bleed,
to
WATER.
to any extent om opening a vein. The cutting of a vein in
the tail, {pould, or below the eye, will make other fheep
bleed plentifully ; but from thefe fearcely a drop will iffue ;
and even on cutting the principal vein in the throat, only a
very {mall quantity, it is faid, proceeds to flow out.
However, in the interior appearances it differs very
widely and materially. On opening the fheep, the whole
entrails are, it is obferved, {wimming in bloody water, none
of which is within the bowels, but only within the rim of
the belly. The gall-bladder is very fmall, appearing as
having been moftly fpilled previoufly to the death of the
animal, and the urinal bladder is contraéted and fhrunk up
to a fize fcarcely noticeable. The {mall fibres connecting
it with the other parts are inflamed, and on bringing it near
the nofe fmells fomewhat like the other braxy. The bladder
feems entirely without urine, but on blowing it up it is
always quite found, and never burits; the guts and flefh
are a little difcoloured, and have a {mell peculiar to that
diforder. The {maller department of the ftomach or reid
has fome purple fpots on it; and, on being felt with the
finger, thefe are thicker in the texture than the other parts
of it. They feem, too, to have bled a portion inwardly ;
this fome fuppofe iffues from the liver.
In an efflay inferted in the appendix to the Rev. Mr.
Findlater’s Account of the Agriculture of the County of
Peebles in Scotland, it is faid to be a difeafe that is analo-
gous to the fuppreffion of urine, which is caufed by the
want of fufficient a€tivity and exertion. And that it con-
fifts in the bladder being over-diftended with urine, which
raifes violent inflammation in that organ, and produces an
incapacity to difcharge the urine that is accumulated. The
confequence of which is, that the urine regurgitates over
the body ; the whole carcafe is tainted by fetid gafes ; the
bladder becomes gangrenous, burfts, and the animal dies.
That young and vigorous fheep are moft liable to this fort
of braxy. And that the immediate caufe of the difeafe is
feeding too freely on rich fucculent diuretic food, and reft-
ing too long in the morning on the layers, taking place fre-
quently when the fhepherds are more negligent than ufual in
removing them.
It is Fipple that the difeafe may be prevented by avoid-
ing too free an ufe of fucculent diuretic food, and by
moving the animals from the layers on which they are early
in the morning, making them walk about for fome time in
the view of encouraging them to pafs their urine and
url.
: In attempting the cure, in cafe the bladder be greatly
diftended and affe&ted, which may be known by there
being a great fulnefs in the lower part .of the belly, the
urine may be endeavoured to be drawn off by the introduc-
tion of fuitable implements of the catheter kind, or by cau-
tioufly letting it off by incifion of puncture, where that
cannot be done. In either of thefe ways, when effected,
great relief will be afforded. '
And in the view of allaying or preventing inflammation,
the ufe of proper purging and evacuating injections fhould
be had recourfe to, fuch as Glauber, or other falts of the
fame kind ; or even warm milk and water be thrown up.
The firft writer, however, thinks that no remedy for the
difeafe has yet been pointed out that can be fully de-
pended upon. See Braxy, and Srrikine Jil, Blood,
or Sickne/s.
Warer Farcy, a difeafe in horfes of the oedematous or
partial dropfical kind, which is often very troublefome in its
removal. It has no relation or refemblance, however, to
that of the real farcy, being wholly different in its nature,
caufes, and effects, though fometimes ignorantly fuppofed
to be of the fame kind. It occurs in horfes of all kinds
and defcriptions, and at moft periods of their exiftence. Itis
a foft watery {welling below the fkin, and is caufed by what-
ever has a tendency to weaken and deftroy the natural vi-
gour and ftrength of the body, whether in a local or general
manner, but more efpecially in the former, fuch as low
bad keep, want of fufficient cleaning and dreffing, taking
the animals into cold water in a warm ftate, too great ex-
pofure to cold rains, and many others. It © snr too,
happens after fevere colds of the epidemical kind. The
fwellings take place in different parts, but particularly in
the legs, having a pitted or dimpled appearance when preffed
by the finger. In fome cafes, the difeafe has a more
general dropfical afpeét, the water not being confined to
any one part, but fhews itfelf in feveral, over the whole
body, by fuch fwellings. Thefe cafes, for the moft part,
proceed from foul feeding, or the effeéts of eating too
greadily of rich luxuriant after-grafs. In the former cafe,
the limbs and the whole body are fometimes feen enormoufly
{welled, and become very hard, the belly and fheath parts
being very greatly diftended.
In the cure of the difeafe, in all the cafes, the great objeéts
are the removal and difcharge of the water, and the preven-
tion of its future formation by every poffible means. ‘Fhe
former are to be attempted by the giving of ftrong diuretic
purgative remedies, and the latter by the ufe of medicines
of the ftrengthening kind, fo as to brace up and reftore the
tone of the relaxed folids of the whole body.
In the firft of the above intentions, the combining of
calomel and fquills with jalap and aloes, in the proportions
of about one drachm each of the two firft, to two drachms
each of the two laft, for a large horfe, may be very ufeful,
when made into a ball, and given every night, or every
other night for four or five times, and repeated as there
may be occafion ; throwing in, in the intervals, bark and
other tonics, in full quantities, to reftore and keep up the
ftrength of the animals.
Rather {trong infufions of the fox-glove with aromatics
may likewife be tried, and oak-bark in powder, with the
fame, be given in large dofes at the fame time they are
made ufe of.
The horfes fhould frequently, too, have good mafhes in
which nitre has been put. 4
Gibfon, however, advifes the horfes to be purged once or
twice in ten days, and to have intermediately a pint night
and morning of the ftrong decoétion or infufion of black
hellebore, prepared by boiling or infufing it in water, and
then adding to four parts of it two of white wine, that has
ftood upon the fame for fome length of time in a warm ftate ;
or a ball compofed of nitre, fquills, and camphor, in the
quantities of two drachms of the firft, three drachms of the
fecond, and one drachm of the third, made up with honey,
and given once a day, either alone, or wafhed down with a
hornful or two of the above infufion.
The horfes fhould be kept warm, and have plenty of dry
food while they are under thefe courfes of medicine. See
Farcin.
Water Sickne/s, a difeafeamong fheep of the dropfical kind.
It is a diforder, or fort of affection, arifing in the weak ftates
of their conftitutions, which is incident to all the varieties
of foil and climate, it is faid, in its different forms and de-
grees of violence, from Shetland in the north of Scotland,
to the moft fouthern parts of this country, wherever fheep-
hufbandry is carried on. It is obferved to occur, in general,
among aged fheep, that are fubjected to its attacks in confe-
quence of weaknefs, either of the more general or more
local kind. It moft commonly feizes the animals towards
the
WAT
the end of the harveft-feafon and winter, and on farms which
are moftly deftitute of fhelter. It is, in fa&t, faid to be the
genuine offspring of cold and moifture, and perhaps of every
thing that debilitates the vigour of the animals.
The appearances that diftinguifh it to be prefent are
fwellings in the legs towards night, which difappear in
the morning, when the lower jaw often becomes a good
deal fwelled. The eyes are dull, the urine, when noticed,
is high coloured, the tongue is dry, and as the difeafe ad-
vances, the belly often becomes tenfe, and water is felt un-
dulating in it, efpecially on being ftruck on one fide with
one hand, while the other is kept fteady on the other fide.
The fheep lofe their heart and vivacity, their appetites
fail them, they become thin and lean, and at laft fall away
and die.
In regard to the prevention of the difeafe, a dry well-
fheltered fheep-walk is faid to be good in that intention ;
and the neighbourhoods of fea-fhores are ufeful in the fame
view, as have been found by experience. But if the dif-
temper fhould fhew itfelf in a fevere manner, in very wet
feafons, in winter or {pring, night-fhelter is found of parti-
cular benefit in ftopping the increafing ftate of the malady.
The animals, too, fhould have good, green, fweet, dry
hay chopped and given them, at the fame time with a little
oats or bran in fome cafes.
In the cure of thofe which are difeafed, a fhed or room
in a houfe, and a full allowance of the fame forts of dry
food, are particularly neceflary and ufeful. Some have tried
tapping in the advanced ftage of the diforder, but with
only a temporary relief. Two drachms of cream of tartar
given twice a day, in a little warm thin oatmeal-gruel, have
been known to have a remarkably good effet. In the
more early ftages of the complaint, {mall quantities of
calomel with fquills would probably remove the difeafe,
efpecially if accompanied with a few hornfuls of a ftrong
decoétion of oak-bark two or three times a week. By
thefe means, difeafed fheep, when taken early, would per-
haps be readily reftored.
In the above-named part of Scotland, the difeafe is faid
to be called by the title of fhell-ficknefs, as well as that
which is here given it.
Warer-Calamint, in Botany, the name ufed by fome for
a fpecies of mint. See MrenTHA.
Warter-Crowfoot, in Agriculture, the name of a plant of
the weed kind, on which cows are faid by fome to be
very fond of feeding. And in the fifth volume of the
TranfaGtions of the Linnean Society, Dr. Pulteney has
obferved that it is not only relifhed by fwine, but that they
thrive remarkably upon it, requiring little or other food
until put up to fatten. The produce of it cannot, however,
be great, fo that the ufe of it muft be limited.
Waver Cres, ia Gardening, the common name of a {mall
creeping plant of the herb kind growing in watery fituations,
fuch as the fides of rivulets, rills, brooks, or other {mall
trickling ftreams ; and which is much employed as a fallad
herb, and for eating with bread and butter, or in other
modes in its natural ftate, as being highly cooling and
agreeably bitter. See Cress.
Watrer-Dropwort. See Drop-Wort.
Warer-Germander. See GERMANDER.
Watrer-Hair-gra/s. See Aira Aquatica.
Warer-Hemp-Agrimony. See Water-femp-AGRIMONY.
Warer-Leaf. See Lear.
Warer-Lily. See Nympuma.
Water Melon, the vulgar name of a plant of the melon
kind, growing in aquatic fituations, and the fruit of which
is of a watery infipid nature. See Cucursira Citrullus.
Vor. XXXVIII.
WAT
Water-Par/nep. See PARSNEP.
Warter-Poa. See Poa Aquatica.
Warer-Soldier, a {pecies of flratiotes ; which fee.
Watrer-Tath, in Sheep Hufbandry, a term applied to that
fort of rank grafs that arifes from an excefs of wetnefs in
fheep-walks and paftures, and which has a tendency to pro-
duce the rot in thefe animals. It may be caufed by too
much wetnefs in the lands, either‘naturally, or by the ufe
of water on them. It is this probably that makes water-
meadows fo dangerous for fheep at certain periods. See
Tartu and Water-Meadow.
Warter-Hen, in Ornithology. See Fuxtca Chloropus,
Flavipes, and Ratxus Carolinus.
Water-Ouzel. See Sturnus Cinalus.
, Water-Rail, See Rativs Aquaticus, and Benga-
en fis.
OT ae WW agtal See Wacrarn.
Warer-Dog, in Zoology, a variety of the Canis Fami-
liaris. See Doc.
Warer-Elephant. See Hippopotamus.
Warer-Hog. See CAPYBARA.
Water-Rat. See Mus. ;
Water-Z4idle, in Agriculture, a term applied to the ftag-
nant water contained in mofs land, in fome places, as in
fome parts of the county of Lancafter. It is faid to be
highly prejudicial to animals, when they drink water that is
mixed or impregnated with it. It is beft removed from fuch
land by proper draining, and frequent fuitable tillage culti-
vation.
The bringing fuch waftes into a ftate of improvement
confequently difcharges it in an effe€tual manner. See
Moss and Waster Land.
Warer-Bailif. See Bairirr.
Warer-Barrow, Swing, in Rural Economy, an improved
contrivance of this fort. See Quenpon Water-Barrow.
Warer-Bearer, in Affronomy. See AQUARIUS.
Water-Bellows, in Mechanics, a machine ufed to blow
air into a furnace, by the aétion of a column of water falling
through a vertical tube. ‘The orifice where the water enters
the tube is fo contrived, that the water fhall be mixed with
air when it enters the pipe; and this air will be carried along
with the ftream through the tube, and is colleéted into a
proper receiver, from which it is conveyed to the furnace in
a continued blaft. Thefe machines are much ufed on the
continent, but have never been introduced in England, be-
caufe they will not produce by any means fo great a current
of air as may be raifed by the fame fall of water, when em-
ployed to work bellows, or other machines, by means of a
water-wheel.
M. Reaumur has given a minute defcription of the water-
bellows employed for the iron furnaces, in the provinces of
Dauphiné and Pays de Foix, in France, where fuch ma-
chines are called ¢rompes. "The water is conduéted to the
furnace by a trough or paffage, having an inclination of one
inch in a toife ; the body of the trompe is a vertical tube,
about 27 French feet in height, and 16 inches diameter on
the outfide: it is made of two pieces of fir hollowed out,
and bound together by hoops of iron.
The form of the interior of the tube contributes materially
to its effe&. The mouth or upper orifice, where the con-
duit-trough pours the water into it, is 13 inches diameter :
from this it diminifhes, in the manner of a conical funnel,
till at a depth of three feet from the mouth, it is only four
inches diameter, which part is called the throat. Here the
opening of the tube enlarges all at once to a fize of nine
inches, which it continues for all the reft of the height.
Immediately beneath the throat, (that is, the upper part of
aby the
WATER-BELLOWS.
the tube where it becomes nine inches diameter,) ten vent
holes are bored through the fides of the tube; they are cy-
lindrical, and two inches diameter; their direGtion is in-
clined, fo that they point downwards at about an angle of
45 degrees; they are arranged at equal diftances round the
tube in two rows, the upper row having fix holes, and the
lower row four: it is through thefe holes that the air enters.
The tube is fupported in a vertical pofition by a framing,
and the lower end is introduced into a ftrong ton or cafk,
fix feet deep, and almoft as much in diameter, though it is
rather {maller at top than at bottom. The tube defcends
through the head of the cafk 18 inches, fo that it terminates
within 44 feet of the bottom of the cafk; and a kind of
table made of a flat round ftone, or a plate of caft-iron, is
placed horizontally in the centre of the cafk, at 18 inches
beneath the orifice of the tube, being fupported by a crofs
of wood, placed upon four legs, from the bottom of the
cafk. The cafk is well clofed on all fides, particularly
round the tube, where it paffes through the head; but there
is an air-pipe conduéted away from the top of the cafk, to
convey the air to the furnace ; and from the bottom of the
cafk there is an opening, by which the water can pafs away.
The opening is regulated by a wooden fhuttle, which pens
up the water to fuch a height within the cafk, that the
opening through which the water iffues will be always be-
neath the furface of the water, fo as to prevent the efcape
of the air by the fame paflage.
The aGtion of this machine is not fo eafy to explain as its
ftru€ture, and it has at various times occupied much of the
attention of philofophers. Father Kircher was the firit
who defcribed the machine in his Mundus Subterraneus ;
but he did not fatisfaftorily explain the reafon of its action.
In the Memoires des Scavant étrangers, Barthes, the father,
has given a theory which is very defeCtive ; and Dietrich
was of opinion that the air was produced by the decompofi-
tion of the water.
M. Reaumur explains it thus:—The funnel of the tube
is always full of water, which iffues rapidly through the
throat ; but finding immediately a larger place, the ftream
difperfes and fcatters into drops, becaufe it is no longer en-
clofed within a cylindrical furface: it does not, therefore,
take any conftant figure, but the ftream is compofed of dif-
ferent {mall ftreams, or rather fucceflions of drops, which
are continually changing their pofition with re{pe& to each
other. Now the intervals between thefe feparate {treams or
drops are occupied by the air which is within the cavity of
the tube: fuppofe that between two ftreams feparated by
air a third comes to defcend, it will pufh the air before it
with all its force, and carry the air down to the cafk ; and
this will be replaced by frefh air, entering at the vent-holes.
The irregular arrangement which the ftreams or drops take,
either at their iffuing from the throat or in continuing their
fall, is fuch that few drops do not carry fome air down be-
fore them into the cafk: the water falling upon the table
within the cafk dafhes on all fides, and releafes the air which
rifes in the cafk, and iffues through the air-pipe to the fur-
hace, whilft the water falls to the bottom of the cafk, and
efcapes gently through the fluice.
A fingle trunk of the dimenfions juft defcribed is found
fufficient to blow a forge or finery ; but for a {melting fur-
nace, three are joined together, having a common trough of
fupply, and the air-pipes from the three cafks are joined to-
1 ah M. Reaumur fuppofed that a greater height of the
all would produce more air, becaufe it is longer expofed to
thofe changes of pofition in the different ftreams of water ;
but he fuppofed that no adequate advantage would be
gained by an increafe of the diameter of the tube, becaufe
3
it would be more likely, in falling in a large body, to de.
fcend in a clofer column.
The machines of the Pays de Foix are fomewhat dif-
ferently conftruéted: in thefe the water is conveyed into a
refervoir, from the bottom of which a {quare trunk or tube
defcends to the refervoir or air-cheft, which is made very
long ; and the air-pipe proceeds from an elevated part of it,
to prevent the danger of {pray or {mall drops being carried
into the furnace. Inftead of a throat and the vent-holes,
the tube is made to divide into two branches, at the point
where it pafles through the bottom of the upper refervoir +
thefe branches rife above the furface of the water in the re-
fervoir, fo that it cannot enter into them, but the water is
admitted at an opening between thefe two branches, fo that
in effe& the tube is divided into three, the centre being an
opening for the water to defcend, whilft the two outfide
branches admit the air to mix with the water and go
down.
The editor of the Art des Forges fuppofes that the vent-
holes are ufelefs, but that the oleae agitation of the water
in pafling the throat, and dafhing upon the table within the
cafk, is fufficient to change the water into air. This is the
fame hypothefis as that of Dietrich.
Thefe various explanations rendered the fubje& {till more
obfcure; and in 1791, the Academy of Touloufe invited
philofophers to determine the caufe and the nature of the
ftream of air which is produced in thefe machines. M-
Venturi, profeffor of philofophy at Modena, gave the real
anf{wer in an excellent paper on the principle of lateral com-
munication of motion in fluids.
To explain the principle, this philofopher fuppofes a
number of equal balls to roll along in a horizontal trough,
in contaét with each other, with an uniform motion at the
rate of four balls in a fecond: fuppofe, on arriving at the
end of the trough, they fall fuddenly to a depth of 16 feet.
Now, from the laws of gravity, each ball will perform this
defcent in afecond of time; and as four balls fucceed each
other in each fecond, it follows that there will always be
four balls in the air at the fametime. The relative pofitions
of thefe will be as follows: the uppermoft ball will be one
foot from the point where they begin to fall, the fecond
four feet, the third nine feet, and the fourth fixteen feet.
This arifes from the acceleration which always takes place
in defcending bodies. A confideration of this circumf{tance
will give a proper idea of the difunion and fucceflive fepara-
tion of the particles which the accelerating force of gravity
produces in fluids, or in bodies which fall in a ftream.
The rain-water flows out of gutters by a continual cur-
rent; but during its fall, it feparates into portions. in the
vertical direCtion, and {trikes the pavement with diftiné
blows. "The water likewife divides, and is fcattered in the
horizontal dire&tion. The ftream which iffues out of the
gutter may be one inch in diameter, and {trike the pavement
over the {pace of one foot. The air which exifts between
the vertical and horizontal feparations of the water which
falls is impelled, and carried downwards. Other air fuc-
ceeds laterally ; and in this manner a current of air or wind
is produced round the place ftruck by the water. M. Ven-
turi went to the foot of the cafcades which fall from the
Glaciére of La Roche Mélon on the naked rock at La No-
valéfe, towards mount Cenis, and found the force of the
wind to be fuch as could fcarcely be withftood.. If the
cafcade falls into a bafon of water, the air is carried to the
bottom, whence it rifes with violence, and difperfes the
water all round in the form of a mitt.
He formed one of thefe artificial blowing engines of a
{mall fize ; the vertical pipe was two inches in pated
our
WATER-BELLOWS.
four feet in height : it was a plain cylindrical tube, without
any throat or funnel. But he found, when the water accu-
rately filled the fection of the orifice, and all the lateral
openings of the pipe were clofed, the pipe no longer emitted
any wind.
According to this writer, the circumftances which favour
the moft abundant produétion of wind are as follows :—The
feparation of the defcending balls is more rapid in the upper
than in the lower part of the fall. In order, therefore, to
obtain the greateft effe&t from the acceleration of gravity,
it is neceflary that the water fhould begin to fall at the orifice
of the vertical tube with the leaft poflible velocity, and that
the depth of the water in the horizontal trough fhould be
no more than is neceflary to fill the feGtion of the vertical
tube. The vertical velocity of this fe€tion is fuppofed to
be produced by a height or head of water in the trough, of
a depth equal to the diameter of the tube.
We do not know by direé&t experiment the diftance to
which the lateral communication of motion between water
and air can extend itfelf, but we may with confidence affume
that it can take place in a vertical tube, whofe feéion is
double that of the original fe€tion with which the water flows
from the trough into the pipe. Let us then fuppofe the
feGtion of the pipe to be double the feétion of the water in
the trough, and in order that the ftream of water may ex-
tend and divide itfelf through the whole double fection of
the pipe, fome bars, or a grate, are placed in the orifice of
the vertical tube, to diftribute and fcatter the water through
the whole internal part thereof.
Since the air is required to move in the blowing-pipe with
a certain velocity, it muft be comprefled in the receiver.
This compreffion will be proportioned to the fum of the
accelerations which fhall have been deftroyed in the inferior
and clofe part of the vertical pipe, that is, the part beneath
the vent-holes. Taking this clofed part of the pipe 14 foot,
we fhall have a preflure fufficient to give the requifite velo-
city in the air-pipe. The fides of this portion of the pipe,
as well as thofe of the receiver, muft be exa¢tly clofed in
every part, to prevent the efcape of the air.
The lateral openings in the upper part of the pipe may
be fo difpofed and multiplied, particularly towards the top,
that the air may have free accefs within the tube.
In fome machines of this kind, the conftru€tors feem to
have been of opinion, that a great height was required in the
water-fall; but Dr. Lewis, who made a great number of
experiments upon the fubjeét, fhews that an increafe in
height can never make up for a deficiency in the quantity of
water ; four or five feet, he thinks, is a fufficient height for
the water to fall: and where there is a greater height, it
may be rendered ufeful by joining two or more machines
together in fuch manner, that when the water has once com-
mitted its air in the condenfing cafl or veffel, it fhall flow
out into a new refervoir, and from thence defcend through an-
other funnel and cylinder, and fall from it into a condenfing
veffel, where the air is extricated and carried off through
the air-pipe.
Another kind of water-bellows was invented by the in-
enious Martin Triewald, of Sweden, and is defcribed in
the Philofophical TranfaGions. The machine confifts of two
cafks or tuns open at bottom, and fo loaded, that they will
fink into water in the fame manner as diving-bells. Thefe
being fo fufpended that they can be alternately lowered
down into water and drawn up again, will by proper valves
and pipes afford a continual blaft of air. :
Fig.15. Plate Water-works, reprefents thefe water-bellows
in profile. A A are two cafks, made nearly the fame fhape
as diving-bells, being in the form of a truncated cone, or
wider below than at top, where they are furnifhed with
clofe heads B B, but at the lower ends A A are quite open.
In the heads B B are valves V, which open inwardly,
and are made like the palates of other bellows, with their
hinges and the valves themfelves covered with hatters’-
felt. They are caufed to fhut by eafy fteel {prings till the
air from above opens them, which happens only when the
bellows receive their motion upwards. The valves are fhut
by means of the preffure of the air within, when they fink
down into the water.
On the fame heads two pliable leather tubes R R are
fixed, one at the top at each water-bellows, which tubes are
made and prepared in the fame manner as thofe ufed in
water-engines for extinguifhing of fire. Thefe leathern
tubes or pipes reach from the bellows to the tubes T T,
which carry the wind into the furnace, or any other place,
according to pleafure.
Thefe two bellows are fufpended from the lever by iron
chains K K, which are faftened to two {weeps SS, by which
means they hang perpendicular from the balance-beam, and
at the fame diftance from the centre of its motion C on the
oppofite fides. On the top of this balance-beam are fixed
two floping gutters F F, into which the ftream of water runs
from the gutter G, and gives motion to the whole work,
performing the fame fervice as an overfhot or any other
water-wheel ; but they coft much lefs, and give as even and
regular motion as a pendulum, for as foon as fo much water
runs into either of the inclined planes of the gutters F F,
that the weight of the water exceeds the fri€lion near the
centre of motion C, and the weight of that bellows which
is funk down into the water, the gutter immediately de-
{cends with an increafing velocity till the balance meets with
the refiftance of the wooden fprings H H; during this time
it has raifed the oppofite water-bellows, or that bellows
which is fixed under the oppofite gutter, the gutter
which has been filled being come down to the fpring H,
delivers all the water it has received, and at the fame time
the water begins to run into the oppofite gutter, which re-
ceives its load of water almoft as foon as the former is emp-
tied, fo that one of the gutters begins its effet as foon as
the other has finifhed, and this continues alternately as long
as the ftream of water is fupplied. Thefe floping gutters
upon the balance-lever, therefore, perform all the effect
which a water-wheel does in working the ordinary bellows,
and by means of the fame power of defcending water, but
acting reciprocally on oppolite ends of the balance-beam.
Thefe water-bellows blow the fire on the fame principle,
which produce the effeét of the ordinary bellows, viz. that
the air which enters the bellows, and which they contain
when the top is raifed, is again compreffed or forced into a
narrower fpace when the bellows clofe; and fince air like
all other fluids moves to that place where it meets with the
leaft refiftance, it muft confequently go through the opening
which is left for it, with a velocity proportioned to the force
by which the air is comprefled, and muft blow ftronger or
weaker in proportion to the velocity with which the top
and bottom of the bellows are made to approach each other ;
the blaft alfo will laft a time proportioned to the quantity
of air that was drawn into the bellows through the valve or
pallet.
The fame operation takes place in the water-bellows, for
the air which they contain muft neceffarily be comprefled
by the water, which rifes alternately into the bellows A A,
and obliges the air to go through the leathern tubes R R,
as being the place where the air meets with the leaft re-
fiftance.
In this machine, the chief part of the weight to be
Tes moved
WAT
moved is balanced in equilibrio, for the bellows A A may
be confidered as two nearly equal heavy weights in a pair
of feales, which in a great part balance each other- The
difference is occafioned by that bellows which finks down
into the water, being fo much pebtets as it lofes its weight
by the quantity of water it difplaces, from the bulk of air
contained beneath the furface of the water. This difference
is compenfated by the weight of the water which falls
down along the floping gutter, which acquiring the power
of a falling body, increafes in the fame proportion as the
bellows to be raifed by it increafes in weight; for the
bellows which finks down into the water does not at once
lofe its weight in the water, but gradually as it defcends
deeper; and inthe fame manner, the afcending bellows does
not at once become heavier than the other, but the weight
gradually increafes from the time it is firft raifed till it is
quite raifed.
Mr. Hornblower fome years ago propofed an hydraulic
bellows of the fame kind as M. Triewald’s, except that, to
avoid the flexible tubes of leather RR, he employed a lead
pipe to go down to the bottom of the ciftern of water in
which the bellows defcended, and turn up again beneath the
bellows, fo that the orifice of the pipe was above the furface
of the water; it therefore communicated at all times from the
interior of the bellows to the furnace. Mr. H., in Nichol-
fon’s Journal, mentions a very ftriking difference between
thefe water-bellows, in which the moving chett was eighteen
inches fquare and moved perpendicularly nine inches, and
a common pair of {mith’s leather-bellows of thirty inches
long.
"The leather-bellows threw confiderably more air ‘to
the fire, and its nozzle, compared with the water-bellows,
was as 73 to 6o in diameter, but it did not produce fo
great an effe@ in bringing on the heat ; and the noife of the
water-bellows was fo great as to almoft drown that of the
common one. The only difference in other refpets is, that
in the hydraulic bellows, the pipe went under ground for
about eight feet, and the conneéting pipe of the other
came down about the fame diftance from the fhop above, -
Water-Bomb, a name given by our chemift Godfrey to
a machine he invented on the plan of Greyl’s difcovery, for
the extinguifhing of accidental fires in houfes. He con-
fidered firft, that the unchangeable fize of Greyl’s engine
was a very great objection, and on this plan contrived a
medicated liquor, which was fuch an enemy to fire, that a
very {mall quantity would extinguifh as much as a much
larger of common water; and this liquor had the farther
advantage, that it might be kept ever fo long without cor-
rupting, and by that means the veffels containing it would
remain always fit for ufe ; whereas in Greyl’s method they
mutt have been rotted by the corrupting and fermenting of
the water, after a few years. The author of this invention
tried it twice in public with us, and both times with all the
fuccefs that could be withed; but the ftructure of the veffel
was fo much the fame with that of Greyl’s, that Godfrey
cannot be allowed any farther merit as an inventor, than
that of contriving the medicated liquor inftead of common
water. The machine is a wooden veflel, made very firm
and ftrong, that the liquor, when once put in, cannot leak
out any where ; in the centre of this is an oblong cylindric
veffel, which is filled with gunpowder ; a tube is brought
from this to the head of the barrel; and this being filled
with combuftible matter, and the inner cafe with powder,
and both made of plate-iron, that no water may get in, the
veflel is then filled with the medicated, or antiphlogiftic
liquor. The top of the tube is then covered, and the thing
fet by for ufe.
WaT
When there is occafion for it, it is only neceflary to uit
cover the tube, and fetting fire to the matter in it, it is con-
veyed to the veffel containing the powder, and the whole
machine being thrown into the place where the fire is, is
torn to pieces by the explofion, and the extinguifhing liquor
{eattered every way about, on which the fire 1s quenched in
an inftant.
The contriver of thefe things propofed the making of
three kinds of them, the one containing five gallons of the
liquor: this was the largeft fize, and contrived for the
largeft rooms, and moft urgent neceffities. The fecond kind
contained three gallons; and the fmalleft, which was meant
for a clofet, or other little room, contained only two gallons,
Thofe of the {maller kind alfo had fometimes a peculiar
difference in their ftruéture, the powder-veflel being placed
not in the centre, but at the bottom: the intent of this was
to fit them for chimneys, when on fire, as by this means the
liquor, not being wanted to be fcattered.on all fides, was
carried moftly upwards. Thefe were fixed on the end of a
long pole, and by this means thruft to a proper height up
the chimney ; and the tube that communicated the fire was
placed downwards.
The manner of ufing the machines for rooms on fire, is
this: the perfon who has the care of them is to throw them
as nearly as may be into the middle of the room, and then
to retire to a little diftance: as foon as he hears the explo-
fion, he may fafely enter the room, and with a cloth, or any
thing of that kind, put out any remaining {parks of fire
that there may be in particular places. If the room be fo
large, that one of the machines cannot difperfe the liquor to
every part of it, two are to be ufed, one being laid at each
end: and if feveral rooms are on fire at once, as many of
the machines are to be ufed, one being thrown into each
room. If a whole houfe is on fire, the lower rooms are
firft to be taken care of, and after thefe the upper, as they
afcend.
Our Godfrey had fearce better fuccefs than his predeceffor
Greyl; for while he was making his public experiments,
one Povey, colle&ting fome of the fragments of his broken
veflels, found out the ingredient ufed in the medicated
liquor, and made and fold the things in the fame place
where he had proved his right tothem. It is probable that
the medicated liquor was no other than common water,
with a large quantity of {al ammoniac, that falt having this
virtue of extinguifhing fire in a very remarkable degree.
But it is to be greatly wondered at, that while all the world
were convinced by experiments of the ufe of the machine,
the author made but little advantage of it, and it is now dif-
ufed. Adc. Erudit. Ann. 1724, p. 183. :
The fociety of arts and manufactures, &c. made trials
of balls prepared in Mr. Godfrey’s method, by his grand
fon, in a proper edifice ereéted for this purpofe; and they
found, that, after the fire had prevailed for a confiderable
time, and the flame forced its way through the chimney and
windows, it difappeared, and was entirely extinguifhed
by the explofion of two of thefe balls. See Fire, £xsin-
guifhing of-
Warer-Borne, in the Sea-Language, denotes the ftate of a
fhip, with regard to the water furrounding her bottom,
when there is gree a fufficient depth of it to float her off
from the ground; particularly when fhe had for fome time
refted thereon.
Warer-Camblets. See CAMBLET.
Warer, Cataraé of. See CATARACT.
Warer-Cleck.. See CLEPSYDRA.
Warer-Coleurs, in Painting, are fuch colours as are only
diluted
WAT
diluted and mixed up with gum-water: thus called, in con-
tradiftinGtion to oil-colours. See WAsHING.
The ufe of water-colours, makes what we call LIMNING ;
as that of oil-colours does PAINTING, properly fo called.
Painters in water-colours have been often afflicted with
the difeafe called colica pi€tonum, occafioned by the poifon-
ous quality of feveral of the pigments which they ufe; and
which, by putting the point of their pencils between their
lips, whilft they are ftudying their fubject, they infenfibly
fwallow. Dr. Fothergill fays, that, when the vomitings are
abated, copious difcharges by ftool are procured, and the
funétions of the bowels in a degree reftored to their ufual
ftate by the method purfued in the cure of the colica piéto-
num; nothing contributes fo effectually to reftore the ufe
of the limbs, when impaired by thefe caufes, as the liberal
and conftant ufe of the tinétura guaiacina volatilis; which
may be given in fuch quantity, as to keep the body gently
open; mixed with a little common fugar or honey, and then
diluted with any weaker mucilaginous liquor, as thin gruel,
or barley-water, or marfhmallows-tea. Med. Obf. vol. v.
pa3p4n
-Water-Ciflerns, for Rural Purpofes, {uch as are formed
for different domeftic ufes. In high, dry, upland fituations,
cifterns ofthis kind are of great utility and importance in
many parts of the country. In the account of the agricul-
ture of the North Riding of Yorkfhire, it is {tated that in
the high eaftern parts of it, water-cifterns or refervoirs are
made by the inhabitants within the ground, which are highly
ufeful: thefe, it is faid, ave fed by the rain-water which
falls upon the roofs of the buildings, and is conducted from
thence by fpouts. ‘That in thefe cifterns'a very ample fup-
ply of foft water is always ready at hand; and that by their
being under ground, and kept clofe, the water is {weet and
fuitable for every domeftic or other ufe.
A water-ciftern of this fort is ftated to be formed in this
manner. A cube of the required fize being dug in the
ground, and the fides made even and perpendicular, the bot-
tom is covered with fo much clay, as that, when well beaten,
will be four inches thick ; a foundation of ftone is then laid
round the fides; upon the clay, a brick floor is laid in
terras, the furface of which fhould not be lower than the
top of the foundation; the fides are then built a fingle brick
thick, and the bricks laid in terras, a foot {pace being left
betwixt the wall and the earth, which is gradually filled
with clay in a foft ftate ; and this well beaten as it fliffens ;
the whole is arched over, leaving a hatchway for a man to
go in and clear it out, and an opening or paflage into a
drain, for the furplus. water to run or be taken off, when
the ciflern is full.
The water is raifed for ufe by means of a pump. In
thefe cafes, as keeping all external air out of the ciftern
contributes, it is faid, much to the fweetnefs of the water;
the pipe by which the ciftern is fed fhould be continued to
within a few inches of the bottom, and the furplus water be
conveyed off by a pipe rifing from near the bottom to the
extreme height the water is defigned always to be at, when
that takes place, and there communicate with the drain: by
thefe precautions, it is faid, there will be no more of the fur-
face of the water expofed to the external air, than what is
within thofe pipes and that of the pump.
This method of forming water-cifterns may be found ufe-
ful, cheap, and convenient, in many places, where fuch water
is neceflary to be preferved pure and fweet.
Cifterns of this fort have fometimes the title of water-
cellars, and are of great convenience and ufe for farm-yards.
pret inetd River, Collecting of, and Waturine Live-
106k.
W (AVE
Warter-Courfes, in Agriculture, ave {uch larges ditches or
paflages for taking off the water as are formed, and remain
conttantly for the purpofe in different places, and properly
belong to the public.
They fhould be kept conftantly well opened and cleared
out, not having too much fall given them, fo as to deftroy
the evennefs of their bottoms. See SEWER.
Warer, Cui. See Cur-Water.
Warer, Dead, in Sea-Language. See Dzan-Water and
Suipe-Building.
Water-Engine, in Mechanics, denotes either an engine
to raife water, or any engine that moves by the force of
water.
Warer-Falls, in Ornamental Gardening, are thofe falls of
water which are formed and introduced in pleafure or other
grounds for the purpofe of producing ornamental and pic-
turefque effects, or which naturally exift in fuch fituations.
They are of different kinds and forms, being fometimes of
the nature of cafcades, and at other times contrived for.the
intention of driving fome particular fort of interefting ma-
chinery, fo as to afford an agreeable and ftriking piéture in
the rural feenery of the particular place where they are had
recourfe to. ‘They are ufually conftru@ted, where they do
not exift naturally, either by means of large rocky ftones
thrown rudely together into a fort of ridge form of head,
over which the water pafles, formed in the way of weirs, or
built in mafonry in a careful and exaé& manner, according as
the different nature of the circumftances and fituations may
require. See WaTER. ;
Mr. London, in his ufeful work on “Country Refi-
dences,”’ has well deferibed and delineated feveral different.
modes of forming water-falls. ‘They fhould, he thinks, be
natural, ftrong, and lafting, from the general form of the
whole of the materials, the fecurity and folidity of their
foundations, and the quality of the work and materials ufed
in building them.
Water, Poul, in Sea-Language.
Warer-Fowl. See Fowt.
Warer-Furrow, in Agriculiure, a deep open furrow
drawn by the common or a large double mould-boarded
plough made for the purpofe, in a proper direGion of the
field in arable lands, or thofe in the ftate of tillage, for the
ufe of conveying and taking off the fuperabundant hurtful
water, and preventing the ftagnation of it from injuring the
crops. This is efpecially neceffary and proper in the winter
feafon, and often in others. It is therefore eflential that, as
foon as poffible after fowing moft forts of grain, but par-
ticularly wheat, when there is any difpofition in the foil or
land to the retention of moifture in too large a proportion,
there fhould be as many water-furrows opened in this way
as may be fufficient for carrying off and completely remoy-
ing the excefs of water, and thereby preferving the ground
in a properly dry and found condition for the healthy
growth of the crops. It is obferved by the writer of a late
Calendar of Hufbandry, that the making of proper water-
furrows is a circumftance of much importance in the culture
of wheat, but that it is oftentimes ftrangely neglected. It
is a work, however, that {hould be well and effectually per-
formed on all lands, except thofe that are perfeGtly dry.
all the winter through. The water-furrows fhould be
formed by the plough, as foon as the field has been, finifhed
ploughing, fowing, and harrowing, and then a {pit of earth
fhould be dug from out of the bottoms of them, and laid\on
one fide oppofite the rife of the land or ridge, and the loofe
mould in the bottom parts be well fhovelled and cleaned outs
fo as to make a perfeCtly free paflage for drawing off the
wetnefs; the openings of all the common negate
eing
See Four.
WAST
being likewife well cleanfed at the fame time, fo that the
water may have an eafy fall out of every one of them into
the large water-furrows. The number of thefe large fur-
rows mutt conftantly depend on the variations of the furface,
and fome other circumftances of the lands : the only general
rule is to make them fo many in number, as that no water
may be fuffered to ftand on any part of the land in the wet-
teft weather. In the bottoms or low parts of fields, or in
other places of them where there is a double flope of the
land, it is neceflary to form and cut double water-furrows at
the diftance of about a yard or four feet from each other, in
order to take the water from each defcent fingly.
The fame writer, too, farther adviles, that in all lands fown
with clover or other grafles among the corn, thefe forts of
furrows fhould be dug a {pit deep, and the mould raifed in
that way be carefully thrown out. Many farmers, it is
faid, are not attentive enough to this point. They only
fcour the furrows in fuch cafes. They fhould, however, it is
thought, confider how long the grafs crops are on the
ground, which may be two or three winters ; confequently
it muft be very material to fuch crops to lie dry all that
length of time, which fcouring alone will not effeét, at leaft
not in a fufficiently perfe& manner. Particular attention
fhould alfo be paid to the fpreading of the earth that is dug
out of the furrows in thefe cafes, as if the men be not cau-
tioned, they will lay it too thick and injure the crops ; it
fhould be chopped and rendered fmall, and then fpread
with great care, in order that the feeds may rife freely
through it.
In the cafe of arable land, thefe furrows fhould be often
examined during the winter feafon, to fee that they are
perfe&tly open and free ; the clods, lumps, and other fuch
matters that may have falleninto them, being cleared out by
means of the fpade.
This is a practice which is either much overlooked, or
very imperfectly executed, in a great many diftriéts of the
kingdom. The fides of the furrows in thefe cafes fhould
always be made to ftand firm, and to have a good flope each
way, which prevents their falling in and mouldering down
fo much. The name of water-furrow drain is fometimes
given to this fort of furrow. See Warer-Furroqing.
Water-Furrow Fall Plough. See the next article.
Warer-Furrowing, a term ufed to fignify the operation
of opening water-furrows. It is a fort of work moftly
executed by the affiftance of a large plough for the pur-
pofe and the fpade, but fometimes by the plough alone.
4nd in fome parts of the county of Effex, particularly in
the neighbourhood of Colchefter, they have a method of
doing it by means of a machine that is termed a fall-plough:
in the lines where this fort of furrowing is to be performed
acrofs the ftitches or ridges, this fort of tool is ufed there
once in fix, feven, or eight years, for the purpofe of lower-
ing, or, as they callit, falling the furface. They firft gather
four or fix furrows by the plough ; then follows this imple-
ment acrofs thefe furrows, in their loofe frefh ploughed
ftate, taking up the parts of the mould, and dropping them
on the crowns or fides of the ftitches or ridges, and when
finifhed, the water-furrows are ploughed and Poused in the
common manner: the invention is faid to have merit, as the
water certainly takes a freer courfe than in the ufual
method. Ina dry feafon, a large extent of ground can be
done in a fhort time, at little expence, in this way.
Some think this work done in the neateft and mott effec-
tual manner by means of a fhovel; and that an old worn
fhovel is the beft for the purpofe. See Warer-Furrow.
Warer-Gage, the name of a fimple contrivance for mea-
furing and afcertaining the depth or quantity of. any water
WAT
in its application to any purpofe, or otherwife.
Gace.
Warer-Gang, a term applied to a channel or paflage eut
through any fpot to drain and free a place of water by car-
rying off a ftream from it.
Warer-Gavel, in our Old Writers, a rent paid for fifhing
in, or other benefits received from, fome river.
Warter-Gilding. See GiLvinc.
Warer-Lanman, a {mall glafs inftrument, which is a tube
of about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, with a ball
about 14 inch at one end, the other end being hermetically
clofed ; the ball contains water, and the empty fpace is ren-
dered nearly a vacuum by boiling the fluid previoufly to
fealing it. In this inftrument the heat of the hand applied
to the wetted tube, is fufficient to produce bubbles of
vapour, which enter the ball, but fpeedily collapfe. The
feries of thefe condenfations is as quick as 15 or 16 ina
fecond. But in the fteam-engine the condenfation is prodi-
gioufly more rapid. When a {mall double fteam-engine, on
the conftruétion of Boulton and Watt, having all the parts
and gear of the large engines, but its cylinder being only 24
inches diameter, and the length of itroke 63 inches, was fet
to work ; it gave 600 ftrokes per minute, or about twice as
many as the beats of a common watch. By an eafy calcu-
lation it may be fhewn, that the fteam condenfed was then
much more than 300 cubic inches per fecond ; and if the
condenfation, inftead of being effeéted in mafles of about
a pint at atime, could have been performed by fucceflive
collapfes of each cubic inch in an open fpace, the pulfes
would have produced the tone of the loweit E flat in the
treble cliff. But the number of cubic inches condenfed in
a large fteam-engine, e. g. a three-feet cylinder with an
eight-feet ftroke, will be eight or nine times as much at
the ufual rate of working. See Nicholfon’s Journal,
vol. iv. 8vo.
Warer-Level, the level which is formed by the furface
of {till water, managed in fome way or other in a conve-
nient manner for its application in different cafes; and
which is perhaps the trueft of any for moft ufes. The term
is alfo applied to and fignifies the level ufed in watering
land, and performing different other operations in the bufi-
nefs of agriculture. See Lever, Spirir-Level, and Wa-
TERING Land.
Warer-Levels are alfo lengths of canal in fome places,
that are not conneéted by locks with other navigations ;
but at the ends of which the goods are unloaded into team-
waggons. See CANAL.
Warer-Line and Reel, the ftrong large line and reel of
the garden kind, which is ufed in forming fome part of the
beh in watering of land.
Warer-Lines, (fee Sute-Building), are the lines of
floatation fuppofed to be defcribed by the furface of the
water on the bottom of a fhip. Of thefe the moit par-
ticular are thofe denominated the light water-line and the
load water-line; the former, namely, the light water-line,
being that line which fhews the depreffion of the fhip’s body
in the water when light or unladen, or when firft launched,
called the /aunching dronght of water ; and the latter, which
exhibits the fame when laden with all her guns and ballaft,
or cargo.
Warter-Logged, in Sea Language, denotes the ftate of a
fhip when, by receiving a great quantity of water into her
hold, by leaking, &c. fhe has become heavy and inaétive
upon the fea, fo as to yield without refiftance to the effort
of every wave rufhing over her deck. In this dangerous
fituation of a fhip, the crew have no refource, exeept to free
her
See
WAT
her by the pumps, or to abandon her by the boats as foon
as poffible.
Water, Zo Make. See Maxz.
Warer-Machine. See MacuIne.
Warer-Mead or Meadow, in Agriculture, a term ap-
plied to that fort of meadow or other inclofed low ground,
which is capable of being improved and kept in a conftant
itate of fertility and produétivenefs, by means of water from
fome adjoining river, brook, or ftream, being thrown and
conduéted over it in the winter or other proper feafon. This
manner and beneficial praétice of forming meadows has pre-
vailed locally for fuch a very great length of time in different
parts of the country, efpecially in Wiltthire, Gloucefter-
fhire, and Devonfhire, that it 1s extraordinary that it has
not been generally adopted and introduced into other dif-
triéts, where it is equally capable of being had recourfe to
without great difficulty, and where it may be equally ad-
vantageous and proper. This neglect has been afcribed by
a late intelligent writer to a deficiency of information among
farmers in general, in regard to the nature and management
of the buiinefs, and particularly in what relates to the nature
of levels, and the means of adjufting them in different cafes.
Thefe circumftances, it is fuppofed, have confined it to
the weftern diftri@s and parts of the kingdom. Other
caufes may, however, have operated in this way, as the
facilities afforded by the fituations of the lands in general,
the numerous rivulets and ftreams always ready at hand for
the purpofe, and many others of the fame nature.
It is neceflary that water-meadows fhould have fuch a
form, either by nature or art, as that this fluid may be
capable of flowing over their furfaces in a rapid manner, in
order to produce and promote the early and quick growth
of the grafs in a healthy ftate. It is effentially neceflary,
too, to their perfect fuccefs and completenefs, that there be
at all feafons a full command of the water, as well as of the
means of diftributing it to every part of them, and of dif-
charging it in a complete manner, whenever it may become
requifite. See Waterine Land.
As to the advantages to be derived from meadows of this
kind, they are very confiderable, not only in the vaftly in-
creafed quantities of hay which they afford, but alfo in the
point of early {pring food for ewes and lambs, as well as in
many other refpeéts and particulars.
It may be obferved, that from the grafs of water-meadows
being fo very forward in the months of March and April,
it is in general fed down or paftured in the {pring with
fheep ; and to thofe farmers who keep them for breeding or
fattening, becomes almoft invaluable, from the great f{car-
city of green food at fuch a period; but that after being
flooded in the latter end of the laft of thefe months, they
are moftly fhut up for hay in the fummer.
And the after-grafs is eaten off in autumn by neat cattle,
it being confidered as very pernicious and dangerous for
fheep to pafture on water-meadows at that feafon. A re-
markable inftance of its fatal effe€ts is flated by the writer
of the Correfted Account of the Agriculture of the County
of Suffex. Eighty ewes from Weyhill fair were turned
into fome field adjoining a watered meadow: a fcore of
them broke into the meadow for a night, and were taken
out in the morning, and kept till lambing ; when they pro-
duced twenty-two lambs, all of which lived, but every one
of the ewes died rotten before May-day. The remaining
fixty made themfelves fat, nor could a rotten fheep be dif-
covered amongit them. It is an extraordinary faét, it is
faid, though not eafily accounted for, that the grafs of
watered meadows fhould be fo nourifhing to fheep in the
{pring, and yet have fo deftruétive an effect on them in the
Wetaat
autumn. The faé& feems, however, to be well and indifs
putably eftablifhed. It may probably depend upon the
grafs being in a more foft and loofe watery {tate of produc-
tion in the autumn than what it isin the vigorous growth of
the fpring. See Tarn and WarteErR-Tath.
By the author of the “* Treatife on Watering Meadows,”
it is advifed that no fheep, except thofe that are juft fat,
fhould ever be fuffered, even for an Aour, in watered mea-
dows, as they will infallibly rot them at any other feafon
than the fpring, but efpecially if made from low, boggy, or
{wampy ground; but that it is not fo, when made from
dry heathy land. Others, however, think it dangerous on
all, and therefore always to be avoided.
It cannot be doubted but that on farms of this nature,
where it is convenient to have three or four meadows that
can be watered, they will be found particularly advan-
tageous; as, while neat ftock are eating the firit, it is faid,
the fecond will be growing, the third becoming dry, and
the fourth under water: by which an extenfive fyftem of
feeding and producing of dry fodder may be carried on.
It is noticed by Mr. Smith, in a late effay on thefe kinds
of meadows, that even a {mall piece of this fort of meadow,
which will produce an early crop of {pring feed at the very
time of the greateft preffure of f{earcity, and when the tur-
nips ought to be off the ground, muft be much more valu-
able to a poor arable farm than can eafily be imagined by
any one who has not witneffed the great utility derived from
them, in many parts of Wiltfhire. What, but for the
water-meadows, could enable the Wiltfhire farmers, it is
afked, to bring to market a much greater number of fheep,
and that at an earlier feafon than can be produced from any
other county in the kingdom? The water-meadows have
unqueftionably a great fhare in doing this.
They afford there, it is faid, an early fupply of grafs for
the forward or early breed of lambs, on which they begin
to feed them about the middle of March, having previoufly
withdrawn the water from them, and laid them perfeétly
dry. It is obferved, that on a good crop of grafs of this
kind, it has been faid, that five hundred couples may be fed
on an acre for one day. The praétice is to hurdle out,
daily, fuch a portion of the ground as is neceffary, leaving
a few open fpaces in the hurdles, through which the lambs
may feed forward on the frefh grafs. ‘The hours they are
fuffered to feed on this grafs, in fuch cafes, are from about
ten o’clock in the morning until five in the afternoon, when
they are generally folded on the contiguous barley fallows,
or lands in preparation for that crop. This is a praétice
or fort of management, too, which is fuppofed to have a
great advantage, in confequence of its manuring a part of
the farm without the dunghill. The manure, however, in
fuch cafes, is drawn from, and at the lofs of fuch mea-
dows.
The writer of the Corre&ted Report of the Agriculture
of the County of Middlefex mentions a remarkable inftance
of.the beneficial and fertilizing effeéts of water in thefe mea-
dows, as occurring in the early part of the autumn of 1796,
when fuch grafs lands as had not had the advantages of
water, as in thefe cafes, were nearly burnt up. A clofe of
about twenty acres, which had been watered in this’ way,
had, it is faid, a moft luxuriant after-grafs of from fix inches
to a foot in depth; and a neighbouring inclofure of near
forty acres afforded fupport for three months to forty-feven
horfes and bullocks, all which throve very well. And
another cafe of the fame nature is recorded, in which forty
acres employed in this way were found equal to the fupport
of tive hundred Wilthhire ewes, from the middle of the
month of March to the firft of May, or about fix weeks;
and
WAT
and that the improvement of the ftock in that time was one
fhilling a week, or three pounds fifteen fhillings the acre.
In fome parts of the fame county, five pounds worth of hay
might allo, it is faid, be taken off the firft week in May.
Thefe fats and ftatements ftrongly prove and difplay the
utility of thefe meadows, wherever they can be properly
provided.
In {peaking of the management of water-meadows, the
author of the effay already noticed remarks, that in thofe
great diftri&s of water-meads, which in Wiltthire are wa-
tered by the common confent of many different proprietors
and occupiers of land, the operation of floating muit a
and end at certain fixed periods, which it is neceflary for
every one to know, and regularly adhere to, not only in
order to the produétion of a crop of grafs, but for the pro-
creation of thofe animals that eat the grafs: confequently,
as every farmer knows at what time he fhall have grafs for
his fheep, he fo manages his breeding flock, that his lambs
may be ftrong enough at the ufual time of feeding to go
with the ewes to take their food in the meadows, and return
to the fold for lodging.
Itis noticed, that the time to commence the feeding on
the meadows upon thofe large ftreams in this county is
generally about the twenty-fifth of March : therefore, if the
winter be very mild and favourable for the growth of grafs,
it fometimes gets to fuch a height as many farmers, unac-
cuftomed to the herbage, might think to be much too coarfe
and luxuriant for fheep, and even too high tobe fed off with
cattle. So great was the luxuriance of the grafs in the
water-meads of Wiltfhire, it is faid, fome years fince, oc-
ceafioned by the mild growing weather immediately after the
commencement of floating, that fome farmers laid their
meadows dry, and fed them off in November, and the fol-
lowing month; and then, by floating again, obtained a
crop of feed in the {pring before the ufual period. Many
who did not adopt this method lamented that their grafs
was too high, even in the month of February ; and it was
then not uncommon to {ee it in the water-meads nine inches
high, but laid on the ground, and white at the bottom, be-
fore the lambs were ftrong enough to go into the meadows.
Some apprehended, it is faid, that the long four grafs would
be wafted; yet it was aftonifhing with what avidity the
fheep devoured it, and even preferred the parts that were the
longeft, and rendered white at bottom, in confequence of
the extreme thicknefs: this they would, it is obferved,
gnaw down to the very roots. It was remarked by Mr.
Davis, it is faid, that the grafs then on one Rickwood’s
mead was fuch a crop as, at the ufual time of cutting it,
would have been eftimated at 18 cwt. per acre. Many de-
clared that they never faw the crop of the water-meads fo
very abundant and early ; but on vifiting the fame meadow,
at the particular requelt of the above-named friend of the
writer, on the tenth of March, when it had been in feeding
more than three weeks, and afking the floater if they ever
began to feed it fooner, he replied that he had had the
management of the meadows more than thirty years, and
never knew it fo early but once, when they began feeding it
on the eleventh of the firft month in the year.. The writer
walked over the greateft part of this extraordinary piece of
adage with fome confiderable difficulty, it is obferved,
rom the thicknefs and height of the grafs; and he could
difcover but one place, to the great credit of the floater,
which was worfe than another, and that not two rods {quare.
The man foon faw it noticed, it is faid, and before the
writer could mention the circumftance, told him he knew
what he was looking at, and had contrived to do away even
fuch a trifling defect : fo this may be truly faid to be, the
WAT
writer thinks, a fpotlefs meadow. This fhews the nice at-
tention and great care beftowed in forming water-meadows
in this diftri€t ; and in fome othér counties the care be-
ftowed upon the water-meadows is probably not much, if
any lefs. This would feem to be particularly the cafe in
the county of Gloucefter, where very great attention is
given to the floating of them, to the manner of feeding them
down by live-ftock, and the fhutting them up for the pro-
duGtion of hay, as well as in every other part of their ma-
nagement.
hey are there, too, equally valuable and important in
the — and utility of the produce which they afford,
as well as the qualities of it, yielding much profit to indi-
viduals, and advantage to the whole diftri&.
The utility and benefit of water-meadows are indeed now
beginning to be every where well underftood, wherever they
are capable of being formed in a convenient and fuitable
manner.
Water-meadows are in general calculated to afford an
early {pring feed for fheep, or other forts of live-{tock,
which may be continued in feeding by them until towards
the beginning of the month of May, when, if defigned for
the producing of hay, that muft then ceafe; as, if perfifted
in even for a fingle week in that month, the hay would, as
fuppofed by fome, be wholly ruined in quality, being ren-
dered foft, woolly, and unfubftantial, as in the cafe of after-
math crops: but being then fhut up, and floated for fome
days, a crop of hay is next produced, which is in readinefs for
the {eythe in about fix weeks ; and this crop being removed,
and the meadows again floated as before, a third or after-
math crop is afforded, for being paftured by neat cattle and
horfes, but never, or in few cafes, by fheep, or for being
ufed as cut green food in houfe-feeding, which, in fome
cafes, is probably the moit beneficial application of it; as
where one or two more fuch crops are caufed and taken in
the fame way, at the fame feafon.
The great fuperiority of the produce from water-meadows
is thus rendered very evident, and the ufes of it not of lefs
value or importance.
Water-meadows fhould conftantly be well eaten down
before they are floated, but efpecially in the autumn.
It is of great advantage, in many different refpects, to
have feparate water-meadows, which can be alternately in
the courfe of feeding off, floating, and being laid dry, as
has been already feen ; as, by this means, their benefits can
never be loft for any length of time. And it is particularly
beneficial in providing an uninterrupted fucceffion of after-
math patturage, or of that fort of grafs for being cut and
ufed green in the ftalls.
Any thing which is done to the furfaces of water-mea-
dows, in the way of rolling or giving them preflure, fhould
always be done while they are in a quite dry ftate, about the
beginning of the month of March, and never when they are
much in a moift condition.
The hay produce of meadows of this fort is moftly proper
for all kinds of neat cattle and fheep, but not fo fuitable for
horfes, efpecially thofe of the working or team kind.
Warer-Mea/fure. Salt, fea-coal, &c. while aboard veflels
in the pool, or river, are meafured with the corn buthel
heaped up; or elfe five ftriked pecks are allowed to the
bufhel. This is called water-meafure; and this exceeds
Winchefter-meafure by about three gallons in the bufhel.
Warer-Microfcope. See Microscope.
Warer-Mill, in Rural Economy, that fort of mill which
is turned by the power or force of water applied in fome
way or other. As mills of this kind often form and oppofe
great ob{tructions to different improvements of the farmer,
2 and
Wiad
and efpecially in the pra@tice of watering land, they fhould
confequently be diminifhed in number as much as poflible
in fuch cafes, and thofe of the tide and wind kinds be fub-
ftituted in their places, as might be done with great facility
in many inftances. See Mitt.
Warer, Mother, in Chemiftry. See CrysTaL.
Water Ordeal, or Trial, was of two kinds; by hot, and
by cold water. See OrpraL.
Water-Organ. See OrGAN.
Water, Petrifying. See PETRIFYING.
Warer-Poife. See HypromeTer, and ARZOMETER.
Dr. Hooke has contrived a water-poife, which may be of
good fervice in examining the purity, &c. of water. It
confifts of a round glafs ball, like a bolt-head, about three
inches in diameter, with a narrow ftem or neck, one twenty-
fourth of an inch in diameter ; which being poifed with red
lead, fo as to make it but little heavier than pure fweet
water, and thus fitted to one end of a fine balance, with a
counterpoife at the other; upon the leaft addition of even
yoosth part of falt to a quantity of water, half an inch of
the neck will emerge above the water, more than it did be-
fore. Phil. Tranf. N° 197.
Warer-Proof Cloth and Leather. Ut would be very
defirable to render the principal articles of clothing impe-
netrable to water, provided it could be done without injur-
ing the pliability of the cloth.
The moft common refource is to line the garment with
oiled filk, fuch as is ufed for hat-covers and umbrellas ; that
is, filk which has been dreffed with a varnifh of drying lin-
feed oil, fo as to prevent the admiffion of water. This effec-
tually guards the wearer of fuch a garment from becoming
wet ; but it is not perfect, for the outfide cloth can im-
bibe moifture, which will evaporate by the wind, and caufe
great part of that coldnefs which renders wet clothes fo
prejudicial.
What would be defirable is, that we fhould give to cloth
the fame property which we find in the fur of feveral ani-
mals ; the otter, beaver, and water-rat. This is a repellence
of water, which when thrown upon the animal rolls off in
pearl drops, without wetting the fur in the leaft; but we
obferve this only im the living animal, and when in a ftate of
health, for thefe animals are known to be fick when they
are found to be wetted after having dived in the water.
This perfeétion has not yet been attained, but we fhall proceed
to ftate what has been attempted, with a view of water-
proof varnifhing for cloth.
Mr. Albert Angel, in 1781, had a patent for preparing
an elaftic varnifh for this and various other purpofes. His re-
ceipt is, linfeed oil, or nut oil, one gallon; bee’s-wax (yellow
or bleached), one pound; glue or jize, fix pounds ; verdigris,
a quarter of a pound; litharge, a quarter of a pound; {pring
or rain water, two quarts; to be put into an iron kettle, and
melted down till it forms the compofition.
Caoutchouc, or elaftic gum, called Indian rubber, is a
fubftance which has engaged the attention of philofophers,
ever fince it has been known. Its fingular elatticity, its
flexibility and impenetrability to water, have caufed it to be
confidered as very valuable for this purpofe.
It is not poffible to effe& the liquefaétion of caoutchouc,
by means of heat; it will melt as well as other refins, but
when cooled, it remains liquid and adhefive, Alcohol or
fpirit of wine, the ufual folvents of refinous fubftances, do
not aé& upon it, nor is it diffolved in water, as gums are ;
it was then tried to diffolve it in drying ‘oils, and it was
found that by the aid of heat, the caoutchouc may be dif-
folved, and form an excellent varnifh, fupple, impervious
to air or water, and refifting a long time the ation of acids,
Vou. XXXVIII.
WAT
With fuch varnifh Meffrs. Charles and Roberts covered
their air-balloons.
Several effential oils, as thofe of turpentine and lavender,
aé upon the caoutchouc, even when cold, and thefe are of
no great price. The difagreeable {mell of the oil of tur-
pentine becomes, perhaps in procefs of time, lefs difagree-
able than that of the lavender.
The oil of turpentine always leaves a kind of ftickinefs.
The following procefs is defcribed in a patent granted to
r. Henry Johnfon of London in 1797, for rendering cloth
and other articles water-proof.
The article to be operated upon, muft firft be cleanfed
from all greafe or dirt by wafhing it with an alkaline folu-
tion, and then ftretched in a frame. The water-proof com-
pound, as it is termed, is formed by diffolving caoutchouc or
Indian rubber in fpirit of turpentine, (the fmell of which is
taken off by adding oil of wormwood, and fpirit of wine in
equal quantities ;) this forms a fort of varnifh, which is capa-
ble of being f{pread, or wafhed over the furface of the leather
or cloth, always applying it on the wrong fide of the article,
or that fide which is not to be feen. The varnifh is laid on
by means of a large piece of Indian rubber, inftead of a
brufh or fponge. ‘To conceal the varnifh and make a good
internal furface to the cloth or leather, it muft be fifted over
with fome fubftance, fuch as filk, wool, or coney, cut very
fine, in the fame manner as flock paper is made; and being
left to dry, in a few days the flock, by its adhefion to the
varnifh, forms a very good lining, at the fame time that it
conceals the varnifh. Thefe articles were called by the
patentee hydrolaines, and were loudly recommended by ad-
vertifements, but never came much into ufe.
M. Pelletier’s Method of making Varnifh of Caoutchouc,
or elaftic Gum, by diffalving it in fulphuric Ether.—Boil the
elaftic gum for the {pace of an hour in common water, by
this it becomes foft enough, to be cut into {mall threads ;
being thus divided, put it again into boiling water, and keep
the veffel on the fire for about another hour ; this fecond
boiling penetrates the elaftic gum very fenfibly, and deprives
it of that hardnefé which it poffeffes in the firft ftate.
When the gum is thus divided and foftened, put it imme-
diately into a matrafs, or any other clofed veffel, containing
rectified fulphuric ether. In the courfe of a few hours the
ether penetrates the elaftic gum (which {wells very confider-
ably ), and at the end of a ae days the folution is complete,
without the affiftance of heat, provided a fufficient quantity
of ether is made ufe of. :
According to this procefs, the folutions are of a white co-
lour and tranfparent ; the heterogeneous and footy particles,
which the elaftic gum generally contains, fall to the bottom
of the veffel in which the folution is made, and have a footy
appearance, fo that by merely decanting the folution it may
be obtained very clear.
Mr. Parrifh and Mr. Ackermann have likewife had pa-
tents for the fame obje& ; the latter fucceeded much better
than the elaftic varnifhes.
Water-proof Leather.—In the memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences at Turin, 178g, is a paper by the chevalier de St.
Real, on the manner of rendering leather impermeable to
water, without diminifhing its ftrength or its fupplenefs, and
without fenfibly augmenting its price. M. St. Real fhews
_that fkins may be tanned in fuch a way as to give this
defirable quality to the leather, and in other refpe€ts with
benefit to the tanner, by reducing all the proceffes of the art
to the following.
For ftrong ox or cow leather, which is ufed for making
the outer foles of fhoes and boots. :
1ft, Soak the green hides, feparate from each other, in
U punning
WATER-PROOF.
running water, a fufficient time to extraé all the foluble
animal matter or lymph ; it will be eafy to determine when
that is done, by putting a piece of the hide into water, and
heating the water gradually ; if no fcum is formed upon the
furface, it isa proof that no lymph remains.
2dly, Place the hides (after they have been wafhed and
cleaned) in a cauldron, fimilar in conftru@tion to thofe in
which common falt is made; fill the cauldron with water,
which is to be heated to 167 degrees of Fahrenheit, and no
more: after the hides have been one hour expofed to this
degree of heat, take them out.
3dly, Stretch them upon the horfe, and proceed to take
off the hair in the ufual manner.
4thly, Put them again into the cauldron (which fhould be
fo contrived that it may receive as much water from a cock
on one fide as is let out from a cock on the other fide), and
fo keep up in this cauldron a conftant current of water, of
the heat of 60 degrees.
sthly, Let the hides remain in this cauldron till the water
no longer contains any animal jelly; which may be eafily
known by evaporating a {mall quantity of it.
6thly, Take the hides out of the water and place them
upon the horfe, that the cellular and mufcular membrane
may be taken off.
qthly, Wath the hides again in running water, then put
them again into the cauldron, or one fimilar to.it, which is to
be filled with filtered tan-liquor. This liquor is to have the
fame degree of heat that the water had in the former opera-
tion ; the {kins to remain in it till they are completely tan-
ned, taking care to put frefh tan-liquor in the place of that
which fhall appear to have loft its energy by the combina-
tion of its aftringent principle with the hides ; this may be
readily known by dropping in a few drops of a folution
of green vitriol. ,
The author ftates, that leather made according to this
fyftem would be more free than any other from the animai
jelly, which is not combined with the tan, and confequently
would be lefs fufceptible of moifture. The fibrous part of
the {kin being more ftrongly aéted upon by the tan-liquor
when heated, would become more firm and more diffi-
cult to be penetrated by water ; it would be increafed in
ftrength and npatinels, without lofing any part of its
fupplenefs.
That excellent Swedih leather fo fuperior to all other, of
which boots, breeches, and great-coats are made, is capable
of refifting the moft violent rains. This leather is prepared
in Jutland with hot water.
In the common way the tanner contents himfelf, before
he delivers the leather to the fhoe-maker, with beating thofe
parts which are foft, or which have a very irregular eee
upon a fmooth log of wood with a mallet. The more care-
ful tanners beat all their hides; and this practice is general
in England.
Befides the ftrong fole-leather already mentioned, leather
of a different kind is ufed in a great variety of arts and ma-
nufaétures. It is made of fkins of cows and oxen, but more
generally of calves’-fkins; it ferves to make the foles of
pumps, or women’s fhoes; for belts, harneffes, covering
trunks, &c. or the inner foles of men’s fhoes, and the upper-
leathers ; in fhort, any kind of work in which the thickeft
and ftrongelft leather is not required. All this fort of leather
is curried, becaufe leather as it comes out of the pits is by no
means fit for the various ufes for which it is intended; it is
rough, of an unequal thicknefs, and unmanageable. The
obje& of the currier’s art isto fupple it, and to give it an
uniform compaétnefs and denfity ; thie objeét he fulfils by the
following operations :
uft, He treads the fkins, that is, after having foaked them
till they are foftened, he kneads them with his feet, to make
the water penetrate every part equally.
2dly, He works them with the pummel ; this is done by
applying to the fkins a fquare tool made of hard wood, about
a foot long and five inches broad; it is furrowed longitu-
dinally, and convex at the bottom and flat at top ; it is fixed
to the workman’s hand by a leather ftrap fo that it cannot
flip. This tool by being worked forcibly along both fides
of the fkin, firft upon the fide of the epidermis, and then
on that of the flefh, forms the grain of the leather, and gives
it fupplenefs.
3dly, He then works the fkin with an iron inftrument with
a blunt edge ; with this he ferapes very ftrongly thofe parts
which are too thick, thofe in which there is left any flefh, or
any tan, and thofe in which there are hollows ; ftriving as it
were to prefs the fuperfluities of the thick parts into thofe
which are too thin, and thus to give to every part of the fkin
an equal thicknefs and an uniform denfity.
4thly, He pares the fkin with a paring-knife ; this paring-
knife is circular: the workman cuts away thofe thick and
projecting parts which the operation juft defcribed was
not able to remove; fo that this lait operation may be
confidered as completing the objet of the preceding
one.
After the four operations above-mentioned, the leather is
fupple and {mooth, and of an equal thicknefs and denfity in
all its parts: it is now in a ftate capzble of being em-
ployed by the workmen who make ufe of it. But the
very operations which give it thefe valuable properties ap-
pear to injure its compaétnefs. The leather by being
beat, ftretched, and fcraped, muft neceffarily become more
f{pongy, and confequently more permeable to water. To
remedy this inconvenience, the currier impregnates it with
fat or oil.
To drefs leather with fat, it muft firft be made perfe@ly
dry. The pores of the leather are then dilated, by pafling
it over a clear ftrong fire, and it is rabbed over with a kind
of woollen mop dipped in melted fat, pretty hot. The fat
thus applied to each fide of the leather penetrates into its
fubftance, lodges within its pores, and adhering there fills
them up fo as to preclude the entrance of any moifture ;
fhould the leather be wet when the fat is applied, it will
remain upon the furface, and not penetrate into the fub-
ftance.
The manner of dreffing leather with oil is the reverfe of
this, and is founded upon the property which water pofleffes
of {welling thofe fupple and elattic capillary tubes into which
it infinuates itfelf; alfo that of its not being mifcible with
oil, and upon that of its evaporating much more fpeedily
than oil.
The currier therefore foaks thofe fkins in water which he
means to drefs with oil, and while they are yet wet, he
{preads over them with a wool mop any kind of fifh oil. As
the water evaporates, the oil takes its place; and confequently
the more the fkins were {welled with water, the more tho-
roughly they become impregnated with oil.
M. St. Real found the cow-leather dreffed with fat im-
bibes more water than the calf-fkin dreffed with oil ; but he
attributes this difference to the manner in which the currier
applies the fat. He rubs the leather with a kind of mop,
dipped into melted fat moderately warm, it feems impoflible
that, by this manner of appl ing it, the fat can penetrate
into the interior parts of the feat er; the air contained in
its pores oppofes an invincible obftacle to the penetration of
it. On the contrary, there is no air in the pores of the wet
leather upon which the oil is applied, and the permanent
fluidity
WATER-PROOF.
fluidity of the oil itfelf alfo facilitates its pafflage into the
leather.
To make the leather imbibe the fat, he propofes three or
four days immerfion in running water, to drive out the air ;
then to foak the leather in melted fat, of the temperature of
167 degrees of Fahrenheit, till all the water in the leather
is evaporated by the heat; the fat would then penetrate
into the interior pores of the leather, and render it imper-
meable to water. ;
If leather is compreffed, it evidently diminifhes the thick-
nefs, and increafes its compaétnefs ; and if it is beaten with
an iron hammer upon a very {mooth anvil, it produces a
permanent contraction of its pores. Leather is in that re-
fpe€&t very much like iron, and all other metals which
harden by beating ; and, confequently, our author fuggefts
that it would be of great advantage to comprefs the leather
before it is ufed, by pafling it between a pair of rollers,
fuch as are ufed to flatten metal: this would ftiffen the
leather.
It appears from experiment that the ftrong fole-leather,
by being properly impregnated with fat, and comprefled in’
the rollers, abforbs only one-thirteenth part of water, im-
bibed by the fame leather which has not undergone thofe
operations. ‘The quantity of water which the firft abforbs,
and which amounts to about one-thirtieth part of its weight,
is fo fmall, that it does not render it capable of wetting any
fubftance it may come in contaét with, nor does the leather
appear wet when taken out of the water ; it may therefore
be confidered as almoft impermeable to it.
The cow-leather, when impregnated with fat, and com-
preffed, abforbs about one-ninth part of the water abforbed
by leather of the fame nature which has not undergone thofe
operations. The quantity of water abforbed by the firit
amounts only to the thirty-fourth part of its own weight.
The calf-fkin, when impregnated with fat and compreffed,
abforbs only one-third part the quantity of water that the
fame quantity of leather abforbs when it has not undergone
thofe operations ; and that quantity is not fo much as one-
fortieth part of the weight of the leather. ‘
In this manner, without making any alteration in the
ufual method of tanning, except with refpeét to the thin
fole-leather, it is poffible to render leather very nearly im-
permeable to water, by the known operations of currying,
provided to them are added compreffion by rollers, and foak-
ing in fat, as before defcribed. The additional greafing and
prefling will not fentibly increafe the price of the leather,
for it retains only about the fixteenth part of its weight of
fat.
The leather which had paffed through the rollers was not
diminifhed in its ftrength ; for it fupported, without break-
ing, weights as heavy as were fupported by leather of the
fame kind which had not undergone that operation.
In 1794 Mr. Bellamy of London obtained a patent for a
method of rendering leather water-proof, which he thus
deferibes. ; :
Take nut oil, one gallon ; poppy-oil, one gallon ; and lin-
feed-oil, two gallons ; or they may be in other proportions :
put them into an iron veffel, and fet it over a gentle fire.
To every gallon of the mixed oils, put half a pound of um-
ber, or white copperas, fugar of lead, colcothar, or any
other proper drier, but obferving to ufe a larger proportion
than the above, when the oil is to be prepared for new
leather, or a lefler proportion when it is to be prepared for
old.
Let the oils remain on the fire, and give it as great a de-
gree of heat as it can bear without burning, or caufing it to
rife, for fix or feven hours ; and if it will not dry fufficiently
continue the fame degree of heat till it does: then take it
off the fire, and when it is a little cooled, it is ready to be
applied to make water proof leather.
This is done by a bruth being dipped into the prepared
matter, and rubbed or brufhed into the leather.
When the article is well filled with the prepared oils, lay
it on an even board, and ferape off what is fuperfluous with a
thin iron tool ; then put it to dry ina warm room, and when
fufficiently dry it will be fit for ufe.
For fole-leather of thick fubftance, let it be gently warmed,
and with a brufh or pad, made of wool or hair, xub or brufh
the prepared matter on the leather, till it is thoroughly fa-
yake 3 then let it dry in a warm place, and it is ready for
ufe.
The proportion of the mixtures of oils, muft be varied
according to the nature of the oil, and alfo according to the
nature of the leather, for the fame kind of oil will not
always have the fame qualities.
Oils expreffed at different times will frequently have a
greater or lefs propenfity to finifh; and muft, on that ac-
count, have more or lefs of the poppy or nut oils. . If the
drying oil finifhes relu€tantly, there muft be added a leffer
quantity, or none at all, of the nut or poppy oils, and a
{mall quantity of an effential oil added, till it will finifh with
eafe and beauty. The fame kind of leather will alfo require
a different mode of treatment ; for if the leather be new it
will abound more with the natural greafe of the animal
which produeed it, and it will require the oil to be fo ma-
naged as to abforb or neutralize the greafy quality, that it
may finifh without loading the leather, and making it un-
pleafant to the wearer. When this is the cafe, one-fourth
part of effential oil of turpentine muft be mixed with the
above oils when prepared; and vice verfé if the leather is
old.
Another of Mr. Bellamy’s receipts is as follows: to one
gallon of the above prepared oils add one pound of- gum
refin, half a pound of pitch, a quarter of a pound of tar,
and a quarter of a pound of turpentine. Let them be well
incorporated with the oils, by firft heating the whole mafs
gently, and then increafe the fire till the whole is thoroughly
mixed ; or he propofes to add to the oils, gums fandarac,
maftic, anime, copal, amber, together or feparate, or af-
phaltum, or one-fixth part of bee’s-wax. In fhort, any
bituminous, refinous, or adhefive matter, which will refift
acids, alkalies, and water, and will unite with drying oils,
provided when mixed in proper proportions they do not
render the leather hard, or make it crack, or otherwife dif-
agreeable.
In the Annales de Chemie, Mr. Hildebrand of St. Pe-
terfburgh propofes the three following methods of render-
ing fole-leather impermeable by water.
The firft preparation is made by boiling 14 Ib. of minium
with 2olbs. of oil of linfeed, or hemp-feed ; continue the
boiling till the metallic oxyd be entirely diffolved, and the
mixture affumes a carbonaceous dark brown colour : apply
this compofition to the infide of the hides till they can ab-
forb no more of it ; then dry them, in {ummer by the heat
of the fun, in winter before a fire. When the compofitiou
becomes too thick, it may be liquified by the addition of oil
of turpentine.
The fecond preparation is fimply either of the fame oils,
in part difhydrogenated by ‘fire ; it will ferve equally well for
upper leathers.
he third preparation is a mixture of two ounces of black
pitch with a pound of tar, melted together by a gentle ee 5
U2 the
WAT
the leather is then anointed with the mixture, and dried.
Soles thus prepared ought to be ufed with the fmooth fide
inwards.
Another receipt for an elaftic water-proof varnifh is,
gum afphaltum, two pounds ; amber, half a pound ; gum
benzoin, fix ounces ; linfeed-oil, two pounds ; {pirits of tur-
pentine, eight pounds; and lamp-black, half a pound ;
united together in an earthen veflel over a gentle fire.
- The leather is to be nailed on a board, and the varnifh ap-
plied upon it; it is then to be paffed into an oven feveral
times, the varnifhing being each time repeated, till the lea-
ther is completely covered. .
Mr. William Baynham took a patent in 1816 for a water-
proof varnifh, which very much refembles thofe of his pre-
deceflors. It is prepared as follows: fix gallons of linfeed
oil, one pound and a half of rofin, and four pounds and a
half of red litharge, or any other fubftance ufually known
under the denomination of dryers, are to be boiled together
till they acquire fufficient confiftence to adhere to the fingers,
and draw out into ftrings when cooled upon a piece of glafs
or otherwife. It is then to be removed from the fire, and
when fufficiently cooled, thinned to about the confiftence of
fweet oil, by adding fpirits of turpentine to it, which
enerally requires about fix gallons. It is left to fettle
= a day or two, and then carefully poured off from the
grounds ; and about one pound and a half of ivory or lamp-
black, and one pound and a half of Pruffian blue ground in
linfeed oil, added to and intimately mixed with it. It is then
ready for ufe.
To apply this varnifh, ftir it up, and lay it on with a
brufh until it lies on the furface of the leather with an
even glofs ; then hang up the article which has been operated
upon until the next day: repeat the application as before,
taking care to leave the furface as thin and even as poffible.
This muft be repeated each fucceflive day, until it has the
defired appearance.,
Warer, Raiting, in Rural Economy. See Rar.
Warer-Rocket. See Rocker.
Warer-Sail, in a Ship, denotes a {mall fail, {pread occa-
Gionally under the lower ftudding-fail, or driver-boom, in a
fair wind, and fmooth fea.
Warer-Scape, of the Saxon waterfchap, denotes an
aqueduG, drain, or paflage for water.
Warer-Shield. See Hypraspis.
Warer-Shoot, a young {prig, which fprings out of the
root or ftock of a tree.
Warer-Shot, in Sea Language. See Moorine.
Warer-Spout. See Water-Spovur.
Warer-Table, in Architedure, is a fort of ledge, left in
{tone or brick walls, about eighteen or twenty inches from
the ground ; from which place the thicknefs of the wall be-
gins to abate. See WALL.’
Waver-Thermometer, a thermometer made with water by
Mr. Dalton, for the purpofe of afcertaining the precife de-
gree of cold at which water ceafes to be farther condenfed ;
and likewife how much it expands in cooling below that de-
gree to the temperature of freezing, or 32°. With this
view he took a thermometer tube, fuch as would have given
a feale of ten inches with mercury from 32° to 212°, and
filled it with pure water. He then graduated it by an accu-
rate mercurial thermometer, putting them together in a bafon
filled with water of various degrees of heat, and ftirring it
occafionally ; as it is well known that water does not ex-
pand in proportion to its heat, it docs not therefore afford a
thermometric feale of equal parts, like quickfilver.
From repeated trials agreeing.in the refult, he found that
WAT
the water-thermometer is at the loweft point of the fcale it is
capable of, that is, water is of the greateft denfity at 424°
of the mercurial thermometer. From 41° to 44° inclufively,
the variation is fo {mall as to be juft perceptible on the {cale ;
but above or below thofe degrees, the expanfion has an in-
creafing ratio, and at 32° it amounts to }th of an inch, or
about 4th part of the whole expantion, from 424° to 212°,
or boiling heat. During the inveitigation of this fubjeét, his
attention was arrefted by the circumitance, that the expan-
fion of water was the fame for any number of degrees from
the point of greateft condenfation, no matter whether above
or below it: thus he found that 32°, which are 102° below
the point of greateft denfity, agreed exa&ly with 53°,
which are 103° above the faid point ; and fo did all the in-
termediate degrees on both fides. Confequently, when the
water-thermometer ftood at 53°, it was impoffible to fay,
without a knowledge of other circumftances, whether its
temperature was really 53° or 32°. Our ingenious author,
recolleGting fome experiments of Dr. Blagden in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfa&tions, from which it appears that water
was cooled down to 21° or 22° without freezing, was cu-
rious to fee how far this law of expanfion would continue
below the freezing point, previoufly to the congelation of
the water, and therefore ventured to put his water-thermo-
meter into a mixture of fnow and falt, about 25° below the
freezing point, expeéting the bulb to be burft when the fud-
den congelation took place. After taking it out of a mix-
ture of {now and water, where it ftood at 32°, (that is, 53°
per {cale,) he immerfed it into the cold mixture, when it
rofe, at firft flowly, but increafing in velocity, it paffed 60°,
70°, and was going up towards 80°, when he took it out to
fee if there was any ice in the bulb; but it remained per-
fectly tranfparent: he immerfed it again, and raifed it 75°
per {cale, when in an inftant it darted up to 128°, and that
moment taking it out, the bulb appeared white and opaque,
the water within being frozen ; fortunately it was not burft ;
and the liquid which was raifed thus to the top of the {cale
was not thrown out, though the tube was unfealed. Upon
applying the hand, the ice was melted, and the liquid re-
fumed its ftation. This experiment was repeated and varied,
at the expence of feveral thermometer bulbs, and it appear-
ed that water may be cooled down in fuch circumftances,
not only to 21°, but 5° or 6°, without freezing ; and that
the law of expanfion above-mentioned obtains in every part
of the fcale from 424° to 10°, or below, fo that the denfity
of water at 10° is equal to the denfity at 75°.
Watrer-Tight, in Sea-Language, the flate of a fhip when
not leaky.
Warer-Tracing Crefcent, in Rural Economy, the tool
formed in the manner of the gardener’s edging-iron, but
made much larger, and in the crefcent form, very thin and
well-fteeled, and fharp in the edge, having a ftem about three
feet in length, with a crofs Trandle fe bearing upon in
working with it, in cutting out the fides of the different
peu of the water in watering land. See WATERING
Land.
Warer-Ways, in Ship-Building, the fide-ftrake of a deck
wrought next the timbers, and much thicker than the deck,
but reduced to the thicknefs of the deck in front: it makes
a channel for the water to run through the fcuppers, and
prevent leaking at the fide.
Warer-Whceel, an engine for raifing water in great quan-
tity out of a deep well. See Perstan-Wheel, and WATERs,
Raifing of, tupra.
Water-Workers, in Agriculture, a term applied to the
makers and formers of meadow-drains and trenches, or wet
ditches,
WA wT
ditches, as in the practices of watering and draining of land,
or otherwife.
Warer-Worm, Reprodudton of, in Natural Hiffory. See
RepropuctTion, and Water-Worm. See alfo VERMES.
Water Key, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the bay of
Honduras, near the coait of Mexico. N. lat. 17° 30. W.
long. 88° 4o!.
Water Key, a {mall ifland in the Spanifh Main, near the
Mofquito fhore. N. lat. 12° 15'. W.long. 82° 55/.
Warer Key, South, a {mall ifland in the bay of Hondu-
ras. N. lat. 16° 35'. W. long. 88° 45!.
Water Point, a cape on the eaft coaft of Java.
mOlssly Be long. artacaal. ‘
Warer Sound, a {trait of the North fea, between South
Ronaldfha and Barra, two of the Orkney iflands.
WATERBOROUGH,a town in the diftriét of Maine,
and county of York, containing 1395 inhabitants; 15 miles
N.W. of Wells.
WATERBURY, a town of the ftate of Conneéticut,
containing 2874 inhabitants ; 20 miles S.W. of Hartford.
WATEREE, a river which rifes in the Allegany Moun-
tains, then runs foutherly into South Carolina, and changing
its name to Wateree; after a courfe of about 120 miles, it
joins the Cangaree, and then takes the name of Santee.
WATERFORD, a maritime county of Ireland, in the
province of Munfter, having the county of Cork on the
weit, the counties of Tipperary and Kilkenny on the north,
the county of Wexford on the eaft, and St. George’s Chan-
nel on the fouth. It extends from ealt to weft 40 Irifh, or
51 Englifh miles ; and from north to fouth 23 Irifh, or 29
Englifh miles. Its breadth, however, varies much, and is
in one part not more than fix miles. The area is ftated to
be 262,800 acres, or 410 fquare miles Irifh, which are
equal to 425,692 acres, or 665 {quare miles Englifh. Dr.
Beaufort {tates the number of houfes to be 18,7963; and
the number of inhabitants at leaft 110,000. The num-
ber of parifhes is 74, in which there were 21. churches,
divided between the fees of Waterford and Lifmore. Wa-
terford returns four members to the imperial parliament, two
for the county, one for the city of Waterford, and one for
the borough of Dungarvan. The county of Waterford is
in general hilly, and the northern part is particularly rough
and mountainous; in the fouth and eaft thé foil is rich and
produétive. In the weft of the county, on the north of the
Blackwater, there is a ridge called the Knockmeledown moun-
tains, many parts of which are very high, though Mr.
Twifs is miftaken in calling them the higheft in Ireland.
The Commeragh mountains cover a great extent of country
between Dungarvan and Clonmell.. Thefe hills, except in
afew defolate and craggy fpots, afford pafture to {mall
cows, which produce a great quantity of butter. In the
eaftern part agriculture has been much improved, and the
farms are not furpaffed in any part of Ireland.
The river Blackwater flows through the weit of this county
into the bay of Youghal, and is navigable to Cappoquin.
The banks of this river are peculiarly beautiful, efpecially
near Lifmore. The river Bride, which joins the Black-
water, pafles near the town of Tallow, and is fo far navi-
gable for large boats. The gentle’ and majeftic Suir forms
the northern boundary, dividing it from the counties of
Tipperary and Kilkenny, and running eaft till joined by the
Barrow ; when, turning fouth, they form an eftuary, 9
miles long, and 2 broad, which is the harbour of Water-
ford. At Dunmore, near the extremity of this, on the
Waterford fide, a very fine pier is building, for the protec-
tion of the packets, and of fuch veffels as may put into this
harbour.
S. lat.
WAT
Dr. Charles Smith publithed «« The ancient and prefent
State of the County and City of Waterford,”’ in the year
1745, which was reprinted in 1772. In this work, he ftates
the Menapii to have been inhabitants of this county and
Wexford in the time of Ptolemy, which Menapii he fup-
pofes to have been a colony from the Belgic Menapii, men-
tioned by Cefar. The Defii are ftated to have been a
powerful clan at the time of the Englifh invafion. Thefe
came from the county of Meath, and gave name to the ba-
ronies of Defies within and Defies without Drum, and their
defcendants are now called Deafy. Though the power of
the Defii was abolifhed by the Englifh, yet, for many years
after, the O’Feolains, kings of the Defii, are occafionally
mentioned in the Irifh annals. Henry II. in1177 made a grant
of the city of Waterford, with all the circumjacent province,
to Robert Le Poer, his marfhal, from whom are defcended
not only the family of Le Poer, the head of which was
created, in 1535, earl of Tyrone, but alfo the feveral re-
{peétable families of Power, fettled at Clafhmore, Gurteen,
&c. By marriage, the eftates and honours of the Le Poers
came to the family of Beresford, the head of which is now
marquis of Waterford, and has a noble feat at Curraghmore,
in this county. In the civil war, Waterford had its fhare of
difturbance, and Cromwell himfelf was engaged unfuccefs-
fully in the fiege of its capital. Dr. Smith’s Topography
is {till interefting to the reader, from the various information
he collected refpeGting the different families fettled, though
many of them are now extiné or removed. His natural hif-
tory is very defeétive, yet it is the beft hitherto publifhed.
He drew attention to the fifheries, and to the Nymph bank,
yet even now, though employment is fo much wanted, the
fifheries remain without encouragement. In his enumera-
tion of eminent men born in this county, we find the names
of Congreve the poet, and of Robert Boyle, who was born:
in the caftle of Lifmore. The duke of Devonfhire, as de-
{cendant of the eldeft branch of the Boyle family, poffeffes
the towns of Dungarvan, Lifmore, and Tallow, with a great
traét of land, which gives hima preponderating influence im
the county. Beaufort’s Memoir of Ireland, &c.
WATERFORD, a city and fea-port town on the fouth fide of
the river Suir, in Ireland, capital of the county of the fame
name. This river is embanked by a noble quay, extending
the whole length of the town, to which veffels of great bur-
den can come up, though the largeft fhips generally lie a
few miles lower down. Like mott of the other fea-ports of
Ireland, it was originally built by the Oftmen or Danes ;
and is faid to have been founded A.D. 853, nearly at the
fame time as Dublin and Limerick. Waterford feems to
have been the chief fettlement of this people, for we find
the kings of the Danes of Waterford often mentioned in
the old annals. Strongbow, foon after his landing in Ire-
land, took Waterford by affault in 1171, and in 1172 he
gave it up to king Henry II., who landed at Waterford,
and received there the fubmiffion, not only of his Englith
fubjeéts, but alfo of many Irifh chiefs. King John alfo
landed at this city, and made it his refidence for fome
months. The fteady adherence of Waterford to the Eng-
lifh caufed it to be engaged in almoft conftant warfare with
its neighbours; and in return it received many marks of
royal favour. Richard II. landed twice at Waterford.
When Simnel was crowned king by the earl of Kildare, the
lord deputy, the citizens of Waterford refufed to admit
him, adhering fteadily to Henry VII., in confequence of
which he addreffed a letter to them, thanking them for their
adherence, and giving them power to feize the rebels and
their effe€ts, and to employ the latter for their own advan-
tage. They behaved with the fame loyalty againft Perkin
Warbeck,
WAT
Warbeck, who had many adherents in Ireland, in confe-
quence of which the king gave them this motto, which is ftill
ufed, “ Inta€&ta manet Waterfordia.” In the reign of
James I., Waterford appears to have become turbulent in
confequence of its attachment to the Roman Catholic reli-
gion, and in confequence was deprived of many privileges,
but thefe were reftored by Charles I. In the civil war,
Waterford was on the fide of the Catholics, and a meeting
of the popith clergy was held there by the pope’s nuncio in
1646. It was befieged by Cromwell without fuccefs ; but
was afterwards taken by Ireton. It has been already men-
tioned that Waterford was built by the Danes ; it was at fir
called Portlargie, from Jairge, a_thigh ; the courfe of the
river Suir, near this place, refembling that part of the
human body. The Englifh gave it its prefent name,
as it is faid, from a ford in St. John’s river, which empties
itfelf into the Suir. The city chiefly faces the north and
eaft, which, though feemingly a fituation not fo defirable,
being expofed to the chilling blaits of thefe winds, yet the
healthinefs of it makes amends for the bleaknefs of the ex-
pofure. A further advantage is its noble fituation, near the
confluence of three large and navigable rivers, the Suir, the
Nore, and the Barrow, by which inland commodities may
be fupplied at a very inconfiderable expence of carriage,
from the very centre of the ifland, and from feven different
counties wafhed by thefe rivers, and other counties adjacent
to them. Over the river Suir, a fine wooden bridge has been
erected within a few years, to facilitate the communication
with other.places. A very flourifhing commerce with Eng-
land and other countries is the happy confequence of fuch a
fituation. Its exports of beef, butter, hides, tallow, pork,
and corn, are confiderable. The number of large hogs
weekly flaughtered during the feafon exceeds 3000 on an
average. The quantity of butter annually exported exceeds
80,000 cafks.
This city is alfo largely concerned in the Newfoundland
trade. The population is fuppofed to exceed 40,000, and
it ranks as the fourth town of Ireland in extent, and the fifth
in commercial importance. Packet-boats are eftablifhed be-
tween this port and Milford Haven, for the convenient inter-
courfe of the fouth of Ireland with England. This city
fends one member to the united parliament, elected by the
freemen and freeholders. This eleétion is free, and, to the
honour of the eleétors, fir John Newport, one of the molt
fleady friends of Ireland, has been repeatedly returned.
The cathedral of Waterford, adorned with an elegant fteeple,
is a fine ftru@ture. There is alfo a very fuperb Catholic
chapel, with feveral other places of worthip. The other
public edifices are conftruéted with much elegance, and
effentially contribute to ornament the city. It is, however,
of more confequence to obferve, that its numerous charitable
inftitutions are well conduéted, and liberally fupported. Its
houfe of induftry may ferve as a model for others. Its
fever hofpital was the firft in Ireland, and nearly the firft in
the united kingdom, and has been carried on with uniform
fuccefs. Without any with to take from the merit of other
worthy individuals, much of this praife is due to the exer-
tions of the Society of Friends, who are numerous in Water-
ford. This city is 744 Irifh miles S.S.W. from Dublin.
Smith’s Waterford. Carlifle’s DiGtionary. Wakefield,
&c.
Warerrorp and Lismore, Bifbopric of. The firft of
thefe fees, which is confined to the eaftern part of the county
of Waterford, and is very fmall, was founded by the Oft-
men in the 11th century; but that of Lifmore, which in-
cludes the greateft part of Waterford county, and a confi-
derable portion of Tipperary, was founded in the feventh
9
WAT
century. The union took place in 1536. The extent of
the union is, in Irifh miles, 39 by 29, and in Englifh 49 by
37+ The number of Irith acres 354,800, which are divided
into 106 parifhes. Forty-four of thefe are impropriate, and
the reft form only 44 benefices, of which, when Dr. Beau-
fort publifhed his account, only 30 had churches, and only
8 glebe-houfes. Many churches and glebe-houfes have been
built throughout Ireland within a few years. Beaufort.
__ WATERFORD, a populous and compact incorporated poft-
village, in the S.E. corner of Half Moon, Saratoga county,
on the W. bank of the Hudfon ; 10 miles N. of Albany.
It is the moft populous town in the county, and has the
greateft fhare of trade. It is handfomely laid out, in 5 E.
and W. ftreets, interfe@ting at right angles. It has rgo
houfes and ftores, 2 Binks of worfhip, and fome other
buildings, together with three fchools on the Lancafter plan.
Itis well fituated for a manufa€turing town ; and in 1812 a
wharf, 320 yards long, was conftruéted, and a canal along
it to the channel of the Hudfon.
Warterrorn, a town of the ftate of Vermont, in the
county of Caledonia, on the W. bank of the Conneéti-
cut, formerly called Littleton, containing 1289 inhabitants ;
40 miles N. of Norwich. tig’
big so = 25 pott-town in the diftri& of Maine, and
county of Oxford, containing 188 inhabitants ; i
Niof WerksA te ris > apo
WarTeERForD, a poft-town of Virginia ; 20 miles N.W.
of Wafhington. -
WATERFORD, a town of Connecticut, in the county of
New London ; containing 2185 inhabitants.
Waterrorp, or Le Beuf, a poit-town of the ftate of
Pennfylvania, in the county of Erie, containing 162 inhabit-
ants ; 370 miles N.W. of Wafhington.
WareERFORD, a townfhip of New Jerfey, in Gloucefter
county, containing 2105 inhabitants; 40 miles S. of Tren-
ton.—Alfo, a town of Ohio, in the county of Wajfhington,
containing 701 inhabitants.
WATERGUCHEE, or Wareraquecuie, a river of
Vermont, which runs into the Conneéticut, N. lat. 43° 34’.
W. long. 72° 18!.
WATERING, in Gardening, the practice or means of
rendering feeds, plants, fhrubs, and trees, as wellas garden-
grounds, properly and fuitably moift for the purpofe of their
better, more ready, and more healthy germination, growth,
and taking root, when fown, planted out, or fet, and after-
wards for continuing them in the neceflary ftates of vegeta-
tion, growth, and increafe, efpecially when the weather is
dry, hot, and parching. It is alfo occafionally ufeful in
preventing fome forts of fruit-trees from being deftroyed by
the attacks of different forts of infe&ts, as well as for the
clearing them of other kinds. It is occafionally equally
effential for the feeds and plants in the full ground, as for
thofe in pots in it, and thofe in green-houfes, glafs-cafes,
hot-beds, hot-houfes, ftoves, and other fimilar fituations ;
fuch, for inftance, in the former kinds, as the feeds in drills,
beds, and other open places, different young plants in the
fame fituations, numerous others of the cutting, flip, off-
fet, and other fimilar kinds, which have been newly pricked
out, planted, or tranfplanted, not only at the time of firft
putting them out, but now and then afterwards, when dry
hot weather is prefent ; alfo in many kinds of newly-planted
young trees and fhrubs in the {pring and early autumnal
plantings ; and to all the plants which are in pots in the open
air, whether they may be of the more or lefs hardy kinds,
during the droughty feafons of {pring, fummer, qnd early
autumn; and in the latter defcription, to all the fine tender
kinds
Wake oF
kinds of potted plants and trees under any fort of covering
or protection of the houfe or other kind.
There are many forts of plants which cannot exift with-
out watering in either a fmall or plentiful manner. Some
ftand in need of it only in a flight degree, and at par-
ticular feafons of the year, while others demand it in very
full proportions at all times. Some are very nice in the
quantities which are required at any one time ; but others
are lefs particular in this refpeét. Some too are under the
neceflity of having it thrown over their leaves as well as to
their roots ; others only have occafion for it to the root part.
And there are fome other methods of adminiftering and ap-
plying it, which are peculiar to certain kinds of plants, trees,
and other vegetable produéts, as fhewn under their particu-
lar individual modes of culture.
In all cafes, the moft proper water for this ufe is that which
is contained in any fort of pond, refervoir, or other fimilar
kind of excavation, for the purpofe of containing it in a {tate
of conftant expofure to the atmofphere, in gardens or other
places, as it is not only more convenient and ready for
being employed, but, at the fame time, a great deal more
falutary, and better adapted to promote the growth and
increafe of the different forts of plants and vegetables, than
that of the raw, fharp, cold, hard kind, which is drawn
from wells or raifed by pumps for immediate ufe, as being
more foft in its nature, and more fuitable in its tem-
perature.
The moft fuitable time of applying it is in the evening,
after the difappearance of the fun, and when the exceffive
heat of the day is gone off, and in a great meafure abated, as
its effects are then more beneficial and lafting ; and befides the
work can be performed with more eafe and convenience, as
well as in a more agreeable manner.
When once the bufinefs of watering has been commenced,
it fhould always be regularly proceeded with, or the plants
or vegetables may fuffer much, and be greatly injured by
the omiffion or negle@t. It is conftantly better never to
attempt it, than to juft begin and then leave it off again, as
is much too frequently the cafe, in the practice of horticul-
ture, with fome gardeners, who have not fully confidered the
matter.
The work of watering feeds, plants, fhrubs, and trees, is
ufually performed, either by means of common watering
pots and cans, large fyringes contrived for the purpofe,
forcing engines for throwing it up over the plants, or by
fome other contrivance of a fimilar nature. The water
being moftly brought to the places where it is wanted, either
in tubs hung in a fort of barrow-frame, or by their being
placed on the barrows themfelves.
The water is commonly applied in a fine divided ftate,
over the plants, where it is not required in any large quan-
tities, and for clearing away and deftroying {muts: but
where it is demanded in large proportions, it is often poured
in full ftreams to their roots or other parts.
But in ufing it upona large fcale for garden-grounds,
Mr. London has fuggefted that it may be accomplifhed by a
practice fomewhat fimilar to that of overflowing tillage-
land, or by means of fubflooding ; this laft may, he thinks,
be effe€ted by having a ftratum or layer of gravel under-
neath the whole garden, which by having a trench furround-
it, or, if upon a flope, at the upper fide of it only, may
have the ground wholly faturated with the water let into it,
which will foon be abforbed. and taken up by the incumbent
furface containing the vegetables that are under cultivation.
And, in the former of thefe methods, by having pipes,
open-cuts, or rather {mall wooden troughs, which may ferve
to convey and condu& the water upon the furface of every
W AE
quarter of the ground; it may there diftribute itfelf in the
intervals between the beds or drills, as well as over the gene-
ral furface of the broad-caft crops. It is further fuggefted
that the former method could be put in praétice at any pe-
riod of the {pring or fummer ; the latter, for the moft part,
in moift weather, or in the night feafon. See WATERING
of Land.
In the watering of both feeds, plants, and garden
erenndes much care fhould, however, be taken, in every in-
ftance, that injury inftead of good be not done, by employ-
ing too large quantities, or continuing them for too great a
length of time.
On the whole, it will be evident, from what has been faid
above, that the practice of watering in garden culture may
be beneficial in different ways, as in exciting and promoting
a better and more fpeedy vegetation in newly-fown feeds
and tranfplanted vegetables ; in forwarding the growth
and increafe in a proper manner of different crops,
plants, and trees; and in the deftruGtion or removal of
he fuch as the aphis, red {pider, and fome of the coccus
tribe.
_ Waterinc-Barrow, in Gardening, fuch as is employed
in conveying water to gardens or other places. They have
ufually a tub fixed upright in the frame by means of pivots,
hooks, and gudgeons, or fome other way, one-half of which
is below and the other above it, the water being, in a great
meafure, prevented from fpilling while it is carrying. See
Quenvon Water-Barrow.
Warerine Forcing-Engine, an engine contrived for
the purpofe of forcing water in a fort of fhower over
fome kinds of fruit-trees, garden vegetables, and plants,
and which commonly effeéts the bufinefs in an eafy, conve-
nient, and effectual even manner, being well adapted to par-
ticular modes and purpofes of watering.
Warerine of Land, in Agriculture, the practice of over-
flowing it artificially in the grafs ftate, with the water which
is diverted from an adjoining or neighbouring river or ftream,
which has a higher level than the ground to be covered, or .
where there is a proper fall. In this way, by the new-
formed water-courfes being kept nearly on the level, the
{paces of land between the new and the old channels may be
watered, the water being brought upon the ground by the
former, and difcharged or taken away by the latter ; and
thus a conftant fucceffion of the water be retained and re-
moved without fuch an accumulation of it as would be inju-
rious, or fuch a deficiency as would leave any part imper-
feétly fupplied. In different diftri€ts different names are
applied to this practice, fuch as thofe of floating, flooding,
drowning, foaking, and fome others,
It is, without doubt, a practice of great antiquity, which
it 1s probable the extraordinary fertility afforded by the
annual overflowings of the river Nile, in Egypt, may have
firft fuggeited as the means of improving the lands of other
countries. In this country, indeed, it would feem to have
been had recourfe to, for the purpofe, at a very early pe-
riod, as in the county of Hereford, it appears to have been
practifed more than two hundred years ago, as is evident
from a work on the fubje& written by Rowland Vaughan,
and publifhed in the year 1610, entitled ‘‘ Moft improved
and long-experienced Water-Works ; containing the man-
ner of {ummer and winter drowning of meadow and pafture,
by the advantage of the leaft river, brook, fount, or water-
mill adjacent ; thereby te make thofe grounds, efpecially if
they be dry, more fertile ten for one.” And the praétice
is probably {till more ancient in the county of Wilts than in
the above or any other diftri€t, in confequence of its pof-
{effing naturally watered grafs lands, which perhaps firft led
to
WATERING OF LAND.
to the notion of forming them in an artificial manner. The
general want of good saree opm 4 in the high lands of
this county might, it has been fuppofed, be a great induce-
ment to improve fuch watery valley-tracks, which mutt ever
have difplayed the moft pleafing and interefting appear-
ances of early and luxuriant vegetation and awl
However, in whatever way the praétice originated in this
country, it is unqueftionably a method that is deferving of
the attention of the land proprietor and the farmer in a very
high degree.
It has been ftated by different writers on the practice of
watering land, that the moft proper qualities of the grounds
for being watered, are all thofe which are of a fandy or gra-
velly friable open nature, as on fuch the improvement is not
only immediate, but the effe&ts produced more certain and
powerful than on other kinds of them. There are alfo
fome ftrong adhefive four wet lands, which are alfo capable
of being improved by watering.
There are {till fome other forts of lands, as thofe which
contain different kinds of coarfe vegetable productions upon
their furfaces, fuch as heath, ling, ruthes, boggy and other
aquatic plants, which may likewife be much improved by
watering. It fhould, however, be conftantly kept in mind,
in attempting this fort of improvement, that the more ftiff
and tenacious the foil or land is, the greater the command of
water fhould be, in order to effe& the purpofe.
The lands which admit of this fort of improvement with
the moft fuccefs and benefit are, for the moft part, all fuch
as lie in low fituations on the banks and bordersof brooks,
rivers, and ftreams, or in floping dire€tions on the fides of
hills, to which water can be conduéted in an eafy and ready
manner.
The writer of a late ufeful traét on the fubje&t, however,
feems inclined to fuppofe that there are only a few foils or
forts of land to which watering may not be advantageoufly
applied ; the experience which he has had, it is faid, has de-
termined, that the wetteft land may be greatly improved by
it, and likewife that it is equally beneficial to that which is
dry. But that as many perfons, unacquainted with the nature
of watering land, may be more inclined to the latter fuppofi-
tion than the former, the reafon of wet land being as capable
of improvement by watering as that which is completely
dry before it is ufed, is explained. It is that, in the con-
ftrution of all watered meadows or lands, particular care
mutt be taken to render them perfe&tly dry when the bufi-
nefs of floating or covering them with water hall termi-
nate ; and that the feafon for floating or watering is in the
winter and not in the fummer, which thofe who are unac-
quainted with the procefs have too commonly fuppofed.
All bogs of the peat kind are certainly, it is faid, of vege-
table origin, and thofe vegetables are all aquatic in their
nature. It therefore follows that the fame water which has
produced the vegetables of the bog would, under due ma-
nagement upon the furface, produce fuch graffes or other
vegetables as are ufually grown by the farmer; and the
writer has hitherto had reafon to think, that this may be
confidered as a general rule for determining the fituation for
any experiments or trials with water. The writer having
fucceeded in the attempt to make good watered lands, upon
foils which have been thought unfit for the purpofe, and
floated or watered them with water that was equally con-
demned, in point of quality, he is now, it is faid, fufficiently
emboldened to recommend the trial of watering land by
means of machinery, and that the moft flattering hopes of
fuccefs are entertained from it. It is spticed that the
graffes produced ‘by the firft year’s floating or watering of a
peat-bog, or apy wet land, will be atte more like what
will become the permanent herbage of a water-meadow,
than the firft or fecond year’s crop from a newly-floated or
watered piece of dry land. The herbage of the former
being, it is faid, previoufly ftored with aqueous plants, is in
fome degree fuited to this new ftate, whereas the herbage of
dry land is generally of quite a different nature, and often
produces an exceeding great crop of grafs the firlt year,
which does not appear the next ; for the fame water which
caufed thefe grafles to grow fo very luxuriantly the firft
year, will totally deftroy them in the courfe of the enfuing
winter, and produce an herbage much more congenial to
that degree or ftate of moifture. The utility of watering in
all thefe cafes has been fully eftablifhed in lovee different
diftri€ts, fo that proper examples of the forms and crops
may always be readily had for the trials of others in the fame
way. This has been done, it is faid, in the counties of
Bedford, Norfolk, and Kent, in the firft and laft of which
upon foils that are very different from thofe of moft water-
meadows in the county of Wilts; and that the floating or
watering of them has been effeéted with water which was
always before confidered to be wholly unfit for that pur-
pofe, even by thofe fuppofed to be the beft acquainted with
the pra€tice : it is now, however, fully proved and fhewn to
be the cafe, not only by the accurate inveitigations of the
moft able chemifts, but by the extraordinary growth of
ate in particular boggy fituations, that waters of the
erruginous kind are not at all hurtful to vegetation ; but,
on the contrary, very friendly to it, when they are properly
applied. Such faéts being eftablifhed beyond all poffibility
of doubt, afford, it is faid, a much greater fcope for the im-
provements by water, than was ever expected or thought of
by the moft fanguine advocates of watering, and enables
the writer, from his great experience and obfervation, in
different parts of the kingdom, to fay that there are few dif-
tris to which they are not applicable. °
It is, however, fuppofed by fome, that the quality of the
water, like that of marl or other manures, is a matter of the
firft importance, and fhould be particularly afcertained.
And it has been remarked by the author of the “ Treatife
on Landed Property,” that it is univerfally known that
water which flows out of a dung-yard poffeffes a fertilizing
quality. It is generally admitted, too, that the wafhings of
fheep-walks, frefhly-manured arable lands, ftreets of towns,
roads, and other fuch places, after a long drought, have the
quality of fertilization. And it is equally evident, it is
thought, that the waters iffuing in different parts of the
kingdom from chalk, lime-ftone, marl, or other calcareous
ftratum, though they are perfe€tly limpid, poflefs the power
of fertility ; and thofe of fome diftriéts, as of Wiltthire,
Dorfetfhire, and fome others, to an aftonifhing degree.
And a fimilar, though lefs powerful, effet is produced by
the limpid waters, which iffue from the flate-rocks of Devon-
fhire and Cornwall. On the other hand, waters that ooze
out of peat-bogs, and iffue from particular mines, are
well known to be injurious to the growth of agricultural
vegetables.
It is added, that chemiftry points out tefts and procefles
whereby waters, as well as marls and other grofs manures,
may be tried and analyfed. But the virtue of water, when
confidered as a manure, does not refide in a fingle principle,
like that of lime-ftone. Water is capable of fulpendingy not
only calcareous earth, but various other matters,—of animal,
vegetable, and foffil origin: fome of them friendly, others
inimical, to vegetation. It would, therefore, it is thought,
be imprudent in a practical man in this bufinefs to commit
himfelf to theoretic guidance alone, while the theory of ma-
nures, and efpecially of watering land, remains fo much in-
ie volved
WATERING OF LAND.
yolved in obfcurity ; and, while trials in the field, on the very
“Yand which is defired to be improved, may be made with fa-
cility and prompt decifion.
The effeéts of watering are remarkable in many inftances :
in Wiltfhire, it is not uncommon to fee, it is faid, lands,
where water has been diverted for the purpofe of improve-
ment, divided by a hedge or a ditch only, the grafs on one
fide of which is of the moft luxuriant nature and abundant
growth, but on the other fo diminutive that the ftrongeit
blades have never reached the height of three inches. The
fame is the cafe in other fituations, which fufficiently marks
the importance of the practice.
It will be neceflary, before we flate the different methods
of performing the bufinefs of watering in different circum-
ftances, to give fome account of the implements which are
requifite for the purpofe, as well as fome explanation of the
terms employed in carrying on the work in the different
modes. ‘The firft and principal inftrument in the execution
of the work is a proper level, of which the {pirit one is per-
haps the beft. It is neceflary for taking the level of the
land at a diftance, compared with the part of the river or
other ftream, from whence it is intended to take the water,
to know whether it can or cannot be made to float the part
defigned to be watered. It is particularly ufeful in works
of this fort on a large fcale, though the labourers too fre-
quently negleét the ufe of it, bringing the water after them
to work by in-cutting the feveral parts that are to convey
the water. It fhould, however, be moftly ufed as being
more certain and correct. See Lever, and Warer-
Level.
A proper line and reel and cutting-iron are likewife abfo-
lutely neceffary, as well as a breaft-plough, which fhould be
of the beft kind, as being of great ufe in cutting turfs for
the fides of the channels and other parts. See Warer-
Line and Reel, Water Crefcent,and Breast-Plough.
The fpades ufed in this fort of work fhould have the ftems
or handles confiderably more crooked than thofe in common
ufe, the bit being of iron, about a foot in width, in the mid-
dle, terminating in a point, a thick ridge running down the
middle part, from the top to near the point ; the edges on
both fides being drawn very thin, and kept quite fharp by
frequent grinding and whetting : when they are become thin
and narrow by wearing, they are ufed for the {maller-
trenches and drains. By means of the handles being made
fo crooked, the workman, ftanding in the working pofition
in the bottom of the drain or trench, is enabled to make it
perfe€ily {mooth and even without any difficulty.
Both fhort and narrow fcythes are alfo neceflary, in order
to mow and cut away any weeds. or fuperfluous grafs that
may be prefent, during the running of the water in the
trenches or other cuts; as well as forks, and long four or
five-tined crooks or drags for pulling out the roots of the
fedges, rufhes, reeds, and other fuch matters, that may be
in the large mains or other channels. ‘Thefe crooks fhould
be made light, and have long fhafts to reach wherever the
water is fo deep that the labourers cannot work in it, fo as
to remove fuch obftruétions.
Wheel and hand-barrows, too, become neceflary and
ufeful, the former for removing the clods and earths to the
flat or hollow places, for this ufe they may be made open,
without fides or hinder parts ; the latter are ufed where the
ground is too foft to admit the former, and where the clods
or other matters require to be removed during the time the
land is in water. But when large quantities of earth are
wanted to be removed, efpecially when to be conveyed to
fome diftance, three-wheeled carts are proper.
And in all cafes a ftout large water-proof pair of boots is
Vou. XXXVIII.
abfolutely requifite, having the tops made fo as to draw up
half the length of the thigh; they fhould be large enough
to admit a quantity of hay or other fuch materfals to be
ftuffed down all round the legs, and be kept well tallowed,
in order to refift the running water for any length of
time.
The terms ufed in the pratice of watering are very nu-
merous. A weir is a work thrown over or acrofs a brook,
river, rivulet, ftream, main, or other fuch parts, the ufe of
which is to divert the water; and when the hatches are all
properly adjufted and in their places, to {top the whole cur-
rent, in order that the water may rife high enough to over-
flow the banks, and fpread over the adjoining land ; or, by
ftopping the water in its natural courfe, turn it through mains
or channels, cut to convey it another way, to fome diftant
lands that are to be watered. See WEIR.
A fluice differs from the above fimply in having but one
thorough or opening, as when there are more than one it be-
comes a weir. It is applicable in fmall ftreams in the fame
way that the weir is in large ones. See SLUICE.
The coyered fluice or trunk is conftruéted and had re-
courfe to in all fuch cafes, as where two ftreams of water
are to crofs each other at the point of difcharge, and to ferve
as a bridge. The drain-fluice or trunk is that which is
placed in the loweft part of a main, as near to the head as it
can be formed, and put low enough to drain the main and
other parts, It is put withthe mouth at the bottom of the
main, being let down into the bank ; and from the other
end of which a drain is cut to communicate with fome
trench-drain that is the neareft. It is ufed for carrying off
the leakage through the hatches when fhut down, to convey
the water to other grounds, and for fome other purpofes.
See SLuicr.
Hatches are flood-gates, and ufed for the fame purpofes :
they are confequently differently formed in different cafes ;
but fuch as have about a foot to take off, and let the water
pafs over fo much of them, are thought ufeful by fome in
different cafes of watering. Others fuppofe them the beft
when made whole and of good timber. See Hartcu.
A carriage is a fort of {mall wooden or brick paffage,
built in an open manner, for the purpofe of carrying or con-
veying one itream over another, and is ufeful in many cafes,
though very expenfive in the praétice of watering.
Head-main in watering land implies that part of the prin-
cipal cut or channel which takes the water firft out of a river
or ftream, and conveys it to fuch lands as are laid out for the
purpofe, by means of fmaller mains and trenches. It is
neceflarily formed of various breadths and depths, accord-
ing to the quantity of land to be watered; and to the
length, or the fall of the ground it is cut through. Small}
mains are the next order of cuts for the diftribution of water
on lands, as conneéting between the head-main and trenches.
Thefe {maller mains are moftly taken out of the head-
main; and the only difference between them is, the one
being much lefs than the other; they are commonly cut
at, or nearly at, right angles with the other, though in fome
cafes at many degrees lefs. The ufe of both thefe forts
of mains is to feed the various trenches and gutters that
branch out in all parts of the land with water, and to con-
vey it for floating the ground in an equal manner, By fome
thefe fmalter mains are termed carriages, but improperly, as
it is confounding them with the open trunk fo named, as
already feen.
The trench, in watering, is a fhallow narrow cut or ditch
made to take the water out of the mains for floating the
land. It fhould always be drawn in a ftraight line from
angle to angle, with as few turnings as poflible. It is
never
WATERING OF LAND.
never made deep, but the width of it muft be in proportion
to the length it has to run, and the breadth of the pane of
out between that and the trench-drain. It fhould con-
antly be cut gradually narrower and narrower, in the
wedge-form, to the lower end, in order to force over the
water more equally.
‘The trench-drain is conftantly cut parallel to the trench,
and as deep as the tail-drain water will permit when necef-
fary. It fhould always, where poffible, be cut fo as to
come down to a firm ftratum of fand, gravel, or clay. If
the laft, a fpade’s depth into it will be of great benefit.
The ufe of it is to take away the water immediately after it
has run over the panes of the land from the trench. It is
not neceflary to be brought up to the head of the land by
five, fix, or more yards, as the nature of the foil may be.
The form of it is the reverfe of the trench, being narrower
at the head, or upper part, and gradually wider and wider,
until it comes to the lower end, and empties itfelf into the
tail-drain, which is a receptacle for all the water that comes
out of the other drains, that are fituated fo as not to
empty themfelves into the river; and, confequently, it
fhould run nearly at right angles with the trenches ; but it
is, in general, preferable to draw it in the loweft part of the
ground, and to ufe it for conveying the water out of the
ground where there is the greateft defcent: this is com-
monly found in one of the fence-ditches ; for which reafon
a fence-ditch is moftly made ufe of for the purpofe, as
anfwering the double ufe of a fence and drain at the fame
time.
The pane of ground is that part of the land which lies
between the trench and the trench-drain, and is the part on
which the grafs grows, which is cut for hay: it is watered
by the trenches, and laid dry by the trench-drains ; confe-
quently there is one on each fide of every trench. The
term pane is alfo applied to the part which is ufed, for
taking off the produce.
The bend implies a ftoppage made in different parts of
fuch trenches as have a quick defcent, in order to obftruét
the water. It is effeéted by leaving a narrow flip of green-
fward ground acrofs the trench where the bend is defigned
to be, and cutting occafionally a {mall part out of the
middle of it in the wedge form. It is ufeful for checking
the water, and forcing it over the trench on to the panes ;
which, if it were not for fuch bends, would run rapidly on
in the trench, and not flow over the land as it pafles along.
The great art of watering land confifts in giving to every
part of each pane of ground an equal quantity of water,
which is greatly promoted in this way.
The gutter is a fmall groove cut out from the tails of
thefe trenches, where the panes of ground run longer at one
fide or corner than the other. The ufe of it is to carry
the water to the extreme point. of the panes. Thofe panes
which are interfe&ted by the trench and tail drains,
meeting in an obtufe angle, want the affiftance of thefe
gutters to convey the water to the longeft fide. And
another ufe of them is, when the land has not been fo per-
fe&tly levelled but that fome parts of the panes of ground
lie higher than they fhould, a gutter is then drawn from
the trench over that high ground, which would otherwife
not be overflowed. Without this precaution, unlefs the
flats were filled up, which fhould always be the cafe when
materials are to be had, the water will not rife upon it ;
and after the watering-feafon is paft, thofe places would
appear of a rufty-brown, while a rich verdure would over-
fpread the others ; and at hay-time the grafs in thofe places
would fearcely be high enough for the fegehs to touch it;
while that around them, which has been properly watered,
will, from its luxuriance, be laid down. This "neglect is;
therefore, to be reprobated in moft cafes, as the great art of ©
watering land is that of throwing the water regularly
over all parts, thofe where it cannot rife of itfelf as well
as others, and in carrying it off from thofe in which it
would otherwife ftagnate and be hurtful.
The catch-drain is an occafional ditch, fometimes cut for
the purpofe of carrying the fame water into a fecond main
or other part, for watering lower lands or panes of ground
with the water that has been before ufed. It is made ufe of
too in fome other cafes, as catching the water that is thrown
forward.
Pond is ufed to fignify any part where the water ftands
on the ground in watering, or in the tail-drain, trench-
drains, or others, fo as to injure the lands near them; and is
occafioned by flats and irregularities in the furface of the
grounds, as well as by other caufes.
The turn of water means the fpace of land that can be
watered at one time in any cafe; and is accomplifhed by
fhutting down the hatches in all thofe weirs where the
water is defigned to be kept out, and opening thofe that
are to let the water through them. The quantity or
extent of land to be watered by one turn, mutt of courfe
vary with the fize of the river, brook, main, and other fuch
parts, and by the plenty or fcarcity of the water.
The bed of a river, main, trench, or other fuch part, is
the bottom of any of them.
The head of any watered land is that part into which the
river, main, or other fuch part, firft enters. And the tail of
it is that part where the water laft paffes off by the tail-drain
into the courfe that is to take it away.
The upper fide of a main or trench is that which, wher
they are made at nearly right angles with the river-or other
fuch part, fronts the place where the river, &c. entered.
And, of courfe, the lower fide is the reverfe.
The upper pane of the land is that which lies upon the
upper fide of the main or trench when made at right angles
with the river, &c. running north and fouth. Where, how-
ever, thefe run parallel with the river, &c. the panes on
either fide are not diftinguifhed from each other,
Some other terms, which are ufed by the more modern
writers on watering land, will be explained as we proceed in
pointing out the nature of the bufinefs.
After noticing the manner in which water is artificially
brought on and taken away from the land in watering, as
already feen, the writer of the tract before alluded to re-
marks, that the art of watering land may properly be called
floating, not foaking. or drowning. Soaking the foil,
fimilar to the effets produced from a fhower of rain, is not
fufficient for the general purpofes of watering ; nor will
damming up the water, or keeping it ftagnant upon the
furface, like that in a pond, or on the fens, produce the
defired effe&. The latter, it is thought, may properly be
termed drowning, becaufe it drowns or covers all the grafles,
thereby rendering the plants beneath it certainly aquatic,
or the herbage difpofed to take on fuch a change; whereas
the herbage of a watered meadow or land fhould, from the
form and circumitances of the ground, enjoy the full
benefits of air and water. Practice has proved, it is faid,
that there is no better méthod of effecting this, than by
keeping the water pafling over the furface of the land with
a brifk current, but not fo brifk as to wath away the foil,
and yet in fufficient quantity to cover and nourifh the roots,
but not too much to hide the fhoots of the grafles : hence
appears the nicety of adjufting the quantity of water ; and .
hence it appears, too, that one main-drain, to bring the
water on the upper fide of the land, and another on the
lower
Peet en
WATERING OF LAND.
‘lower fide to take it away, will not be adequate to all the
purpofes of fuch an accurate regulation. If the {pace be-
tween the upper channel, or main-feeder, and the lower one,
or main-drain, fhould therefore be wider than what is pro-
per for the due adjuftment of the water, that is, fo that
every part of the fpace may have enough of water pafling
over it, and no part too much, then that {pace muft be
divided into fmaller fpaces by intermediate drains, which
may catch and re-diftribute the water. Thefe, and the
ground capable of being watered in this way, have this
term applied to them, as they catch or colleét the water and
re-diftribute it, being in well-formed lands never made
more than eight or ten yards apart. As the water is
brought by the main-feeder upon the higher fide of a piece
of ground, which flopes towards the main-drain, and down
which floping furface the water will very readily run, to
perfons unacquainted with watering, it does not at firft
fight appear neceflary to make fuch a number of inter-
mediate catch-drains ; but it is proved by experience, that
however regular the flope of ground may appear to the
eye, the water will find a number of irregularities, force
itfelf into gutters or channels, and defeat the purpofes of
watering, in the hollow places by excefs, and in the high
ones by the want of water. Hence the water that was
f{cattered over the furface of the firft {pace, being all col-
leGted in the catch-drain, may, by the fkill of the floater, be
let out upon thofe parts of the bed of ground below, which
feem to need the greateft affiftance.
As it is effentially neceffary to poffefs full and complete
command of the water in all cafes of improvements of this
nature, the works for the purpofe fhould always be well-
formed at firft. Temporary means of making dams and
hatches to divert the water out of its ufual channel may, it
‘is faid, by the writer of the traét on watering land, fuffice
to try an experiment, or for a tenant who has but a fhort
‘term in the grounds to be watered ; but every land-owner,
or other proprietor, who enters upon or undertakes fuch
works in this temporary manner, fadly miftakes his own
intereft ; indeed, it is frequently more difficult to repair
than to renew upon large ftreams, where the foundations are
not feldom deftroyed or very greatly injured by the force of
the water. The fame principle holds good upon {mall
ftreams, and even in the feeders and drains of watered land.
Wherever the channels are fo contraGted as to make a fali,
or much increafe the rapidity of the ftream, it is conftantly
difpofed to wear away the fides of its channel, or undermine
adam. The repair of thefe defets will ftand in need of
land to be dug away and watfted each time, they are re-
placed with the lofs of labour. The confequent ill-manage-
ment of the water renders it more advifeable, and perhaps
‘cheaper, to make all fuch works of mafonry. When works
are well done at firft the owner ever finds a pleafure and
fatisfation in viewing them; and even the labourers feel
much more intereft in their good management, which is a
circumftance not to be overlooked.
In the undertaking of bufinefs of this kind, it is neceflary,
before entering upon its execution, to fully confider whe-
ther the ftream of water to be made ufe of will admit of a
temporary weir or dam to be formed acrofs it, fo as to
keep the water up to a proper level for covering the land
without flooding or injuring other adjoining grounds; or
if the water be in its natural ftate fufficiently high without
a weir or dam, or to be made fo by taking it from the
{tream higher up, more towards its fource, and by the con-
‘ductor keeping it up nearly to its level until it comes upon
‘the meadow or other gound. And ftill further, whether the
water can be drawn off from the meadow or ground in as
rapid a manner as it is brought on. Having, in addition to
all thefe, too, an attention to all fuch other difficulties and
obftru€tions as may prefent themfelves, from the lands
being in leafe through which it may be neceflary to cut or
form the mains or grand carriers, from the water being
neceflary for turning mills, from the rivers or brooks not
being wholly at the command of the floater, and from {mall
necks of land intervening, fo as to prevent the work from
being performed to the greateft advantage, the operator
may be in a fituation to commence his works.
The water being thus under full command and regulation
in every part of the land to be watered, by a proper direc-
tion, ufe, and form of the works, it is fuppofed neceflary,
in order to have an equal diftribution, and prevent the wafte
of it, that no part of the meadow or land, either in the
bed or catch-work mode, fhould be fo formed as to be
floated or watered direétly from the main-feeder ; but that
all the main-feeders fhould be kept high enough to dif-
charge the water into the fmall feeders with confiderable
velocity, and through a narrow opening. The motion of
water is faid to be truly mechanical ; and that it requires
a great deal of ingenuity, and a perfe& knowledge of lines
and levels, to make it pafs over the ground in a proper
manner. Each meadow or portion of land requires a dif-
ferent defign, unlefs the land-owner or tenant makes up his
mind to the heavy expence of paring off banks, and filling
up fuch hollows as may be neceffary to reduce it to fome
regular method, the conftruétion to be varied according
to the nature of the ground. This conftitutes the difference
between the watered meadows or lands of Berkfhire and
thofe of Devonfhire. Thofe of the latter county being
upon {mall ftreams carried round the fides of the hills, and
are chiefly in catch-work ; thofe of the former are near
large rivers and boggy ground, being thrown up into ridges
to create a brifk motion in the water; and alfo for the
effential purpofe of drawing off the fuperficial moifture
which might be injurious to the graffes when fhut up for
feeding or mowing. Where there is much floating to be
done with a little water, or rather where the great fall of a
{mall ftream will admit of its being carried over a great
quantity of ground, and ufed feveral times, it is defirable
to employ it in fuch a way, though meadows or land fo
watered are not to be confidered as perfe&t models. If it
fhould anfwer the purpofe of a coat of manure upon fuch
an extent of ground, it is all that can be expected, and will
amply repay the expence. In all cafes, lofing fall is waft-
ing water. All the drains of watered meadows or lands
require no greater declivity than is neceflary to carry the
water from the furface; therefore, the water fhould be
colleéted and ufed again at every three feet of the fall, if it
be not catch-work. It is fometimes difficult to do this in
bed-work lands ; but where the upper part of the land is
catch-work, or in level beds, and the lower part not too
much elevated, it may be done. By colleéting and ufing
the water again in the fame piece of ground before it falls
into the brook or other courfe, a fet of hatches is faved,
and it is not neceflary to be very particular about getting
the upper part into high ridges, fince that part of land
which is near the hatches generally becomes the beit, and
the lower end of the field being often the wetteft or moft
boggy in its natural ftate, requires to be thrown up the
higheit. Ifthe land be of a dry abforbent nature before
floating or watering, it is not neceffary that it fhould be
, thrown up into high beds. There are many good meadow
lands in the county of Wilts that have little work in them,
and fome that have neither feeder nor drain: but thefe are
extraordinary fituations that do not occur in almoft any
xX 2 other
WATERING OF LAND.
other county, or they muft, it is thought, have fuggefted
the ideas already ftated as to the origin of floating or water-
ing. There is fome reafon, it is thought, from the natural
warmth of peat-ground, which keeps it from freezing, that
fuch Iand will produce an earlier crop of {pring-feed than
any other. ‘At all events, it will firft fhew the advantages
of watering, and gtavel or fand may the next to it. _
It has been fuggelted that if grafs-land of the heavier
kind could be ploughed in fuch a manner as to fet the two
furrow-flides or fods in a leaning pofition a inft each other
with the grafs fides outwards, the roots of the graffes would
be perfeétly dry all winter ; the fhoots would have the full
benefit of the fun, and great advantage from mutual fhelter.
Upon wet land, this ploughing fhould be done the way the
water runs. If the ground ploughed in this form before
winter could be watered toward the fpring, fo as to give it
a good foaking, it might be prefled down again to a level
furface with a heavy roller. If thefe narrow ridges, too,
were croffed with level trenches at every forty, fifty, or
one hundred yards diftance, according to the fall of the
ground; and thefe trenches made to communicate with
other main trenches, which fhould run up and down the
Glope, and {upply or difcharge the contents of thofe which
are horizontal, hich ground might be laid dry or wet at
pleafure. And it is believed, that land fo fhaped might be
floated or watered all winter with ftagnant water to its great
benefit, and probably in the fpring too, if the water be
changed at frequent and proper periods; for the water
would remain only in the furrows, where there would be
little or no vegetation, and the newly loofened foil of the
ridges could not fail to abforb moifture, fuch as would
promote the growth of the grafs without any danger of
putrefaétion. The levels muft be taken before a piece of
ground be ploughed in this fhape, and the earth taken out
in cutting the crofs-drains, be ufed in ftopping the furrows
on the lower fide of them. Perhaps upon wet lands it
would be neceffary to re-plough them every autumn, or the
ftrong lands might become too folid to receive the fame
benefit from the praétice ; and it will be neceflary to level
the ridges every fpring, if the ground be mowed, but if
fummer-fed, it may as well remain in this form as any other.
This eafy method of getting land up into ridges, which are
very narrow, gives to the furface all that inclination which is
neceflary. for drawing off water, and is certainly fo far likely
to anfwer the purpofe of watering. The water is thus
under the fame command as in any of the beft-formed mea-
dows or lands, and a much lefs quantity will be fufficient
than under any other plan of watering. It is fuppofed that
it might, probably, anfwer the purpofe to float young
wheat, or any other fort of grain, in fome cafes, by a fimi-
lar method. It is thought that flat peaty ground, fuch as
the level fens in Norfolk, which are fubje@t to be covered
a few inches deep every winter with ftagnant water, would
be much benefited by ploughing in this way before the
floods commence. Some parts of it would thereby be
raifed above the water, and vegetate quicker in the fpring,
and the fedgy matter growing up in the furrows, would in
a few years raife them to the fame level. The crofs-drains,
where on a declivity, would ferve to catch and re-diftribute
the water, and the fall front one to the other mutt be very
little. If this method be found not to do for watering, it
is thought that four furrow-ridges of turf, with a {mall
feeder upon each, would antwer all the purpofes of a more
expenfive fyftem. ‘There is always good grafs by the fide
of the feeder, whether the water rufhes over it or not, and
a meadow or land of this nature would be nothing but
feeders. Jt requires fo little elevation of ridge and fal in
10
the feeders, that the water might foon be ufed again ; there-
fore a very {mall quantity would fuffice ; and if there was a
{carcity in the winter, the whole difcharge might be ftopped,
and gradually lowered in the fpring. This method would
anfwer all the purpofes of complete faturation, which
feems to be one of the moft effential parts of watering, and
might be applied more or lefs, according to the time of the
year. .When the water is put on, it is fuppofed no graffes
would fuftain any injury by exclufion from the air for a day
or two at the firft application. If thefe ridges could be
elevated but four or fix mches above the furrows, it would
give the furface nearly the fame flope as the wider ridges of
common meadows or lands ; perhaps it would be better to
begin ploughing the furrows wide at the ridge, and very
narrow at the furrow, which would leave but narrow {paces
for drains. If a piece of turf-ground were ploughed in
fuch ridges by the common way of turning over the furrow,
if it were fet pretty much on edge, it is thought the grafs
between would foon cover the whole furface.
Ridges, too, might perhaps be made by beginning the
two firft furrows more apart than the ufual width, thus
leaving the width of one furrow between the two firft to
conftitute the channel of the feeder. Thefe ridges fhould
be ploughed up and down, with only three or four
inches fall between the crofs feeders ; and the water may be
brought into ufe again at every other fet of beds. If the
ground require to be loofened every year, or every other, or
two years or more, it will not be attended with much ex-
pence, and there will be no very great inconvenience in
mowing ground in this fhape, if the fides of the ridges be
about a {wath wide. It is thought that meadows or lands
of this fort might be made for twenty-five or thirty fhillings
the acre, floated or watered with lefs water than catch: work,
and have many advantages over it ; namely, the water would
lie more above the furface, would be more at command, and
therefore changed more readily, and it may be pent up better
to get a good foaking when {carce. This may be done more
effectually in turns, and will run drier when the water may
be taken off. It does not require much {kill in the making
or management. All the water will be let through nicks
inftead of running over a nice level edge, which in the firft
place is feldom made well, and in the next is difficult to
keep in repair. This fort of work would, it is thought,
have all the advantages of drains and feeders, whereas the
fame channels are obliged to ferve for both in the common
catch-work ; it would require but very few or no ftops, and
confequently want but little attendance. It might be prac-
tifed where there are fix or eight inches of fall between the
crofs-feeder and crofs-catch, as the water of each ridge,
which fhould be fhort, may be led out by a fod with lefs
trouble in the regulation than catch-work. See Werir.
The whole of the channels and drains for carrying the
water on or off the land, in the conftant courfe and regular
quantity which pratice proves to be neceflary, have two
very diftin& ufes. The firft fort or feeders bring a con-
tinued fupply of water to make the flopes wet ; and the lat-
ter by carrying it away, prevent the land from getting too
wet in the time of floating or watering, and ferve to render
it dry when that operation is over, and to remove any fuper-
fluous moifture which may leak from the foil or fall from
the clouds. The large ones which convey the water to the
land, and along the main ridge to fupply the others, are
fometimes faid to be the main feeders ; and the branches that
run along each ridge and diftribute the water down the fides,
the floating feeders. The firft operation of floating or water-
ing begins, or ought to begin, at the edges of thefe feeders
the main feeders being nothing more but channels or courfes:
along
WATERING OF LAND...
along which the water muit pafs, from the places where it
can be found to the places where it is to have its effeét.
The place of its ufe lies between the floating feeder and the
foot of the flope or drains, whieh are made in every furrow,
for the purpofe of catching the water; and which are faid
to be catch drains, and the large ones, which colle& the
water from thefe, main drains.
' It is fuppofed that all floating or watering, in large rivers,
may be done without conttru€ting hatches, which are often
attended with heavy expences and many inconveniences. If
the proprietor has the land far enough up the river, nothing
more is neceffary, than to go thither and cut a channel out
of it, which fhall be deeper than the bottom of the ftream.
The water, which will be taken out in this new channel,
may be dammed up by the hatches in it, at any place mott
convenient for getting it out upon the furface. To turn it
into its old courfe down the river, nothing more is neceflary
than a hatch at the upper end of the feeder. Feeders con-
ftruéted in this way will be extremely ferviceable in time of
floods, for by drawing both the hatches an entire new chan-
nel will be opened, which is generally much ftraighter than
the old one. To contrive.the fhorteit poffible way to get
the water upon the ground, it is evident that an obtufe
angle is the beft calculated for that purpofe ; it fhortens the
length of the feeders, facilitates the motion of the water,
increafes the velocity, and confequently preferves that natu-
ral warmth or motion which keeps it from freezing in the
winter or ftagnating in the fummer. It alfo prevents the
accumulation of fcum, or whatever floats upon the furface,
and enables the floater to diftribute the water much more
equally on every part of the work than if it went in a more
circuitous courfe. The wind has lefs power to retard the
motion of the furface, and the fediment which fhould go
out upon the beds is lefs liable to lodge in the bottom of
the feeders, and confequently the feeders will be cleared out
with much lefs trouble and expence, efpecially if there be
proper plugs or fmall hatches to draw up for the purpofe
of fending a ftream through them. It may appear to fome
that thefe hatches are too expenfive, or unneceflary, but
practice proves that it is beft to have them well done at
firft, which is doing them for a length of time. Inclined
planes, too, are abfolutely neceffary for the purpofe of water-
ing. To form thefe between ftraight and parallel lines, it
is requifite to dig away land where it is too high, and move
it to thefe places where it is too low, to make fuch an uni-
formity of furface. ‘The new-made ground will, of courfe,
fettle in hollows proportioned to the depth of the loofe
matter which has been lately put together, but fuch fettle-
ment will not take place until the new ground has been
completely foaked with wet and dried again ; confequently,
thefe defects cannot be removed before the fecond or third
year of watering; it will therefore require more {hill to
manage watered land for a few of the firft years, than may
be the cafe at any time afterwards.
In conclufion it is noticed, that however fimple the con-
ftruction of a watered meadow or land may appear upon a
fuperficial view, thofe who enter particularly into the con-
cern will find it much more difficult than is commonly fup-
pofed. It is no eafy tafk to give an irregular furface that
regular yet various form which may be fit for the overflow-
ing of the water. It is quite neceffary for the defigner to
have juft notions of lines, levels, and angles; the know-
ledge of fuperficial forms will not be fufficient. Accurate
ideas of folid geometry, fomehow acquired, are abfolutely
neceflary to put fuch a furface into the proper form for the
reception of water, without the trouble and expence of
doing much of the work twice over.
Divifion of Watering.—The praétice of watering land
may be divided or diftinguifhed into two principal heads or
modes ; as thofe of performing it in flat work or flat-
flooding, and in floping or catch work. ach of thefe di-
vifions has, however, many varieties in the methods of exe-
cuting the bufinefs, as will be feen below.
In the former, or that of watering lands in flat-flooding,
there mutt be a full fupply of water, which ferves only one
turn, and is then carried off the field. There fhould be a
very moderate but uniform declivity in the furface of the
land, and the requifite expence: be incurred by the under-
taker. But though in fuch works a very {mall gradual de-
clination will cdot be fufficient, there will be confiderable
variety in this particular, according to the a@tual form of
the land. The moft defirable and perfe& declivity for this
purpofe has been found to be in the ridges, from the upper
to the lower extremities of the field, one inch in every nine
yards. With this gentle fall, the water paffes over by the
mere contraGtion of the feeder, without any ftop; but fuch
exact declivities are feldom had. It is alfo found that the
dechvity of the fides of the ridges, from the crown to the
furrow, fhould be about two inches for every yard; fo that,
{uppofing the ridge to be ten yards broad throughout, and
every fide to be in the form of an inclined plain, declining
in this proportion, the crown may be ten inches raifed above
the furrow, meafuring. by the furface at each parte In
thefe proportions, however, there is great aétual variety.
It is by no means uncommon to find the ridges fourteen
yards wide ; and when the water is very fcanty, they are
fometimes twenty yards in width. Where there is a full
{tream of water, the narrow ridges are found to produce
the greateft crops in proportion ; but the expence of form-
ing them is likewife greater. Where the field or land has
an uniform furface, and the declivity fuits, one principal
feeder may ferve the whole. It is to be cut fo as to be
the wideft at the upper end, contracting all the way as it
defcends. Notches are to be cut in the bank on the fide
next the land ; and a notch oppofite to and communicating
with each of the leffer feeders, in order to fupply them all
in fucceffion with water. Thefe {maller feeders, too, are to
be formed fo as to be the largeft at the heads, contracting
gradually as they defcend, until near the lower end of the
ridge, When the {mall feeder entirely difappears. The cor-
re{ponding {mall drains are made fomewhat lefs than the
feeders, though not much lefs, and the proportions of the
drains are reverfed, being formed the largeft at the lower
ends, and diminifhing into fcarcely any thing at the upper
ends. ,
But though the furface of the field or land fhould be
uniform, yet if the defcent in the line of the principal
feeder be too rapid to admit of its giving fupply to the lefler
feeders, in a regular manner, without great {tops or hatches,
the method below may in that cafe be had recourfe to. The
main ditch may aét as a conduétor only, not as a feeder; and
parallel to it the main feeder may be formed in feveral dif-
ferent parts, each of which is eafily levelled up, fo as to
fupply five or fix ridges, and is itfelf fupplied from the con-
ductor, by fimply adjufting a ftop or hatch for every fub-
divided feeder. If the furface fhould confift of feparate
and’ gently rifing {wells, there muft be a main feeder branch-
ing away from the conduétor to fupply every afcent, on the
top of which this feeder is formed; while a correfponding
drain is cut at the bottom, and the refpedtive ridges are
marked out and formed between the feeder and the drain.
If it fhould be neceflary, fome catch-work may be inter-
mixed, fo as to water the irregular portions of furface,
which poflefs a degree of declivity anfwering to that mee
o
WATERING OF LAND.
of watering ; and too much of it to be conveniently and
properly watered in’ flat flooding.
The ridges being formed, and all the feeders and drains
cut out, and their materials placed and difpofed in fuch a
way as to render the furface as regular and correé as can at
firft be done; the feeds of proper graffes fhould in fome
oafes be fown, but in others it will be unneceflary. When
the land is ready in the {pring, the feeds may be fown with
a thin crop of fome early grain kind, but it may be as well
to fow the feeds alone towards the beginning of the autumn
if the land be then ready.
In the latter mode of watering, or that of catch-work,
the principle confifts in floating as much of the furface, as
can be done, in the way moft fuited to the form of the
unds ; taking care to prevent the water from finking or
gnating ; and colleCting it again to be a fecond time, or
more frequently thrown over new furfaces of the land. In
order to put it in the power of the floater to receive the
water, and to throw it again over fome other portions of
the ground, there muft be a declivity fufficient for fuch
“purpofes. A fmaller quantity of water may be enough for
watering, according to this method, than is neceflary in-
flat flooding ; and as the water is accommodated to the form
of the ground, and no ridges required, the expence of
watering in this way is generally very moderate, in compari-
-fon with that of watering flat meadows or lands. It is well
-adapted, too, to thofe gentle declivities which produce very
‘little in the ftate of nature, but may become highly valuable
at little expence, when properly watered. On thefe and
fome other accounts, it would feem that all the preference
to’ flat meadows or lands, that has been commonly claimed
for them, is not due. At leaft, it admits of no queftion,
that watering in catch-work, when properly executed, is a
-very beneficial and advantageous method.
The principal objection to this mode of watering is, per-
haps, in the feeming unequal diftribution of whatever nutri-
Ment the water may contain, which has certainly fome
weight in it ; as the firft furface over which the water paffes,
mutt of neceffity have the advantage. “It fhould not, how-
ever, be entirely forgot, that in moft cafes of land in fuch
declivities the confiderate farmer beftows moft manure where
the foil or land is the moft thin and poor ; and the water of
‘eatch-work meadows or lands does the fame; the higher
fituated grounds receiving it and its benefits the firft, and
afterwards thofe which are lower, and, for the moft part,
richer, and deeper in point of earthy ftaple.
In this mode of watering, the feeders and drains are cut
in a direétion pafling acrofs the flope of the furface of the
jand; and having no greater fall, as the water flows in them,
than to caufe it to move gently and freely, without either
ftagnating, or acquiring fuch a rapidity, as might endanger
the works. In order to accomplifh the work in this eafy
way, the water may be introduced at an upper corner,
where it pafles gently, and by a very {mall declivity in the
feeder acrofs the flope, and overflows the furface below its
tra&t. A drain, at a proper diftance below, receives the
water, and tranfmits it into another feeder, cut on the fame
plan as the former, where it again overflows, and is again
taken up in a drain to be fent over new furfaces.
In this manner, a moderate quantity of water may float
a fet of different {pots lying in a diagonal direétion, until it
arrive at length at the bottom of the watered grounds, and
reach a drain which carries it off completely. An entirely
new fet of different {pots may then be watered in the fame
manner, the drains in the firft procefs, or cafe, acting as
feeders in the fecond, and the contrary in other cafes. But
catch-work watering, fo far as regards the method of per-
forming it, admits of almoft an endlefs variety. A con-
duGor with ftops may be formed, pointing direétly down
a declivity, if the rapidity of the current be not fufpeéted
as dangerous for forcing up the channel in which it flows.
From this condu@tor, feeders may be formed at right angles,
to the right and to the left, or in either dire€tion ; and the
ftops in the conduétor fend the water into thefe feeders ;
which, being formed only a very little off the level, foon fill
and overflow the grounds below them. The furplus water
is colleGted in drains parallel to thefe feeders, which reftore
it to the conduétor, whence it can again be diffufed to right
and left, in order to float a lower fituated furface, from
feeders conftruéted in the manner already feen.
There are many other ways of watering in different cafes
of this nature ; but where the lands are neceflary to be laid
down into permanent meadows, the works fhould evidently
be fubftantially executed at once, and with proper care and
defign, whether the method be catch-work or flat meadows
or grounds.
Regular plans of this mode of watering may be feen in
the lait editions of Wright’s traé& on the “ Art of floating
Land,” and of Young’s ** Farmer’s Calendar.”
The writer of the work on “ Landed Property’’ has given
praétical direGtions for four different methods of applying it
artificially on the furfaces of grafs lands, which may be ufe-
ful in guiding the pratice of the inexperienced.
if. Flooding or covering low flat Lands with flagnant or
Slowly-moving Water.—This is a mode which, it is thought,
was formerly, perhaps, the only one in ufe, in this country,
for enriching the bafes of valleys by the means of water. In
the midland diftriGts, tradition, it is faid, {peaks of it with
familiarity. And the remains of works that have been ufed
in practifing it, are ftill evident. Even in the weftern dif-
tris of the fouthern range of chalk hills, which have long
profited more by watering, than all the other diftri€ts of
the ifland, this, it is more than probable, has been hereto-
fore the only method in ufe. It is indeed an interefting faét,
it is faid, that the far-famed long-grafs mead of Orchefton,
in the county of Wilts, is ftill watered in this manner. But
it is conceived that there are now, however, few fituations in
which this method can be practifed with the beft effe@.
The one for which it is the moft applicable is, it is fuppofed,
a drained morafs, or other flat moory ground, through which
a ftream naturally paffes, or to which a fafficient fupply of
enriched waters can be led. A body of water, refting on a
light fpongy furface, tends to comprefs and confolidate it ;
while the fediment of foul waters, let fall in paffing from
an agitated to a ftagnant ftate, further promotes this ten-
dency. The rich moory meadows and pafture grounds,
which are feen in various parts of the kingdom, were doubt-
lefsly, it is thought, brought to their prefent profitable
ftate, by being: flooded with ftagnant or flowly moving
waters.
Another; and perhaps the only other, fort or clafs of
lands, to which this method can now be properly applied, is
dry valley grounds, which are compofed of a fufficient depth
of foil for the pafture of herbage, with a fubfoil of flints,
pebbles, or rough gravel, to draw off quickly the fuper-
abundant moifture that may be left in the foil, after its fur-
face has been freed from water ; and, thereby, to give vege-
tation the immediate freedom of action. But lands of this
fort, having a fufficient command of water to flood them,
are much lefs common, in this country, than thofe of the
former clafs or kind. ‘The valley of Orchelton is, however,
in itfelf, it is thought, a fufficient ftimulant for fearching
narrowly for lands of fo valuable a formation, and which can
command fertilizing water to flgod them; as they may ge
nerally
WATERING OF LAND.
nerally be watered at lefs expence by this, than by any other
method.
The method of flooding flat or difhing lands artificially
with ftanding water, is fimply, it is faid, that of raifing
a dam acrofs the lower end of the fite of improvement,
of a fufficient height to overflow the land, and proper
ftrength to fuftain the weight of the water; with a channel
at each end, to carry away the overflow ; and with a valve
in the middle or loweft part to draw at pleafure.
Where the fubfoil is not fufficiently abforbent and open
to free the upper foil of fuperfluous moifture, prefently
after the body of water has been drawn off, a main drain
fhould be run up into the area of the fite, and lateral ones
be branched off from that, to wherever the water is found
to hang ; whether on the furface or in the fubfoil. But
where the fubfoil throughout is retentive, though but in a
{mall degree, the land may be confidered as improper for
this mode of watering, as will be feen below.
2d. Watering flat Lands with running Water, when raifed
into Ridges. —This is a method of practice which is conceived
to be modern when compared with that of flooding, drown-
ing, or covering the entire furface with ftanding water, as
being a f{pirited mode which is ftill, as a general praétice,
confined to one part of the kingdom. Among the chalk-
hills of Wiltfhire and Dorfetfhire, but efpecially the former,
there are large traéts of water-formed valley lands, which
have long been watered with f{cientific accuracy and correét-
nefs. Thefe lands, it is probable, were firft brought to a
firm ftate of fward, by flooding them, during a great length
of time, with ftanding water ; and have been fince moulded
into their prefent form; been raifed into ridges, or other
inequalities, in fuitable manners, and properly watered.
It is proper and neceflary, however, before fo expenfive
a practice be recommended, to explain the principles on
which it proceeds, and on which it may be profitably pur-
fued and had recourfe to; where fuitable ground, and a
fufficient fupply of water, which is proper, can be employed.
It is noticed that plants, as well as animals, have their natural
elementary matters. ‘That water plants, aquatics which root
beneath the water, live but in this fluid, where they are
fecluded, in a certain degree, from air and heat. On the
contrary, the agricultural vegetables of this country, among
which are to be reckoned the more nutritious meadow
plants, require a free communication of atmofpheric air
and heat, to every part of them: they cannot live with their
roots immerfed in water, nor flourifh while water is lodged
immediately beneath them. And between thefe two oppo-
fite tribes of plants, is found an intermediate one, which is
fomewhat amphibious, or partakes fomething ef the nature
of both,—the plants of which delight in water, yet can live,
though not flourifh, on dry land,—provided it be of a cool
nature or quality. :
It is ftated that where the foil of low flat meadow lands
of this nature, refts on a retentive bafe, the paluitrean fort
of plants feldom fail to intermix with the meadow herbage.
In a feafon which is favourable to dry land plants, the
fuperaquatics are kept in a dwarfifh underling ftate. On
the contrary, in a wet feafon they flourifh ; while the better
herbage becomes weak and unproduétive. If, through neg-
le&, the foil or and be fuffered to remain faturated for fome
length of time with water, the meadow plants dwindle, or
die, and the ranker wet-land weeds take poffeflion. Hence,
in the practice of watering, the propriety of quickly reliev-
ing the foil or land from fuperfluous moifture or wetnefs,
in order that the better herbage may gain the afcendancy ;
efpecially in the fpring, when a few days of warm weather
at the critical jun€ture may give the one or the other a fu-
periority during the early fummer months. Even in mea-
dows where the fuperaquatics do not abound, the fame prin-
ciple of praétice holds good; for it is well known to
common obfervation, that flat retentive meadows, which do
not readily fhoot off furface-waters, are materially injured by
a cold wet {pring : by which the finer more nutritious her-
bage is cut off, or wholly checked ; fo that the hay-crop
proves thin, is of fmall bulk, and of an inferior quality.
But further, though it be evident that water, even ftanding
water, may remain for a fhort time upon dry land-plants
with impunity, efpecially in a cold feafon ; yet wherever it
is fuffered to lie long on the furface, particularly during
warm weather, there, dry land-plants, in general, are de-
ftroyed, are probably fuffocated for want of that fupply of
air which /landing water is incapable of affording them.
Hence, it is {uppofed, appears to arife an advantage of wa-
‘tering with running water ; and hence, too, the propriety
of watering by intervals ; in order to enable the plants to
recover their itrength, and to exert their natural powers of
imbibing the nourifhment the water may have provided for
them, and thereby increafing their ftrength. Befides, the
warmth which moving bodies, even agitated liquids, natu-
rally generate, may be fuggefted as another advantage of
watering with running water.
Thefe confiderations may, it is fuppofed, fufficiently ex-
plain the reafon for laying up cool flat lands into ridges for
the purpofe of watering. Experience has well afcertained,
it is faid, that where calcareous water, at leaft, is fpread over
a fufficiently floping furface of grafs-land, the fuperaquatic
plants difappear, while the more nutritious graffes luxuriate.
On the contrary, where the fame fort of water is fuffered to
loiter on a flat foil, lying upon a retentive bafe, the groffer
wet-land plants prevail. And further, that the fame or
fimilar water in its nature, thrown over the fame or a fimilar
fort of foil, with the fame turn of furface, but with a dr
abforbent bafe, produces luxuriant crops of valuable her-
bage. And, from long continued obfervations on faéts of
this nature, has doubtlefsly arifen, it is thought, the prefent
pradice of Wiltfhire and its neighbourhood,
The work of raifing flat lands into water-mead ridges in
thefe cafes, is direGted to be performed in this manner. In
a fuitable fituation, where the ftream of water can be pro-
perly received to begin and mark out a plot of the green
{ward, or land, of the proper length and breadth for the pur-
pofe. Then if to be done by the fpade, to roll back the
turf after it has been cut, and form the earth of the foil into
the proper fhaped convex ridge, being careful in forming
it, to keep the beft of the mould conftantly toward the fur-
face, and leaving the opening on the ridge eight or nine
inches or more deep, and nearly level ; the end towards the
ftream being made fomewhat higher and rather wider than
the other, that the water may flow evenly over every part
of the ridge. The turf is then to be returned, being careful
to replace it evenly and firmly along the fides of the trench
in the middle ; and cut a drain on each fide of the ridge thus
formed, with proper outlets to carry away the wafte water.
Laittly, raife a channel between the ground and the fource
of the water, to condu& it into the watering-trench ; and
continue to adjuft the ground until the well flow evenly over
every part of it. The moft proper forms, and the degrees
of convexity which are the moft fuitable in different cafes,
will be feen below.
This work may be performed either with the fpade or with
the plough. The former is the more expenfive method, but
it is the more accurate, and fooner brings the improvement
to profit. By the fpade,the natural earth and foil are again
diftributed on the furface. By the plough much of them is
4 buried
WATERING OF LAND.
buried under the ridges, while the furrows are left deftitute.
Where there is a great depth of fertile foil, the plough may
be ufed with better effe& than where the foil is fhallow.
The next confideration is the elevation and convexity of
thefe meadow ridges. On the principle offered, it is {aid,
the fteeper the fides are formed, the more beneficial will be
the effet of the work. But it is not lefs certain that the
expence of it will be proportionally great. Something may de-
pend on the nature of the materials of which the ridges are to
be formed, and the method of forming them. If,in moving the
materials, a regular ftratum of flints or gravel can be buried, at
a proper depth, as an open fubfoil, a {mall degree of elevation
will be fufficient. In ordinary cafes, one foot of rife to fixteen
feet and a half, or a ftatute-pole of bafe, will fuffice ; pro-
vided the drains between the beds be funk to a fufficient
depth. One foot of rife to five feet and a half of flope, or
eleven of bafe, may be confidered as the maximum of eleva-
tion in thefe cafes. On thefe premifes, it is concluded, that
a ridge fet out one ftatute-perch in width at the bafe, re-
quires an elevation of from nine to eighteen inches at the
ridge ; one of two perches in width, an elevation of from
eighteen inches to three feet, according to the nature of the
materials by which it is formed. In refpeét to the turn of
furface, or form of the flope, there are fufficient reafons why
it fhould be convex, not a regular inclined plane, nor of a
concave or hollow caft. A regular fheet of water {pread
over a floping furface has a natural tendency to break into
ftreamlets, and to colle& into partial currents. In the pro-
cefs of watering, this effet is produced in part, by the un-
evennefs of the furface it is {pread over, and the obftruc-
tions it meets with in its defcent, as well as by the natural
propenfity of falling waters to colleét into a body ; and the
fteeper the defcent, the greater freedom of aétion this pro-
penfity acquires. Hence, the propriety of giving the water
a gentle defcent on the upper part of the flope, in order to
preferve the entirety of the fheet as far down the fide of it
as may be; and this is effe€ted by the convex form, which
alfo gives firmnefs to the fides of the trench. . Befides, a
convex furface, while it leffens the defcent at the ridge, in-
creafes it at the foot of the flope, and thereby haftens the
drying in that part ; to which the fuperfluous moifture of
the entire flope tends, and where noxious plants are moft
liable to gain a footing ; the earth or foil being there kept
the longeft in a ftate of faturation.
The width of thefe convex beds is a matter of much con-
fideration. In what has been faid of their elevation, it
plainly appears that the expence of forming them is in pro-
portion to their width. An acre of ground may be raifed
into beds of a rod wide, with the mentioned flope, at half
the expence that another acre can be formed into thofe of
two rods in width, and the fame flope: the latter requiring
to be raifed at the ridge twice the height of the former ;
befides the work in this cafe being within a {maller compafs.
And from what has been faid of the form of the flope, it is
equally clear, that water may be more-evenly {pread over a
narrow than over a wide or deep flope ; and that a narrow
bed will dry more quickly than a wide one of the fame foil
and fubftrata. Neverthelets, there is an advantage of wide
ridges, which, in fome fituations, may more than over-ba-
lance all their inconveniences. A given quantity of water
will float twice the quantity of ground, though perhaps not
with twice the profit, when raifed into beds of two poles
wide, that it will in thofe of one perch iu width, befides the
current expences of management being lefs:’ If, however,
the quantity of water be great in proportion to the extent of
ground, or if it can be colleéted again, and {pread over other
lands belonging to the fame owner, which lie below thofe
that have been watered, narrow ridges may claim a fupe-
riority. Hence, the proper width of watered meadow
ridges depends much on foil and fituation, and on the quan-
tity of water proportionate to the quantity of greund, In
the neighbourhood of Salifbury, the prevailing width, it is
faid, is ten yards, nearly two perches. In the vicinity of
Ame(fbury, there are fome of three times that breadth or
width, but they are nearly flat. From one to three poles
may fairly, it is thought, be fet down as the ordinary limits
of width.
In ref{pe& to the arrangement of thefe meadow beds, and
the general economy of watered meadows or lands of this
nature, almoft every thing may be faid to depend on the
particular circumftances of the given fite. But fuppafing
a copious ftream of good water to pafs through a flat of
water formed land, in a dilatation of the bafe of a valley ; and
fuppofing the fituation of it to be nearly level from fide to
fide of the fame, or to have a gentle defcent, the banks of
the {tream towards the outer margins ; a cafe which often oc-
curs where flat lands have long been liable to the overflow of
foul waters. In this cafe, the beds require, it is faid, to be
run acrofs the valley in a dire& or oblique manner, as the
defcent may point out ; and the water to be conducted to
them by an artificial channel, winding on each fide of the
natural ftreain, with a main-drain near each outer margin,
leaving room for a carriage-way between it and the foot of
the bank of the valley ; and where the grounds to be wa-
tered are wide, other road-ways may be left between the
conduéting trenches and the bed of the brook or rivulet.
Thefe dry flips-of land are ufeful, not only in conveying
away the crop, but in furnifhing comfortable lodging-
grounds for pafturing ftock when the area of the land is
moift. It follows, of courfe, that thefe road-flips fhould
be watered with caution, late in the {pring and during the
fummer months. The moft eligible method of rai/img the
water high enough to fill the trenches, is that of placing
folding-gates, like thofe in ufe for navigable canals, amg
the ftream, at the upper end of the ground to be improved.
In fummer, or when the water is not wanted for ufe, the
gates may be thrown open, and faftened back, to give free
paflage to floods. But during the time of watering they
are kept fhut, to throw a conta fupply of water into the
main trenches. If the defcent downward of the valley be
confiderable, the main trenches or conduéting channels re-
quire to have ftops, or rather checks, placed acrofs them, at
diftances proportioned to the defcent, in order to fill with
due effe& the working trenches, the mouths of which open
into the conduéting channels; and, to gain more perfec
command of the water, the mouth of each ating trench
fhould be furnifhed with a regular valve, to admit juft water
enough to fupply the given ridge while under watering, and
to clofe the entrance effeCtually when it is laid. A lifting-
board in the form of a fhovel, with a fhort handle, and
fliding in upright grooves made in the faces of two flender
potts, joined together within the ground, becomes a fimple
and defirable regulator for the purpofe. And where a mea-
dow ridge happens to be long and much declining, a circum-
ftance which fhould, as much as poffible, be avoided : checks
are likewife requifite to be placed in the working-trenches,
to affift in diftributing the water evenly over its furface.
Thefe checks are formed in different ways. Two thick
tough fods placed in the trench, fo as to leave an opening
between them narrow enough to force a fufficient quantity
of water over the fides of the trench above them, and wide
enough to let the remainder pafs down freely into the lower
part of the trench, form a ready and not ineligible check for
this purpofe j as the opening may be eafily widened or nar-
rowed
a
WATERING OF LAND.
rowed at pleafure. If the defcent ftraight acrofs the valley
be not fufficient, where the defeent down it is confiderable,
itis advifed to dire&t the beds obliquely acrofé it, and by this
eafy mean gain the required fall. But where the bafe of
the valley is wide, fo that the length of the beds, if run out
from the natural {tream to the outer bank, will be too great,
as from fifty to a hundred yards, wind a conduéting trench
along the foot of the bank, as well as by the fide of the
brook or rivulet, and fink a deep drain in the midway be-
tween them. As to what regards the dimenfions of work-
ing trenches, they fhould vary according to the breadths and
lengths of the beds to be watered. ‘The wider and deeper
they are formed, the more freely a large body of water will
pafs along them. Hence it is evident, that the upper end
of a long'trench fhould have the larger dimenfions, in order
that a fufficient fupply of water may pafs freely to the fur-
ther end, where the dimenfions are required to be lefs ; as
the uniform contraétion ferves as a continual check to the
water, and thus tends to force it in its paflage over the fides
of the trench. From fix to fifteen inches wide, and from
four to ten inches deep, may ferve to give a general idea, it
is faid, of their dimenfions.
3d. Watering by fpreading running Water over naturally
uneven Surfaces.—In the more weftern counties of this
country, but particularly in Devonthire, this praétice has
been eftablifhed time immemorial. Even tradition there
{peaks not of its origin. The fpring-waters that iffue from
the flate-rocks, which are there the prevalent fubftruéture,
are of a fertilizing nature; and the fteep valleys that
there abound are moftly covered with a rich deep foil, fit
for hay-ground. Such circumftances may well ferve, it is
faid, to account for the prevalence and antiquity of the prac-
tice in that part of the kingdom. Something of this
practice, on a {mall fcale, too, has been long in ufe in dif-
ferent parts of the country for fpreading the overflowings of
dung-yards and pits, and the wath of home-ftalls over grafs-
lands lying below them. Of late years, alfo, it has been
employed in. different diftricts, in diftributing the waters of
more copious ftreams ; and numerous inftances ftill remain
in which the practice may be extended with great and va-
luable effects.
If the quantity of water be fmall, whether it flow from a
farm-ftead, or a {pring of fuperior quality, it fhould, it is
faid, be colle€ted in a proper place, whenever it is not em-
ployed on the ground; more efpecially in the fpring
months, while the hay-crop is growing, in order to be able
to liberate it, fhould its growth be arrefted by a dry feafon,
and to meliorate the foil as foon as the crop is off the
ground for the benefit of the after-growth. The ground or
_ fituation of improvement is moftly given in the fource of the
water, or the point at which it can be commanded. Where
this is a matter of choice, it is generally advifable to run the
channel of fupply along the brink or brow of a flope, as
above: thus giving the flatter lands above it to the plough,
to which in upland fituations they are beft fuited, and the
fteeper to the fcythe, as watered hay-grounds, for which
they are the moft eligible ; extending the ground downward
to the foot of the flope, and to the flatter lands beneath it,
provided their fubfoil be abforbent and open, and the given
quantity of water be fufficient for the whole extent. The
anal or artificial water-courfe from the natural ftream or
other fource of the water, to the ground of improvement,
requires a certain fall, to give a due degree of current to the
water it may convey. If the motion of water in a fupply-
ing channel be fluggifh, part of it is liable to fink, and be
Joft by the way. Slowly moving water does not tend to
make the bottom of the channel firm and water-tight, like a
Voi. XXXVIII.
living ftream: nor will a channel of the fame fize convey
an equal quantity of water’in the fame time; nor will it
clear itfelf fo well from obftruétions, as with a quicker cur-
rent. On the contrary, dead water gives the fufpended
matter, which fhould be conveyed as nourifhment to the
plants, an opportunity of being depofited by the way in the
form of mud, for want of agitation, and thereby fouling the
channel. -On the other. hand, if the current be made too
rapid, it is liable to wear the channel, and to caufe unne-
ceffary repairs. Befides, where all the height that can be
properly got is required, every foot of fuperfluous fall con-
tracts, unneceflarily, the field of improvement. On the
grounds of praétical experience, it is {uppofed, that one per
cent. as one inch, foot, or yard of fall, in every hundred
inches, feet, or yards of diftance, is, in. ordinary cafes, the
proper fall: this giving an aétive but inoffenfive current.
Under the above circumftances, and where the length of
channel required is great, one-half per cent. may be made to
fuffice. Two-thirds of the ordinary fall gives a degree of
life to the ftream, and may, in many cafes, be eligible and
proper.
In fetting out water-courfes of this nature and’ fort, the
ufe of the level is necefflary ; and the beft forms of fuch
courfes, whatever the fize may be, are thofe of inverted
arches, as clearing themfelves better when low in water,
and giving firmer banks on the lower fides than is the cafe
with fquare flat-bottomed fteep-fided trenches. The modes
of performing the work, and of laying them out properly,
mult be direéted by the particular turn of the furface of
the grounds.
In the low lands which lie at the feet of the floping
grounds, the natural furfaces of which are fufficiently un-
even to admit of running water being fpread’ over them,
without the affiftance of art ; and the {ubftrata of which are
fufficiently abforbent and open, to permit them to dry
quickly, after the water is taken off : the method of water-
ing, where they lie pretty regularly fhelving, is to: lead
the water along the higher fide of the land, and to draw it
off by a main-drain on the lower fide ; ftraight working
trenches and correfponding drains being cut, downward of
the area, fo as to {pread the water over the whole, without
fuffering it to lodge on any part of the furface. This is
that which may be diftinguifhed by the Devonfhire practice,
or manner of watering:
Where, however, the furface is more irregular, lying in
natural fwells and ridges, with dips and hollows between
them, the water is to be led along the tops of fuch higher
parts, without regard to the ftraightnefs or regularity of the
trenches ; and the drains to wind up the hollows and loweft
ground with the fame irregularity. There are two ways
of afcertaining the true lines of the trenches and drains in
cafes of this nature. The one is by flooding the entire area,
where it ean be done, and driving down levelling-pegs over
every part of it, fo as to leave their heads uniformly level
with the furface of the water; which being let off, the
fhorteft pegs fhew the proper lines for the trenches, the
longeft thofe of the drains. This method was ufed by
Bakewell, in Leicefterfhire. The other, which has occurred
in the writer’s experience, is attended, it is faid, with lefs
trouble and inconvenience. The higher parts are readily
afcertained, and the lines of the trenches accurately traced
by a proper levelling implement ; artificial mounds being
raifed between the detached knolls when wanted. After the
frefh-made ground has’ properly fettled, and the trenches
have been duly formed, the water is turned on ; and by this,
ready mean, the proper lines of the drains are accurately
given. This is an eafy way of watering valley lands ; and.
y¥ where
WAT
where the irregularities of furface are fufficiently great, and
the fubfoil abforbent, it is very eligible; efpecially, if in
making the trenches and drains, the turf and foil fo raifed
be applied in adjufting the natural defects of the furface.
In the watering of more fteeply floping grounds, as the
fides of hills, and the lower banks of valleys, in what may be
termed the Devonshire praétice, as having been long there
and thereabouts chiefly eftablifhed ; as there, the fides of
the valleys lie in or nearly in their natural {tates ; many of
them appear as if they had never been fubjeéted to the
plough ; and thofe which have been in tillage, have been
laid down again to grafs with nearly their natural furfaces.
The prattice of laying up foils into high arable ridges, has
never, perhaps, gained a footing in that part of the king-
dom. Inthefe cafes, the conduéting channel being led along
the brink, and acrofs the upper part of the flope, as ad-
vifed, the working trenches are to be fupplied from it by
means of checks and valves, as already feen. ‘The diftances
between the working trenches are to be regulated by the
fteepnefs and evennefs of the furface. Wherever the fheet
of water is feen to break, and to divide into numerous
ftreamlets, there a trench is required to catch and refpread
it; the working trenches, in this manner of watering,
aéting in the two-fold capacity of trenches and drains :
frefh fupplies of water being let down from above, to the
lower trenches, as occafion may require. —
Where the depth or downward length of the flope is
great, or where an additional fupply of water offers itfelf,
and where refervoirs are formed at different heights, an addi-
tional main-channel is required, to lead a frefh fupply acrofs
the midway of the flope. This main-trench likewife re-
ceives the walte water from above; and, like the working-
trenches, aéts at once as a fupplying-channel, and as a re-
ceptacle of the wate water: hence, a given quantity of
water will float a much larger extent of ground in this man-
ner of watering, than in watering ridges, raifed on level
ground; though, it may be prefumed, not with equal
benefit
In forming the trenches of whichever fort, the turf and
loofe earth that are raifed out of them, and which are not
wanted to make their lower fides firm and level, are to be
ufed in filling up the channels and dimples that naturally
happen in the face of the flope ; in order that the water
may {pread more evenly over it, and thereby to leffen the
requifite number of trenches. Too the fame end, if hillocks
or {mall protuberances occur, as they generally do on na-
tural faces they are to be lowered by turning back the
turf, ufing their contents as above, and returning the fods to
{moothed furfaces. But, where the knoll is large, water
may be led by a narrow branching trench to its top, and be
thus {pread evenly over its fides. ‘The proper defcent or
decline of the working trenches depends, in fome meaiure,
on the prefs of water that enters them. One quarter per
cent. may ferve as a guide in fetting them out : firft making
them of inferior dimenfions, and then turning on the water :
afterwards enlarging them, and in doing this, adjufting
them in fuch a manner, that the water will flow evenly out
of them, from end to end. The fhorter the a€ting trenches
are made, the more eafily they may be regulated without the
incumbrance of checks, which fhould be avoided as much as
poffible.
4th. Watering floping Grounds that have been raifed into
Ridges by Cultivation, and are in the State of Grafi.—In
watering ridges on flopes, or fuch fhelving grounds as have
formerly been in a ftate of aration, in which they have been
raifed into high wide convex beds, refembling thofe ad-
vifed above, for fat meadowy furfaces, and have been laid
WAT
down to grafs in that form ; a practice which, it is fuppofed,
has been common to many parts of the kingdom, efpecially
where the common-field fyftem prevailed; the dire&tion of
the ridges being mottly dire&tly downward of the lope.
In this cafe, it would be in vain to attempt to fpread water
over the furface, in the manner ufually praGtifed on more
even flopes. And if it be thrown into open trenches, cut
<9 the tops of the ridges, agreeably to the praétice in
ufe for level grounds, and according to the ordinary prac-
tice of watering the lands now under confideration, the
operation becomes very imperfeét. For, if the defcent be con-
fiderable, the water will unavoidably flow out of the trenches
in ftreams immediately above the checks ; and the fides of the
ridges will confequently be watered partially. Thefe dif-
ficulties in {preading water evenly over ridges on fteeply
fhelving furfaces, have led fome induftrious managers to
throw down the ridges, and return the flopes to their natural
ftates. But this, where the ridges are high and wide, ‘is
very troublefome and expenfive if done by hand; and if
performed by the plough, is greatly injurious and hurtful
to the land for many years. A better method has there-
fore been had recourfe to by the writer. Inftead of leading
the water down the ridges, it is thrown into the furrows,
and {pread over the fides of the beds by means of crooked
trenches, winding, in the feftoon manner, horizontally, or
nearly fo, acrofs them, and led more effectually over their
tops by pointed trenchtels depending from the feitooned
parts. Thefe winding trenches, like thofe acrofs plain
floping furfaces, a&t both as feeding-trenches and as drains,
or colleéting trenches, to re{pread the water evenly over the
ground, immediately below them: thus keeping the entire
ridge covered with an even fheet of brifkly moving water.
When the upper ends of the ridges are fufficiently watered,
the water is to be let down the furrows to the parts below ;
or if the ridges are fhort, their whole length may be
watered at once, by letting the water partially down the
furrows to the lower parts, by the means of cuts of proper
widths, made with a fharp tool acrofs the lower fides of the
trenches, where they crofs the furrows: thefe fimple regu-
lators acting as checks in the common modes of watering.
The diftances between the trenches, as well as their form,
mutt always vary with the fteepnefs of the flope or defcent,
and the fhape of the ridge.
Confiderable traéts of land in North Wales have been
watered in fomewhat this manner of late years.
In concluding, it may be {tated on the beft authority,
that the beneficial practice of watering, by fome of the me-
thods which have been fuggefted above, may be greatly ex-
tended and applied in different parts of the country where it
has yet been but little tried, as on the fenny lands of the
counties of Lincoln, Norfolk, Cambridge, Northampton,
and, perhaps, fome others, where it is particularly defirable,
as well as the bottoms of the chalk-hills in different dif-
triéts, as Yorkfhire and Suffex, and the vales of Hertford-
fhire, the chalky parts of Buckinghamfhire, Oxford fhire,
and Suffolk, which are peculiarly fitted for the purpofe ;
befides many others where good waters are afforded for
making fuch improvements on grafs-lands.
WarerinG Live-Stock, in Agriculture, the bufinefs of giv-
ing and providing them with water. The work is effeéted
in different ways, and by different means. See Drinxine-
Ponps, Made Streams, Water-Ciflerns, WATER, Rain,
Colle@ing of, SprinG, Artificial, Weir, Field, &c.
WarerinG Plants and Fruit-Trees, in Hot-houfes, Stoves,
&c. in Gardening, the praCtice of throwing water over them
in different intentions.
water have been {poken of in confidering the general praétice
12 of
The common modes of applying °
WAT
of garden-watering, and under the heads of the different
plants, as they may require it; but the nature of its ap-
plication, in thefe cafes, may be explained in the prefent
. place.
F For plants in thefe fituations, Mr. Fordyce has advifed
the ufe of fimple water only, in clearing them from different
nuifances to which they are expofed, though lime-water in
other cafes may be more powerful and have a better effect,
as will be feen below. It is direéted to be applied in this
manner. About four o’clock in the afternoon a barrow-
engine is to be filled with foft water, or fuch as has been ex-
ofed to the fun through the day, and wheeled along the
oa of the houfes, where they are wide enough to
receive it, and the whole of the plants {prinkled with the
fluid, by prefling the finger on the top of the pipe of the
engine, in order to fpread the water fomewhat in the manner
of a fine fhower of rain, playing the engine and throwing the
fluid likewife againft the top-lights and fhelves of the houfes,
until the water ftands an inch deep inthe paths of the houfes.
A {mall copper engine may be made ufe of, and anfwers
very well, when a barrow-engine cannot be got into the houfes.
It may be had in, moft places. But if an engine fhould not
be conveniently at hand, which can be got into the houfes,
the front-lights may be opened, or, where there are no front-
lights, the top-lights may be flided down, and the water be
thrown in at the fronts or tops. When this operation is
begun, if in the infide, every light mutt be clofe fhut down ;
and if the water be thrown in at the fronts or tops, one
light only is to be kept open, which is immediately to be
fhut, when that part of the houfe, which is oppofite to it,
is fufficiently watered ; then proceeding to open others until
the whole be properly watered. The houfes after this are
to be kept clofe until the next morning ; which will caufe
fuch an‘exhalation from the glafs of the houfes, and the beds
that may be in them, if there fhould be any, that the
plants will, it is faid, be covered all over with fteam or va-
pour ; which will infallibly deftroy and clear them of the
vermin and other hurtful matters that may be upon them,
efpecially thofe of the plant-loufe and coccus kinds. This
fort of watering is, however, to be repeated every afternoon,
in the time of hot weather only. By it a great deal of la-
bour in watering will be faved ; but fuch plants as ftand in
need of much watering, fhould have the water given them
before the fprinkling of the houfes is begun. In moft cafes,
the plants will have imbibed all the moifture before morn-
ing, and the paths of the houfes will be perfeétly dry.
As it fometimes happens that in hard winters, when {trong
fires are under the neceflity of being kept in the ftoves or
other houfes night and day, that the plants which ftand on
fhelves in thofe of the dry kind, are fo parched up, that the
leaves drop off, as from deciduous trees in the autumnal fea-
fon, which renders them very difagreeable in their appear-
ance ; it fhould be prevented or remedied by watering, in
the manner direGed below by the fame writer. About eight
o’clock in the morning, when the fun fhines out, and there
is the appearance of a fine day, water is to be thrown into
the houfes until the floors are covered to the depth of nearly
two inches; they being kept fhut the whole day, unlefs the
heat rifes very high, which is feldom the cafe at fuch a
feafon of the year, but when it does happen, the doors may
be opened to admit alittle air. By the middle of the day,
the water becomes entirely exhaled, and the floors quite dry.
The operation may be repeated two or three times in a week
infunny weather. The plants in the courfe of a week’s time
begin to recover, or throw out new foliage, and in a fort-
night or three weeks become in full leaf again, difplaying
themfelves in a fine manner.
WAT
This fort of watering is greatly ufeful on many other
occafions, as in the growth of plants in the pits of fuch
houfes.
Fruit-trees in fuch houfes may alfo be watered in the
fame manner with much benefit in fome cafes ; but for thofe
againit walls, a lime-water prepared by putting thirty-two
gallons of foft water to half a peck of unflaked lime is re-
commended to be ufed in this manner. With the clear li-
quid, after the lime has fubfided, the engine is to be filled,
and a good watering given to the trees, t rowing a confider-
able part of it forcibly under the leaves, and {preading it
finely by the means direéted above; at the fame time, whee ing
it backwards and forwards, that no parts of the trees may
be miffed. This fhould be performed when the weather is
cloudy, or when the fun is off the wall that contains the trees.
Where the trees are on an eaft wall, the watering may be
begun about half paft eleven e’clock ; if on a north wall, the
watering may be done the firft thing in the morning ; and
when they are on a fouth wall, it may be executed about
four o’clock in the afternoon: it is to be repeated once a
day for fix or feven days in fucceflion. If, however, there
fhould be cold northerly or eafterly winds, or frofty nights,
fuch watering fhould be difcontinued until the weather be-
comes more mild and temperate. Care is conftantly necef-
fary that the trees get dry before night, and that no water-
ing takes place while the fun is upon them. Care is like-
wife to be taken not to water them with any of the grounds
of the limey liquid, which would injure the leaves, and make
the trees look very unfightly.
This fort of watering, with the ufe of lime and wood-afh
duit to the under-fides of the leaves, are found extremely effec-
tual in deftroying and clearing away every thing noxious
about the trees, and in rendering them healthy and produe-
tive. See WATERING, in Gardening.
Waterine-Pots, Pans, or Cans, are fuch contrivances
of this nature as are fuited for pouring water over feeds,
plants, trees, &c. in pots or otherways in a fine fhowery
divided ftate, they being provided with ftrainers or rofes of
a finer or coarfer kind for the purpofe, well adapted to their
{pouts. They are particularly convenient for potted plants
of all forts, as well as many other kinds. They form the
principal mode of hand-watering.
WATERING Sheep, in Agriculture, the fupplying them with
water. This.is particularly neceflary in the management of
flocks in fome fituations, as on the South Downs ; and as
there is there no other water than what is to be colleéted by
fome artificial method, ponds are conftruéted for retaining
fuch water as falls in rain ; thofe, for this ufe, are commonhy
made circular, and very gently floping to the centre; the
bed very ftrongly rammed down to prevent any lofs by
foaking through the chalk. As ponds are liable to become
leaky, and to be fpoiled by a hard froft, they are made by
lining them with chalk, puddled and trod down until it
makes a fort of plaifter floor. If a little good ftone lime
were fifted evenly over the whole and trod well in with
the chalk, it would probably effe& the bufinefs of ren-
dering them perfeétly retentive of the water under all cir-
cumitances.
In Italy the theep-flocks were regularly watered morning
and evening, as is evident from Columella, and the praétice
has probably confiderable utility, efpecially in dry fitu-
ations.
WATERING-Syringe, in Gardening, a large kind of garden
fyringe employed for throwing water to fome height over
trees or plants, in rather a forcible manner, in the way of
a ftream, for clearing away infects and other matters, as well
as fome other purpofes.
M2 WATERING
‘WA T
Warerine the Soil of Tillage Land, in Agriculture, the
practice of improving ploughed ground, and the crops upon
it, by the application of water.
The outlines of a plan for watering arable or tillage crops
and lands, that has long been familiar to the writer on the
Management of Land, are firft to form the foil into flat beds
or ridges, with intervals, or trenches, directed fomewhat
obliquely acrofs the flope, or general defcent of the field or
ground ; namely, fo as to dip from one quarter to one half
cent. beneath the dead level ; this declination bein equally
calculated to communicate and carry off water. The width
of the beds is to be regulated by the nature of the land.
Abforbent foils may be laid into wider beds than thofe
which are repellent, or of the {tiff heavy kind, that are lefs
prone to draw away the water. :
The depth of the trenches fhould vary according to the
quality -of the water, and the intention of ufing it. _ For
merely moiftening the land, in a dry feafon, with ordinary
water, the trenches, it is conceived, fhould be deep, fo as to
lodge the water in the fubfoil, rather than the foil above it.
But when an enriched water is to be ufed to fertilize the
foil, and encourage the growth of the crop during its early
ftages, it requires to be communicated immediately to the
pafture of the plants ; confequently, in this cafe, the beds
fhould be narrow, and the trenches no deeper than juft to
prevent the water from overflowing.
When the water is neceffarily required to be conducted to
the uppermoft corner of the field or open ground, to be con-
tinued and condué@ted down the flope, acro{s the higher ends
of the beds, and to be forced into the trenches, by the
means of regulated checks, placed below their mouths, as
occafion may require ; it fhould be either fuffered to run with
moderate ftreams along the trenches ; or, if the quantity be
{mall in proportion to the extent of ground, it may ‘be
checked at proper diftances, fo that the whole of it fhall
be abforbed, thus going ever the ground, and repeating
the watering as the quantity of water, or the fufficiency of
moifture may direét. ;
WATERING, in the Manufadures. To water a ftuff is to
give it a luftre, by wetting it lightly, and then paffing it
through the prefs, or the calender, whether hot orcold. See
TaspyInec.
WATERLAND, Daniet, D.D. in Biography, was
porn in 1683, at Wafely, in Lincolnfhire, where his father was
reétor, and fent to Magdalen college, recren in 1699,
for the completion of his education; of this college he was
ele&ted a fellow in 1704, took his degree of M.A. in 1706,
and became a private tutor. His traét, entitled ‘* Advice to
a young Student, with a Method of Study for four Years,”
publithed at this time, was popular, and pafled through fe-
yeral editions. In 1713 he was nominated mafter of his
college, and prefented to the re€tory of Ellingham in Nor-
folk. On occafion of taking his degree of B.D. in 1714, he
diftinguifhed himfelf by defending before the regius pro-
feflor of divinity the negative of his thefis, ‘ Whether
Arian fubfcription be lawful?’ Being chofen chaplain
jn ordinary to king George I., he was nominated, on his
majefty’s vifit to Cambridge, D.D., and incorporated in the
fame degree at Oxford. Diftinguifhed as a champion of
orthodoxy by his “* Vindication of Chrift’s Divinity, being a
Defence of fome Queries relating to Dr. Clarke’s Scheme of
the Holy Trinity,”’ printed in 1719, he was appointed in the
following year the firft preacher of lady Moyer’s leéture in
favour of the divinity of Chrift. He alfo publifhed an an-
{wer to Dr. Whitby on the fame fubje&, and in 1721 he
was prefented by the dean and chapter of St. Paul’s with the
ceGory of St. Auftin and St. Faith, His “ Hiftory of the
9
WAT
Athanafian Creed,” vindicating it againit the objections of
Dr. Clarke, was publifhed in 1723, and his preferments to
the canonry of Windfor, the vicarage of Twickenham, and
the archdeaconry of Middlefex, kept pace with his publica-
tions of this nature. His remarks on Dr. Clarke’s “ Expo-
fition of the Church Catechifm,” printed in 1730, engaged
him in a controverfy with Dr. Sykes on the facrament of the
Lord’s fupper. Againft Tindal’s “* Chriftianity as old as
the Creation,” he publifhed his ‘* Scripture Vindicated,”’ and
his “ Chriftianity Vindicated againft Infidelity.”” On thefe
treatifes, Dr. Middleton publifhed remarks, and they were
defended by Dr. Zachary Pearce. In 1734 Dr. Waterland
made an attempt for refuting Dr. Clabes Opinions in a
* Difcourfe of the Argument @ priori for proving the Ex-
iftence of a Firft Caufe ;” and in this year, having declined
the office of prolocutor of the lower houfe of convocation
to which he was chofen, he publifhed his treatife, “* On the
Importance of the Do@rine of the Trinity,”? which he re-
garded as fundamental, avowing his high refpe& for the
authority of the fathers in this and other articles of faith.
In 1736 he commenced a feries of archdiaconal charges on
the fubjeét of the eucharift, arguing againft the opinion of
Hoadley on the one hand, that it was a mere communicative
feaft, and againft that of Johnfon and Brett, on the other,
that it was a proper propitiatory facrifice. Buta complaint
under which he laboured, and which required repeated fur-
gical operations, endured by him with exemplary pa-
tience, at length terminated his life in December 1740, in the
58th year of his age. _ A colleétion of his fermons was pub-
lifhed after his death, ‘* As acontroverfialiit,”’ fays one of
his biographers, “ though firm and unyielding, te is ac-
counted fair and candid, free from bitternefs, and aGtuated
by no perfecuting fpirit.”” Gen. Biog.
WATERLAND, in Geography, an ifland in the South Pa,
cific ocean, difcovered by Le Maire and Schouten, in the
year 1616. It is reprefented as a low uninhabited ifland,
fandy, and full of rocks, with plenty of trees on the border,
but neither cocoa-nuts nor palmettoes. Some creffes and In-
dian falad were found, and fome frefh water in ditches. No
foundings for anchorage were difcovered. S. lat. 14° 46'.
W. long. 149° 301.
WATERLANDIANS, in Ecclefiafiical Hiflory, a fe&
of thofe that were called the grofs or moderate Anabaptifts,
confifting at firft of the inhabitants of a diftri& in North
Holland, called Waterland ; whence their name. They were
alfo called Johannites from John de Reis, who, affifted by
Lubert Gerard, compofed their confeffion of faith in 1580.
This confeffion far furpaffes, in refpeét both of fimplicity
and wifdom, all the other confeffions of the Mennonites ;
though it has been alleged, that it is not the general con- -
feffion of the Waterlandians, but that merely of the congre-
gation, of which its author was the paftor.
This community, fays Mofheim, has abandoned the fe-
vere difcipline and fingular opinions of Menno, whom, never-
thelefs, they generally refpe& as their primitive parent and
founder. They are, however, divided into two diftin& feds,
which bear. the refpeétive denominations of FReIsLANDERS
and Waterlandians ; and are both without bifhops, employing
no other ecclefiaftical minifters than prefbyters and deacons.
Each congregation of this feét is independent on all foreign
jurifdiGtion, having its own ecclefiaftical council or confiftory,
which is compofed of prefbyters and deacons. ‘The fupreme
fpiritual power is, neverthelefs, in the hands of the people,
without whofe confent nothing of importance can be carried
into execution. ‘Their prefbyters are, generally {peaking,
men of learning, and apply themfelves with fuccefs to the
ftudy of phyfic and philofophy ; and there is a public pro-
é feffor,
a
Weta
felfor, fupported by the fe& at Amflerdam, for the inftruc-
tion ef their youth in the various branches of philofophy,
and facred erudition. One of thefe Waterlandian fe&ts was
divided, in 1664, into two fa¢tions, of which the one were
called Ga enists, and the other Arosroorrans, from
their ref{peétive leaders. Mofheim’s Eccl. Hift. vol. iv.
vol. v.
WATERLOO, Anrtuony, in Biography, a Flemith
landfcape painter of great abilities, is generally fuppofed to
have been born at Utrecht, about the year 1618 ; it is cer-
tain that he refided there the greater part of his life, and
the {cenery of his pitures is found in the environs of that
city. : :
ete landfcapesare chara¢terized by the greateft fimplicity
of compofition ; the entrance into a foreft, a broken road with
a bank and a few trunks of trees, a folitary cottage, a mill,
&c. are made interefting by the exquifite touch, and beauti-
ful colour and chiaro ofcuro, with which he treated them.
His fkies are clear, and his clouds float in air ; his colouring,
however, is fometimes too ftrongly contrafted with yellow
foregrounds and blue diftances, and offend the eye for want
of being more broken. He marked the chara¢ters of his trees
admirably, in form and colour. His pictures are by no means
common, as they are not numerous. He occupied himfelf
very much in etching his own defigns and views, and his pro-
duétions in that art are as valuable as his pictures, in point
of truth and fkill; and will always continue to be a fource
of pleafure and improvement to the artift and the connoiffeur.
His plates, according to Bartfch, amount in number to 150,
not entirely completed with the point, but finifhed with
the graver, to foften and to invigorate them. It is to
be lamented that he funk an early prey to habits of intem-
perance.
WATERLOO, in Geography, a villaze of the Netherlands,
between 12 and 13 miles from Bruffels, fituated behind the
fkirts of the fine beech foreft of Soignies, rendered famous
by one of the moft fevere and fanguinary battles which
modern hiftory of war records, fought in its vicinity on
Sunday the 18th of June, 1815, between the duke of Wel-
lington, who commanded the Britifh, Hanoverian, German,
and Belgic army, and Napoleon Buonaparte, who con-
duéted the operations of the French forces. The ground on
which the battle was fought is faid not to exceed two miles
from north to fouth, including the whole from the rear of
the Britifh to the rear of the French pofition; and from
eaft to weft, from the extremity of the left to that of the
right wing of the contending armies, is about a mile and a
half in extent; fo that the fanguinary refult of the battle
has been attributed in fome degree to the limited fpace
in which they were engaged, and the confequent intermix-
ture of the two armies.’ The pofition of the French troops
is reprefented as the bett, becaufe the eminence occupied by
them was higher, and the afcent fteeper than ours, and
etter adapted to attack and defence. The village of
Waterloo, which is not feen from the field of battle, was
océupied on the Saturday night previous to the battle by
the duke of Wellington, the principal officers of his ftaff,
the prince of Orange, lord Uxbridge, fir Vhomas Piéton,
fir William de Lancey, and other general officers. The
French army in the Netherlands, is faid to have amounted
to 130,000; and.after the lofles of the 15th and 16th, and
the detachment of two corps under marfhal Grouchy, there
muft have remained at leaft go,ooo men, with which Napo-
leon took the field on the 18th of June; while, after allow-
ing for the loffes of the allies on the 16th, which were very
ferious, it muft appear that there was a great difparity in
wegard to numbers; asit may be deduced from a {tatement,
Wr At
founded upon the, lateft return to the Horfe Guards, pre-
vious to the battles of the 16th and 18th, that the extreme
force Britifh and German was 46,221 men, under the duke
of Wellington, to which we may add 22,000 for Brunf-
wickers and Dutch, fo that the whole could not exceed
68,221 men; or, as it is elfewhere ftated, there could not
be in aétion a greater number than 64,000 men to fupport
the attack of the whole French army. From the adjutant-
general’s office, 6th November 1816, it appears that the
effeétive ftrength of the Britifh army, prefent at the battle
of Waterloo on the 18th of June 1815, was 74,040, in-
cluding the army of obfervation. It is moreover obferved,
that the hoftile army confifted of the beft troops of France ;
that it was a regular and difciplined army, even before the
Bourbons quitted France, and that from the return of Buo-
naparte every thing had been done to render it effeGtive ; it
was indeed the force which had been fele€ted and com-
bined to aé& upon the northern frontier. Whereas the
allied army, the Britifh part excepted, was almott wholly a
green army ; the allies, particularly the Dutch, Belgians,
Hanoverians, and troops of Naflau, being chiefly young
foldiers. ‘
Previoufly to the grand and decifive battle of Waterloo,
the campaiga had commenced on the 15th of June by an
attack upon the outpofts of the Pruffian army, commanded
by field-marfhal prince Blucher. The points of concen-
tration of the feyeral corps of his army were, Fleurus,
Namur, Ancy, and Hannut. Buonaparte advanced the
fecond corps of his army by Thuin, along the banks of the
Sambre, upon the town of Charleroi, and drove the ad-
vanced pofts of general Ziethen’s corps back upon the bridge
of Marchienne. After a very fmart aétion, the Pruffian
general was obliged to retire behind the river, and colle&
his corps near Fleurus: and as he confidered Charleroi
untenable, the troops ftationed in that town were with-
drawn, and the French cavalry entered it about mid-day.
The Pruffians defended their advanced pofts with bravery ;
and it was only the overwhelming force that was brought
againft Ziethen’s corps, which induced that general to
withdraw his advance, in order that he might concentrate
his whole force near Fleurus.
On the evening of this day an officer arrived at Bruffels
from marfhal Blucher, to announce that hoftilities had com-
menced. ‘The duke of Wellington received his difpatches,
whilft he was fitting after dinner with a party of officers.
The troops were ordered to hold themfelves in readinefs, to
march at a minute’s notice. Before midnight a fecond
officer arrived from Blucher, and the difpatches were deli-
vered to the duke of Wellington in the ball-room of the
duchefs of Richmond ; and he gave his orders to one of his
{taff-officers, who inftantly left the room. In the midft of the
repofe that feemed to reign over Bruffels, the drums fuddenly
beat to arms, and the loud call of the trumpet was heard
from every part of the city. The whole town- became
inftantly an univerfal fhow of buftle. The foldiers affem-
bled with their knapfacks, and every kind of warlike pre-
paration threw the town igto a fate of agitation. But
before eight in the morning, the ftreets, which had been
filled with bufy crowds, were empty and filent; the great
fquare of the Place Royale, which had been filled with
armed men, and with all the appurtenances of war, was now
quite deferted. The duke of Wellington had fet off in
great fpirits, obferving, that as Blucher had moit probably
fettled the bufinefs, he fhould perhaps return to dinner.
When the direétion by which Buonaparte intended to
penetrate into Belgium had been afcertained, the duke of
Wellington immediately gave orders for the army under his
command
WATERLOO.
command to concentrate on the extreme of its pofition,
near the great road from Bruffels to Charleroi, and in a line
between Nivelles and Namur. The fifth divifion of the
Britifh army, with the corps of the duke of Brunfwick-
Oels, left Bruflels about 2 A.M. on the 16th, and advanced
towards the pofition where the whole army was ordered to
affemble.
One brigade of the Dutch troops, which was in advance
towards Charleroi, had been attacked, when the Pruffians
fell back on the rsth, and driven from its advanced pofition
near Frafnes ; but the prince of Orange having moved up
another brigade of the fame army, they were able to repulfe
the enemy, and in the evening they regained the greater part
of the ground which had been loft throughout the day.
On the morning of the 16th, prince Blucher, who was
determined to meet Buonaparte with all his ftrength, had
pofted the army under his command on the heights between
the villages of Brie and Sombref, and to fome diftance
beyond Sombref. In front of this line, he occupied the
villages of St. Amand and Ligny with a very confiderable
force.
Buonaparte, as foon as he had paffed the Sambre, directed
the great body of his force againft the Pruffian line. Mar-
fhal Ney, who commanded the left wing, was direéted to
advance by Goffelies and Frafnes, and attack the Britifh
pofition ; his force confifting of the firft and fecond corps
of infantry, and four divifions of cavalry.
The third, fourth, and fixth corps, with the guard in re-
ferve, were ordered to attack the Pruffian pofition in front,
while the fifth corps under Grouchy, and a divifion of
cavalry, were detached towards Sombref, on the Namur
road, with the view of manceuvring on that flank.
On debouching from Fleurus, Buonaparte had an oppor-
tunity of reconnoitring the pofition of marfhal Blucher with
more precifion. He immediately placed the firft corps be-
longing to the left wing under Ney, with two divifions of
heavy cavalry, behind the village of Frafnes, on the right,
and at a little diftance from the Bruflels road, where it was
to form a referve, that could be brought up to fupport
either his attack upon the Pruffians, or Ney’s attack upon
the Britifh. The third corps was ordered to advance in
column to carry the village of St. Amand, while the
fourth corps, fupported by the guard and the cavalry, was
ordered to attack Ligny.
The enemy advanced in overpowering maffes upon St.
Amand, where the aétion firft commenced on the morning
of the 16th. The brave Pruffians defended this part of
their advanced pofition with great firmnefs, and it was not
till after a long and fanguinary confli&, that they were
obliged to yield for a time to fuperior numbers. The
fourth corps commenced its attack upon the village of
Ligny about mid-day, and by one o’clock p.m. the a€tion
may be faid to have become general throughout the whole
of the extended line of the allied Britifh and Pruffian armies.
Grouchy by that time had attacked the extreme left beyond
Sombref, and Ney had come.in conta& with the advance of
the army under the duke of Wellington, near Frafnes.
But it was in the villages of St. Amand and Ligny, that
the greateft ftruggle for victory took place, between the
contending armies. There the battle continued for five
hours, it may be faid, almoft in the villages themfelves, as
the movements forwards and backwards, during that period,
were confined to a very narrow fpace. Frefh troops were
conftantly moved up on both fides; and as each army had
immenfe maffes of infantry behind that part of the village
which it occupied, thefe ferved to maintain the combat, as
they were continually receiving reinforcements: from the
rear. Upwards of 200 pieces of cannon were directed
againft the villages, and they were frequently on fire in
many places.
About 4 0’clock, prince Blucher placed himfelf at the
head of a battalion of infantry, and charged with them into
the village of St. Amand. After a dreadful ftruggle, he
gained poffeffion of the greater part of it. The enemy
were panic-ftruck, and the victory feemed fo doubtful, that
Buonaparte was obliged to fend in all hafte for the firft
corps, which he had left in referve near Frafnes; at the very
moment too, that it had become equally neceflary to marfhal
Ney, whofe columns, having been repulfed by the fifth
divifion of Britifh infantry, were retiring in- great con-
fufion.
The advantage which Blucher had fo nobly gained, was
of little importance to the general ation in which his troops
were engaged. At Ligny, the battle {till raged with
unabated vigour; and though the evening was far advanced,
the victory remained undecided. The badnefs of the roads,
and the difficulties which general Bulow had to encounter
in his march, prevented his corps from getting up on the
16th ; fo that Blucher had only three corps of his army in
pofition ; and though they had repulfed every attack which
had been made upon them, the danger was becoming urgent,
as all the divifions were engaged, or had already been fo,
and there was no referve at hand.
As the night advanced, the enemy, favoured by the dark.
nefs, made a circuit round the village of Ligny, with a divi-
fion of infantry on one fide; and, without being obferved,
got into the rear of the main body of the Pruffian army, at
the fame moment that fome regiments of cuirafliers forced
their paflage on the other fide of the village. This move-
ment decided the day, and field-marfhal Blucher was obliged
to commence his retreat; yet his brave columns, though
furprifed, were not difmayed. ‘They formed themfelves
into folid maffes, and, repulfing every attack which the
enemy made upon them, retired in perfect good order to
their ofiginal ground, upon the heights above the village,
and from thence continued, unmoletted, their retrograde
movement upon Wavre.
This movement of the marfhal’s rendered neceflary a
correfponding one on the part of the duke of Wellington;
and he retired from the farm of Quatre Bras upon Genappe,
and thence upon Waterloo, the next morning of the 17th
at 10 o’clock.
The duke of Wellington, having given orders for the
army under his command to concentrate on the left, pro-
ceeded with the fifth divifion and the duke of Brunfwick-
Oels’ corps, in the direétion of Charleroi. About two
o’clock on the afternoon of the 16th, the head of the Britifh
column reached the farm of Quatre Bras, fo named from its
{tanding near where the roads from Bruffels to Charleroi,
and from Nivelles to Namur, crofs each other. The ad-
vance of the enemy under Ney, who had again driven the
Dutch troops from their pofition near Frafnes, had nearly
reached the fame {pot ; and general Kempt’s brigade had
fearcely time to deploy from the great road, before it was
attacked by the enemy’s cavalry, {upported by heavy maffes
of his infantry. Nothing could exceed the daring intre-
pidity of the French troops at this moment; their fuccefs
on the 15th, and confidence in their leader, added to the
natural bravery of the troops, made them advance with
almoft a certainty of victory. The fudden appearance of
overwhelming mafles of’ cavalry, and the rapidity with
which they charged our infantry, before they had time to
throw themfelves into {quares, created fome little confufion
in one or two regiments. Indeed, fo daring were the
French
WATERLOO.
French cuiraffiers, that a regiment a@tually cut into the
fquare of the forty-fecond Highlanders; but they paid
dear for their temerity, as few ever returned to their lines ;
and the Highlanders had ample revenge for the lofs of their
brave colonel fir Robert Macara. The third battalion of
the Royal Scots, twenty-eighth, and firft battalion of the
ninety-fifth, were warmly engaged for feveral hours on the
left of the Bruffels road; while general Pack’s brigade,
confifting of the forty-fourth, feventy-ninth, and ninety-
fecond regiments, with the forty-fecond already mentioned,
fucceeded completely in repelling the enemy on the right,
after an equally arduous contett.
About 4 o’clock, the firft divifion under major-general
Cooke, and third under lieutenant-general fir Charles Alten,
came up, and were alfo immediately engaged. The enemy
was now driven from his ground, and obliged to retire to
the pofition which he had occupied the night before, and
where he had fome difficulty in maintaining himfelf, until
the darknefs put an end to the combat. The troops of the
duke of Brunfwick diftinguifhed themfelves very much on
the afternoon of the 16th ; and his ferene highnefs was un-
fortunately killed at the head of his brave huffars.
At day-light on the morning of the 17th, the duke
fhewed his whole force, and challenged the enemy to fight ;
but they did not feem difpofed to accept the challenge ;
and therefore both he and prince Blucher took up their re-
{peétive pofitions; their movements having been commu-
micated to each other, and Blucher having been requefted’
to fupport the-duke in cafe of an attack on the next day
with two divifions of his army. On the 17th no movement
of any confequence took place.
The pofition which the Britifh army now took up, had
been chofen with great judgment, from its proximity to the
extenfive foreft of Soignies. The village of Waterloo lies
upon the great road from Bruffels to Charleroi, embofomed
in the foreft ; and a few fcattered houfes extend to another
{mall village called Mont-Saint-John: about a quarter of a
mile in front of this latter village, there is a rifing ground
which crofles the great road already mentioned, and extends
from a farm-houfe called Ter-la~Haye on the left, to the
village of Merbe-le-Braine on the right, croffing alfo the
road from Bruffels to Nivelles, which diverges from the
road to Charleroi at the village of Mont-Saint-John. It
was on this rifing ground that the allied army, commanded
by field-marfhal the duke of Wellington, or more properly
the firft corps of that army, took up its pofition on the
evening of the 17th of June. The fecond corps, under the
command of lord Hill, (with the exception of the fourth
divifion and the troops of the Netherlands, under prince
Frederick of Orange, who were left to guard an important
pofition at Halle,) was placed in referve on the right of the
pofition, and in front of the village of Merbe-le-Braine,
with its right refting on Braine-la~-Leud. The infantry
bivouacked a little under the ridge of the rifing ground,
and the cavalry in the hollow ground in rear of the infantry.
Excepting a few round fhot which the enemy occafionally
fired while our troops were deploying into their pofition,
nothing of any moment occurred during that afternoon or
the whole of the night.
It had rained almoft inceflantly during the greater part
of the 17th, and the weather was very tempeftuous during
the night. The ground afforded no cover for the troops ;
fo that generals, officers, and men, were equally expofed to
the rain, which fell in torrents. Buonaparte flept at the
farm-houfe of Caillou near Planchenois; and his army
halted in the neighbourhood of Genappe. The duke of
Wellington flept at a {mall public hovfe in the village of
Waterloo.
As foon as day-light appeared on the morning of the
18th, the Britifh army could perceive, from its pofition,
immenfe maffes of the enemy moving in every direétion, and
before two o’clock the whole of his force appeared to be
colle&ted on the heights and in the ravines, which ran
parallel with the Britifh pofition.
The French army, when concentrated in front of the
pofition of the allies, confilted of four corps of infantry
including the guard, and three corps of cavalry, the whole
number of men being uncertain, and probably overrated by
thofe who ftate them at 120,000.
At 11 o’clock every thing feemed to indicate that the
awful conteft would foon commence ;—a conteft in which
victory was obitinately and valiantly difputed on both fides,
but which at laft terminated in the complete triumph of the
duke of Wellington, and total defeat and political annihila-
tion of Buonaparte. The weather had cleared up, and the
fun fhone a little as the battle began, and the armies within
800 yards of each other, the duke of Wellington, with his
ufual quicknefs, had foon perceived the nature of the attacks
that would be made upon his line; and when the troops
{tood to their arms in the morning, he gave orders that they
fhould be formed into fquares of half battalions, and in that
{tate await the enemy’s attack.
Marfhal Ney, as foon as Buonaparte’s order was com-
municated to him, direéted the divifion of infantry com-
manded by Jerome Buonaparte, to advance upon Hougo-
mont; and about half paft eleven o’clock, the firft columns
of this divifion made their appearance upon the ravine, or
rather hollow ground, which leads down from the public-
houfe of La Belle Alliance to the Chateau. The two
brigades of artillery belonging to general Cooke’s divifion
had taken up a pofition on the ridge of the hill in front of
the line of infantry, and the moment the enemy made his
appearance, our nine-pounders opened upon his columns.
The artillery officers had got the range fo accurately, that
almoft every fhot and fhell fell in the very centre of his
mafles; fo great was the effe& produced by thefe few guns,
that all Jerome’s bravery could not make his fellows advance,
and in a moment they were again hid by the rifing ground
from under cover of which they had but juft emerged
This, which was the commencement of the ation, was con-
fidered a very favourable omen by our brave fellows who
witneffed it; and for a fhort time they were much amufed
with the manceuvres of Jerome’s divifion, and the cautious
manner in which it feemed to emerge from its hiding-place.
This ftate of things, however, did not continue long, as
other great movements were obferved to be prepating
throughout the enemy’s line. A powerful artillery was
brought to bear upon our guns that had fo annoyed his firft
advance, and general Jerome’s troops gained the outfkirts
of the wood, where they became engaged with our light
troops. By mid-day the cannonade was general.
The great objet of Buonaparte, in this important battle,
was evidently to force our centre, and at the fame time turn
our right fank; fo that by furrounding and taking pri-
forers, as it were, one half of our line, he might completely
paralyfe and deftroy the effet of the other half. Unfor-
tunately, our centre was the weakeft part of our pofition,
and upon that part he direéted his firft grand attack to be
made about noon.
An immenfe mafs of infantry, followed by a column of
upwards of twelve thoufand cavalry, advanced upon the
points occupied by the third and fifth divifions, and the left
of
WATERLOO.
of the Guards, covered bya fire from upwards of one hun-
dred pieces of artillery. Thefe columns, which feemed to
advance with a certainty of fuccefs, were led by count
d’Erlon in perfon. They advanced almoft to the muzzles
of our mufkets; but here they foon found they had Britons
to contend with; .our fellows gave them a volley; and,
cheering, rufhed on to the charge, which they did not ftand
to receive, and our cavalry emerging from the hollow ground
where they had hitherto been concealed from the enemy’s
view, pafled through the openings between the fquares, and
charging the enemy’s.cavalry, fucceeded completely in dif-
perfing them, and driving them back upon their owa line.
In this confi@, which was dreadful while it lafted, the
enemy was baffled in all his attempts, and, befides the
killed and wounded, loft feveral thoufand prifoners and an
eagle; butithe Britifh army had alfo to lament the lofs of
its brighteft ornaments, and his majefty, one of his bett
officers. The gallant fir Thomas Picton fell, mortally
wounded, in leading on the fifth divifion.
About 3 o’clock, when Buonaparte found that Jerome’s
divifion could not drive the guards from Hougomont, he
ordered the chateau to be fet on fire. The fhells from
feveral mortars which were brought to bear upon the houfes,
foon had the defired effe&: but our troops, retiring into
the garden, did not yield one inch of their ground; and the
only thing which the enemy gained by this: cruel meafure,
was the deftruétion of a few of our wounded, who were too
ill to be removed, and who fell a prey to the flames. ‘The
troops in La Haye Sainte, having expended their ammuni-
tion, were obliged to retire for a moment from that point,
and the enemy got poffeffion of the houfe and garden; but
as foon as a reinforcement of our troops could be moved
up, he was driven from that as well as from every other
point which he had attacked: and at no period during the
day, notwithftanding the heavy maffes of infantry and
cavalry which were advanced again{t our centre, time after
time, was he ever able to force our pofition; and the pof-
feffion’of the advanced poft of La Haye Sainte for a few
minutes, may be faid to have been the greateft advantage he
ever gained. The battle continued to rage with unabated
fury, and the number of brave men who were continually
falling on both fides was very great, while the rapidity with
which the columns of attack fucceeded each other, feemed
to indicate for a time, that the refources of the enemy were
inexhauftible. The artillery on both fides was well ferved :
but Buonaparte had upwards of two hundred and fifty
pieces in the field; while the train of the allied army under
the duke of Wellington did not exceed one hundred guns,
nine-pounders and fix-pounders. Notwithftanding our in-
feriority in this arm, which was {till more apparent from the
fize of the enemy’s guns (being twelve-pounders ) than from
their numbers, ours were fo well fought, that it is allowed
by all, they did equal execution.
About z o’clock, the duke of Wellington difpatched an
officer of his ftaff to the head-quarters of field-marfhal
Blucher, to afcertain his movements, and to know when it
was probable his advance would come in contaét with the
enemy, This officer found the Pruffian general at the
village of Lafnes, where he gained the information required.
_ At half paft 7 o’clock, the iffue of the battle was ftill
doubtful. The greater part of lord Hill’s corps of the
Britifh army had been moved up at different periods to the
fupport of the firft corps. The whole of Bulow’s corps,
and part of the fecond corps of the Pruffian army, had
arrived at their pofition near Frichermont, and their attack
in that direGtion was fufficiently powerful to oblige the
enemy to give way on his right; which Buogaparte having
obferved, conceived that the moment was now arrived when
he muft put an end to the engagement. He informed his
generals that the firing on the right was occafioned by the
arrival of Grouchy’s corps. Thi gave frefh hopes to his
troops already beginning to defpair, and immediately he
gave orders to form the laft column of attack. This
column was compofed principally of the guard, which had
hitherto fuffered but little ; he gave direGtions for the whole
of the line to fecond this effort, upon which he faid the
victory depended, and placing himfelf at their head, they
advanced in double quick time.
Thefe veteran warriors, fo long efteeemed the firft troops
‘in Europe, advanced acrofs the plain which divided the two
armies, with a firmnefs which nothing could exceed; and
though our grape and canifter fhot made dreadful havoc in
their ranks, they:were never difconcerted for a fingle mo-
ment. Our infantry remained firm in their pofition, until
the enemy’s front line was nearly in conta& with them,
when, with the ufual falute of a well-directed volley, and a
Britith cheer, they rufhed on to the charge with bayonets.
This charge even the Imperial guard could not ftand againtt,
and thofe undaunted troops, who at one time confidered
themfelves the conquerors of the world, were obliged to
give way. In this attack the Britifh and French guards
were, for the firft time, perhaps, fairly oppofed to each
other. The fhock for a moment was dreadful. The enemy
refufed to take or give quarter, and the carnage was horri-
ble. At laft the whole of their ranks was broken, all dif-
cipline was at an end, and they began to give way in the
utmoft confufion. The duke of Wellington, who was on
the {pot, was not inattentive to the manner in which the
enemy retired from this attack, and, though his left was
{till preffed, he ordered the whole line of infantry, fupported
by the cavalry and artillery, to advance. This order was
no fooner given, than our brave fellows rufhed forward from
every point. In a moment they carried the enemy’s pofition,
and obliged him to retire in great diforder, leaving in our
poffeffion a number of prifoners, and upwards of one hun-
dred and fifty pieces of cannon, with their ammunition,
befides two eagles. Before the diforganized mafles of the
French had cleared the ravine by which they retired, the
‘right and left of the Britifh line were nearly in contaét, and
the enemy in a manner furrounded. What added greatly
to the confufion of the beaten foe, was a gallant charge by
general Ziethen’s corps upon his right flank, at the moment’
the Britifh advanced in front. Blucher, who had joined’
with his firft corps at the time this decifive charge was
going on, advanced with his gallant troops ; and about nine
o’clock the two field-marfhals met at the {mall public-houfe
called La Belle Alliance, and mutually faluted each other
as victors.
The Britifh army, which had been fo warmly engaged for
upwards of nine hours, was now halted, and the purfuit left
to the brave Pruffians. ‘Though they had already marched
many leagues, all fatigue was forgotten when in the prefence
of their enemy. About half-pait nine field-marfhal Blucher
affembled the whole of his fuperior officers, and gave orders
for them to fend every man and horfe in purfuit.
It is not’eafy to afcertain the number of thofe who were
killed and wounded, from the 15th to the 18th days of
June inclufively. The lofs of the guards, in killed and
wounded, in the defence of Hougomont, amounted to 28
officers, and about 800 rank and file. The foreign corps
(Naffau and Brunfwickers) loft about 100. Within half
an hour, it is faid, 1500 men were killed in the {mall orchard
of
WATERLOO.
of about four acres at Hougomont. The lofs of the
French was enormous. The divifion of general Foy alone
loft about 3000, and their total lofs in the attack of this
pofition is eftimated at 10,000 in killed and wounded.
Above 6000 men of both armies perifhed in the farm of
Hougomont ; 600 French fell in the attack on the chateau
and the farm; 200 Englifh were killed in the wood; 25 in
the garden; 1100 in the orchard and meadow; 400 near
the farmer’s garden ; 2000 of both parties behind the great
orchard. The bodies of 300 Englifh are buried oppofite
the gate of the chateau ; thofe of 600 French have been
burnt at the fame place. The wounded at Quatre Bras, 16th
of June, are ftated upon the report of the adjutant-general,
to be 5000; but no eftimate is given of the killed, who
mutt have been very numerous. On occafion of Blucher’s re-
tiring to Wavre, he is faid to havehad 14,000 men killed and
wounded. The lofs of the Britifh, as ftated in a letter dated
June roth, fince the 16th, muft have exceeded 5000. In
the battle of Ligny and Quatre Bras, Napoleon is faid to
have loft 10,000 men. The total of the killed and wounded
of the Britifh foldiers, as returned from the War-office
July 1815, amounts to 9755 perfons. The total of the
killed, wounded, and miffing of the royal artillery in the
battles of the 16th and 18th of June 1815, comprehends
32 officers, 15 ferjeants, 285 rank and file, and 529 horfes.
The lofs of the Dutch in killed, wounded, and mifling, is
ftated to be 4136. The Pruffians are faid to have loft
120.
Toe eonding to the French accounts their lofs, at the battle
of Fleurus on the 15th, was 10 killed and 80 wounded, and
that of their enemy 2000, of whom 1000 were prifoners.
The lofs of the Pruffians on the 16th could not be lefs, as
they fay, than 15,000 men, and their own 3000 killed and
wounded. At Quatre Bras they fay, that the Englifh loft
from 4. to 5000 men; and that theirs, which was very con-
fiderable, amounted to 4200 killed and wounded. They
make no ftatement of that of the 18th.
The total lofs of the Britifh, Hanoverians, and Ger-
man legions from official reports, from June 16th to the
26th, 1815, is 11,084; and the computed loffes of the
Dutch and Pruffians during the campaigns in the Nether-
lands were, that of the Dutch as above ftated 4136, and that
of the total Pruffian lofs 33,132.
It appears from the lift of killed and wounded from the
official returns, June 16 to June 26, 1815, that an immenfe
number of officers, feveral of whom were high in rank, is
included in one or other of thefe claffes. In the former, are
the names of the duke of Brunfwick-Oels, colonel Cameron,
lieutenant-colonel Canning, lieutenant-colonel fir F. d’Oyly,
colonel fir H. W. Ellis, lieutenant-colonel fir A. Gordon,
colonel fir W. de Lancey, and colonel fir R. Macara, lieu-
tenant-general fir T. Pi€ton, major-general fir W. Ponfonby,
&c. &c.; and in the latter we find the prince of Orange,
the earl of Uxbridge, colonel Hon. A. Abercromby, lieu-
tenant-general fir C. Alten, major-general fir E. Barnes,
major Beckwith, lieutenant fir H. Berkeley, lieutenant-
colonel fir H. Bradford, major Cameron, lieutenant-colonel
Cameron, lieutenant-colonel R. H. Cooke, colonel fir J.
Ellay, captain Hon. E. S. Erfkine, lieutenant-colonel fir
R. C. Hill, lieutenant-colonel Macdonald, colonel Hon.
F. Ponfonby, lieutenant-colonel Fitzroy Somerfet, earl of
Uxbridge, &c. &c.
After the moft diligent refearch, amidft confufed and
contradiGtory accounts, it is difficult, if not impoffible, to
afcertain the exact number of the killed and wounded, on
both fides, in this fanguinary and decifive confli&.
Honourable and profperous as was the iffue of this battle,
Vou. XXXVIII. F
we cannot forbear regretting that fo many valuable livés
fhould be facrificed on occafions of this kind, and we alfo
lament the condition of thofe who are wounded and maimed,
and rendered helplefs for the refidue of their years. We
applaud the fpirit that has a€tuated fuch multitudes, and
difpofed them to confer honour on the name and memories, or
to impart to the fuccour and fupply, of thofe who have fallen
or fuffered in the fervice of their country.
The fingular importance of this viGtory, the pre-eminent
talents of the commander-in-chief, and the heroifm difplayed
by the officers, commiflioned and non-commiffioned, and by
all the privates, on this interefting occafion, entitled them to
the gratitude of the government and of the country, and to
fuch tokens of refpeé as were thought to be moft appra-
priate to the occafion. Accordingly, it was refolved on the
23d of June, that the thanks of both houfes of parliament
fhould be given to his grace the duke of Wellington, prince
Blucher, and the allied armies, officers and foldiers. The
prince regent alfo granted the dignity of a marquis to earl
Uxbridge and his heirs. The houfe of commons agreed
June 29th 1815, in an addrefs to the prince regent, requeft-
ing him to direét a national monument to be ereéted in
honour of the fplendid viGtory of Waterloo, and te com-
memorate the fame of the officers and men of the Britifh
army, who fell glorioufly upon the 16th and 18th of the
faid month; and more particularly of lieutenant-general fir
Thomas Piéton, and major-general the Hon. fir William
Ponfonby ; and that funeral monuments be alfo ereGed in
memory of each of thefe two officers in the cathedral church
of St. Paul, London. The prince regent has alfo been
pleafed, in the name and on behalf of his majefty, to grant
promotion to 52 majors, recommended for brevet-rank, for
their condu& in the battle of Waterloo, to be lieutenant-
colonels in the army ; and to 36 captains to be majors, with
commiflions refpeétively, dated from June 18, 1815. His
royal highnefs has alfo appointed major-general fir James
Kempt, to be knight grand crofs of the moft honourable
military order of the Bath; and major-generals G. Cooke,
Maitland, and F. Adam, to be knights commanders of the
faid order, and a number of other officers to be companions
of the moft honourable military order of the Bath, upon the
recommendation of the duke of Wellington. The king of
the Netherlands has given the duke of Wellington the title
of prince of Waterloo, and the ftates-general have fettled
upon his family an eftate annually producing 20,000 Dutch
florins, (2000/.) confitting of woods, &c. in the neighbour-
hood of La Belle Alliance, Hougomont, &c. The king of
Saxony has alfo conferred upon the duke his family order
of “ The Crown of Rue :’’ and the grand duke of Baden
has conferred upon him his order of “ Fidelity’? of the firft
clafs, accompanied with a gold fnuff-box, enriched with dia-
monds of great value. The emperor of Auftria has con-
ferred upon a number of officers the crofs of a commander,
and of a knight refpeétively of the order of Maria
Therefa.”” The emperor of Ruffia has alfo conferred decora-
tions of different clafles of the orders of St. George, Anne,
and Wladimir, on a number of officers. The king of the
Low Countries has alfo conferred decorations of different
clafles of the “ Wilhelm’s” order upon certain officers.
The king of, Bavaria has conferred decorations of the differ-
ent claffes of the order of “ Maximilian Jofeph,” on certain
officers ; all thefe in teftimony of their refpe€tive approba-
tion of their fervices and condu&. The prince regent has
granted the dignity of a baron of the United kingdom of
Great Britain and Ireland unto the right honourable lieute-
nant-general Rowland baron Hill and to his heirs; and in
token of his high approbation of the diftinguifhed bravery
Z
and
WATERLOO.
and condu& of the firft and fecond life-guards at the
ie of Waterloo, he has declared himfelf re in chief
of both thefe regiments. He alfo declares that he fhall ap-
prove all the Britifh regiments of cavalry and infantry
which were engaged in the battle of Waterloo, being per-
mitted to wear on their colours and appointments, in addi.
tion to all other badges and devices, the word ‘* Waterloo,”’
in commemoration of their diftinguifhed fervices on the 18th
of June 1815; and he alfo approves’of all the enfigns of
the three regiments of foot-guards haying the rank of lieu-
tenants, and that fuch rank fhall be attached to all the
future appointments to enfigncies in the foot-guards, in the
fame manner as the lieutenants of thofe regiments obtain the
rank of captain; and he alfo approves of the firft regiment
of foot-guards being a regiment of grenadiers, and ftyled
« The Firft or Grenadier Regiment of Foot-Guards.”
An alteration has alfo taken place in regard to the penfions
allowed to wounded officers in favour of thofe who have
ferved in the battle of Waterloo ; and it is alfo ordered that
henceforth every non-commiflioned officer, trumpeter,
drummer, and-private man, who ferved in the battle of
Waterloo, or in any of the actions which immediately pre-
ceded it, fhall be borne upon the’ mufter-rolls and pay-lifts
of their refpective corps as ‘* Waterloo Men; and that
every * Waterloo Man’? fhall be allowed to count two
5? fervice in virtue of that viiory, in reckoning his
fervices for increafe of pay, or for penfion when difcharged.
It is alfo ordered, that the lieutenants of cavalry and in-
fantry,.who had ferved more than five years as fuch, on the
18thiof June 1815, or who may fubfequently have com-
pleted that period of fervice, are to receive one fhilling
per diem for every day’s fervice as lieutenant beyond five
years, it being fully underftood that the retrofpect is, in no
inftance, to exceed two years. In like manner, the corporals
and privates, diftinguifhed as ‘* Waterloo Men,” are to re-
ceive the benefit of the two years’ fervice retrofpectively, in
cafés in which, by the addition of the two years, they would
have completed their refpeétive terms of fervice, on or pre-
vioufly to the 18th of June 1815, and the two years’ fervice
will, of courfe, be reckoned ‘in, all claims fubfequently ac-
ing.
Sir Charles Alten is honoured with the title of count,
and the Hanoverian troops, who were prefent in the battle,
may bear on their colours and uniform the word ‘* Water-
log.” Other regiments alfo that are particularly fpecified,
are to have the word ‘ Waterloo” in commemoration of
their diftinguifhed fervices, June 18th, 1815. The prince
regent has commanded, that in commemoration of the
brilliant and decifive vidtory of Waterloo, a medal fhall be
conferred upon every officer, non-commiffioned officer, and
foldier of the Britifh army, prefent upon that memorable occa-
fion, It is alfo appointed, that from the date of the battle of
Waterloo, 18th June 1815, the penfions to officers and widows
fhall increafe according to the officer’s further advance.
It is a farther inftru€tion with regard to the Waterloo
ant, that lieutenants of cavalry and infantry, who had
fared more than five years on the 18th of June, are to re-
ceive one fhilling per day for every day beyond five years’
fervice, provided the retro{peét be not beyond two years ;
non-commiflioned officers and privates are alfo to benefit
proportionately from the fame retrofped. The charge for
officers is to be made in their ordinary accounts; thofe for
men diftin& ina pay lift fupplementary, according to a pre-
fcribed form.
Prize-money was alfo granted by parliament to the army
which feryed under the command of field-marfhal his grace
the duke of Wellington in the battle of Waterloo and cap-
12
ture of Paris. This was advertifed iri the London Gazette,
June 21, 1817. Thofe fhares that have not been claimed
before the 24th of September 1817, may afterwards be re-
ceived from the deputy treafurer of Chelfea hofpital, if
claimed within the period of fix years. :
The shares of each individual in the following claffes are :
Commander-in-chief’s proportion is efti- :
mated at ~ Pre 55 } £61,000 oo
Clafs 1. General officers - = = Keane oy
2. Field-officers and colonels - 433 2 4%
3. Captains - - - teh
4. Subalterns - - - 34.14 9
5. Serjeants - - - TO Ase
6. Corporals, drummers, and privates ee TP
Notice has alfo been given in the Dutch, Flanders, and
German papers, that his highnefs the prince of Waterloo, .
duke of Wellington, bas given orders for the payment of
the prize-money to all the allied troops, who fought under
his command at Quatre Bras and Waterloo, at the taking
of Paris.
His highnefs has fixed the proportions into clafles as
above. This diftribution includes the Dutch, Belgic,
Naffau, Hanoverian, and Brun{wick troops.
The total amount of receipts for the Waterloo fub{cription
to May 31, 1817, has been 518,288/. gs. 11d. The total
expenditure for payments and donations, and incidental
charges, leaves a balance at the bankers 18th of June 1817
of 1,222/. 135. 5d.
Statement of the appropriation is as follows:
Annuities granted for Life.
To the widows of officers, non-commif- £
fioned officers, and privates killed - 594
To the wounded non-commiffioned officers, } 6
and privates totally difabled fae 49
To dependent relatives - *- 540
Amount of annuities for life ~~ 41,782
Annuities granted for limited Periods.
To the children of officers, non-commif- g
fioned officers, and privates =, t 2314
To orphans - : b 895
Amount of annuities for limited periods - 9,209
Total amount of annuities - - 20,992
Voted in Money.
To the wounded officers, non-commiffioned offi-
cers, and privates - - 71,126
To the parents and dependent relatives of officers,
non-commiffioned officers, and privates kid 28,577
leaving no widows or children - =
To the Foreign Troops, viz.
Pruffians, Brunfwickers - "
Hanoverians, and Netherlanders - 453209
Additional for the exclufive benefit of their
orphans rendered fuch by the campaign 173500
of 1815 = -
: ‘Diy a 62,500
Total amount voted in money - 162,203
—_
A confiderable fubfcription, amounting to 3905/. 145. od.
_._. Fegeived
WAT
eived: from Demerary, has been lately announced,
ener. 24, 1818... :
- On the fecond anniverfary of the battle of Waterloo, the
noble ftruéture of the bridge over the Thames from Surrey
to the {cite of the Savoy, was firft opened for public ac-
commodation ; and with a view of commemorating the ever-
memorable victory of Waterloo, its name was changed from
that of the ‘ Strand Bridge,”’ to the more dignified and
triumphal appellation of * Waterloo Bridge.’? The cere-
mony was conducted with great dignity and {plendour.
This bridge exhibits a very ftriking difplay of the eminent
abilities and tafte of Mr. Rennie, the engineer, as well as of
the liberality of the proprietors, who have provided the
funds neceflary for its conftrution. Its fituation is judi-
cioufly feleGted, as, independently of the advantage which
commerce and the convenience of perfonal intercourfe may
derive from it, it gives the grandeft view we have of the
river in its beautiful meander, difplays the rifing crefcent of
buildings on the north fide, and brings out Somerfet Ter-
race in the moft favourable way; while on the fouth it
opens the beautiful profpeé of the Surrey hills.
The following are fome detailed particulars of the bridge,
which is conftruéted of Cornifh granite ; the baluftrades are
of granite from Aberdeen.
Dimenfions of the Bridge.
Feet.
The length of the ftone bridge within the abutments 1,242
Length of the road fupported on brick arches on
- the Surrey fide of the river = 15759
Length of the road fupported on brick arches on
the London fide - - Sic ee
Total length from the Strand, where the building
begins, to the fpot in Lambeth where it falls to 2,892
the level of the road -
Width of the bridge within the baluftrades - 42
Width of pavement or foot-way on each fide - 7
Width of road for horfes and carriages - 28
Span of each arch_ - - . - 120
Thicknefs of each pier - - - 23
Clear water-way under the nine arches, which are regs
equal, 120 ft. each - - - ,
Brick arches on the Surrey fide - 40
Ditto onthe London fide - - 16
Granite ditto for the water-courfe = - 9
Total number of arches from the Strand to ] 6
the Lambeth level ae Bie ee}
In building the arches, the flones (f{ome of which weigh
upwards of fix tons) were fo accurately jointed and care-
fully laid, that upon the removal of the centres, none of the
arches funk more than an inch and a half. In fhort the ex-
cellency of the workmanfhip vies with the beauty of the
defign, and with the fkill and arrangement, to render the
s¢ Bridge of Waterloo” a monument of the public fpirit,
tafte, and glory of the age, of which the metropolis, and
the Britifh empire, have abundant reafon to be proud.
We fhall clofe our account of the battle of Waterloo,
with ftating a fa€t not unworthy of being recorded. ‘The
ftates-general defiring to give to his royal nghnefs the prince
of Orange a teftimony of the national gratitude, for the
bravery which he employed, as well in the defence of the
pofition of Quatre Bras as at the battle of Waterloo, have
propofed to his majefty, to purchafe at the expence of the
State a palace, fituated in the city of Bruffels, which, after
being properly furnifhed, may be given in full property to
his royal highnefs the hereditary prince, as well as the park
of Toweuren, in the foreft of Soigné, with a hunting-feat ;
WAT
and that thefe eftates be transferred to the prince of Orange,
free of all charges and expence. His majefty approved of
this propofal. See Battle of Waterloo, &c. 2 vols. 8vo.
London, 1817.
WATERMEN are fuch as row in boats, or ply on the
river Thames, ultimately fubje& to the dire&tion and go-
vernment of the lord-mayor of London, and court of alder-
men, who fettle their fares, and, as well as other juftices of
peace, have authority to hear and determine offences, &c.
The names of watermen are to be regiftered ; and their
boats muft be twelve feet and a half long, and four and a
half broad, or be liable to forfeiture ; and watermen, taking
more than the fares affeffed, fhall forfeit 40s., and fuffer half
a year’s imprifonment ; and refufing to carry perfons for
their fare, fhall be imprifoned for twelve months. None
fhall ply on the river, but fuch as have been apprentices to
watermen for feven years. 2 & 3 P. & M. cap. 16.
29 Car. II. cap. 7. *
The lightermen and watermen -conftitute a company ;
and the lord-mayor and, aldermen yearly ele& eight of the
latter, and three of the former, to be rulers, and the water-
men choofe affiftants; the rulers and affiftants being em-
powered to make rules, which are required to be obferved,
under penalties. The rulers on their court-days fhall ap-
point forty watermen to ply on Sundays, for carrying
paflengers acrofs the river, who pay them for their labour,
and apply the overplus to the poor decayed watermen ; and
no perfons are allowed to travel on a Sunday with boats,
unlefs they are licenfed and allowed by a juitice, on pain
of forfeiting 55. 11 & 12 W. III. cap. 21. il.
No apprentice fhall take upon him the care of a boat, till
he is fixteen years of age, if a waterman’s fon, and feven-
teen, if a landman’s, unlefs he hath worked with fome able
waterman for two years, under the penalty of 10s.; and if
any perfon, not having ferved feven years to a waterman,
&c. row any boat in the river Thames for hire, he fhall
forfeit 10/4, gardeners’ boats, dung-boats, fifhermen’s,
wood-lighters, weftern barges, &c. excepted. No appren-
tice is to be taken under fourteen years, who fhall be bound
for feven years, and inrolled in the book of the watermen’s
company, on pain of 1o/. No tilt-boat, row-barge, &c. fhall
take more than thirty-feven paffengers, and three more by
the way ; nor any other boat above eight, and two by the
way, on forfeiture of 5/. for the firft offence, and 10/. for
the fecond, &c. And in cafe any perfon be drowned, where
a greater number is taken in, the waterman fhall be deemed
guilty of felony, and tranfported. 10 Geo. II. cap. 31.
Tilt-boats ufed between London-bridge and Gravefend
fhall be fifteen tons, and the other boats three tons. _Rulers
of the watermen’s company are required to appoint two
officers, one at Billingfgate at high-water, and another at
Gravefend, to ring a bell for the tilt-boats, &c. to put
off; and thofe which do not immediately proceed with two
fufficient men, fhall forfeit 5/. The fares of watermen,
afleffed by the court of aldermen, are, from London-bridge
to Lime-houfe, Ratcliffe-crofs, &c. for oars Is-, and {cul-
lers 6d.; Wapping-dock, Rotherhithe-church ftairs, &c.
for oars 6d., and for f{cullers 3d.; from either fide of the
water above the bridge to Lambeth and Vauxhall, for oars
ts. and fcullers 6d. For all the ftairs between London-
bridge and Weftminfter, oars 6d., and fcullers 3d, :
“WATERS, among Farriers, the name given to 4 dif-
temperature of horfes. See Warrry Sores.
WATERSAY, in Geography, one of the Weitern
iflands of Scotland, about one*mile fouth from South-Uift,
from which it is feparated by a chatnel, called “ Chifamul
Bay.”? This ifland is about three miles long, and one
broad. N, lat. 56°54! W. long. 7° 30!
ig Bice: | Z2 lies WATER-
WAT
WATERTIGHT Srurr denotes clay, or any other
tenacious and compaét foil, whieh will hold water.
WATERTOWN, in Geography, a town of Mafla-
chufetts, in the county of Middlefex, containing 1531 in-
habitants; 7 miles W.N.W. of Bofton.—Alfo, a town of
ConneGicut, in the county of Litchfield, containing 1714
inhabitants ; 26 miles N.N.W. of New Haven.
Watertown, a pott-townfhip of New York, the capital
of Jefferfon county, and a place of depofit for the military
ftores of the ftate of New York. It lies near the mouth of
Black river, about 80 miles N.W. of Utica, and was firft
created into a town in March 1810, from a part of Mexico,
then in Oneida county, and comprifed alfo Rutland and
Hounsfield. Its extent is about fix miles fquare. The in-
habitants are principally emigrants from the eaftern ftates.
Here are about 200 dwelling-houfes, eight fchool-houfes, a
court-houfe and gaol, together with a lodge and arfenal for
military ftores. Here are alfo eight grift and faw-mills, one
paper-mill, one wool-carding machine, five diftilleries, two
breweries, a printing-office and weekly paper, a {mall air-
furnace, and many common mechanics. It promifes to be
a place of much bufinefs. Pot and pearl afhes are manufac-
tured in abundance, and fent in boats to Montreal. By the
cenfus of 1810, the population confifts of 1849 perfons ;
and here are 308 fenatorial eleGtors.
Watertown, or Jefferfon Village, is a flourifhing poft-
village of Watertown, in Jefferfon county, on the fouth
bank of Black river, four miles from Brownville, and at the
fame diftance from navigable water communicating with
lake Ontario. The village contains about 50 dwelling-
houfes, fome of which are elegant. In its vicinity are a
quarry of good building lime-ftone, clay, and fand. Pine
and other timber are plentiful.
WATERVILLE, a town of the diftri& of Maine, and
county of Kennebeck, containing 1314 inhabitants.
WATERVLIET, a large townfhip of New York, in
the north-eaft corner of Albany county, 6 miles N. of Al-
bany ; extending 1o miles along the Mohawk, and 6§ miles
along the Hudfon, and having an area of about 52 fquare
miles, exclufive of feveral iflands in the Hudfon. Much of
the.land is poor and barren, and the population is very un-
equally diftributed. Along the Hudfon are fome fine flats,
and in many places the river-hills are moderately fteep, and
afford good farming lands. The interior abounds with
fandy ridges, fome marfhes, and wet land, wooded with
pine anc a variety of dwarf fhrubbery, of little value. In
this townfhip are two fmall villages, viz. Wafhington, five
miles north of Albany, and Gibbon’s Ville, oppofite Troy,
fix miles. The Cahoos, which are the principal falls of the
"Mohawk, are between Watervliet and Halfmoon, in Sara-
toga county. The whole river Mohawk defcends in one
fheet at high water, about 70 feet ; and below the falls the
{preading branches form iflands, which are attached to
this town: thefe are Haver ifland, Van Schaick’s ifland or
Cahoos ifland, and Green ifland. In this town are 1092
white males, 1070 white females, 128 flaves, and 75 other
perfons; in all 2365; and 215 fenatorial electors. The
fettlement of the people called ‘ Shakers’? lies in the north-
wet part of this town, at a place called Nifkayuna, 8 miles
N.W. of Albany. They have a houfe of worfhip, and the
village contains about 150 houfes. A manufaétory of iron
{crews has lately been ereéted on the Mohawk; near Cahoos
bridge.
WATERVLIET, a town of Flanders; 12 miles E. of Sluys.
WATERY Heap. See Hyprocernaus.
Warery Humour. See Aqueous and Humour.
Watery Lands, in Agriculture, all fueh as are largely
impregnated with and retentive of moifture or wetnefs.
10
WA.T"
Wherever water refts much upon lands, it fours them,
and deftroys the finer herbage ; the remaining plante being
made to become coarfe and ftrong, but moftly un-
palatable, and of little value for ftock. They fhoulc » of
courfe, have the fuperabundant water removed from them,
and then be improved by fuitable fubftances applied as
manures, and by other means, fuch as being flooded, in
fome cafes.
By fuch methods, according to the nature of their wet-
nefs, fuch lands may moftly be brought into a good ftate of
improvement. See Boc, Fen, Morass, Marsu, and
Swamp; alfo the lands of their feveral natures.
Warery Poke, a name fometimes given to a difeafe ia
fheep, from their having a fort of poke or bag hanging be-
low the top of their throats, fuppofed to be caufed by
water. See Snrep and Ror.
Watery Sores, difeafes of the legs and pafterns of horfes
and fome other animals, in which there are watery f{wellings
and fores, which difcharge an acrid watery fluid. They
moftly arife from bad feeding, and improper management
in drefling and the ufe of exercife.
The cure will commonly be effected by giving ftrengthen-
ing remedies, with calomel and fquills in moderate dofes,
and by the gradual ufe of elaftic bandages to the parts.
WATFORD, in Geography, a market-town in the hun-
dred of Cafhio, and county of Hertford, England, is 8 miles
S.E. from St. Alban’s, 20 miles W.S.W. from the county-
town, and 14 miles N. W. from London. Previous to the Con-
queft, Watford formed part of Cafhio, and under that ap-
pellation was given by king Offa to the abbey of St. Alban’s,
to which it centinued attached till the time of the diffolution,
when the ftewardfhip of this and other adjacent manors was
given to John, lord Ruffel. James I., in the feventh year
of his reign, granted Watford to the lord chancellor Eger-
ton, in whofe defcendants, the dukes of Bridgewater, it
remained vetted till about the year 1760, when it was pur-
chafed by the then earl of Effex, and is now the property of
the prefent earl. The town confifts principally of one ftreet ;
the houfes being ranged on the fides of the high road, and
extending in a north-wefterly dire&tion rather more than a
mile. The buildings are chiefly of brick, and many of
them very refpeGtable. The police is under the dire&tion
of the refident and neighbouring magiftrates. A market,
which is now held on Tuefdays, was granted to the abbots
of St. Alban’s for Watford by Henry I. ; and Edward IV.
gave them liberty to hold two annual fairs, which are now
increafed to four. The market-houfe is a long building,
rough-calt above, and fupported on wooden pillars beneath.
Corn is fold here in very large quantities ; and the number
of cattle, fheep, calves, and hogs, is proportionable. Em-
ployment for the labouring clafles is chiefly derived from
agriculture ; but an additional fource is furnifhed by the
throwing of filk, three filk mills having been eftablifhed in
or near the town. The parifh of Watford comprehends,
with the town, the hamlets of Cafhio, Levefdon, and Ox-
hey. Inthe population return in the year 1811, the num-
ber of inhabitants was ftated to be 3976, occupying 766
houfes. The church, a very {pacious edifice, confilts of a
nave, three aifles, and a chancel; with a maffive embattled
tower at the weft end, about 80 feet high. ‘The church
contains feveral fine monuments, among which are two by
Nicholas Stone. At the fouth fide of the church-yard is a
free-fchool, founded and endowed in the year 1704, by
Mrs. Elizabeth Fuller, for the education and clothing of
forty boys and twenty girls: the government is velted in
nine truftees, chofen out of the principal inhabitants of the
town. Here are alfo eight alms-houfes, for the maintenance
of fo many poor widows.
About
WAT
About one mile north-weft of the town is Cafbiobury,
the feat of the earl of Effex. The manfion is a fpacious
edifice, fituated in an extenfive and well-wooded park,
through which flows the river Gade; and to which is the
line of the Grand Jun&ion Canal. The houfe was ori-
ginally a in the time of Henry VIII. by Richard
Morifon, efq., and completed in the ftyle of that age by his
fon, fir Charles Morifon. It has fince been greatly altered
and improved, particularly under the dire€tion of the pre-
fent noble owner, and contains a number of elegant apart-
ments, together with a kind of cloifter, the windows of
which have been recently ornamented with painted glafs,
executed in a very fuperior ftyle. In its general appearance,
the whole manfion, with its offices, has the charaéter of a
monattic dwelling. The rooms are adorned with numerous
portraits, and other pitures of the firft degree of merit.
The park is between three and four miles in circumference,
and affords rich fcenery and noble timber; the pleafure-
rounds and gardens are‘extenfive, and have lately undergone
ins judicious alterations. A particular defcription of this
fplendid feat, by Mr. Britton, is contained in Havell’s
« Views of Gentlemen’s Seats,’’ &c. which alfo contains a
print of it.—Salmon’s Hittory of Hertfordthire, fol. 1728.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vii. Hertfordfhire, by
E. W. Brayley, 1808.
WATH, in Rural Economy, a term often ufed provin-
cially to fignify a ford.
WATHULT, in Geography, atown of Sweden, in the
province of Smaland ; 47 miles W.N.W. of Wexio.
WATKIN’s Pornt, a cape on the S.W. coaft of Ma-
ryland, in the Chefapeak. N. lat. 37° 59'. W. long. 76°.
WATLING?’s Istanp, one of the Bahama iflands,
about 18 miles long, and 4 broad. N. lat. 23°50’. W.
long. 74°16.
Wat iinc-Street, in Roman Antiquity. See Way.
WATLINGTON, in Geography, a {mall market-town
in the hundred of Pirton, and county of Oxford, England,
is fituated between the two high roads leading from Lon-
don to Oxford, about half a mile N. by W. Eon the Ike-
neild-ftreet, at the diftance of 5 miles S. from Tetf{worth,
15 miles S.E. from Oxford, and 46 miles W. by N. from
London. The ftreets are narrow, and the houfes, with a
few exceptions, mean and ill built. There is no ftaple ma-
nufaéture of any confequence: the making of lace, how-
ever, prevails to fome extent, and forms the chief employ-
ment of the labouring females. A fchool has been formed
exprefsly for the purpofe of teaching this art, and is ufually
attended by from forty to fifty pupils. The town is watered
on the fouth fide by a brook, rifing in the vicinity, which
now works, within two miles from its fource, four corn-mills.
A weekly market is held on Saturdays, which was originally
granted to Roger Bigod, earl of Norfolk, in the reign of
Richard I. But this market is thinly attended ; and the bufi-
nefs of the day is invariably conduéted in the parlours of the
principal inn. Here are likewife two annual fairs. In the
eentre of the town is the market-houfe, a fubftantial build-
ing, ere€ted by Thomas Stonor, efq. in the year 1664: he
alfo founded and endowed a grammar-fchool for ten boys ;
according to the will of the donor, the mafter was to be a
graduate of one of the univerfities ; but imperative circum-
ftances have caufed this article to be difpenfed with: four
boys have been added to the original number, and the whole
are taught in a commodious room above the market-houfe,
in which are likewife held the courts leet and baron of the
manor. The magiftrates hold par feffions once in a fort-
night during the winter, but in f{ummer not fo often. Ac-
cording to the population return of the year 1811, this town
WAT
then contained 239 houfes, the number of inhabitants being
1150, which was a decreafe of 156, fince the enumeration of
the year 1801. The church is a refpe€table ancient building,
fituate N.W. of the town; in the chancel are feveral neat
monuments, and a handfome burial-place of the Horne
family. Lands and tenements have been left by will for the
repairs of the church, without any parifh-rate for that pur-
pofe ; and there have alfo been confiderable fums bequeathed
for the ufe of the poor. Previous to the Reformation, the
abbot and canons of Ofney were patrons, to whom the
church was appropriated in 1263, by the bifhop of Lincoln.
In this parifh was anciently a chapel, founded by the lord of
the manor of Watcomb ; but on a complaint made by the
abbot and canons of Ofney, pope Urban III. diffolved it :
no traces can now be difcovered of the fcite occupied by this
ftruéture. Wefleyan Methodifts and Baptifts have each a
place of worfhip in the town; but the number of thefe fo-
cieties is comparatively {mall. The Methodifts were efta-
blifhed here during the life of John Welley, who occafionally
preached in the open ftreet : a fubftantial meeting-houfe has
lately been ereéted, but not more than thirty perfons are in
the habit of attending. The Baptifts are fearcely fo nu-
merous ; and their meetings are held in a very humble build-
ing. The manor of Watlington was given by Henry III.
in 1231, to his brother Richard, earl of Cornwall. B
Edward II. it was granted to Piers Gavefton. On his dif-
grace it reverted to the crown, and was given by Edward III.
to fir Nicholas De la Becke, who obtained permiffion, in
1338, to build a fpacious caftle, fome traces of which were
difcernible within the laft century. The building ftood on a
flightly elevated fpot to the fouth-eaft of the church, aad it
may yet be perceived that the ftru€ture was encompafled by
a moat. King Charles I. granted the manor, in 1628, to
four citizens a London, who fold it in the following year.
Soon after this period it became fo divided and parcelled
out, that in the year 1664 there were about fifty perfons
participating in the manorial rights ; and previous to the en-
clofure of the parifh, which took place in 1809, the fhares
of the manor were fixty-four in number.
On Britwell-hill, about a quarter of a mile eaft of the
Ikeneild-ftreet, fome remains of trenches point out the
{cite of an ancient encampment.
Within half a mile from Watlington is one of the moft
complete agricultural eftablifhments to be found in the
county. The whole of the very extenfive farm-yard is en- .
compaffed by buildings covered with flate, and prefents the
fpeétacle of a new and handfome village. This noble range
was erected under the immediate infpeGtion of William
Hayward, efq., and was completed in the {pace of one
year. His primary objet appears to have been to produce
utility on the fimpleft and moft fcientific plan.
About a mile to the north of Watlington is Pirton, an
inconfiderable village, though it gives name to the’hundred.
Near Pirton is Shirbourn-Caffle, the feat of the earl of
Macclesfield. A caftellated edifice was firft ereéted on this
{pot in the fourteenth century by fir Wariner de l’Ifle. The
caftle and manor were purchafed at the beginning of the
eighteenth century by Thomas, earl of Macclesfield. The
building forms an oblong fquare, and is encompaffed by a
broad and deep moat, over which are three draw-bridges ;
the chief entrance is guarded by a portcullis: at each angle of
the edifice isa circular tower. ‘The interior is difpofed in a
ftyle of modern elegance and comfort that contains’ no allu-
fion to the external charater of the ftru€ture, except in one
long room fitted up as an armoury, and containing coats of
mail, fitields, tilting-fpears, and offenfive arms of a modern
as well as aneient date. A park of about fixty acres is
attached
WAT
attached to the manfion.—Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. xii. Oxfordfhire. By J. N. Brewer, 1813:
WATO, a town of Sweden, on an ifland in the Baltic,
near the coaft of the province of Upland; 10 miles E.N.E.
of Nortelge. N. lat. 59°54! E. long. 18° 43!.
. WATOLMA, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Upland ; 10 miles N. of Upfal.
WATRAP, a town of Hindooftan, in Madura; 33
miles S.W. of Madura.
WATSCH, or Vatscue, a town of the dutchy of Car-
niola; 16 miles S.E. of Stein.
WATSNESS, a cape on the weit coaft of the ifland of
Shetland. N. lat. 60° 19'. W. long. 2° 6.
WATSON, Rosert, D.D., in Biography, a Scottifh
hiftorian, was born at St. Andrew’s about the year 1730,
commenced his courfe of education for the miniftry at the
fchool and univerfity of St. Andrew’s, and with fingular
affiduity profecuted his ftudies at the univerfity of Glafgow,
and alfo in that of Edinburgh. He paid particular atten-
tion to grammar and eloquence, and with the advice of lord
Kaimes, delivered a courfe of leGtures on thefe fubjeéts,
which gained the approbation of Mr. Hume, and other men
of genius and learning. Having failed in his endeavours to
{upply a vacancy in one of the churches of St. Andrew’s,
he was foon after made profeffor of logic, and by a patent
from the crown, profeflor of rhetoric and belles lettres.
In his leétures on logic and metaphyfics, he deviated from the
old plan of fyllogifms, modes, and figures, and introduced
fub{tantial improvement by furnifhing his pupils with an ana-
lyfis of the powers of the mind, and by leading them to in-
veltigate the various kinds of evidence, of knowledge or
truth. His hiftory of Philip II. advanced his reputation
during the period of his life ; and it was farther enhanced by
his hiftory of Philip I11., which was publifhed after his
death ; of which latter he only wrote the firft four books,
the other two being fupplied by Dr. William Thomfon, the
editor, at the defire of the guardians of his children. He
fucceeded Tulideph as principal of the univerfity by the
intereft of the earl of Kinnoul; but his death, in 1780,
foon deprived him of this honour. By his wife, who was
daughter of Mr. Shaw, profeffor of divinity in St. Mary’s
college, St. Andrew’s, he had five daughters, who furvived
him. Gen. Biog.
Warsoy, Ricwarp, an Englifh prelate, eminently dif-
tinguifhed by his talents, acquirements, and character, was
born at Haverfham, in Weltmoreland, in Auguft 1737.
He was the defcendant of an ancient family, deriving its re-
mote origin from Scotland, and occupying, for feveral ge-
nerations, a {mall eftate at Hardendale, near Shap, where
his father was born in the year 1672. In 1698 his father
was appointed head matter of Haverfham-fchool, which he
conduéted with great reputation for nearly forty years.
Among other pupils who enjoyed the benefit of his inftruc-
tion, we may mention Ephraim Chambers, the well-known
author of the Diétionary of Arts and Sciences (fee his ar-
ticle), Mr. Prefton, afterwards bifhop of Ferns, in Ireland,
and the fubjeét of this memoir. To this fchool belonged
two exhibitions, (now of so/. a year each,). one to Tri-
nity college, in Cambridge, and the other to Queen’s col-
lege, Oxford ; the former of which was enjoyed by Mr.
Prefton, and afterwards by his fchool-fellow, Mr. Watfon.
In the year 1788, thefe two {cholars, being then bifhops,
teftified their vegard for the place of their education by re«
airing the fchool-houfe, and by affixing to it a Latin in-
cei exprefling their refpeét for the memory of its
pious founder, and of Mr. Watfon’s father. To his»mother
alfo Mr. Watfon pays a tribute of grateful and affectionate
WAT
remembrance, defcribing her'as a’charitable and good wo-
man, to whom he was indebted for imbuing his young mind
with principles of religion, which never forfook him; and
obferving more generally, that ‘ the care of the mother pre-
cedes that of the fchool-maiter, and may ftamp upon the
‘a tabula of the infant mind, characters of virtue and reli-
on which no time can efface.’’. Soon after the death of his
ather, in November 1753, Mr. Watfon was fent to the
Univerfity, and admitted a fizer of Trinity college, in
Cambridge, on the 3d of November, 1754.» Apprized
that his patrimony, which was 300/., would be barely
fufficient to defray the charges of his education, and having
no expe¢tations from any oe his relations, he determined to
fabricate his own fortune, and applied with affiduity and
ardour to his academic ftudies. Before he had been fix
months at college, a circumftance occurred which indicated
his talents for metaphyfical difquifition, and which contri-
buted inno {mall degree to his reputation in this department
of fcience. As he attended the college-le&ures, which
were then delivered to the under-graduates in the hall, im-
mediately after morning-prayers, during term-time, he was
afked by Mr. Brocket, the head le€turer, whether Clarke
had demonftrated the abfurdity of an infinite fucceflion of
changeable and dependent beings? to which queftion he re-
plied non; and being afked his reafons im fo thinking, he
ftammered out, as he fays, in barbarous Latin, “* that Clarke
had enquired into the origin of a feries, which, being from
the fuppofition eernal, could have no origin; and into the
Jif term of'a feries, which, being from the fuppofition in-
Jinite, could have no firft.”” This circumftance was recol-
le&ted four years afterwards, when he took his bachelor’s
degree, and laid the foundation of his acquaintance with Dr.
Law, then mafter of Peterhoufe, and reckoned one of the
beft metaphyficians of his time ; from which he derived, as
he acknowledges, much knowledge and liberality of fenti-
ment in theology. Not fatisfied with his rank of fizer, he
afpired to a fcholarfhip, and fucceeded in obtaining it, on
the 2d of May, 1757, a year before the ufualtime. Thus
advanced in rank, his expences increafed, but they were
more than ‘counterbalanced by the advantage attending it.
Dr. Smith, who was then matter of the college, took: occa-
fion to nominate him to a particular fcholarfhip (lady Jer-
myn’s) ; and at the fame time recommended Saunderfon’s
Fluxions, juft publithed, and fome other mathematical books,
to his perufal ; thus, as he fays, “ giving a {pur to my induf-
try, and wings to my ambition.” At this time he had re-
fided in college two years and feven months, without leavin
it for a fingle day ; and during this period, he had acquire
fome knowledge of Hebrew, improved himfelf greatly in
Greek and Latin, made confiderable proficiency in mathe-
matics and natural philofophy, and ftudied with much at-
tention Locke’s Works, King’s book on the Origin of Evil,
Puffendorf’s Treatife «* De Officio Hominis et Civis,’’? and
fome other books on fimilar fubjeé&s. LN him-
felf entitled to fome degree of relaxation, he fet out, in
May, 1757, on a vifit to his elder and only brother at Ken-
dal, who was the firft curate of a new chapel erected there,
and to the building of which he had liberally contributed,
This brother lived freely, {pent his fortune, injured his con-
ftitution, and died whea the fubjeét of our memoir was
about the age of 33. With the affection of a brother and
fingular liberality, he paid his debts, to the amount of almoft
his whole property. In the beginning of September he re-
turned to college, with a purpofe to make his alma mater the
mother of his fortunes. He was then only a “ junior foph ;””
but fuch was his reputation, that he was folicited to’become
private tutor to Mr. Luther and Dr. Strachey. From the
time
WATSON.
time in which he undertook this charge he was employed
for thirty years, and as long as his health lafted, in inftruct-
ing others, without much inftruéting himfelf, as he fuggetts,
and in prefiding’ at difputations in philofophy or theology,
from which, after a certain time, he derived little intelle&tual
improvement. Addiéted, whilft an under-graduate, to affo-
ciate with thofe whom collegians call the beft company, fuch
as idle fellow-commoners, and other perfons of fortune ; he
foon perceived that he was purfuing a miftaken courfe : and
this conviction was more fenfibly felt, when he often faw, on
his.return home at one or two in the morning, from fome of
his evening feftivities, a light in the chamber of a fellow-
ftudent of the fame ftanding with himfelf. His jealoufy
was thus excited, and the fucceeding day was always de-
voted to hard ftudy ; nor would he allow himfelf the leifure
for dinner. . In his folitary walks he profecuted the ftudy of
mathematics and philofophy without book, or pen and
paper; and went through tedious and intricate demonftra-
tions by the mere exercife of his mental powers. Thefe
walks were fo frequent, that among thofe who did not know
how he was employed, he incurred the charge of being
a lounger; but the fequel of his hiftory fufficiently proves
the injuftice of the.charge. ‘
Whilft abftra&t ftudies occupied his chief attention, he did
not neglect other purfuits. Every day he impofed upon
himfelf the taf of compofing a theme in Latin or Englifh.
Among the firft of his compofitions of this kind, the fub-
jet of that written in Englifh was «‘ Let tribunes be granted
to the Roman people,”’ and that of the Latin was ‘* Sociis*
peop
Italicis datus Civitas :”? the fubjeéts of both were fuggefted
to him by a perufal of Vertot’s ** Roman Revolutions 5”?
and to his account of this incident he adds, ** Were books
of fuch kind put into the hands of kings during their boy-
hood, and Tory-trafh at no age recommended to them, kings
in their manhood would feorn to aim at arbitrary power
through corrupted parliaments.”? He alfo introduces this
refleGtion on the choice of his fubje€ts: ‘* They fhew that a
long commerce in the public world has only tended to con-
firm that political bent of my mind in favour of civil liberty,
which was formed in it before I knew of what felfifh and
low-minded materials the public world was made.’? In the
courfe of Mr. W.’s claffical reading, to which he devoted
the afternoon, whilft the morning was occupied by mathe-
matics, he informs us, that Demofthenes was the orator,
Tacitus the hiftorian, and Perfius the fatirift, whom he moft
admired. At an early period of his life, Mr. W. inclined to
the opinion which has ia later times been more prevalent,
that the foul is not a diftin& fubftance from’ the body ;
though he profeffes not to have troubled himfelf much with
perplexing difquifitions concerning liberty and neceffity,
matter and f{pirit ; fhewing, however, on all occafions, his
faith in Chriftianity, as founded on teftimony, and more efpe-
cially on the teftimony concerning the refurreCtion of its di-
vine founder ; and his belief of a future ftate of retribution
and immortality. His fpeculations on matter and {pirit are
not likely, in our judgment, to illumine the darknefs, and
to refolve the difficulties that involve this fubje&t. As'to the
ftory, recorded in the French Encyclopedia (art. Mort), of
a man who came to life after having been fix weeks under
water, we cannot help confidering it as fabulous ; but whe-
ther it be true or falfe, it appears to us to afford little fatif-
faétion with regard to the queftion in difpute. Nor does
his reafoning about the effential properties of extenfion, fo-
lidity, mobility, divifibility, and ina@tiivity, as common
properties, belonging equally to a table, tree, oyfter, and
man, and the addition of life to the matter of the tree, of
life and perceptivity to that of the oyfter, and to that of
the man, life, perceptivity, and thought, feem to have
given very great fatisfaction to himfelf. * Whether life can
exift without perceptivity,’’ he fays, “ or perceptivity with-
out thought, are fubtle queftions, not admitting perhaps, in
our prefent ftate, a pofitive and clear decifion either way.
Phyfical and metaphyfical difficulties prefent themfelves on
every fubjeét, and ultimately baffle all our attempts to pene-
trate the darknefs in which the divine mind envelopes his opes
rations of nature and grace.’
In January. 1759, Mr. W. took his degree of bachelor
of arts. In the firft year of his being moderator, he intro-
duced an alteration in the mode of obtaining this degree,
which has been continued ever fince. ‘At the time of
taking it, the young men are examined in claffes, and the
clafles are now formed according to the abilities fhewn by
individuals in the {chools. By this arrangement, perfons of
nearly equal merits are examined in the prefence of each
other, and flagrant aéts of partiality cannot take place. Be-
fore this alteration was made, they were examined in claflea,
but the clafles confifted of members of the fame college, and
the beft and the worft were often examined together.”? In the
firft year of his being moderator, Mr. Paley, afterwards fo
well known, and a Mr. Frere of Norfolk, were examined
together ; and Mr. Paley, being Mr. Frere’s fuperior, was
made fenior wrangler, though it was reported that the
grandfather of Mr. Frere had propofed to give 1000/. if he
weré admitted to this honour. This gentleman afterwards
candidly acknowledged that he deferved only the fecond
place; and this declaration was obvioufly the refult of their
having been examined together. One of the queftions pro-
pofed by Mr. Paley for his a was “¢ /Eternitas peenarum
contradicit Divinis attributis.”? This queftion, though ac-
cepted by Mr. W., occafioned an alarm; but in ofder to
allay all difquieting apprehenfions, Mr. P. was allewed to
ptt in non before contradicit, and the alarm fubfided. | This,
however, fays Mr. W., is a fubje& of great difficulty.
“Tt is obferved, on all hands, that the happinefs of the
righteous will be, ftriétly fpeaking, everlaiting; and- 1
cannot fee the juitnefs of that criticifm which would inter-
pret the fame word in the fame verfe in a different fenfe.
(Matt. xxv.46.) On the other hand, reafon is fhocked at
the idea of God being confidered as a relentlefs tyrant, in-
fli€ting everlafting punifhment- which anfwers no benevolent
end. But how is it proved that the everlafting punifhment
of the wicked may not anfwer a benevolent end, may not
be the means of keeping the righteous in everlafting holi-
nefs and obedience? How is it proved, that it may not an-
{wer, in fome other way unknown to us, a benevolent end
in promoting God’s moral government of the Univer/e®?
In Ogtober,1760, Mr. W, was elected a fellow of Tri-
nity college, although by that appointment he was put over
two of his feniors of the fame year; and in the following
November became affiftant tutor to Mr. Backhoufe. Soon
after this he declined accepting the curacy of Clermont ;
and he alfo relinquifhed his defign of going out as chaplain
to the factory at Bencoolen, ‘ You are far too good,”
faid the mafter of the college to him, ‘to die of drinkin
punch in the torrid zone.”? Afterwards he refle&ted with
gratitude and felf-complacency on his difappointment of an
opportunity of becoming an Afiatic plunderer. ‘ I might
not,’’ he fays, “have been able to refit the temptation of
wealth and power, to which fo many of my countrymen have
yielded in India.”’
At the commencement of 1762 he took his degree of
M.A., and in the following O&ober was made moderator
for Trinity college. In his «* Memoirs,” he recites the quef-
tions which were at that time the fubjeéts of {cholaftic ex-
. ercifes,
4
t & \\ Af
ercifes, and from their nature and variety he juftly infers the
importance of thefe exercifes.
In February 1764 an occafion was afforded him of mani-
feiting his friendly attachment to Mr. Luther, one of the
members for Effex, who had been formerly his pupil, and
his difinterefted anxiety for his happinefs. Having heard
that he had feparated from his wife, and was haftily gone
abroad, he immediately prepared to feek him, and to im-
part to him, if poffible, fome confolation. Although he
had no money, and could not fpeak a word of French,
he determined on his journey; and having borrowed 5o0l.,
and provided a French and Englifh Di@tionary, he pofted to
Dover, and haftened to Paris, where he found his difconfo-
late friend. After twelve hours ftay at Paris, he returned
to England ; and having croffed the channel four times, and
travelled 1200 miles in very bad. weather within a fortnight,
he brought his friend back to his country and his family.
OF Mr. Luther, he fays that ‘* he was a thorough honeft
man, and one of the friends I ever loved with the greateft
affeGtion.””
In November 1764, he was unanimoufly ele&ted by the
fenate to fucceed Dr. Hadley, as profeffor of chemiftry ;
and though at this time he knew nothing of chemiitry, he
procured an operator from Paris, and immured himfelf in
his laboratory, fo that in 14 months from his ele@tion he
read a courfe of chemical leétures to a very full audience,
and another in November 1766. For the fourth time he
was made moderator in OGtober 1765, and in 1766 made
his laft {peech in Latin to the fenate. Befides other im-
provements in the univerfity education, which he had pro-
pofed on former occafions, he now recommended the intti-
tution of public annual examinations, in prefcribed books,
of all the orders of ftudents. In 1774 this fubje& was re-
vived and enforced by Mr. Jebb. The defign was unequi-
vocally approved by the chancellor of the univerfity, the
duke of Grafton. After along difcuffion of the fubje&,
the regulations drawn up by the fyndics were propofed to
the fenate, and were rejected by the “* Non Regent Houle,”
47 againit 43. In 1764 application was made for a ftipend
to the profeffor of chemiftry ; and after confiderable delay,
tool, a year was obtained: and this grant paved the way for
fimilar ftipends to the profeffors of anatomy, botany, and
common law. In Oétober 1767, Mr. Watfon fucceeded
Mr. Backhoufe as head tutor in Trinity college, and, for
the fhort period. during which he retained the office, dif-
charged its duties with confcientious diligence. ‘¢ In this,’
he fays, “and the two following years, I read chemical
leGures to very crowded audiences, in the month of No-
vember. I now look back with a kind of terror at the
application I ufed in the younger part of my life. For
months and years together, I frequently read three public
le&tures in Trinity college, beginning at 8 o’clock in the
morning ; {pent four or five hours with private pupils, and
five or fix more in my laboratory, every day, befides the
incidental bufinefs of prefiding in the fophs fchools.”’
In 1768 he coined and printed his ‘* Inftitutiones Me-
tallurgice,” and about the fame time prefented to the Royal
Society a paper on the folution of falts, and was elected a
fellow of that fociety. In the following year he publifhed
his Affize Sermon, which he dedicated to Mr. Luther.
Upon the vacancy in the office of regius profé@ffor of di-
vinity, occafioned in O@ober 1771 by the death of Dr.
Rutherforth, Mr. Watfon propofed to become a candi-
date ; but he was then neither bachelor nor deétor in di-
vinity ; and without being one of thefe, he could not be ad-
mitted as a candidate. Prompt, however, in the execution
of all his meafures, though he had only feven days for the
WATSON.
accomplifthment of his obje&t, he obtained the king’s man-
date for a doétor’s degree, and was created a dotor on the
day previous to that appointed for an examination of the
candidates. The fubjeéts on which he was to write were,
the reconciliation of the genealogies in Matthew and Luke,
and the interpretation of the paflage, ‘* What fhall they do
that are baptized for the dead?””? 1 Cor, xv. 29. He was
alfo appointed to read a Latin differtation on Gen. x. 32.
At length he was uuanimoufly eleéted, having, as he fays,
by hard and inceffant labour for 17 years, attained, at the
age of 34, the firft office for honour in the univerfity, and,
exclufive of the mafterfhip of Trinity college, he made it
the firft for profit ; having advanced it from 330/. a year to
at leaft 1000/. Having been promoted to this honourable
and important office, he devoted himfelf, with his accuf-
tomed refolution and perfeverance, to the ftudy of divinity ;
making the Bible the obje& of his inveftigation, and feeling
no. concern about the opinions of councils, fathers, churches,
bifhops, or other men, as little infpired as hjmfelf. Al-
though he was called by the mafter of Peterhoufe, avfodh-
Baxios, the felf-taught divine; and though the profeffor of
divinity had been nicknamed ‘ Malleus Hzreticorum,” he
profeffes that his mind was wholly unbiaffed ; without pre-
judice againft or predile€tion for the church of England ; and
a€tuated only by a fincere regard for the church of Chrift,
and an infuperable objection to every degree of dogmatical
intolerance. ‘ I never troubled myfelf,’’ thus he proceeds,
“‘ with anfwering any arguments which the opponents in the
divinity fchools brought againft the articles of the church,
nor ever admitted their authority in decifion of a difficulty.
But I ufed, on fuch occafions, to fay to them, holding the
New Teftament in my hand, ‘ En facrum codicem! Here is
the fountain ef truth; why do you follow the ftreams de-
rived from it by the fophiftry, or polluted by the paffions
of men? If you can bring proofs againft any thing delivered
in this book, I fhall think it my duty to reply to you:
articles of churches are not of divine authority ; have done
with them ; for they may be true, they may be falfe; and
appeal to the book itfelf.? This mode of difputing gained
me no credit with the hierarchy ; but I thought it an honeft
one, and it produced a liberal fpirit in the univerfity.””
About the clofe of the year 1771 our author printed an
Effay on the fubje& of chemiftry, which was difperfed
among fome few friends; but it was unjuftly = by
the authors of the “* Journal Encyclopedique,”’ with favour-
ing the ‘ Syfteme de la Nature.’”? The author remon-
ftrated, and the periodical journalifts made an apology. In
the following year Dr. Watfon publifhed two letters to the
members of the houfe of commons, under the feigned name
of a Chriftian Whig, the fecond of which was infcribed to
fir George Savile. In 1773, upon maturely weighing the
queftion concerning the abftra& right which a national church
may claim of requiring fubfcription to human articles of
faith from its public minifters, he publifhed * A brief State
of the Principles of Church Authority,’’ which he delivered
as a charge to the clergy of his diocefe, in June 1813. In
this tra& it is maintained, that every church has a right of
explaining to its minifters what doétrines it holds; and of
permitting none to minifter in it, who do not profefs the
fame belief with itfelf. With refpe& to another queftion,
viz. whether the majority of the members of any civil com-
munity have a right to compel all the members of it to pay
towards the maintenance of a fet of teachers appointed by
the majority to preach a particular fyftem of doétrines, this
may admit a ferious difcuffion. Our author once thought
the majority had this right in al/ cafes, and he afterwards
apprehended that they have it in many. But a cafe may
happen,
WATSON.
happen, in which the eftablifhed religion of a country may
be the religion of a minority of the people, that minority at
the fame time poffefling a majority of the property, out of
. which the minifters of the eftablifhment are paid ; and if this
fhould occur, our author feems to be undecided in his judg-
ment. His fentiments as to the expediency of requiring from
the minifters of the eftablifhed church a fubfcription to the
prefent articles of religion, or to any human confeflion of
faith, further than a declaration of belief in the fcriptures,
as containing a revelation of the will of God, may be col-
leG&ted from his two pamphlets, fubfcribed ** A Chriftian
Whig,”’ and “ A Confiftent Proteftant.”
In adverting to thefe traéts, our author reflects with
fatisfaGtion on the coincidence of his fentiments, on many
points civil and religious, with thofe of bifhop Hoadly,
though he has been farcaftically and injurioufly called “ A
republican bifhop.”’ f
On the 21ft of December 1773, Dr. Watfon married
the eldeft daughter of Edward Wilfon, efq. of Dallum
Tower, in Weftmoreland; and the conneétion was a
fource of uninterrupted fatisfaGtion and felicity. Hay-
ing obtained, by the intereft of the duke of Grafton
with the bifhop of St. Afaph, a finecure in Wales, he ex-
changed it, by the fame intereft, on his return to Cam-
bridge, for a prebend of Ely; and this favour was granted,
though the duke and Dr. Watfon held different political
opinions. They afterwards-differed alfo in their religious
fentiments ; the duke having avowed himfelf an Unitarian.
Referring to him under this denomination, Dr. Watfon,
with laudable liberality, declares, ‘that he is happy in
feeing a perfon of his rank profeffing with intelligence and
fincerity Chriftian principles. If any one thinks that an
Unitarian is not a Chriftian, I plainly fay, without being
myfelf an Unitarian, that I think otherwife.”’
Dr. Watfon’s political principles are well known. From
his earlieft youth to his dying day he was a Whig, in that
fenfe of the term which is well underftood, and need not
here be explained. In 1776 it came to his turn to preach
the reftoration and acceflion fermons before the univerfity ;
and they were both printed. The firft was entitled ** The
Principles of the Revolution vindicated.”” Although it was
written with great caution, a report was circulated in Lon-
don that it was treafonable ; but when Mr. Dunning (after-
wards lord Afhburton) was afked what he thought of it,
he replied, ‘¢ that it contained fuch treafon as ought to be
preached once a month at St. James’s.’? However, it gave
great offence to the court, and, in Dr. Watfon’s opinion,
continued to be an obftacle to his preferment. The author
was much abufed, in confequence of the publication of this
fermon, by minifterial writers, as a man of republican prin-
ciples; but by Mr. Fox, and others of his clafs, it was
very highly commended.
In the fame year, 1776, Dr. Watfon publifhed his
“ Apology for Chriftianity,’” in reply to Mr. Gibbon’s
obnoxious chapters in his “* Hiftory of the Decline and Fall
of the Roman Empire.’? His treatment of the hiftorian
was liberal and conciliatory, and was acknowledged with
great courtefy and refpeét. In February 1780, Dr. Wat-
fon preached, at the requeft of the vice-chancellor, the faft
fermon before the univerfity, which became very popular,
and was widely circulated. In May of this year he pub-
lifhed a charge to the clergy of the archdeanery of Ely, at
his firft vifitation ; the primary obje&t of which charge was
to recommend an eftablifhment at Cambridge, for the ex-
prefs purpofe of tranflating and publifhing Oriental MSS.,
wherever found. Dr. Keene, bifhop of Ely, exprefled his
approbation of this charge; but as he reffected on the
Vou. XXXVITI.
‘faw them vilified and negleéted.
author’s politics, he retorts it by obferving in a letter to his
lordfhip, ‘* My politics may hurt my intereft, but they will
not hurt my honour, They are the politics of Locke,
Somers, and Hooker; and in the reign of George II.,
they were the politics of this univerfity.”” In February
1781, our author was prefented by the duke of Rutland
with the reétory of Knaploft, in Leicefterfhire ; and as he
was juft then printing the firft two volumes of Chemical
Effays, he availed himfelf of this opportunity of dedicating
them to his grace. In 1782, Soame Jenyns publifhed his
Difquifitions on various fubjeéts, the feventh of which ad-
vanced principles very oppofite to thofe which were con-
tained in the ‘ Principles of the Revolution vindicated,’’
with occafional glances at that fermon. Although our
author was f{carcely recovered from a dangerous illnefs, he
drew up, in the courfe of a few hours, “ An Anfwer to the
Difquilitions, &c.’’ Upon a change of miniftry, lord
Shelburne was induced to confer the bifhopric of Landaff
on Dr. Watfon; and on the 26th of July 1782, he kifled
hands on his promotion. But he was not very much gra-
tified by this advancement; becaufe lord Shelburne fad
exprefled to the duke of Grafton his expeétation that he
would occafionally write a pamphlet for their adminiftration.
The duke, however, did the new prelate the juftice to aflure
his lordfhip, that he had totally mjftaken the chara¢ter of
the bifhop ; for though he might write as an abftra@ quef-
tion, concerning government, or the principles of legiflation,
it would not be with a view of affifting any adminiftration.
‘JT had written,”” fays the independent and high-fpirited
bifhop, ‘‘ in fupport of the principles of the revolution, be-
caufe I thought thofe principles ufeful to the ftate, and I
I had taken part in their
petitions againft the influence of the crown, becaufe I
thought that influence would deftroy the conftitution, and
I faw that it was increafing. I had oppofed the fupporters
of the American war, becaufe I thought that war not only
to be inexpedient, but unjuft. But all this was done from
my own fenfe of things, and without the leaft view of
pleafing any party: I did, however, happen to pleafe a
party, and they made me a bifhop. I have hitherto fol-
lowed, and fhall continue to follow, my own judgment in
all public tranfaétions: all parties now underitand this, and
it is probable that I may continue to be bifhop of Landaff
as long as I live. «Be it fo. Wealth and power are but
fecondary objets of purfuit to a thinking man, efpecially
to a thinking Chriftian.”? Lord Shelburne feems to have
courted an intimate acquaintance with the bifhop ; alleging
that he had Dunning to affift him in law points, and Barry
in army concerns, and expreffing his wifh. to confult him in
church matters. The bifhop availed himfelf of this over-
ture, and propofed to the minifter a plan by which fervice
might be done to religion and to the eftablifhed church.
Being invited to dine with his lordfhip, he put into his hand
a paper, containing the following f{cheme of reform, com-
prehending the doétrine, the jurifdi€tion, and the revenue
of the church of England. The two following hints on the
fubje& of the revenue he fubmitted to the confideration of
his lordfhip :—** Firft, a bill to render the bifhoprics more
equal to each other, both with refpeét to income and pa-
tronage ; by annexing, as the richer bifhoprics became va-
cant, a part of their revenues, and a part of their patronage,
to the poorer. By a bill of this kind, the bifhops would
be freed from the neceffity of holding ecclefiaftical prefer-
ments in commendam; 2 practice which bears hard on the
rights of the inferior clergy. Another probable confe-
quence of fuch a bill would be, a longer refidence of the
bifhops in their feveral diocefes ; from which the beft con-
Aa fequences
WATSON.
fequences both to religion, the morality of the people, and to
the true credit of the church, might be expeéted: for the
two great inducements to with for tranflations, and confe-
quently to refide in London, namely, fuperiority of income,
and excellency of patronage, would in a great meafure be
removed. Second, a bill for appropriating, as they become
vacant, one half, or a third part, of the income of every
deanery, prebend, or curacy, of the churches of Wett-
miniter, Windfor, Canterbury, *Chriftchurch, Worcefter,
Durham, Ely, Norwich, &c. to the fame purpofes, mutatis
mutandis, as the firft fruits and tenths were appropriated by
queen Anne. Bya bill of this kind, a decent provifion
would be made for the inferior clergy, in a third or fourth
part of the time which queen Anne’s bounty alone will
require to effet it. A decent provifion being once made
for every officiating minifter in the church, .the refidence of
the clergy in their cures might more reafonably be required than
it can be at prefent, and the licence of holding more livings
than one be reftri&ed.’? Lord Shelburne wifhed to be in-
formed if nothing could be gotten from the church to relieve
the burdens of the ftate; to which the bifhop replied, that
the whole revenue of the church would not yield, if it were
equally divided, which could not be thought of, above
150/. a year to each clergyman, which could not be thought
too ample; and in a political view it would be highly inex-
pedient, unlefs government would be contented to have a
beggarly and illiterate clergy, which no wife minifter would
ever with to fee. In profecution of the fame plan, the
bifhop fent a letter to the archbifhop of Canterbury, anda
copy to lord Shelburne, the duke of Grafton, the duke of
Rutland, and lord John Cavendifh refpectively. The
minifter difcouraged the bufinefs, and earneftly diffuaded
the bifhop from any immediate publication of it. Upon the
refignation of lord Shelburne, who, by an exercife of pre-
rogative, had been nominated by the king without the re-
commendation of the cabinet, the coalition miniftry, formed
of lord North, and others who had for many years repro-
bated his political principles, came into power. This cir-
cumttance of the coalition roufed our prelate’s indignation,
and led him to entertain a very unfavourable opinion of the
difintereftednefs and integrity of thofe to whom he had been
invariably attached. Although the badnefs of the peace,
and the {uppofed danger of trufting power in the hands of
lord Shelburne, were the oftenfible reafons for this coalition,
perfonal diflike of him, and a defire to be in power them-
felves, were, in the bifhop’s judgment, the real ones. This
diffenfion of the Whigs, he fays, did more injury to the
conftitution than all the violent attacks on the liberty of the
fubje&, which were fubfequently made during Mr. Pitt’s
adminiftration. ‘ This apoflacy from principle in the coali-
tion miniftry ruined,’ as he conceived, ‘*the confidence of
the country, and left it without hope of foon feeing another
refpeGtable oppofition on conftitutional grounds; but it
ftamped on the hearts of millions an impreffion which will
never be effaced, that patriotifm is a fcandalous game played
by public men for private ends, and frequently little better than
a felfifh firuggle for power.’— It is,” he adds, ‘a prin-
ciple with all parties to require from their adherents an im-
plicit approbation of all their meafures : my {pirit was ever
too high to fubmit to fuch a difgraceful load of political
connection.” —* To forget all benefits, and to conceal the re-
membrance of all injuries, are maxims by which political men
lofe their honour, but make their fortunes.”
Our prelate’s letter to the archbifhop of Canterbury was
publithed in the interval between lord Shelburne’s refigna-
tion and the appointment of the duke of Portland to the
head of the treafury ; but though a copy of it was fent to
each bifhop, none thought proper to acknowledge it except
Dr. Porteus, then bifhop of Chefter. Soon after the failure
of Mr. Fox’s Eaft India bill, to which Dr. Watfon was ad-
verfe, Mr. Pitt was appointed firft lord of the treafury; and
though he had continued in office for feveral weeks previoufly
to the diffolution of parliament, March 25th, 1784, in direét
oppofition to the majority of the houfe of commons, which
in the judgment of our prelate eftablifhed a dangerous pre-
cedent, yet deference to the fenfe of the nation declared by
numberlefs addreffes to the king againft the coalition minif-
try, induced him to acquiefce. In July of this year he’
wrote a letter to Mr. Pitt, recommending an union of Bri-
tain and Ireland on an equal and liberal footing ; but it was
not accomplifhed till fixteen years after this period, and not,
as the bifhop obferves, ‘in the liberal way it ought to have
been done.”? Enlarged and liberal as were his fentiments of
toleration, he neverthelefs regarded the church of Rome as
a perfecuting church ; and he thought it was more neceflary
to guard again{t the danger to be apprehended by Proteft-
ants in a‘ country where popery is fimply tolerated than
where it. is the eftablifhed religion. On another occafion
he expreffes fentiments which muft lead the friends of Ca-
tholic emancipation to conclude, that he was not favourable
to this object. ‘“ The perfecuting fpirit of the Roman
church remains in the hearts of the generality of its mem-
bers,’ he fays, “and whilft it does remain, popery muft be
watched, intimidated, and reftrained.’”’? In a letter to Mr.
Wakefield written in 1784, he avows his belief of the pre-
exiftence of Chrift as the doétrine of the New Teftament ;
but at the fame time he is far from concurring with thofe
who brand the fupporters of it as enemies to the Chriftian
fyftem. In the fame year he addreffed a letter to Mr. Wy-
vill, expreffing his warmeft wifhes for parliamentary reform,
which Mr. Pitt feemed at the commencement of his admi-
niftration inclined to promote. In 1785 he publifhed his
“ Colle&tion of Theological Traé&s,’’ in fix volumes, in-
tended for the benefit of young perfons, who could not af-
ford to purchafe many books in divinity; the defign was
laudable, and was generally approved; though, he ays,
the bifhops were not pleafed with his having printed
fome traéts originally written by Diffenters. In» January
1786 he loft his friend Mr. Luther, with whom he had lived
on terms of the moft affe€tionate intercourfe for thirty
years; and in mentioning this circumftance he gratefully
acknowledges his generous bequeft, which enabled him to
preferve his independence, and to provide for his family.
To his Suffex’ eftate, from the fale of which he derived
20,500/., this generous teftator added the entail of his
eftate in Effex. Having, in the year 1782, publifhed a
third volume of his Chemical Effays, he prefented to the
public a fourth volume in 1786. About this time applica-
tion was made to him by government for advice relating to
the improvement of gun-powder ; and he fuggefted a plan
of making charcoal by diftilling the wood in clofe veffels,
which was carried into execution at Hythe in 1787, and
which produced a confiderable faving in the manufaéture of
this article. +
Dr. Watfon, having been attacked with, a diforder in
1781, which continued and rendered the difcharge of his
duty, as profeffor of divinity, very irkfome to his feelings,
and likely to haften the termination of his life, intimated to
Mr. Pitt his withes for fome kind of preferment that would
enable him to refign.his profefforfhip ; his church income,
exclufive of it, being only about 1200/. a year. This ap-
plication he very reluétantly renewed, but it produced no
effe& ; and the confequence was a kind of remonttrance, in
the tone of complaint, on the part of the bifhop to the mi-
nifter.
-
WATSON.
nifter. About this time Mr. Pitt confulted the bifhops
about the repeal of the Teft and Corporation Acts; and of
all the bifhops who were afflembled for the difcuffion of the
fubject bifhop Watfon and bifhop Shipley were the only two
who voted, that they ought not to be maintained. The
queftion was afterwards loft in the commons by a majority
of 78; 178 to 1c6. When it was brought forward again
in 1789, it was loft by a majority of 20; 122 to 102. But
in 1790, the-majority againft it was 194; 299 to 105: the
clamour of “the church is in danger’? having in the mean
while been widely and loudly circulated, under the fanétion
of fome imprudent oy mifunderftood expreflions in the pub-
lications of Dr. Hartley and Dr. Prieftley. The bifhop’s
‘intereft with the minifter was not promoted by the part
which he took on this occafion, and much lefs by his par-
liamentary {peech againft Mr. Pitt’s commercial treaty with
France. Soon after this he was very much enfeebled by a
dyfentery ; and upon his return from Bath to Cambridge in
1787, the fenate appointed Dr. Kipling to be his deputy
as profeffor, with a falary amounting in a courfe of time to
two-thirds of the value of the profeflorfhip, when Dr. Wat-
fon firft undertook it. At the enfuing commencement he
delivered a kind of farewell addrefs to the univerfity, in
which he exprefled his warme{t wifhes for its profperity ;
after having been inceflantly engaged in its bufinefs for more
than thirty-three years. After the commencement he took
a journey to Weftmoreland, with a view to the re-eftabhifh-
ment of his health. He now determined to become an
agriculturift ; and his purfuits in this department, as an im-
rover of land and planter of trees, were fo favourable to
his health, and upon the whole fo profitable, that he fays in
the year 1809, ‘I feel much fatisfaction at this moment in
having, by my own exertions, wholly counterated the ef-
feéts which might otherwife have followed the negleét I
haye experienced from the court or from its minifters, or
from both, that I fincerely pity, and cordially forgive the
littlenefs of mind, which, in fome one or other, has occa-
fioned it.”” The bifhop relates an incident which occurred
on occafion of his attending a levee in November 1787, and
which fufficiently evinced the pains that had been taken to
inftil wrong notions of his political principles into his ma-
jefty’s mind. ‘I was ftanding,”’ he fays, “‘ next to a Ve-
netian nobleman ; the king was converfing with him about
the republic of Venice, and haftily turning to me faid,
there now, you hear what he fays of a republic.’ My
anfwer was, ¢ Sir, I look upon a republic to be one of the
worft forms of government.’ The king gave me, as he
thought, another blow about ‘a republic. I anfwered that
T could not live under a republic. His majefty full pur-
fued the fubje&: I thought myfelf infulted and firmly
faid, ‘ Sir, I look upon the tyranny of any one man to be
an intolerable evil, and upon the tyranny of a hundred to
be a hundred times as bad ;’ thus ended the converfation.”’
Although Dr. Watfon, as profeffor of divinity, had been
for many years a chartered member of the fociety for pro-
pagating the gofpel in foreign parts, he had never fub-
{cribed to it nor attended its meetings ; becaufe its miffion-
aries were more bufily employed in bringing over Diffenters
to epifcopacy than in converting heathens to Chriftianity.
In the year 1788 he publifhed a charge which he had deli-
vered at his vifitation, entitled “ An Addrefs to Young Per-
fons after Confirmation.’’ Towards the clofe of this year and
the commencement of the next, he took an aétive part in the
bufinefs of the regency, occafioned by the king’s mental de-
rangement ; and in an elaborate fpeech delivered in the houfe of
lords January 22d, 1789, he difcuffed, with fingular abihty,
the fubje& in debate between Mr. Fox, who aflerted “ that
‘kingdom had.’
theprince of Wales hada right to affume the regency,” and
Mr. Pitt, who had faid, ‘‘ that the prince of Wales had no
more right to aflume the regency than any other man in the
The part he took on this occafion is faid
to have offended the queen ; who, as he fays, ‘¢ diftinguifhed
by different degrees of courtefy on the one hand, and by
meditated affronts on the other, thofe who had voted with,
and thofe who had voted againft the minifter.”? At the
drawing-room, held on the king’s recovery, the bifhop was
received with a degree of coldnefs, ‘‘ which would have ap-
peared to herfelf ridiculous and ill-placed could fhe have
imagined how little fuch a mind as mine regarded, in its ho-
nourable proceedings, the difpleafure of a woman, though
that woman happened to be a queen.’’ The prince of Wales,
who was witnefs to this conduét, paid particular attention
to the bifhop, invited him to dine at Carlton-houfe, and en-
tered into a familiar conference with him ; the bifhop on the
oceafion ‘ advifing him to perfevere in dutifully bearing
with his mother’s ill-humour, till time and her own good
fenfe fhould difentangle her from the web which minitterial
cunning had thrown around her.’? When the bifhop, before
the clofe of the interview, declared that he was fick of
parties, and fhould retire from all public concerns, ‘ No,’’
faid the prince, ‘‘ and mind who it is that tells you fo, you
{hall never retire ; a man of your talents fhall never be loft
to the public.” The bifhop’s reflection fubjoined to this
anecdote is, ** I have now lived many years in retirement,
and, in my 75th year, I feel no wifh to live otherwife.”’
About ten years after the publication of the traét which he
had given to the young perfons of his diocefe, already men-
tioned, Mr. Afhdown of Canterbury addreffed two letters
to him, in which he contended that the diftin@tion of ordi-
nary and extraordinary operations of the Holy Spirit is
not founded in {cripture, and that if it were, both opera-
tions ceafed with the apoitolic age. In reference to this
opinion, the bifhop declares, “I am not afhamed to own,
that I give a greater degree of affent to the dotrine of the
extraordinary operation of the fpirit in the age of the
apoftles, than I do to that of his immediate influence,
either by illumination or fanétification, in fucceeding ages.
Notwithftanding this confeffion, I am not prepared to fay,
that the latter is an-unfcriptural doGtrine: future invettiga-
tion may clear up this point, and God, I truft, will pardon
me an indecifion of judgment proceeding from an inability
of comprehenfion. If it fhall ever be fhewn, that the doe-
trine of the ordinary operation of the Holy Ghoit is not a
{cripture doétrine, Methodifm, Quakerifm, and every de-
gree of enthufiafm, will be radically extinguifhed m the
Chriftian church ; men, no longer believing that God does
that by more means which may be done by fewer, will
wholly rely for religious in/lruéion, confequent converfion,
and fubfequent /a/vation, on his Word.”
In the fummer of 1789, our bifhop, in purfuit of his
plan for retiring from public life, laid the foundation of his
honfe on the banks of the Winandermere ; where he con-
tinued till his death. On occafion of the publication: of
«« Hints to the New A flociation, recommending a Revifal of
the Liturgy, &c.’’ in 1789, by the duke of Grafton, two
pamphlets were in the following year publifhed in oppofition
to thefe ‘¢ Hints.’? The bifhop made a reply to thefe at-
tacks ; and took a comprehenfive view of the fubje&.. Al-
though he was diffuaded from publifhing his tra&, it foon
appeared under the title of ‘‘ Confiderations on the Expe-
diency of revifing the Liturgy and Articles of the Church
of England,” by a Confiitent Proteltant.. Moreover, it
was propofed, in converfation with the duke.of Grafton, to
‘commence a reform, by the mintrodution of a‘ bill into the
Aaz houfe
WATSON.
houfe of lords, for expunging the Athanafian creed from
the Liturgy ; but on account of the French revolution, the
defign was poftponed. In this conneétion, we cannot forbear
mentioning what is called the Windfor anecdote. It is as
follows; and given by the bifhop on the authority of Dr.
Heberden: “The clergyman there, on a day when the
Athanafian creed was to be read, began with Who/oever will
be faved, &c. the king, who ufually refponded with a loud
voice, was filent; the minifter repeated, in a higher tone,
his Whofoever ; the king continued filent ; at length the
Apoftle’s creed was repeated by the minifter, and the king
followed him throughout with a diftin& and audible voice.”
“ I certainly diflike,” fays the bithop, ‘ the impofition of all
creeds formed by human authority ; though I do not diflike
them, as ufeful fummaries of what their compilers believe to
be true, either in natural or revealed religion.” In a letter
to the duke of Grafton, dated O&ober, 1791, he briefly
ftates his fentiments on feveral fubjeéts of importance.
Amongft other obfervations that deferve attention, he fays,
“In England we want not a fundamental revolution ; but
we certainly want a reform both in the civil and ecclefiafti-
cal part of our conftitution ; men’s minds, however, I think,
are not yet generally prepared for admitting its neceflity.
A reformer of Luther’s temper and talents would, in five
years, perfuade the people to compel the parliament to
abolifh tithes, to extinguifh pluralities, to enforce refidence,
to confine epifcopacy to the overfeeing of diocefes, to ex-
punge the Athanafian creed from our liturgy, to free Dif-
fenters from teft aéts, and the minifters of the eftablifhment
from fubfcription to human articles of faith. Thefe, and
other matters refpe€ting the church, ought to be done: I
want not courage to attempt doing what I think ought to
be done; and I am not held"back by confiderations of per-
fonal intereft ; but my temper is peaceable, I diflike con-
tention, and truft that the {till voice of reafon will at length
be heard.—As to the civil ftate, it cannot long continue as
it is, &c. &c.’? Ina charge delivered in 1792, the bifhop
touched on feveral fubje&ts of importance and general in-
tereft ; and among other things on the injuftice and impolicy
of our Teit and Corporation Acts. ‘There feem to me,”’
fays our prelate, “ but two reafons for excluding any honeft
man from eligibility to public office ;—want of capacity to
ferve the office, and want of attachment to the civil confti-
tution of the country. That the Diffenters want capacity
will not be afferted; that they want attachment to the civil
conftitution of the country is afferted by many, but proved
by none.””—“ The Diffenters are neither Tories nor Repub-
licans,* but friends to the principles of the revolution ;”’ but
their condué& fince the revolution, and at and fince the re-
ftoration, proves that they have no defign to undermine the
conftitution of the country.
« But it may be faid, chit inafmuch as the Diffenters are
enemies to the church eftablifhment, and that the ftate is fo
allied to the church, that he who is unfriendly to the one
muft with the fubverfion of both. I think this reafon-
ing is not juft; a man may certainly wifh for a change
in an ecclefiaftical eftablifhment, without wifhing for a
change in the civil conftitution of a country. An Epif-
copalian, e.g. may with to fee bifhops eftablifhed in all
Scotland, without wifhing Scotland to become a republic :
and he may wifh that epifcopacy may be eftablifhed in
all the American ftates, without wifhing that monarchy
may be eftablifhed in any of them. The proteétion of
life, liberty, and property, is not ayes es or exclu-
fively conneéted with any particular. form of church-go-
vernment. The bleflings of civil fociety depend upon the
proper execution of good laws, and upon the good morals
of the people; but no one will attempt to prove, that the
laws and morals of the people may not be as good in Ger-
many, Switzerland, Scotland, under a Prefbyterian, as in _
England or France, under an epifcopal form of church-
government,’’ with much more to the fame purpofe.
In the year 1795 our bifhop made a fpeech in the honfe
of lords in favour of a motion by the duke of Bedford,
“that no form of government which may prevail in France
fhould preclude a negociation with that country, or pre-
vent a peace whenever it could be made confiitently with
the honour, intereft, and fecurity of the nation.”” In the
following fummer he publifhed a charge, and two fermons,
one of them entitled * Atheifm and Infidelity refuted from
Reafon and Scripture ;’’ and the other “* The Chriftian Re-
ligion no Impotture.”” In 1796 he publifhed * An Apo-
logy for the Bible,’’ in defence of it againft the {currilous
abufe of Thomas Paine. Of this traét many thoufands
were diftributed at a low price, both in England and Scot-
land; and we have reafon to believe produced the moft
beneficial effeéts, not only in Great Britain, but in Ireland
and America. In 1798 the bifhop publifhed an addrefs to
the people of Great Britain, which was of great fervice in
raifing the fpirit of the nation. In 1799 ‘he delivered a
fpeech, recommending and vindicating again{t objections a
cordial union with Ireland, as an event which would enrich
Ireland without impoverifhing Great Britain: and that
would render the empire, as to defence, the ftrongeft in
Europe. When Mr. B. Flower was brought to the bar of
the houfe of lords for a breach of privilege in publifhing
fomething againft the above-mentioned {peech, the bifhop,
when he heard of it, declared, “*that he fhould feel much
more fatisfation in forgiving the man’s malignity than in
avenging it.” -
In 1805 the petition of the Roman Catholics of Ireland
was taken into confideration by both houfes of parliament,
and rejected by great majorities in both. Previoufly to the
difeutiion on this queltion, bifhop Watfon communicated
his fentiments on the fubje€& in a letter addreffed to the
duke of Grafton. As this is a queftion ftill /ub judice, we
fhall here introduce the general heads of argument fuggefted
in relation to it by the bifhop. ‘1. The abfolute juitice of
tolerating religious opinions, fince no civil government can
juftly poffefs more power over its fubje&s than what indivi-
duals have con/ented to transfer to it when they entered into
fociety ; and no individual can give up the right of wor-.
fhipping God according to his éonfcience, and therefore no
government can juitly ate that right. 2. No civil go-
vernment has any right to take cognizance of opinions either
political or religious, but merely of men’s aétions. This
principle, however, is liable to exception with refpe& to
the public teachers of religion. 3. The eftablifhed religion
of every country ought to be the religion of the majority of
the people; unlefs an exception be admitted, when the mi-
nority of the inhabitants poffeffes a majority of the property
by which the eftablifhment is maintained ; and even in that
cafe, humanity and policy, if not ftri& jultice, require a
co-eltablifhment of the religion of the minority. 4. Great
credit ought to"be given to men of probity and talents, dif-
claiming, in nd rel terms, the moft obnoxious principles
of the church of Rome; the odium of paft tranfa€tions
ought not to be thrown upon thefe who had no concern
in them. 5. Conftitutionally fj rake the Catholic peers
and commons have no more right to fit in parliament than
a Catholic king has to fit upon the throne; and if the
change of times is not yet fuch that a Proteftant would en-
dure the thought of a Catholic king upon the throne, it may
be inquired upon what principle it is that a iar
endure
WATSON.
endure the thought of a Catholic legiflator. The principle
may be the little comparative influence of a Catholic legifla-
tor, and his abjuration of temporal tenets formerly pro-
feffed by Catholics. 6. The progrefs of fcience has fubdued
the bigotry formerly too apparent not only in the church of
Rome, but in all the reformed churches: and it will never
be able, till a {tate of ignorance and barbari{m recurs, to
rear up its head again. There is no probability of intole-
rance and fuperftition ever more pervading Europe; and
the Catholic religion will continue to derive light from the
labour of learning. The learned Catholics are beginning
every where to foften the afperities of their religious tenets,
and to apologize for what they cannot excufe. The Irifh
Se partake of the illumination of the ages and the pea-
antry will imitate the example of their fuperiors. 7. It
may be faid that the church of Rome has not formally re-
nounced any of the doétrines maintained at the council of
Trent, and that the court of Rome has not abandoned any
of its pretenfions to temporal dominion ; yet Catholic, as
well as Proteltant, {tates have every where fpurned thefe
pretenfions ; and fomething very like a formal renunciation
of one of the moft dangerous tenets of that church took
place in Ruffia more than twenty years ago. ‘The emprefs
Catharine gave permiflion to the Roman Catholics in her
dominions merely to exercife their religion; and to have
bifhops of their own perfuafion for the government of their
church. She was prefent at the confecration of the firft
Catholic archbifhop. When the ceremony had proceeded
to the adminiftration of the oath ufually taken by the bifhops
of that church, the archbifhop (that was to be) refufed to
repeat the claufe “‘ Hzreticos {chifmaticos et rebelles domino
noftro pape pro pofle perfequar et impugnato.’”? On this
refufal, the ceremony was ended, frefh inftruCtions were re-
quired from Rome, and the then pope ordered the claufe to
be omitted ; and it has been fince omitted, by the authority
of the pope, in the oath taken by the Irifh bifhops.”’
“ My great objeétion,”’ fays Watfon, ‘ to the church of
Rome is the uncharitable principle of the infalvability of per-
fons out of its pale; for this principle produces a perfe-
cuting principle, and I muft ever deteit every fpecies of
perfecution. I cannot however believe that Catholic eman-
cipation will tend to the increafe of the number of Catholics,
either in Ireland or in England ; on the contrary, I think the
number would, by fuch a meafure, be leflened. Nothing unites
men fo much as any degree of perfecution. Individuals,
otherwife of no confequence, either from talents or fortune,
become conf{picuous, and acquire a degree of weight, when
connected with a party. Men claim merit from what they
call their fufferings, who would have no ground for claiming
it on any other {pecies of defert.””
In fubfequent letters addreffed to lord Grenville in 1810,
and to fir John Cox Hippefley in 1812, he gives the follow-
ing opinion of the veto: ‘* the appointment of the Irifh Ca-
tholic bifhops ought to be in the king, if they are to be paid
by the {tate ; and if they are to be paid by the Catholics
themfelves, it ought to be in them; but exclufive of all
foreign influence, recommendation, or confirmation. If
they do not accede to this, or to fomething fimilar to this,
they will a& ona principle which I did not expe@, nor can ap-
rove.” In a letter to lord Hardwicke, dated April 2,
1812, he fays, ‘¢ I make no fecret of my opinion ; a cordial
reception of Catholics and Diflenters into the bofom of the
conftitution, by the extinGtion of all difqualifications, is be-
come neceffary to fecure the independence of the empire,
and the fafety of the country.”
In confequence of an imputation of waht of orthodoxy,
partly occafioned by a fermon publifhed by the bifhop, and
entitled * A Second Defence of revealed Religion,” he
makes the following refleGtions on the ground of this charge.
‘* What is this thing called orthodoxy, which mars the for-
tunes of honeft men, mifleads the judgment of princes, and
occafionally endangers the ftability of thrones? In the true
meaning of the term, it is a facred thing, to which every
denomination of Chriftians lays an arrogant and exclufive
claim, but to which no man, no affembly of men, fince the
apoftolic age, can prove a title. It is frequently, amon
individuals of the fame fed, nothing better than felf-fuffi-
ciency of opinion, and pharifaical pride, by which each
man efteems himfelf more righteous than his neighbours. It
may, perhaps, be ufeful in cementing what is called the
alliance between the church and {tate ; but if fuch an alliance
obftru€ts candid difcuffions, if it invades the right of pri-
vate judgment, if it generates bigotry in churchmen, or in-
tolerance in ftatefmen, it not only becomes inconfiftent with
the general principles of Proteftantifm, but it impedes the
progrefs of the kingdom of Chrift, which we all know is
not of this world.”
The next public occafion on which our bifhop diftin-
guifhed himfelf was on the debate which took place in the
houfe of lords, March 23, 1807, concerning the abolition
of the flave-trade. For the affirmative of this queftion he
delivered a {peech, abounding with hiftorical information and
found argument. When the adminiftration that had been
formed on the death of Mr. Pitt was difmifled, he expreffed
in {trong terms‘his difapprobation of the oftenfible reafon
alleged for its difmiffion, which was the king’s diflike of a
meafure which had been brought forward in parliament re-
{peéting the Irth Catholic officers ; and the requifition on
the part of his majefty of a pledge that this adminiftration
would never more bring forward the queftion of granting
farther indulgence to the Irifh Catholics. This requifition
was confidered by many as having a tendency dangerous to
the conititution ; and to Dr. W. it appeared “ to be not in
words, but in fa&, a declaration of a fic volo.” On occa-
fion of the difmiflion of this “ half Whig, and half Tory
adminiftration,’? as he calls it, he communicated to lord
Grenville a refolution, which he conceived to be fit to be in-
troduced in the houfe of lords, whenever the fubje@ fhould
be brought forward, and which lord Grenville actually
adopted in foto, as better in his opinion than any thing which
had occurred either to himfelf or to his friends. The refo-
tion was as follows: ‘ Refolved, that whoever has advifed,
or fhall in future advife, his majefty to require from his ‘con-
fidential fervants a pledge, that they will, on any occafion,
abftain from fubmitting to his confideration any meafure of
government which they, in their confciences, believe to be
conducive to the public weal, is and ought by this houfe to
be declared to be an enemy to the conftitution of this coun-
try.” Soon afterwards he fent to the duke of Grafton a
lefs firm refolution, which he thought might be more ac-
ceptable to the then houfe of lords. Neither of thefe refo-
lutions, however, was ultimately adopted; but the refolu-
tion that. was a€tually propofed was, after a debate which
lafted till 7 o’clock in the morning, negatived by a great
majority. A violent alarm againft Popery and of the
church’s danger prevailed, during which the bifhop declared
his opinion, “ that it was both juft, and in the ftate of Buo-
naparte’s ftrength and temper towards us, highly expedient,
to receive both Catholics and Diffentets into tlie bofom of the
conftitution ; but that it was improper to prefs any innova-
tion till the people were prepared to receive it ; and that’?
(in his opinion) ‘ the time was not yet come for the general
adoption of fuch a political and equitable ptinciple of ‘go-
vernment. ‘Toleration was in every ‘man’s mouth ; but do-
11 minion
WATSON.
minion over the faith of other men, exclufion from privi-
leges poffeffed by themfelves, and a difpofition to the exer-
cite of power without right, were in the hearts of a great
part, probably of a majority of the people of Great
Britain.””
In reply toa letter, in which the writer expreffes a with,
that the bifhop would anfwer Mr. Malthus’s book, intitled
« An Effay on Population,’’ and in which, as he reprefents
it, the author endeavours to eftablifh a code of morality in
oppolition to the morality of the gofpel, Dr. W. obferves
that Mr. Malthus appeared to him to be “ endeavour-
ing to fhew the utility of bringing down the population of
the earth to, the level of the fubfiftence requifite for the
fupport of man,’’ (a propofition wanting no proof, fince
where there is no food, man mutt die, ) ** and that in his judg-
ment, his time and talents would have been better empleyed
in the inveftigation of the means of increafing the fubfiftence
to the level of the population.’”? He fays, however, that
after having looked into this book, he was jultified in neg-
le&ting to perufe it, as it thwarted the ftrongeft propenfity
of human nature, and contradifted the moil exprefs com-
mand of God, “ Increafe and multiply ;”? more efpecially as
he was perfuaded, ‘* that the earth had not, in the courfe of
6000 years from the creation, ever been replenifhed with any
thing like one half the number of inhabitants it would ful-
one.
The bifhop might indced well regret, as he frequently,
perhaps too frequently does, the inattention to his merits, and
claims on higher preferment than a poor Welfh bifhopric,
which he had long experienced, after a long courfe of lite-
rary labour and public fervice. Mr. Pitt profeffed himfelf
well difpofed towards him, but alleged ‘that a certain perfon
would not hear of it.”? ‘ Notwithitanding this anecdote,”’
fays the bifhop, “I cannot bring myfelf to believe that the
king was either the firft. projector, or the principal ator in
the forry farce of negleGting a man whom they could
not difhonour, of diftrefling a man whom they could not
difpirit, which has been playing at court for near 26 years.”’
Acquitting Mr. Pitt, though he knew that no minifter
would be very zealous in promoting a man who profeffed and
practifed parliamentary and perfonal independence, from the
charge of forgetting either obligations or conne¢tions in the
purfuit of his ambition, he lays the blame on a more exalted
perfonage. ‘As to the king’s diflike of me, unlefs his
education had made him more of a Whig, it was natural
enough. My declared oppofition to the increafed and in-
creafing influence of the crown had made a great impreffion
on his majefty’s mind.”’
Of the bill, introduced into the houfe of commons by
the chancellor of the exchequer in 1808, for making more
effe€tual provifion for the maintenance of ftipesdiary curates
in England and Wales, and for their refidence on their cures,
he expreffed his difapprobation, with the reafon of it, in
letters addreffed both to the archbifhop of Canterbury and
Mr. Percival. He rejoiced, however, in the grant of
100,000/. a year by a vote of parliament in 1809, in lieu
of queen Anne’s bounty ; but in his charge of that year,
referring to a letter previoufly written to lord Hawkef-
bury on this occafion, he renews his complaint of the man-
ner in which he had been neglected, alleging that he never
had any place of refidence amongtt his clergy, nor a church-
income {ufficient to enable him to attend every year his par-
liamentary duty. Having, in the year 1809, and during
an extenfive \vifitation of his diocefe, held a confirmation at
Merthyr-Tydvil, he was hofpitably accommodated at the
houfe of the late Mr. Crawfhay, a well-known iron-matter,
whofe hofpitality the writer of this article has experienced ;
4
and before he left the diocefe, Mr. C. came to Landaff to
take leave of him. On this occafion, taking the bifhop by
the hand, he faid to him, ‘If ever you have occafion for
5 or 10,0@0/. it fhall be wholly at your fervice.’? Of courfe
declining to avail himifelf of this generous offer, he never-
thelefs: declares, ‘ I was more delighted with this fubftan-
tial proof of the difinterefted approbation of an iron-matter
than I fhould have been with the poffeffion of an arch-
bifhopric acquired by a felfifh fubferviency to the defpotic
principles of a court.’
On the fubje& of Lancafterian {chools and bible focieties,
he declares his opinion to be, ‘¢ that certain zealous men in
the eftablifhed church have fuffered their apprehenfions for
its fafety to outftrip all probability of danger arifing to it,
from the inftitution of either Lancafterian {chools or auxi-
liary bible focieties. The church is in no danger from Pro-
teflant or Catholic Diffenters ; but the ftate muft ever be in
danger from difcontent breeding difaffeCtion, whilft a large
portion of its members is looked upon by government with a
jealous and repulfive eye.’? On another occafion, ina letter
to Mr. Wyvill, O&. 21, 1813, he expreffes fentiments of a
fimilar kind: ¢ the flruggle for the liberty of Europe has
been moft nobly fuftained by Great Britain, and might it
not at this period be fuccefsfully terminated by our govern-
ment granting emancipation to the Catholics, and a repeal of
the Teft and Corporation a&ts to the Diflenters?. Thefe
conceffions would be more powerful means of defence than
all the conferiptions of our enemy can ever be to the con-
trary.” We cannot forbear fubjoining a paragraph from
Mr. Wyvill’s reply : ‘* Mr. Fox proved the fincerity of his
attachment to liberty, civil aud religious, by the long fer-
vice of 30 years, almoft wholly {pent in parliament, under
the frowns of power: your lordfhip, I believe, has given a
fimilar proof of your attachment to that beft of caufes.
You have endured a fimilar profcription from men who
aéted on the fame unworthy motives, and the confequence
has been almoft the fame: you have at Landaff been fo long
fhut out from the road to the higher honours of the church.
But how much higher have you rifen by having obtained the
undifputed dignity of virtue, benevolence, patriotifm, and
the true fpirit of Chriftianity !’? Well might the bifhop re-
ply to Mr. Wyvill, “I am proud of your honourable tef-
timony to that political confiftency of principle, which
unites my name to that of Mr. Fox.”
From this period the health of the bifhop rapidly de-
clined; and though his mental faculties continued unim-
paired, yet bodily exercife and literary compofition became
irkfome to him. He expired on the 4th of July, 1816, in
the 79th year of his age ; illuftrating, as the publifher of his
Memoirs fays, in death the truth of his favourite rule of
conduét through life: ‘* Keep innocency, and take heed
unto the thing that is right, for that fhall bring a man peace
at the laft.’’
Having availed ourfelves of the work now before us, we
make no apology for extending this article beyond the ufual
limits of our biographical fketches. From the honour of
an early acquaintance with the fubje& of this article, and
from a full conviétion of his uniform integrity, as well as
his pre-eminent talents, we felt a peculiar intereit in the pe-
rufal of the memoirs of his life. Diftinguifhed by mental
powers of a fuperior order, and by public fervices which
have feldom been paralleled, we pay this tribute of refpeét. to
hismemory. His charaéter needs no delineation befides the
** Anecdotes’? which his own pen has furnifhed. In every
department which he occupied, firft as a ftudent, and after-
wards as.a tutor and profeffor in the univerfity of Cam-
bridge, as a prelate and a member of the legiflature, and in
; the
WAT
the latter period of his life as an agriculturift, his affiduity
and activity were indefatigable and perfevering. To fay
nothing of his folicitude for the beft interefts of his friends
and his family, the ardour of his zeal in promoting the
honour and profperity of the church and civil community to
which he belonged, by thofe means which; according to his
comprehenfiye and liberal views, he thought to be moft con-
ducive to this purpofe, mutt approve itfelf in a high degree
to thofe who entertained fentiments fimilar to his own, and
it will need little apology in the candid judgment of thofe
who moft differ from him in their opinion of public men and
public meafures. As he always fpoke and aéted from the
conyi€tion of a well-informed and upright mind, and coun-
teraéted his own fecular intereft by the courfe he purfued,
his fentiments claim deference, and his condu& will com-
mand refpeét. If it fhould occur to any who perufe the
_ anecdotes now before us, that he was too ambitious of pre-
ferment, it mult be recolleéted, that the merit of his fer-
vices, both to the church and ftate, of which he could not be
unconfcious, and the elevated conneétions which his ftation
in the univerfity had led him to form, encouraged reafonable
expectations of a higher rank in the church than a poor bi-
fhopric in Wales; fo that he could not otherwife than feel
himfelf negle&ted and difappointed. His private fortune,
though his patrimony had been expended, was rendered
ample by the liberality of his friend Mr. Luther, and there-
fore he had no juft reafon for complaint on this account ;
and yet it fhould be confidered that he had a family, for
which he wifhed to provide in a manner fuitable to the cir-
cumftances in which his aggregate income had placed them.
Anecdotes of the Life of Richard Watfon, bifhop of Lan-
daff, written by himfelf at different intervals, and revifed in
1814, 4to., publifhed by his fon, Richard Watfon, LL.B.
prebendary of Landaff and Wells. Lond. 1817.
Warson, in Geography, a town of Virginia; 35 miles
S.W. of Richmond.
Warson’s [fland, an ifland in the Mergui Archipelago,
of an oval form, and about 2 miles in circumference. N.
lat. 9° 36'.
WATSONITA, in Botany, was fo called by Miller,
after the late fir William Watfon, knight, M.D. F.R.S.,
well known by his numerous papers in the Philofophical
Tranfactions, on may fubjeéts conneéted with the hiftory
of Botany, and eminently diftinguifhed for his cultivation
of feveral branches of philofophical and medical knowledge.
Miller’s genus being funk by Linnzus in Antholyza, the
Biittneria was called Wat/onia by Boehmer ; but the original
one, reftored by Mr. Ker, is now generally, and with great
propriety, adopted.—Mill. Ic. 184. Ker in Sims and Kon.
Ann. of Bot. v.1. 229. Dryand. in ‘Ait. Hort. Kew.
v. I. 93.—Clafs and order, Triandria Monogynia. Nat.
Ord. Enfate, Linn. Trides, Juif.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Spatha inferior, fhorter than the corolla,
of two oblong, clofe-prefled, permanent valves. Cor. of
one petal, fuperior: tube cylindrical throughout, fomewhat
enlarged, but not {preading, in the elongated throat, curved:
limb nearly regular, in fix deep, flat, fpreading, almoft equal
fegments. Stam. Filaments three, inferted into the tube at
the origin of the throat, thread-{haped, afcending, fhorter than
the corolla; anthers oblong, fomewhat parallel, incumbent.
Pit. Germen inferior, oblong, furrowed; iftyle thread-
fhaped, longer than the itamens ; {tigmas three, flender, deeply
cloven, fpreading, recurved. Peric. Capfule oblong, bluntly
triangular, cartilaginous, of three cells and three valves.
Seeds numerous, imbricated downwards, angular in their
lower part, dilated into more or lefs of a wmg at the upper
‘end.
WAT
Eff. Ch. Spatha of two valves. Corolla tubular, with
a cylindrical throat ; its limb in fix deep, nearly equal,
fegments. Stigmas three, thread-fhaped, deeply clovert, the
fegments recurved. Capfule cartilaginous. Seeds nume-
rous, angular.
This genus differs from Grapioxvs in its almoft regular
corolla, with: a cylindrical throat ; narrow, divided, not di-
lated, figmas ; and angular, fearcely winged, feeds: ANn-
THOLYZA, as now limited, is diftinguifhed from it, by hav-
ing a-ringent /imb, of unequal and diffimilar fegments ;
fimple /figmas; and nearly globular feeds. See thofe ar-
ticles.
1. W. /picata. Hollow-leaved Watfonia. Ker in Curt.
Mag. at p. 553. Ait. n.1. (Ixia {picata; Willd. Sp. .
Pl. v.1. 200. I. cepacea; Redout. Liliac. t.96. I. fil-
tulofa; Curt. Mag. t. 523. I. alopecuroidea; Linn.
Suppl. 92. Gladiolus {picatus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 53. Thunb.
Gladiol. n.13. G. filtulofus; Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr.
v. I, 8. t. 16.)—Leaves cylindrical, hollow. —Gathered by
Thunberg, on the higheft hills of Hottentot’s Holland, at
the Cape of Good Hope, flowering in December and Janu-
ary. By fir Jofeph Banks’s herbarium, this {pecies appears
to have been cultivated by Mr. W. Malcolm, in 1791. . It
blooms in the European green-houfes in May, but not very
readily, often bearing fmall oat-like bulbs in the place of
flowers. The du/b is {mall, round, with a fibrous coat.
Stem leafy, from eight to twelve inches high. Leaves alter-
nate, very remarkable for their cylindrical inflated form, gra-
dually {welling upwards, obtufe, with a {mall point ; their
furface very imooth; their bale fheathing. Flowers either
light blue or pale purple, very numerous, clofely imbricated
in a two-ranked tapering f{pike, with reddifh crenate /heaths.
Corolla regular, expanding rather more than half an inch.
We do not find that the ffigmas of this plant are cloven, as
the generic character requires, and we fhould rather have
left it in Zxia, till it could otherwife have been difpofed of.
The fame remark applies to the following. The name /picata
is not fo exclufively appropriate as _fiffulofa or cepacea would
have been, but it is the oldeft name, and liable to no objee-
tion. This is certainly, as far as we can make out, the
original Gladiolus /picatus of Linnzus, though he, long after
its publication, very inadvertently laid into his herbarium,
under that name, a Siberian fpecimen of a {mall-flowered
variety of G. communis.
2. W. plantaginea.
Plantain-fpiked Watfonia. ‘Ker in
Curt. Mag. t. 553.
Ait. n.2. (Ixia plantaginea ; Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 1. 200. * Gladiolus alopecuroides; Linn. Sp.
Pl. 54. Amoen. Acad. v.4. 301. Thunb. Gladiol.
n. 14.) — Upper leaves linear-{wordfhaped, many-ribbed :
lowermoft hollow, comprefled. Flowers imbricated in two
rows.—Gathered by Thunberg in feveral places near the
town, at the Cape of Good Hope, often in the highways.
This differs effentially from the {pecies juft defcribed, in
having the ufual {word-fhaped foliage of its natural order.
Their flowers nearly refemble each other. Thefe are in the
prefent {pecies either blue or white, very numerous, forming
a denfe two-ranked /pike, with membranous-edged /beaths,
recalling the idea of fome kind of Plantain. Sometimes
each /lem bears two or three fuch /pikes, which are then very
large and luxuriant; but in our cultivated fpecimens they
are ufually folitary, as well as much f{maller. The flowers
are without fcent.
3. W. pundata. Dotted-fowered Watfonia. Ker in
Ann. of Bot. n.1. Ait. n.3. (Ixia pun@ata; Andr.
Repof. t.i77.)— Leaves linear-awlfhaped, comprefled.
Spike about three-flowered.—Sent from the Cape of Good
Hope, in 1800, by Mr. Niven, to his employer Geo. is
ert,
WATSON.
minion over the faith of other men, exclufion from privi-
leges poffeffed by themfelves, and a difpofition to the exer-
cife of power without right, were in the hearts of a great
part, prebably of a majority of the people of Great
ritain.’?
In reply toa letter, in which the writer exprefles a wifh,
that the bifhop would anfwer Mr. Malthus’s book, intitled
«‘ An Effay on Population,” and in which, as he reprefents
it, the author endeavours to eftablifh a code of morality in-
oppofition to the morality of the gofpel, Dr. W. obferves
that Mr. Malthus appeared to him to be ‘ endeavour-
ing to fhew the utility of bringing down the population of
the earth to the level of the fubfiftence requifite for the
fupport of man,’’ (a propofition wanting no proof, fince
where there is no food, man mutt die, ) “¢ and that in his judge-
ment, his time and talents would have been better employed
in the inveftigation of the means of increafing the fubfiltence
to the level of the population.” He fays, however, that
after having looked into this book, he was jultified in neg-
le&ting to perufe it, as it thwarted the ftrongeft propenfity
of human nature, and contradiéted the moll exprefs com-
mand of God, “ Increafe and multiply ;’’ more efpecially as
he was perfuaded, ‘* that the earth had not, in the courfe of
6000 years from the creation, ever been replenifhed with any
thing like one half the number of inhabitants it would ful-
tain.”’
The bifhop might indeed well regret, as he frequently,
perhaps too frequently does, the inattention to his merits, and
claims on higher preferment than a poor Welfh bifhopric,
which he had long experienced, after a long courfe of lite-
rary labour and public fervice. Mr. Pitt profeffed himfelf
well difpofed towards him, but alleged “that a certain perfon
would not hear of it.”? ‘ Notwithitanding this anecdote,”
fays the bifhop, “I cannot bring myfelf to believe that the
king was either the firft. projector, or the principal actor in
the forry farce of negle€ting a man whom they could
not difhonour, of diftrefling a man whom they could not
difpirit, which has been playing at court for near 26 years.”’
Acquitting Mr. Pitt, though he knew that no minifter
would be very zealous in promoting a man who profeffed and
practifed parliamentary and perfonal independence, from the
charge of forgetting either obligations or conneétions in the
purfuit of his ambition, he lays the blame on a more exalted
perfonage. ‘* As to the king’s diflike of me, unlefs his
education had made him more of a Whig, it was natural
enough. My declared oppofition to the increafed and in-
creafing influence of the crown had made a great impreffion
on his majefty’s mind.”
Of the bill, introduced into the houfe of commons by
the chancellor of the exchequer in 1808, for making more
effectual provifion for the maintenance of ftipemdiary curates
in England and Wales, and for their refidence on their cures,
he exprefled his difapprobation, with the reafon of it, in
letters addreffed both to the archbifhop of Canterbury and
Mr. Percival. He rejoiced, however, in the grant of
100,000/. a year by a vote of parliament in 1809, in lieu
of queen Anne’s bounty ; but in his charge of that year,
referring to a letter previoufly written to lord Hawkef-
bury on this occafion, he renews his complaint of the man-
ner in which he had been negleéted, alleging that he never
had any place of refidence amongtt his clergy, nor a church-
income fufficient to enable him to attend every year his par-
liamentary duty. Having, in the year 1809, and during
an extenfive vifitation of his diocefe, held’a confirmation at
Merthyr-Tydvil, he was hofpitably accommodated at the
houfe of the late Mr. Crawfhay, a well-known iron-matter,
whofe hofpitality the writer of this article has experienced ;
4
and before he left the diocefe, Mr. C. cam
take leave of him. On this occafion, takin
the hand, he faid to him, “‘ If ever you hi
5 or 10,0@0/. it fhall be wholly at your fervi«
declining to avail himfelf of this generous
thelefs: declares, ‘¢ I was more delighted wi
tial proof of the difinterefted approbation of
than I fhould have been with the poffeffic
bifhopric acquired by a felfifh fubferviency t
principles of a court.’’
-Ona the fubje& of Lancafterian fchools and
he declares his opinion to be, “ that certain z
the eftablifhed church have fuffered their app
its fafety to outftrip all probability of danger
from the inftitution of either Lancafterian fe
liary bible focieties. The church is in no dan;
teftant.or Catholic Diffenters; but the {tate n
danger from difcontent breeding difaffe€tion,
portion of its members is looked upon by gove
jealous and repulfive eye.”? On another occai
to Mr. Wyvill, O&. 21, 1813, he expreiles fe
fimilar kind: ‘¢ the ftrugele for the hberty o
been moft nobly fuftained by Great Britain, ;
not at this period be fuccefsfully terminated by
ment granting emancipation to the Catholics, a
the Teft and Corporation aés to the Diffent
conceffions would be more powerful means of
all the conferiptions of our enemy can ever be
trary.””? We cannot forbear fubjoining a pai
Mr. Wyyvill’s reply : ‘“* Mr. Fox proved the fin
attachment to liberty, civil and religious, by
vice of 30 years, almoft wholly fpent in parlia
the frowns of power: your lordfhip, I believe,
fimilar proof of your attachment to that bell
You have endured a fimilar profcription fron
ated on the fame unworthy motives, and the :
has been almoft the fame: you have at Landaff
fhut out from the road to the higher honours of
But how much higher have you rifen by having
undifputed dignity of virtue, benevolence, pat
the true fpirit of Chriftianity !?? Well might th
ply to Mr. Wyvill, «I am proud of your hon
timony to that political confiftency of
unites my name to that of Mr. Fox.’
From this period the health of the bifhop
clined; and though his mental faculties conti
paired, yet bodily exercife and literary compofil
irkfome to him. He expired on the 4th of Jul:
the 79th year of his age ; illuftrating, as the pub
Memoirs fays, in death the truth of his fayoy
conduct through life: ‘* Keep innocency, and
unto the thing that is right, for that fhall bring
at the laft.’’
Having availed ourfelves of the work now ber
make no apology for extending this article beyo!
limits of our biographical fketches. From the
an early acquaintance with the fubjeét of this t
from a full conviétion of his uniform integrity a
his pre-eminent talents, we felt a peculiar intere is
rufal of the memoirs of his life. Diftinguifheb
powers of a fuperior order, and by public ferce
have feldom been paralleled, we pay this tribute ¢r:
hismemory, His charaéter needs no delineatione
«« Anecdotes’? which his own pen has furnifhed
department which he occupied, firft as a ftudent a
wards as.a tutor and profeffor in the univertir «
bridge, as a prelate and a member of the legifla re
prince
“Toa?
-
+ tet oe 68 oe
oo ¥
:
-
4
-
Bie conte a WAT
et ~o,* a -
~ + ayy ary treme —— ¢& « WATrAn, UMENE, or Sr. Peter, in G rapl
: a het gh “Sway a river of North America, which runs into the Mithitio,
ie twe cue ww"! Gres ON. lat. 44°42'. W. ong. 93° 38), :
oes UR Chee et fone merely dein WATTEAu, ANTHONY, in Biography, one of the mo
_ hee papi, meres. « “Ser. agreeable painters of the French fchool, was born at Vale;
(ee wwgwle, “ “gr aeific ciennes in 1684. His parents were in indigent circumftance:
wm tethers (me. : \ sfor and he was placed with ad obfcure artift his native city, t
= on © “sone cultivate a talent which manifefted itfelf early. When he wa
9 doveted , ~y~=— wie /Pe- about 16 years old, having already furpaffed his Preceptor
yore ws hes wom he conne@ed himfelf with a fcene-painter on his way to Paris
om « Tope and for fome time affifted his affociate in decorating the
-= "1 opera-houfe in that city. When this engagement was com
im s ‘ see 0- pleted Watteau found it difficult to refcue himfelf from the
—o im. obfcurity and embarraflment into which he fell, when ha pil
i Lee. Seppk os : a ol he became acquainted with Claude Gillot, a Painter of
Ghatak © te — Looe wee Mee 93- tefque and fabulous fubjeéts, who was pleafed with his
wdgee Dyke mse w the works and difpofition. illot afforded him an afylum in his
omh Ge teeth. — Abed . eeaitth own houfe, and then inftruéted him in all he knew of the art,
Goad Mepe. o y- see t¥e and found an apt and agreeable {cholar in his protegée. With
whrvetes gee : ~~. the help he thus received from Gillot, and his own admiration
y oe oe : Ari- and attentive ftudy of the Luxembourg allery, he formed a
@ bwostd + ~ “an- tafte for colouring, which if not ag grand, is at leaft as agree-
dewles 4 re ‘g jutt able, as ever was employed *! any one.
@ plement! & &-, “ed He attempted to Prepare himfelf for hiftorical painting,
we Mr. Rew cheers - “*co- and ftudied at the academy with that view 3_he even was fo
commen’ of . at, fuccefsful as to obtain the firft prize there for an hiftorical
ee thick edged ben “on. pidture; but happily he difcovered a charaGter rn ie quite
ob Mageeme, « mW. original and exaétly fuited to his tafte, for which he wifely
bbe Meo Mela deferted hiftory, and which has fince formed plenty of afpir-
pwmees ow ants, but has never been fo fuccefsfully pradtifed. The
& a» wth « : “we in theatre, the Opera, fétes cham tres, mafquerades, panto-
wells © _ar = tor rr “ila- mimes, Puppet-fhows, afforded him his figures ; the gardeng
b queulate toques, Us of the Luxembourg and of the Thuilleries, of Verfailles and
—— Pyreenia as St. Cloud, furnifhed the feenes. In thefe nature revails
i * “de- only in the colouring, and that is exquifite, rich, dducte,
oh ’ “— clear, and full ; bright without Saudinefe, and deep without
GQuass~, | wemerho blacknefs 3 laid on with a freedom, fulnefs, and delicacy of
~ & ——; =? mics touch, which no one ever furpafled; but the airs o =e
—_—~ * we Me- figures are nerally affeGed to the higheft de. ; e
Rept & ays . : « @re- off rank and fathion, sping the enjoyments of misery ane
en _~ » ©in- when he attempted to paint domeftic or rural fcenes, he
=e Say weerc- carried the fame tafte into his praétice. The true charac-
Brovemt. it~ ware ter of Watteau’s pictures is French gentility, gay, cheerful,
Laety & Cites’. . m aely debonnaire, of which felf-fatisfa@ion is the forete bafis.
ow ms he, buy . ay “In his halts and marches of cavalry, the carelefs ftrut
ee looms » ewer of his foldiers retains the air of a nation that afpires to be
ee, ot bed ok Twed- agreeable as well as victorious.” Wattean vifited England
rrr bet feger® «> éameTy inthe reign of George I., but did not enjoy his health here,
St ee : ee els - and returned to France in about a year, where he died in 1721,
oor beet Snes abel early age of 37, ;
the se eee : od = =WATTE » in Geography; a town in Scotland, in the
Stages | a le county of Caithnefs ; 7 miles N.W. of Wick.—Alfo, a
beenpune ' . '€S town of France, in the department of the North, on the
, em, Aa + 4 miles N. of St. Omer,
~~ & 8 WATTEN SCHIED, a town of Germany, in the county
saws . ae eee’ of Mark 35 miles S.W. of Bockum.
ae, ewe, « ed WATTER, a river which rifes in the county of Wal-
eahed —\« each deck, and runs into the Erpe, near Volckmarfen,
from whee «=e ie Pag WATTERPUTTEN, a town of Hindooftan, in Con.
—o lng = wwe se can; 5 miles S. of Geriah.
Tk =e re c=*,,. WATTINAD, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ;
= tee &. ween 20 miles S.S.E. of Tanjore,
po i ~ eee. WATTLE, in Agriculture and Rural Econom » a kind of
Fn * sep" v- hurdle formed by means of {plit wood, or f rods, and
ae ip em we" h ufed for making folds for fheep. The term alfo fignifies a
— 7 7" = flethy excrefcence Srowing from under the tap of the throats
=e _ a» =_= Bb of
= of ope
WATSONIA.
best, efq. in whofe green-houfe at Clapham it flowered the
{pring = rg Bulb roundifh, deprefled. Stem leafy,
lender, about a foot high. Leaves few, alternate, very
narrow, fpreading in two direGtions. Flowers agreeing in
fize and difpofition with thofe of /xia maculata, about three
ia number, of a fine purple, marked with dotted or beaded
veins; their fegments regular, elliptical, longer than the
tube, three of them rather {maller than the reft. Svigmas
three, deeply divided.; or rather, we fhould fay, fix, ftrap-
fhaped, obtufe, revolute, downy. The charaéer of the
Siigmas aniwers to Wat/onia, but the habit is very unlike the
other fpecies.
4: W. marginata. Broad Bordered-leaved Watfonia.
Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 608. Ait. n. 4. (Gladiolus mar-
ginatus; Linn. Suppl.g5. Willd. Sp. Pl. v.a. 217.
Thunb. Gladiol. n, 20. )—Leaves fword-fhaped, with thick
callous edges. Spike fomewhat compound. Mouth of the
corolla with fix teeth.— Abundant on grafly hills at the
Cape of Good Hope, as well as on the Table-mountain,
and other elevated ground, flowering from O&ober to De-
cember often in {uch profufion, as to cover the hills as it
were with a beautiful rofe-coloured carpet. Thunberg. In
our green-houfes it readily bloffoms from June to Augutt,
efpecially if planted in deep pots, and as readily increafes,
being, as Mr. Ker obferves, become within a few years one
of the commoneft of its tribe. The great fize of the
plant, its thick-edged /eaves, not indeed well expreffed in
the Botanical Magazine, and the copious, rofe-coloured
fewers, {melling like Hawthorn, or Heliotrope, render this
one of the moft defirable and ftriking of the Cape bulbs.
The corolla is regular, with a tube about equal to its limb,
having a fhort cylindrical throat. Stigmas long, each in
two divaricated revolute fegments.
5. W. rofea. Pyramidal-fpiked Watfonia. Ker in
Ann. of Bot. n.5. Curt. Mag, t. 1072. Ait. n. 5.
(Gladiolus glumaceus; Thunb. Prodr. 186. Vahl Enum.
v. 2.105. G.miarginatus 3; Thunb. Gladiol. n. 20. G,
inidifolii varietas ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t.235. G. pyramidatus ;
Andr. Repof. t. 335.)—Leaves fword-fhaped, thickened
at the edges. Spike compound. Mouth of the corolla
naked.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope. It appears
to have flowered, for the firft time in England, at the Dow-
ager Lady de Clifford’s, in Auguft 1803. One of the
largeft of its tribe, being fometimes four feet high. We
cannot wonder at this having been taken for a variety of
the laft, at leaft while the {pecies of this difficult order of
plants were but fuperficially examined. The prefent is,
however, the larger and more ftately plant of the two, with
even more beautiful rofe-coloured flowers, whofe corolla
wants the fix marginal teeth round the mouth, which
effentially diftinguifh the preceding.
6. W. brevifolia. Short-leaved Watfonia. Ker in
Curt. Mag. t.601. Ait. n. 6. (Antholyza fpicata ;
Andr. Repof. t. 56. Gladiolus teftaceus; Vahl Enum,
v. 2. 105.) — Leaves ovate-fwordfhaped, equitant, very
fhort. ‘Tube, throat, and limb, of the corolla equal in
length; mouth naked.—Native of the Cape of Good
Hope, from whence it was imported by Mefirs. Lee and
Kennedy, through the hands of Mr. Pringle of Madeira,
in 1794. The /eaves are about four, Jove perfeétly radi-
cal, remarkable for their fhortnefs, being but two or three
inches long, though near an inch wide ; their edges cartila-
ginous, though very narrow. Stem twelve or eighteen
inches high. Spike long, erect, fimple, or fometimes
branched, but not compofed of little {pikelets. Flowers
of a tawny red, about the fize of W. marginata, but the
proportion of their tube, and efpecially their shroat, is longer
compared with the limb. Their colour would lead us to
expect fome fragrance, in the evening at leaft, but this is
faid not to be the cafe. They have, however, the advantage
of being much more lafting than fome of their allies. “The
Jligmas are deeply cloven.
7. W. iridifolia. Flag-leaved Watfonia, “Ker in Ann,
of Bot. n.12. Ait. n.7. (Gladiolus iridifolius ; Jacq.
Ic. Rar. t. 234. .Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 215, excluding the
fynonym of G. cardinalis.)—. var. fulgens; Curt. Mag.
t. 600. (Antholyzafulgens; Andr. Repof. t.192. Gla-
diolus marginatus y; Thunb. Gladiol. n. 20.)—Throat of
the corolla curved, longer than the tube, and rather longer
than the acute limb. Leaves f{word-fhaped, ere&, with a
prominent midrib.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope,
from whence it was fent by Mr. Maffon, in 1795. The
variety @ is preferred, on account of the fplendid fearlet co-
lour of its flowers, in which alone it is faid to differ from
the pale greyifh-flowered plant, figured by Jacquin. We
have not feen the latter, but if the figure be correét, the
tube, and the cylindrical throat, are, each of them, fhorter
in proportion to the /beath, and to the ‘mb, than in the
fcarlet kind. The /eaves in both are long, ere&, and
{carcely thickened at the edges, having more of a midrib
than the feveral foregoing {pecies. he fpathas, in the
{carlet variety, are not much above half the length of the
flender tube, which is about two-thirds as long as the
greatly-extended, cylindrical, curved, and ftrongly deflexed
throat. The latter exceeds the length of the elliptical,
acute, recurved, nearly equal, fegments of the limb. Aa-
thers violet. Stigmas cloven half way down, divaricated.
8. W. Meriana. Red Watfonia. Ker in Ann. of Bot.
n. 11. Curt. Mag. t.1194. Ait. n. 8. (Watfonia;
Mill. Ic. t.276. Antholyza Meriana; Linn. Sp. Pl. 54.
Curt. Mag. t. 418. Gladiolus Merianus; Willd. Sp. BL
v.1. 214. Wahl Enum. v.13. 94. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 230.
Redout. Liliac. t.11. Meriana flore rubello; Trew.
Ehret. t. 40.) P
f. W. angufta; Ker Ann. of Bot. n.9. (G. Meriane
var. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 231.) —— Throat of the corolla
curved, rather longer than the tube, and longer than
the obtufe limb; tube longer than the fpatha. Leaves
fword-fhaped, ere&t, with a prominent midrib.—Native of
the Cape of Good Hope. Raifed from feed, before 1750,
in Chelfea garden, by Miller, who firft gave it the name of
Watfonia. A large and handfome fpecies nearly akin to
the lait, but fufficiently diftin&t, and charaéterized by the
blunt fegments of its corolla. The proper hue of the
flowers is a peculiar falmon-coloured red, rather than a
{carlet, as may be feen in Miller’s and Jacquin’s figures,
and efpecially Curtis’s t.418. But the corolla varies in
this refpeét, as well as in fize, of which the two ex-
tremes are the Botan. Mag. t. 1194, and Jacq. Ic. Rar.
t.231. ‘The latter, which we haye never feen in England,
was referred to this fpecies by the late Mr. Dryander,
from a drawing fent by Jacquin, how juitly can only be a
matter of opinion, unlefs living {pecimens were accurately
compared. The fpecies before us flowers with other Cape
bulbs in May and June, increafing plentifully by offsets.
9: W. humilis. Crimfon Watfonia. Mill. Ic. t. 297.
f.2. Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 631. 1195. Ait. n.g. (Gla-
diolus laceatus ; Jacq. 0 Rar. t. 232. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 1. 215-)—Throat of the corolla curved, rather longer
than the acute limb; tube the length of the Co.
Leaves fword-fhaped, ere&t, with a prominent midrib.—
Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from whence the feeds
were obtained by Miller, in 1754. Muich fmaller than
feveral of the laft defcribed, being feldom above a foot
high,
WAT
high, with linear eaves. The flowers are of a crimfoa, or
cate lblixed: hue, not verging towards a fearlet, or tawny
red. They vary in fize, as may be feen by the two figures
in the Botanical Magazine. The throat is correétly cylin-
drical ; tube generally fhorter than the /patha, not longer.
We are obliged to content ourfelves with the above fpecific
charaéters; founded on the proportion of thefe parts, for
want of better. Mr. Ker and Mr. Dryander have done
much towards the correét difcrimination of genera and {pe-
cies in this favourite tribe, but the fubje& is far from
being exhautted.
10. W. rofeo-alba. Long-tubed Watfonia. Ker in
Curt. Mag. t.537. Ait. Epit. 376. (Gladiolus rofeo-
albus ; Jacq. Hort. Schoenbr. v. 1. 7. t.13. Vahl Enum.
Vv. 2. 93-)
B. Aavtetiated with red. Ker in Curt. Mag. t. 1193.
Ait. Epit. 376.—Tube about twice the length of the
throat, limb, or {patha, making nearly a right angle with
the throat. Leaves {word-fhaped, with a midrib.—Native
of the Cape of Good Hope. The éube is one and a half or
two inches long, ereét; throat fuddenly deflexed, cylindri-
eal, rather flender, an inch long ; fegments of the limb lan-
ceolate, acute, the length of the throat. 4nthers but juft
projecting out of the mouth of the flower, violet-coloured.
Stigmas in linear fegments. The corolla is either cream-co-
loured, with rofe-coloured tints about the mouth and throat,
or flefh-coloured blotched with fcarlet, or all over crimfon.
The flowers are more numerous and crowded than in W.
Meriana and its allies. We cannot doubt the diftinétnefs
of this {pecies.
11. W. aletroides. Aletris-flowered Watfonia. Ker in
Ann. of Bot. n.7. Ait. n.1o. Curt. Mag. t. 533. (Gla-
diolus tubulofus ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 229. Antholyza tubu-
lofa; Andr. Repof. t.174. A. Merianella; Curt. Mag.
t. 441, excluding the reference to Miller.) —Throat de-
flexed, four times as long as the fegments of the limb.—
Found at the Cape of Good Hope by Mr. Maffon, who
fent bulbs to Kew garden in 1774. This elegant {pecies
‘bears numerous drooping flowers, of a rich crimfon, fome-
times fpeckled with a darker tint, or with white, and re-
markable for their {mall flightly-fpreading /imb, fo fhort in
roportion to the long tubular deflexed throat, that they re-
fobs the flowers of an Aletris or Aloe. The leaves are
{word-fhaped, narrow, with a central rib not very ftrongly
marked, and feveral {mall lateral ones.
12. W. ffridiflera. Straight-flowered Watfonia. Ker
in Curt. Mag. t.1406. Ait. Epit. 376.—Tube thread-
fhaped, twice the length of the fpatha; throat ere€t, very
fhort, flightly dilated; fegments of the limb elliptical,
obtufe, half the length of the tube. Leaves {word-fhaped,
with a prominent midrib.—Native of the Cape of Good
Hope, from whence it was imported by the honourable
W. Herbert. The ffem is about twelve or eighteen inches
high, with feveral fhortifh taper-pointed /eaves at the bottom,
and bears about two handfome crimfon flewers, refembling
fome of the larger /xie, in the fhape, fize, and pofture of
the limb, with avery long ftraight flender tube. Stigmas
divided, as in true Wat/onie, the only charaéter in which
this plant anfwers to the genus. On the contrary, Gia-
diolus Watfonius, Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 233. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v.1. 214. Ait. v.1.96. Curt. Mag. t. 450 and 569, (fee
G.apiowvs, ) has every charaCter and appearance of a Wat-
Sonia, even a regular flower, except the narrow deeply cloven
Jfligmas. We are obliged, therefore, to confefs, that thefe ge-
nera do not at prefent reft on any natural diftin&tion, how-
ever different fome of their fpecies may be from each
other.
Vou. XXXVITI.
Wart
WAT-TAUPAUMENE, or Sr. Peter, in Geography,
a river of North America, which runs into the Miffiffippi,
N. lat. 44° 42'. W. long. 93° 38!.
WATTEAU, Anrtuony, in Biography, one of the moft
agreeable painters of the French fchool, was born at Valen-
ciennes in 1684. His parents were in indigent circumftances,
and he was placed with an obfcure artift in his native city, to
cultivate a talent which manifefted itfelf early. When he was
about 16 years old, having already furpaffed his preceptor,
he conneéted himfelf with a fcene-painter on his way to Paris,
and for fome time affifted his affociate in decorating the
opera-houfe in that city. .When this engagement was com-
pleted Watteau found it difficult to refcue himfelf from the
obfcurity and embarraffment into which he fell, when happily
he became acquainted with Claude Gillot, a painter of gro-
tefque and fabulous fubje&ts, who was pleafed with his
works and difpofition. Gillot afforded him an afylum in his
own houfe, and then inftruéted him in all he knew of the art,
and found an apt and agreeable fcholar in his protegée. With
the help he thus received from Gillot, and his own admiration
and attentive ftudy of the Luxembourg gallery, he formed a
tafte for colouring, which if not as grand, is at leaft as agree-
able, as ever was employed by any one.
He attempted to prepare himfelf for hiftorical painting,
and ftudied at the academy with that view ; he even was fo
fuccefsful as to obtain the firft prize there for an hiftorical
picture ; but happily he difcovered a charaGter of fubje& quite
pu ae and exaétly fuited to his tafte, for which he wifely
deferted hiftory, and which has fince formed plenty of afpir-
ants, but has never been fo fuccefsfully pra&tifed. The
theatre, the opera, fétes champetres, mafquerades, panto-
mimes, puppet-fhows, afforded him his figures ; the gardens
of the Luxembourg and of the Thuilleries, of Verfailles and
St. Cloud, furnifhed the fcenes. In thefe nature prevails
only in the colouring, and that is exquifite, rich, delicate,
clear, and full; bright without gaudinefs, and deep without
blacknefs ; laid on with a freedom, fulnefs, and delicacy of
touch, which no one ever furpafled; but the airs of his
figures are generally affe€ted to the higheft degree ; people
of rank and fafhion, aping the enjoyments of rural life: and
when he attempted to paint domeftic or rural fcenes, he
carried the fame tafte into his praétice. The true charac-
ter of Watteau’s pi€tures is French gentility, gay, cheerful,
debonnaire, of which felf-fatisfaction is the fureft bafis.
“In his halts and marches of cavalry, the carelefs ftrut
of his foldiers retains the air of a nation that afpires to be
agreeable as well as victorious.’”? Watteau vifited England
in the reign of George I., but did not enjoy his health here,
and returned to France in about a year, where he died in 1721,
at the early age of 37.
WATTEN, in Geography; a town in Scotland, in the
county of Caithnefs; 7 miles N.W. of Wick.—Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of the North, on the
Aa; 4 miles N. of St. Omer.
WATTENSCHIED,a town of Germany, in the county
of Mark ; 5 miles S.W. of Bockum.
WATTER, ariver which rifes in the county of Wal-
deck, and runs into the Erpe, near Volckmarfen.
WATTERPUTTEN, a town of Hindooftan, in Con-
can; 5 miles S. of Geriah.
WATTINAD, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic 5
20 miles $.S.E. of Tanjore.
WATTLE, in Agriculture and Rural Economy, a kind of
hurdle formed by means of {plit wood, or {mall rods, and
ufed for making folds for fheep. The term alfo fignifies a
flefhy excrefcence growing from under the top of the threats
Bb Ce)
WAT
of animals, fuch as the cock, turkey, and fome others.
Hurpie. *
Warrtre-Bird. See Graucoris Cinerea.
Warttes, in Rural Economy, a term applied, in fome
places, to the rods that are laid upon a roof to be thatched
on. This is found an ufeful and cheap mode for farm build-
ings in fome of the fouthern diftris. See THarcuine.
WATTON, in Geography, a {mall market-town in the
hundred of Wayland and county of Norfolk, England, is
fituated on the confines of what is called the Filand, or open
part of the county, at the diftance of 21 miles W. by S. from
Norwich, and gt miles N.N.E. from London. Since the
making of the turnpike-road throughthe hundred, Watton has
become a place of confiderable thoroughfare. It has three
annual fairs, and a refpectable weekly market on Wednefdays.
Great quantities of butter are fent hence for the fupply of
the London markets. In the enumeration of the popula-
tion for the year 1811, the parifh was ftated to contain 177
houfes, with a population of 794 perfons. The church is
very {mall, being only twenty yards long and eleven broad :
the tower is round at the bottom, and 6Gangular at the top.
Blomefield was induced, from the appearance of the church,
to fuppofe it was ere€ted fo early as the reign of Henry I.
It ftands at a diftance from the town, near the {cite of the old
manorial houfe ; and was evidently fo placed to accommo-
date the tenants of the feveral hamlets belonging to the ma-
nor. On the 25th of April 1673, a dreadful fire happened
in the town, when above fixty houfes were burnt down, be-
fides outhoufes, &c. to the damage of 7450/., and goods to
the further value of 266o0/.: for which a brief was granted to
colle& throughout England for two years.—Blomefield’s
Effay towards a Topographical Hiftory of Norfolk, vol. 2.
8vo. 1805. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xi. Nor-
folk. By Rev. J. Evans, and J. Britton, F.S.A.
WATTS, Isaac, D.D. in Biography, a Nonconformift
divine, eminently diftinguifhed for talents and piety, was born
at Southampton in 1674, where, under the tuition of a clergy-
man of the eftablifhed church, he made rapid progrefs in the
Latin and Greek languages, and acquired fome knowledge
even of Hebrew. When it was propofed by fome gentlemen
who were apprized of his proficiency, to bear the charges of
his education in one of the Englith univerfities, he declared his
purpofeof continuing among the Diffenters, though his father,
who was of that profeffion, had often fuffered perfecution; and
at the age of fixteen he was placed under the care of the Rev.
Thomas Rowe, who kept an academy in London. Twenty-
two Latin differtations on metaphyfical and theological fub-
jeéts, found among his papers, afford ample evidence of his
zealous application during his conne¢tion with this inftitu-
tion. Of his poetical talents at the early age of fifteen years
feveral fpecimens have been preferved, and more particularly
a Pindaric ode, addrefled to his preceptor Mr. Pinhorne. At
the age of twenty he finifhed his academical ftudies, and
refided with his father for two years with a view to farther
improvement. At this time he was invited to become private
tutor to the fon of fir John Hartopp, bart. at Stoke-Newing-
ton near London, and in this fituation he continued for five
years, gaining univerfal efteem, cultivating a friendfhip with
his pupil which lafted through life, and conneéting with the
difcharge of his office the ftudy of the fcriptures in the
original languages. Although he was well qualified for the
public exercife of his miniftry, fuch was his diffidence that
he would not venture to afcend the pulpit till he had com-
pleted his twenty-fourth year, at which time he was chofen
affiftant to Dr. Ifaac Chauncy, whom he fucceeded as. paftor
in the year 1702. His conftitution was fo delicaté that he
could not undertake the whole fervice, and the attack of a
See
WAT
fever in 1712 difqualified him for his public duties’ for
four years. In this ftate of debility he was kindly re-
ceived in the houfe of fir Thomas Abney, where the indulgent
treatment of this gentleman and his lady contributed to reftore
his health and fpirits. In this hofpitable manfion he not only
found a temporary afylum, but a permanent abode for the
remaining thirty-fix years of his life. Here he enjoyed every
comfort which friendfhip and liberality could beftow, and
which, by repairing his enfeebled frame, enabled him to re-
fume his fervices in public and to profecute his private ftu-
dies, no lefs to the improvement and {fatisfaétion of thofe
with whom he was immediately conneCted, than to the bene-
fit of the world ; infomuch that few perfons have acquired a
more extenfive and a more permanent popularity, as it re-
{peéts the interefts both of literature and of religion. His
reputation attracted the notice of both the univerfities of Edin-
burgh and Aberdeen, and they feemed to vie with each other
which fhould firft confer upon him the honour of the degree of
doétor in divinity, and he received it from thefe two univerfi-
ties in the year 1728. His conftitution, though in fome de-
gree renovated by the attention and kindnefs which he expe-
rienced, was ftill fo delicate and feeble, that he found it ne-
ceflary to remit, and at length to refign his minifterial duties ;
but his congregation teftified their re{pe& for him by declin-
ing to accept his offer of the renunciation of his ufual falary:
However, he gradually declined, and calmly expired at Stoke
Seenceas November the 25th, £748, in the 75th year of
is age.
Dr. Watts was a man of lively fancy, warm feelings, and
a comprehenfive underftanding, and diftinguifhed by that
verfatility of talents and purfuits, which enabled him to ac-
quire a confiderable degree of reputation in various depart-
ments of literature, but which prevented his arriving ata
{upereminent rank in any. The charatteriftic quality of his
mind, manifefted in his numerous produétions, was a devo-
tional fpirit. Of his “¢ Hore Lyrice,’’ the greateft number
belongs to the devotional clafs, and in thefe his ardent feelings
and imagination have fometimes tranfported him beyond the
bounds which acorreé& tafte and found judgment would have
prefcribed. The fame obfervation may be alfo applied to his
“ Pfalms and Hymns,”? and more efpecially to the latter,
which were juvenile compofitions, and in which a fober
reader will be difguited with the contraft that is exhibited
between the wrath of the Supreme Being and the benignity of
the Son of God ; as if the Deity were inclined to punifh his
offending creatures with everlafting punifhment, and the Son
were difpofed to refene and: fave them. Many of the pfalms
and hymns, however, are admirably adapted to Chriftian
worfhip, and a fele& colle&tion of them, which has been
lately made by fome miniftérs in London, and which they
have enriched by extracts from other fources, is lefs excep-
tionable in a variety of refpects than either the pfalms or
hymns even of Dr. Watts in their original ftate; and in
thefe devotion and poetry are more hapa combined for the
worfhip of Diffenters and even of Churchmen than in the
pfalmody of the eftablifhment. Many of Watts’s lyric pro-
duétions poflefs confiderable poetical merit, and difplay a
fertility and elegance of fancy. His ** Divine Songs for.
Children’? have been widely circulated, and are well caleu-
lated to intereft and: imprefs youthful minds; and they are,
generally fpeaking, unexceptionable, though not incapable
of caftigation and improvement.
The doétor’s philofophical publications are numerous, and
moit of them are well known. Among thefe we may reckon
his “ Logic,’’ and the fupplement to ity entitled the “ Im-
provement of the Mind ;”? ** A Difcourfe on Education ;’?
« An Elementary Treatife on Aftronomy and Geography ;”?
“ Philofo-
Wow Vv
« Philofophical Effays on various Subjects, with Remarks
on Locke’s Effay on the Human Underttanding ;”” and “ A
brief Scheme of Ontology.’? His other works are chiefly
theological, confifting of Sermons, Difcourfes, Effays, and
Controverfial Tra&ts, &c. His fcheme of theology was
_ undoubtedly that which is ufually called orthodoxy, and, to
fay the leaft of it, approaching to Calvinifm. His temper,
however, was kind and gentle, and his moderation was in-
creafing as he advanced in years, and the maturity of his
judgment reftrained and controlled the fervour of his feelings
and paflions. Some have faid that towards the clofe of life
his fentiments, with regard'to the doétrine of the Trinity,
were materially altered. This, however, is a queftion /ub
judice. Whilft it is needlefs in this place to enter into the dif-
pute, and to examine the allegations pro and con, we incline
to think, as far as we have had an opportunity of examining
the evidence, that the fuppofition of fome degree of change
is not improbable. ‘The printed Works of Dr. Watts, to-
gether with thofe which were left in M.S. for the revifion of
Dr. Jennings and Dr. Doddridge, were publifhed collectively
by Dr. Gibbons, in 6 vols. 4to. 1754. We fhall conclude
this article with the words of one of his biographers. ‘* To
whatever cfafs Dr. Watts belongs,’’ ranked by this biographer
among the decided advocates for orthodoxy,‘ he muft-always
be regarded as one of thofe whofe whole heart was devoted
to the promotion of the beft interefts of mankind, and whofe
life would have done honour to any fy{tem of opinions.”
Gibbons’s Memoirs of Watts. Johnfon’s Lives of the Poets.
Gen. Biog.
Warts, in Geography, a town of Virginia; 30 miles N.W.
of Alexandria.—Alfo, a town of the ftateof Georgia. N.
lat. 34° 22'. W. long. 86° 25/. :
Watts Jfland, a {mall ifland in the Chefapeak. N. lat.
°54!. W. long. 76° 3!.
WATTUSKIFLET, achannel of the Baltic, between
the ifland of Aland and the coaft of Finland, abounding with
fmall iflands.
WATWEILER, or WarrerwEILER, a town of France,
in the dapartment of the Upper Rhine. Near it is a medi-
cinal {pring ; 16 miles S. of Colmar.
WAU, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Werrear ;
24 miles N. of Radunpour.
WAU-CA-HATCHO, or Cow-Tait River, a river of
Louifiana, which is the laft ftream of any confequence that
enters the Sabine. :
WAVE, Unnpa, in Phyfics, a cavity in the furface of
the water, or other fluid, with an elevation on its fides.
Or, it is a volume of water elevated by the action of the
wind upon its furface, into a ftate of flu€tuation.
The origin of waves may be thus conceived. The fur-
face of a ftanding water being naturally plain, and parallel
to the horizon, (allowing for that fmall degree of curvature
which refults from its gravitation to the centre,) if by any
means it be rendered hollow, as at A, (Plate XV. Hy-
draulics, fig. 11.) its cavity will be furrounded with an ele-
vation B B ; for if a certain quantity of water be depreffed
below the ufual level, an equal quantity muft rife in fome
other place above that level, and the water which ftands
clofeft to the place of the original impreflion will of courfe
be moved. The raifed water will defcend by its gravity,
and, with the celerity acquired in defcending, will form a
new cavity ; by which motions, the water will afcend at the
fides of this cavity, and fill the cavity A, while there is a
new elevation towards C; and, when this laft is depreffed,
the water rifes anew towards the fame part. Thus arifes a
fucceffive motion in the furface of the water; and a cavity,
which carries an elevation before it, is moved along from A,
WAV
towards C. Thus the alternate rifing and falling of the water
in ridges ‘will extend all round the original fource of motion ;
but as they recede from that place, fo the ridges, as well as the
adjoining hollows, become {maller and fmaller, until they
vanifh. This diminution of fize is produced by three
caufes; viz. by the want of perfeé& freedom of motion
amongit the particles of water, by the refiftance of the air,
and by the further ridges being larger in diameter than thofe
which are nearer. It is likewife on account of the fri€tion,
or adhefion, among the particles of water, and of the refift-
ance of the air, that, in the fame place, the alternate eleva-
tions and depreffions diminifh gradually, until the water re-
affumes its original tranquillity, unlefs the external impref-
fion be renewed or continued. This cavity, with the eleva-
tion next it, is called a wave ;*and the {pace taken up by
the wave on the furface of the water, and meafured ‘accord-
ing to the dire€tion of the wave’s motion, is called the
breadth of the wave; which is evidently equal to the dif-
tance between the tops of contiguous ridges, or between
the loweft parts of two contiguous hollows ; and a wave is
faid to have run its breadth, when its elevated part is arrived
at the place where the elevated part of the next wave ftood
before, or (the fituations of two contiguous waves being
given) when one of them is arrived at the place of the other ;
and the time which is employed in this tranfition is called
the time of a wave’s motion.
Waves, the Motion of, forms an article in the new phi-
lofophy ; and its laws being now pretty well determined,
we fhall give the reader the fubftance of what is taught on
this fubject.
1. The cavity, as A, is encompaffed every way with an
elevation; and the motion above-mentioned expands itfelf
every way: therefore the waves are moved circularly.
2. Suppofe, now, AB (fig. 12.) an obftacle, againft
which the wave, whofe beginning is at C, ftrikes; and we
are to examine what change the wave fuffers in any point,
as E, when it is come to the obftacle in that point. In all
places through which the wave pafles in its whole breadth,
the wave is raifed ; then a cavity is formed, which is again
filled up ; which change while the furface of the water un-
dergoes, its particles go and return through a {mall {pace :
the dire@tion of this motion is along C E, and the celerity
may be reprefented by that line. Let this motion be con-
trived to be refolved into two other motions, along G E and
DE, whofe celerities are re{peCtively reprefented by thofe
lines. By the motion along D E, the particles do not aé&
againft the obftacle; but, after the itroke, continue their
motion in“that direétion with the fame celerity ; and this
motion is here reprefented by E F, fuppofing E F and ED
to be equal to one another ; but by the motion along GE,
the particles ftrike dire€tly again{t the obftacle, and this
motion is deftroyed: for though the particles are elaftic,
yet, as in the motion of the waves they run through but a
{mall fpace, going backward and forward, they proceed fo
flowly, that the figure of the particles cannot be changed by
the blow ; and fo are fubje& to the laws of percuflion of
bodies perfe@tly hard. See PERCUSSION.
But there is a refleGtion of the particles from another
caufe: the water which cannot go forward beyond the ob-
ftacle, and is puffied on by that which follows it, gives way
where there is the leaft refiftance; that is, it afcends; and
this elevation, which is greater in fome than other places, is
caufed by the motion along G E ; becaufe it is by that mo-
tion alone that the particles impinge again{ft the obftacle.
The water, by its defcent, acquires the fame velocity with
which it was raifed ; and the particles of water are repelled
from the obftacle with the fame force in the direction E G,
Bb 2z as
WAVES.
as that with which they ftruck againft the obftacle. From
this motion, and the motion above-mentioned viens Bs
arifes a motion along EH, whofe celerity is exprefled by
the line EH, which is equal to the line CE; and by the
refleGtion, the celerity of the wave is not changed, but it
returns along EH, in the fame manner as if, taking away
the obftacle, it had moved along E 4.
If from the point C, C D be drawn perpendicular to the
obftacle, and then produced, fo that Dc fhall be equal to
CD, the line HE continued will go through c; and as
this demonftration holds good in all points of the obftacle,
it follows, that the reflected wave has the fame figure on
that fide of the obftacle, as it would have had beyond the
line A B, if it had not ftruck againft the obftacle. If the
obftacle be inclined to the horizon, the water rifes and de-
fcends upon it, and fuffers a fri€tion, by which the reflection
of the waye is difturbed, and’ often wholly deftroyed ; and
this is the reafon why very often the banks of rivers do not
refle@ the waves.
If there be a hole, as I, in the obftacle B L, the part of
the wave which goes through the hole, continues its motion
direG@ly, and expands itfelf towards QQ; and there is a
new wave formed, which moves in a femicircle, whofe
centre is the hole. For the raifed part of the wave, which
firft goes through the hole, immediately flows down a little
at the fides; and, by defcending, makes a cavity which is
f{urrounded with an elevation on every part beyond the hole,
which moves every way in the fame manner as was laid down
in the generation of the firft wave.
In the fame manner, a wave to which an obftacle, as A O,
is oppofed, continues to move between O aad N, but ex-
pands itfelf towards R, in a part of a circle, whofe centre
ig not very far from O. Hence, we may eafily deduce
what muft be the motion of a wave behind an obftacle,
as MN.
Waves are oftenyproduced by the motion of a tremulous
body, which alfo expand themfelves circularly, though the
body goes and returns in a right line; for the water which
is raifed by the agitation, defcending, forms a cavity, which
is every where {urrounded with a rifing.
Different waves do not difturb one another, when they
move according to different direétions. The reafon is, that
whatever figure the furface of the water has acquired by the
motion of the waves, there may in that be an elevation and
depreffion ; as alfo fuch a motion as is required in the motion
of a wave.
To determine the celerity of the waves, another motion,
analogous to their’s, muft be examined. Suppole a fluid
in the bent)cylindric tube E H (fig. 13.); and let the fluid
in the leg EF be higher than in the other leg by the dif-
ance /E; which diftance is to be divided into two equal
parts at %. The fluid, by its gravity, defcends in the leg
EF, while it afcends equally in the les GH; fo that when
the furface of the fluid is arrived at #, it is at the fame height
in both legs; which is the only pofition in which the liquid
can be at reft: but by the celerity acquired in defcending,
it continues its motion, and afcends higher in the tube G H ;°
and in EF is deprefled quite to /, except fo much as it is
hindered by the friction againft the fides of the tube. The
fluid in the tube G H, which is higher, alfo defcends by its
gravity, and fo the fluid in the tube rifes and falls, till it has
loft all its motion by the friction.
The quantity of matter to be moved is the whole fluid in
the tube ; the moving force is the weight of the column 1 baa
whofe height is alway? double the diltance E#; which dif-
tance, therefore, increafes and diminifhes in the fame ratio
with the moving force. But the diftance J2/ is the {pace to
be run through by the fuid, in order to its moving from the
pofition E i to the pofition of reft; which fpace, there-
fore, is always as the force continually ating upon the
fluid: but it is demonftrated, that it is on this account that
all the vibrations of a pendulum, ofcillating in a cycloid, are
ifochronal ; and, therefore, here alfo, whatever be the ine-
quality of the agitations, the fluid always goes and returns
in the fame time. The time in which a fluid thus agitated
afcends, or defcends, is the time in which a pendulum vi-
brates, whofe length is equal to half the length of the fluid
in the tube, or to half the fum of the lines E F, F G, EH.
This length is to be meafured in the axis of the tube. See
PENDULUM.
From thefe principles, to determine the celerity of the
waves, we mutt confider feveral equal waves following one
another immediately ; as A, B, rol D, E, F, (fg- 14-)
which move from A towards F: the wave A has run its
breadth, when the cavity A is come to C; which cannot
be, unlefs the water at C afcends to the height of the top
of the wave, and again defcends to the depth C; in whicl
motion, the water is not agitated fenfibly below the line bi:
therefore, this motion agrees with the motion in the tube
above-mentioned ; and the water afcends and defcends, that
is, the wave goes through its breadth, while a pendulum of
the length of half BC performs two ofcillations, or while a
pendulum of the length BCD, that is, four times as lon
as the firft, performs one vibration ; fince the times in Sead 4
pendulums of different lengths perform their vibrations are
as the fquares of their lengths. (See Visration.) There-
fore, the celerity of the wave depends upon the length of
the line BCD; which is greater, as the breadth of the
wave is greater, and as the water defcends deeper in the
motion of the waves. In the broadeft waves, which do not
rife high, fuch a line as BCD does not much differ from
the breadth of the wave ; and in that cafe a wave moves its
breadth, while a pendulum, equal to that wave, ofcillates
once. Hence, if the breadth of a wave be 39.1196 inches,
(this being the len gth of a pendulum which vibrates feconds, )
then that wave will move on at the rate of 39.1196 inches
per fecond of time; that is, at the rate of 195 feet per
minute, nearly.
In every equable motion, the {pace gone through in-
creafes with the time and the celerity ; wherefore, multiply-
ing the time by the celerity, you have the {pace gone
throuyh ; whence it follows, that the celerities of the waves
are as the {quare roots of their breadths: for as the times in
which they go through their breadths are in that ratio, the
fame ratio is required in their celerities, that the produéts
of the times, by their celerities, may be as the breadths of
the waves, which are the {paces gone through.
Dr. Young is of opinion, that fir Ifaac Newton’s ana-
logy, refulting from a comparifon of a wave with the ofcil-
lation of a fluid in a bent tube, is too diftant to admit our
founding any demonftration upon it. Legrange, he fays,
has inveltigated the motions of waves in a new and improyed
manner; and Dr. Young has alfo demonttrated a theorem
fimilar to his, but, as he apprehends, more general and ex-
plicit. From thefe premifes it appears, that, fuppofing the
fluids concerned to be infinitely elaltic, that is, abfolutel
incompreflible, and free from fri€tion of all kinds, any {ma
impulfe communicated to a fluid would be tranimitted every
way along its furface, with a velocity equal to that which a
heavy body would acquire in falling through half the depth
of the fluid; and he concludes, from obiervation and ex-
peament, that where the elevation or depreflion of the fur-
ace is confiderably extenfive in proportion to the depth,
the velocity approaches nearly to that which is thus deter-
mined,
WAVES.
mined, being frequently deficient one-eighth or one-tenth
only of the wliok? In other cafes, where a number of {mall
waves follow each other at intervals confiderably lefs than
the depth, he has endeavoured to calculate the retardation
which mutt be occafioned by the imperfeé elafticity or com-
preffibility of the fluid; but it feems probable that the
motion of {mall waves is fill much flower than this calcula-
tion appears to indicate. Many of the phenomena of waves,
fays this ingenious author, may be very conveniently ex-
hibited by means of a wide and fhallow veffel, with a bot-
tom of glafs, terminated by fides inclined to the horizon ; in
order to avoid the confufion which would arife from the
continual reflections produced by perpendicular furfaces.
The waves may be excited by the vibrations of an elaftic rod
or wire, loaded with a weight, by means of which its mo-
tions may be made more or lefs rapid at pleafure; and the
form and progrefs of the waves may be eafily obferved, by
placing a light under the veffel, fo that their fhadows may
fall on a white furface, extended in an inclined pofition.
In this manner, the manifeft infle@tion of the furface of the
water may be made perfeétly con{picuous.
This motion of the fea-water depends greatly on the
winds, and on the fituation of mountains, in regard to the
fea; for the winds are driven back from thefe with great
impetuofity ; and in fome places this occafions a great and
very irregular undulation, befide that which is produced by
the immediate aétion of the winds on the furface of the
water in their own direé& courfe.
Waves are to be confidered as of two kinds, and thefe
may be diftinguifhed from one another by the names of
natural and accidental waves.
The natural waves are thofe which are regularly propor-
tioned in fize to the ftrength of the wind, whofe blowing
gives origin to them. The accidental waves are thofe occa-
fioned by the wind’s reaéting upon itfelf by repercuffion
from hills and mountains, or high fhores, and by the wafh-
ing of the waves themfelves, otherwife of the natural kind,
againft rocks and fhoals: all thefe caufes give the waves an
elevation, which they can never have in their natural ftate.
It feems to be pretty well determined, from a variety of
experiments and obfervations, that the moft violent wind
never penetrates a great way into the water; and that in
great ftorms the water of the fea is flightly agitated at the
depth of 20 feet below the ufual level, and probably not
moved at all at the depth of 30 feet, or 5 fathoms; con-
fequently the natural difplacing of the waters by the wind
canuot be fuppofed to reach nearly fo Jow: and hence it
fhould feem, that the greateft waves could not be fo very
high as they are reprefented by accurate and creditable navi-
gators. Mr. Boyle found, upon inquiry, that when the
wind was high, fo that the waves were manifeftly fix or feven
feet high above the furface of the water, no fign of agita-
tion was perceived at the depth of 15 fathoms; but if the
blaft continued long, then the mud at the bottom was ftirred,
and the water became thick and dark. Perfons who have
remained for fome time at a confiderable depth have been
furprifed to find a ftorm, when they have returned to the
upper parts of the water. At the depth of 12 or 15 feet,
the agitation of the water has been accordingly diminifhed ;
and at a confiderable diltance from the fhore, and in deeper
water, the fea has been found proportionably calm and tran-
quil. It has alfo been found, that in a part of the fea often
tempeftuous, the {torm did not reach with any efficacy four
fathoms beneath the furface of the water. Boyle’s Works,
vol. iv. p. 354, 4to. Relations about the Bottom of the
Sea, § 3.
Count Marfigli. meafured carefully the’ elevations of the
waves near Provence, and found that, in a very violent tem-
peft, they arofe only to feven feet above the natural level of
the fea; and this additional foot in height, above the refult
of Mr. Boyle’s deduétions, he eafily refolved into the acci-
dental fhocks of the water againft the bottom, which was,
in the place he meafured them in, not fo deep as to be out
of the way of affeGting the waves; and he allows that the
addition of one-fixth of the height of a wave, from fuch a
difturbance from the bottom, is a very moderate alteration
from what would have been its height in a deep fea; and
concludes, that Mr. Boyle’s calculation holds perfetly right
in deep feas, where the waves are purely natural, and have
no accidental caufes to render them larger than their juft
proportion.
In deep water, under the high fhores of the fame part of
France, this author found the natural-elevation of the waves
to be only five feet; but he found alfo that their breakin
againft rocks, and other accidents to which they were liable
in this place, often raifed them to eight feet high.
We are not to fuppofe, from this calculation, that no
wave of the fea can rife more than fix feet above its natural
level in open and deep water; for waves immenfely higher
than thefe are formed in violent tempefts in the great feas.
Thefe, however, are not to be accounted waves in their
natural ftate, but they are fingle waves formed of many
others ; for in thefe wide plains of water, when one wave is
raifed by the wind, and would elevate itfelf up to the exaé
height of fix feet, and no more, the motion of the water is
fo great, and the fucceffion of waves fo quick, that, during
the time this is rifing, it receives into it feveral other waves,
each of which would have been at the fame height with itfelf :
thefe run into the firft wave one after the another, as it is
rifing ; and by this means its rife is continued much longer
than it naturally would have been, and it becomes accumu-
lated to an enormous fize. A number of thefe complicated
waves arifing together, and being continued in a long fuc-
ceffion by the continuation of the ftorm, makes the waves fo
dangerous to fhips, which the failors in their phrafe call
mountains high. Marfigli, Hift. Phyf. de la Mer.
When it blows frefh, the waves not moving with fuff-
cient rapidity, their tops, which are thinner and lighter, are
impelled forward, broken, and changed into a white foam,
particles of which, called the « {pray,”’ are carried a great
way. Waves, with regard to their form, are circular or
ftraight, or otherwife bent, according as the original im-
preflion is made in a narrow {pace nearly circular, or in a
ftraight line, or in other configurations. In open feas the
waves generally are in the fhape of ftraight furrows, becaufe
the wind blows upon the water in a parallel manner, or at
leaft for a long apparent tra@.. The fame caufes which
raife water into waves muft evidently produce the like effe@
on other fluids, but in various degrees, as thé fluid is more
or lefs heavy, as its particles adhere more or lefs forcibly to
each other, and probably likewife as there is a greater or
lefs degree of attraction between the fluid and the other
body which gives it the impulfe. If it be attempted to
raile waves upon oil by the force of wind, it will be found
very difficult to fucceed in a fimilar degree. This difficulty
is probably owing to the natural attraétion of the particles
of oil; and befides, there may be lefs attra@tion between cil
and air than between the latter and water, for water always
contains a certain quantity of air; and if it be deprived of
that air by boiling, or otherwife, a fhort expofure to the
atmofphere will enable the water to reimbibe it. It is like-
wife probable, that the furface of water, even when Rag-
10 Dant,
WAY
nant, may,not be fo {mooth as the furface of oil, fo that the
wind may more eafily catch into the inequalities of the
former than the latter. Hence it is that the effe& of the
wind upon waves may in a great degree be prevented or
moderated, by {preading a thin film of oil on the furface of
the water. For an account of this operation and its effeéts,
fee Oi. :
Wave-Ofering, among the Jews, a facrifice offered
by agitation or waving towards the four cardinal points.
To Wave, is ufed, in the Sea-Language, for the making
figns for a veffel to come near, or keep off.
WAVED, or Wavy, aterm in Heraldry, when a bor-
dure, or any ordinary or charge in a coat of arms, has its
outlines indented, in manner of the rifing and falling of
waves. This is alfo called undy, undé, or ondé, and denotes
that the firft of the family in whofe arms it ftands, acquired
his honours for fea fervices, and has this peculiar comme-
moration of it ordered in his arms.
Waven Hair-Gra/s, in Agriculture, a fort of grafs which
is found to be pretty productive on mountain heathy lands,
and which abounds pretty much in nutritive matter, but
which lofes confiderably in its weight in drying, according
to the trials which have lately been made on graffes at
Woburn. See Arra Flexuofa.
WAVELLITE, in Mineralogy, a mineral firft “difco-
yered at Barnftaple, in Devonfhire, by Dr. Wavell, and
fince found in various other fituations. From its appearance,
it has been claffled by Mr. Jamefon as a member of the
zeolite family. See ZEOLITE.
Wavellite occurs in a botryoidal, ftalaétical, and globu-
lar form ; alfo cryftallized in very oblique four-fided prifms,
flatly bevelled on the extremities: the bevelling planes are
fet on the obtufe lateral edges. The prifms are fometimes
deeply truncated on the obtufe lateral edges. Wavellite
oceurs alfo in fibres, or acicular prifms, diverging froma
common centre, and either feparated or adhering laterally to
each other, compofing hemifpherical concretions of various
fizes, to the magnitude of a bullet. The luftre of wavellite
is pearly, more or lefs fhinmg. The colour is yellowith-
white, greyifh-white, and greenifh-white ; it is tranflucent.
This mineral is brittle, and, according to profeffor Jamefon,
it is fufficiently hard to feratch quartz: others afcribe to it
a lower degree of hardnefs. Before the blow-pipe it be-
comes foft and opaque, but neither decrepitates nor fufes.
It is foluble by the affiftance of heat in the mineral
acids, in which it effervefces and leaves very little re-
fidue. The fpecific gravity of wavellite varies from 2.22
to 2.70.
The moft remarkable peculiarity of this mineral is its
compofition ; wavellite being nearly a pure hydrat of alu-
mine ; but fome fpecimens contain a trace of fluoric acid.
When fragments of the Englifh or Irifh wavellite are laid
upon a glafs plate, and a drop of fulphuric acid is added,
the glafs is flightly corroded on the application of heat, in-
dicating the prefence of the above-mentioned acid.
The conftituent parts of wavellite are given as under :
Wavellite from Barnftaple.
Alumine - 71.50 70
Oxyd of iron +50
Lime - - 1.4
Water - 28. 26.2
100 Klaproth. 97-6 Davy.
WAW
Cornith Wavellite. South American Wavellite.
Alumine - 58.70 68.
Oxyd of iron 0.19 d I.
Lime = 037
Silex 6 Ol2 4:50
Wiaterioae0 39:
Lofs - . 3.87 26.50
too Gregor. 100 Klaproth.
Wavellite occurs in veins in the granite of Cornwall, with
fluor-{par, quartz, tin-ftone, and copper pyrites. At Barn-
ftaple, in Devonfhire, it occurs in foft flate. Several mi-
neralogifts confider wavellite as a variety of the fame mineral,
which Hauy has called diafpore.
WAVENEY, in Geography, a river of England, in the
county of Suffolk, which joins the Yare, at its mouth.
WAVEREN, 2 town of France, in the department of
the Scheld, on the Dyle. By war and accidental fires much
decayed ; 12 miles S. of Louvain.
WAVERS, in Rural Economy, a term ufed to fignify
the young timber-trees, or timberlings as they are moitly
called, that are left ftanding for further growth, in felling
or cutting over woods of different kinds. See Timper.
WAVESON, in the Admiralty-Law, a term ufed for
fuch goods, as, after fhipwreck, appear fwimming on the
waves.
WAVIGNIES, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Oife ; 10 miles N. of Clermont.
WAUKEAGUE, a town of the diftri& of Maine, near
the coaft ; 5 miles W. of New Brittol.
WAUNGLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour; 10
miles S.E. of Currer.
WAVY, in Botany, is fynonymous with repandum and
undulatum ; in the firit inftance, it, exprefles an undulating
outline, with an even furface ; in the fecond, an undulatin
furface, caufed by the marginal region of a leaf, or petal,
being more ample or luxuriant than the central part, or bafe.
The latter is often the cafe with cultivated plants, as Malva
crifpa, and the different curled varieties of cabbage, brocoli,
parfley, mint, &c. , :
Wavy, in Heraldry. See Waven.
WAWAY, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eaft
Indian fea, near the E. coaft of the ifland of Celebes, about
40 miles in circumference. S. lat. 4° 8'. E. long.
123° 30. .
WAWARSING, a large townfhip of New York, in
the fouth-wett angle of Uliter county, 25 miles S.W. of
Kingfton, ereé&ted in 1806, from the S.W. part of Rochetfter,
and lying’on the W. of the Shawangunk mountain. Plum-
bago, of a good quality, is found in this townfhip, and here
are many indications of iron-ore. Here are feveral {mall
fettlements, as at Warwafing, Napenagh, and Lurenkill ;
but much of the land is uncultivated. ere are one Dutch
reformed church, and eight or ten {chool-houfes. In r812,
the whole population confitted of 1335 perfons, and the
number of ‘electors was 117; and here were 74 looms in
families, which produced 18,047 yards of cloth.
WAWIACHTANOS, Indians of America, inhabiting
chiefly-between the rivers Wabash and Sciota.
WAWRA, a {mall negro town of Africa, properly be-
longing to Kaarta, but when Park vifited it, tributary to
Maafong, king of Bambarra. It is furrounded with walls,
and inhabited by a mixture of Mandingoes and Foulahs. The
inhabitants are chiefly employed in cultivating corn, which
they
WAX.
they exchange with the Moors for falt ; 60 miles E.S.E.
of Benowm.
WAX, a term which comprehends two or three fub-
ftances, differing in their nature and origin, and yet poflefl-
ing feveral common properties. The common properties
of the animal and vegetable produétions, of which we fhall
ine a brief account in the fequel of this article, are fufibi-
ity at a moderate heat ; when kindled, burning with much
flame ; infolubility in water ; folubility in alkalies, and alfo
in alcohol and ether ; in which two latter properties all the
f{pecies of wax differ from the concrete oils, to which in
other re{pects they bear a very ftrong refemblance. The
moft important, and moft generally known and ufed of thefe
fubftances, is :
Bees’-wax, excreted from the body of the bee, and em-
ployed by thefe infeéts in the conftruétion of their cells,
both for the accommodation of their young and the depo-
fition of their honey. Of this fubftance, a young hive will
yield at the end of the feafon about a pound of wax ; and
an old hive about twice as much. The fineft wax is: that
which is made in dry; heathy, or hilly countries ; but in
parts abounding with vineyards it is decidedly inferior.
Although the commonly received notion, which afcribes
this fubitance to the elaboration of ‘the pollen of flowers,
which the bees vifibly colle& on their thighs, had received
the fanétion of obfervers not lefs diftinguifhed than Bonnet
and Reaumur (fee Pain D? Aéeilles), yet the Lufatian So-
ciety, as long ago as the year 1768, was not unacquainted
with the faét, that the wax, inftead of being difcharged from
the mouth, is fecreted in the form of thin fcales among the
abdominal rings or fegments. In 1792, the celebrated Mr.
John Hunter deteGted the genuine refervoir of the wax under
the belly of the bees, and gave an account of his obferva-
tions in the Philofophical Tranfaétions, (vol. Ixxxii. part 1.) ,
On elevating the lower fegments, he obferved plates of a
fufible fubftance, which he afcertained to be wax; and he
was convinced, that an effential difference fubfifts between
the pollen, which thefe little creatures collet with fo much
care and induftry in the form of pellets on their thighs, and
the matter of which the combs are conftruéted.. This
curious fubje€&t has been further inveftigated by Melilrs.
Huber, father and fon ; and they have demonttrated the
organs in which the wax is fecreted, though they had eluded
the perfpicuity of Swammerdam, Hunter, and other acute
anatomifts. Thefe facklets, or fmall compartments, now mi-
nutely explained and illuftrated by engravings, are peculiar to
the working bees, which alone produce wax ; and each in-
dividual is furnifhed with eight of them: The waxy matter,
as it occurs in a tranfuded ftate in the fecretory organs,
differs from the frefh wax of the combs only in being of a
lefs compounded nature, which has been afcertained by
trials with f{pirit of turpentine and fulphuric ether. Profe-
cuting thefe refleGtions, our ingenious authors concluded that
the common opinion was probably erroneous ; becaufe, like
Hunter, they had obferved fwarms, newly placed in the
empty hives, conftru& their combs without fetching home
any pollen ; while the bees of old hives, where no freth cells
were required, neverthelefs provided an ample ftock of this
powder. In order, however, to determine the point more
dire&tly, they confined a recent {warm within an empty
ftraw-hive, leaving at their difpofal only a fufficiency of
honey and water for their confumption, and preventing them
from going beyond the precinéts of a well-clofed room ;
when, in the fhort {pace of five days, they had conftructed
five cakes of a beautiful white though very fragile wax.
This experiment was repeated, and was uniformly accom-
panied by fimilar refults ; and therefore they no longer hefi-
tated in admitting the fa&t, that honey, through the organic
intervention of bees, may be converted into wax. In order
to determine whether vegetable pollen, alfo, was fufceptible
of this converfion, the honey was wholly removed, and the
confined bees were fed on fruits and pollen, of which laft a
large ftore was left at their difpofal; but, though they con-
tinued in this fituation during eight days, they neither made
any wax, nor exhibited any plates under their abdominal
rings. Having fufpeéted that the fecretion of wax origi-
nated in the cohefive principle contained in honey, our
authors recurred to various experiments, which conitantly
proved that fugar alone was an excellent fubftitute for honey,
and, on fome occafions, afforded a fuperior wax. They
afterwards found, that bees, when left at perfeét liberty to
roam abroad, aét precifely on the fame principle in the con-
{truétion of their combs ; and they alfo difcovered, that la-
bourers of two defcriptions exift in each hive. The firft,
fufceptible of acquiring confiderable dimenfions, when they
have received all the honey which their ftomachs can con-
tain, are principally deftined to the elaboration of the wax ;
while the fecond, whofe abdomen undergoes no fenfible
change of bulk, neither gather nor retain more honey than
is neceflary for immediate fubfiftence, and readily fhare that
which they colleét with their companions; who take no
charge of ttoring the hive with provifions, their appropriate
office being to attend the young. Thefe they call nurfing
or {mall bees, in contradiftin@tion to thofe with dilated bel.
lies, and which, as they fay, are entitled to the appellation
of “ wax-workers.” The exiftence and feparate offices of
thefe two forts of bees were fufficiently afcertained. When
the hives are filled with combs, the wax-working bees dif-
gorge their honey into the ufual magazines, and produce no
more wax ; but, if they have no receptacle in which: they
can depofit it, and if the queen finds no cells formed ready
for the reception of her ova, they retain in their: ftomachs
the honey which they had amaffed; and, at the end of 24
hours, the wax oozes out between the rings, when the
fabrication of the combs commences. The nurfing bees
alfo produce wax, but in a much {maller quantity than the
others. /
As for the ufe of the pollen, our authors have afcertained,
that it is colle&ted for the purpofe of feeding the young ;
and they have alfo found, that bees, fed-too long on the
fyrup of fugar alone, are incapable of rearing their offspring,
and at length defert the hive. The waxy matter, when
newly fecreted and moulded in its appropriate organs, differs
from real wax in being tran{parent like fcales of talc, white,
and quite friable, or brittle ; whereas that of which the
cells are compofed is of a yellowifh-white, opaque, and
flexible. Our limits will not allow our defcribmg the pro-
cefs obferved by our authors with the aid of a glafs appa-
ratus, by which thefe infe€ts commence and conduét the
conftruétion of their combs. The difference of afpe&t and
confiftency between cells juft formed, and thofe which are
of older ftanding, cannot fail to attract the attention of every
obfervant apiarian. The former are, in faét, of a dull white
colour, femi-tranfparent, foft, and even, without being
fmooth ; but, in the courfe of a few days, the whole of
their internal furface afflumes a yellow tint of greater or lefs
intenfity : their fharp edges become thicker and lefs regu-
lar ; and thofe tubes, which at firft could not refift the
flighteft preffure, become flexible, fomewhat more heavy,
and more difficult of folution in hot water. The contour
of the orifice of mature cells is bound with a rim of a reddifh
and odorous refin, which is alfo employed to cement the
angles of other parts of the cell. This folder or varnifh is
found, on chemical trial, to be identical with the re
Le ani
WAX.
and quite diftin& from the wax. Meflrs. Huber have not
enly ettablifhed this important fa&, but dete&ted the origin
of the propolis itfelf. Having obtained branches of the
wild poplar, cut in {pring before the developement of their
leaves, with very large buds filled with vifcous, reddifh, and
odorous juice, they placed thefe in the way of the bees to
the fields, fo that they muft fee them: foon after this ar-
rangement, a bee alighted on one of the branches, and ap-
proached one of the largeft buds; fhe then feparated its
folds with her teeth, attacked the parts which fhe had half-
opened, pulled off filaments of the vifcid matter with which
they were filled, and then feized, with one of the legs of
the fecond pair, the fubftance held between her jaws,
brought forwards one of her hind-legs, and finally placed in
the bafket of that leg the little ball of propolis which fhe
bad juft colleted. Having accomplifhed this obje&, fhe
again opened the bud in another place, carried off new
threads of the fame matter with her teeth, laid hold of them
with the legs of the fecond pair, and placed them nicely on
the other bafket. She then took her departure, and re-
joined her hive. Ina few minutes afterwards, a fecond bee
alighted on the fame branches, and loaded herfelf with pro-
polis in the fame manner. This propolis was found to be
different from the matter which imparts the yellow colour
to the wax, which is probably fecreted in the cavity of the
teeth, and depofited on the wax. We obferve, however,
that bees are not contented with merely painting and var-
nifhing their cells, but they alfo impart additional folidity
to their aggregate amount by the ufe of a mortar, com-
pofed of wax and propolis ; and which the ancients, who had
not overlooked this department of their economy, termed
metis, or piffocerum. (See Proports.) With the ne-
ceflary documents before us, we cannot forbear intro-
ducing fome further obfervations on the economy of thefe
infe@ts, though they are not immediately connected with the
{ubje& of this article. As the clofenefs of a hive, and the
multitude of living creatures which inhabit it, (amounting
fometimes to twenty-five or thirty thoufand,) are circum-
ftances which feem to preclude a free ventilation and re-
newal of air, we might be induced to fuppofe that bees are not
endowed with any particular fyftem of refpiratory organs,
and that they are capable of exifting in any atmofphere, how-
ever vitiated. Asa teft of this {uppofition, our ingenious
and perfevering authors recurred to various experiments ;
which tneonteflably prove, that thefe infeéts cannot long
exift either in vacuo, or in air that is contaminated by noxious
gafes ; that, in fhort, they breathe like other animals of their
clafs ; and that they are {peedily deprived of life if the pro-
cefs of refpiration be arrefted. Yet it refults, from eudio-
metrical trials, that the air of a well-ftocked hive is equally
pure with that of the atmofphere. It has been afcertained,
too, that neither wax nor pollen favdurs the produétion of
oxygen gas, and that the bees themfelves have no internal
faculty of generating vital air ; fince, if that of the atmo-
{phere be entirely excluded, they are obferved to perifh in
x courfe of a few hours. Our authors, therefore, took an
oppertunity of examining, whether the induftry of thefe in-
feéts prefented no particular caufe of this phenomenon ; and
at length they were ftruck by the conneétion which might
{ybfift between the circulation of the air and that beating of
the wings which they had recently obferved, and which occa-
fioned a continual humming in the interior of their habit-
ation. They fufpeéted that the play of thefe membranes,
which imprefs the air with fufficient force to elicit from it a
very diftin& found, might be deftined to replace that which
had been vitiated by refpiration. Although this may feem
to be a trivial caufe for counteracting the pernicious cffe&
above ftated, yet by putting the hand near to a fanning-
bee, we fhall perceive that fhe agitates the air in a manner
that is very fenfible, and moves her wings with fuch rapidity
as that they are f{carcely diftinguifhable.
United at their edge by means of {mall hooks, the two
wings of each fide prefent a larger furface to the air, on
which they have to {trike ; they form, befides, a flight con-
cavity, which fhould fomewhat contribute to increafe their
energy ; and we may be fatisfied that they deferibe an arc
of 90°, becaufe we fee them, fimultaneoufly, on the two ex-
tremes of their vibrations. When engaged in this exercile,
the bees cling faft to the ftand with their legs, the firft
pair being projected forwards, the fecond feparated and
fixed to the right and left of the body, while the third,
clofely approximated, and in a diretion perpendicular to
the abdomen, contributes to fupport the hinder parts in an
elevated pofition. During the fine feafon, we may always
obferve a certain number of bees agitating their wings in
front of the entrance to their hive ; but we may alfo be con-
vinced, by infpetion, that ftill more of them are employed
in fanning within their dwelling. The ordinary ftation of
the ventilating bees is on the lower floor of the hive. All
thofe which are occupied in this way, on the outfide, have
their heads turned towards the entrance, but thofe within
prefent their backs to it. Thefe bees feem to arrange them-
felves methodically, fo that they may manage the ventilating
procefs with the greateft eafe ; being diftributed into files,
which terminate at the entrance of the hive, and are fome-
times difpofed like fo many diverging rays; but this order
is not uniform: and it is probably owing to the neceflity to
which the fanning bees are fubjected of leaving room for
fuch as go and come, whofe rapid courfe conftrains them to
form in file, that they may avoid being joftled and over-
turned at every inftant. More than 20 bees may fometimes
be feen ventilating in the lower part of the hive ; but their
number at other times is {maller ; and each of them vibrates
her wings for a longer or fhorter period. They have been
obferved to continue the exertion during 25 minutes, with-
out refting ; although they feemed occafionally to take
breath by fufpending the vibration of their wings for an al-
moft imperceptible inftant ; but; as foon as they ceafe from
fanning, others take their place, fo that the humming noife
in a well-filled hive never fuffers interruption.
But to return from this digreffion to the principal fubjeé
of the article.
Bees?-wax makes avery confiderable article in commerce ;
the confumption of it throughout the feveral parts of Eu-
rope being incredible. There are two kinds, white and yel-
low ; the yellow is the native wax, juft as it comes out of
the hive, after exprefling the honey, &c. This colour, fays
Thorley, is owing to the age of the combs, and breath of
the bees ; wax, he fays, both asit is gathered, and wrought
into combs, being always white: the white is the fame
wax, only prea wafhed, and expofed to the air. The
preparation of each follows.
Wax, Yellow. To procure the wax from the combs for
ufe ; after feparating the honey from them as much as pof-
fible by the prefs, they are either foaked for fome days in
clear water, in order to extract all the honey, or they are
broken into pieces, and {pread on a fheet near the hives, fo
that the bees in time fuck out all the honey that is left, and
reduce the wax into {mall fragments like bran. Then the
whole of the wax is put into a large kettle, with a fufficient
quantity of water ; and with a moderate fire, it is melted,
and then ftrained through a linen cloth, by a prefs, and thus
freed from all remaining impurity. Before it is cold, they
feum it with a tile, or a piece of wet wood, and caft im
while
WAX.
while yet warm, in wooden, earthen, or metalline moulds ;
having firft anointed them with honey, oil, or water, to pre-
vent the wax from fticking. Some, to purify it, make ufe
of Roman vitriol, or copperas ; but the true fecret is to .
melt, fcum it, &c. properly, without any ingredients at
all. '
The beft is that of a high colour, an agreeable {mell,
fomewhat refembling that of honey, foft, fomewhat unc-
tuous to the touch, but not fticking to the fingers, nor
to the teeth when chewed. When new, it is of a lively yel-
low colour; it is fomewhat tough, yet eafy to break ; by
age, it lofes its fine colour, and becomes harder and more
brittle. In winter it becomes confiderably hard and tough.
It is deprived of its yellow colour and {mell by expofing it
in thin laminz to the aétion of the light and air, in the pro-
cefs of bleaching ; by which it becomes perfeétly white,
{centlefs, fomewhat harder,and lefs greafy to the touch. How-
ever, wax is often fophifticated with refin, or pitch, coloured
rocou, or turmeric.
The prefence of refin may be fufpeéted when the fraéture
appears {mooth and fhining, inftead of being granulated : and
it may be faturated by putting fmall pieces,of the wax into
cold alcohol, which will readily diffolve the refinous part,
without affeéting the wax in any confiderable degree.
Its adulteration with earth or peas meal may be fufpeéted
when the cake is very brittle, and the colour inclining more
to grey than bright pale yellow; and they may be feparated
by {melting and itraining the wax. White wax is fometimes
adulterated with white oxyd of lead, in order to increafe its
weight. This may be known by melting the wax in water,
when the oxyd falls to the bottom of the veffel.
It is alfo adulterated by tallow, fuet, or any kind of ani-
mal fat. It then becomes more fufible, and when rebleached
and expofed to a hot fun, it is very apt to cake. It like-
wife lofes its femi-tranfparency, the diftinguifhing property of
pure bleached wax. This adulteration may be deteéted by
boiling alcohol, which will diffolve wax, but not tallow.
Wax, White. The whitening, blanching, or bleaching
of wax, is performed by reducing the yellow fort, firft,
into little bits or grains, and melting it in a copper cauldron,
with water juft fufficient to prevent the wax from burning.
The cauldron in which the wax is melted is fo difpofed, that
it may flow gradually through a pipe at the bottom into a
large tub filled with water, and covered with a thick cloth,
to preferve the heat till the water and impurities are fet-
tled. From this tub the clear melted wax flows into a veflel,
the bottom of which is full of {mall holes, about the fize of
a grain of wheat, and hence it falls in {mall ftreams upon a cy-
linder, conftantly revolving over water, into which it occa-
fionally dips, fo that the wax is cooled, and at the fame
time drawn out into thin fhreds or ribbands. The conti-
nual rotation of the cylinder carries off thefe ribbands as faft
as they are formed, and diftributes them through the tub.
The wax, thus granulated or flatted, is expofed to the air
on linen cloths, ftretched on large frames, about a foot or
two above the ground, in which fituation it remains night
and day for feveral days, expofed to the air and fun; and
thus the yellow colour nearly difappears. In this half-
bleached ftate, it is heaped up in a folid mafs, and allowed to
remain for a month or fix weeks ; after which, to complete
the procefs for whitening it, it is re-melted, and ribbanded,
and bleached as before, (in fome cafes feveral times) till it
wholly lofes its colour and fmell. Some manufacturers, in
re-melting it, add ,alum or cream of tartar, which are fup-
pofed to increafe the whitenefs and folidity of the wax.
Some alfo, inftead of {preading the ribbands of wax on
Vou. XXXVIII. fe
cloths, lay evenly a broad courfe of bricks, which are fre-
quently watered, fo that the wax is kept from melting by
the fun’s heat abferbed by the bricks.
‘When the fun and air have at length perfe@tly blanched
the wax, fome melt it for the laft time im a large kettle ;
out of which they caft it, with a ladle, upon a table, co-
vered over with little round dents or cavities, of the form of
the cakes of white wax, as fold by the apothecaries, &c.
having firft wetted thofe moulds. with cold-water, that the
wax may be the more eafily got out. Liaftly, they lay out
thefe cakes to the air for.two days and two nights, to ren-
der it more tran{parent and dry. A
As the volatile fulphureous acid has the property of de-
ftroying more quickly almoft all the colours of vegetables, it
has been fuggefted by Macquer, the author of the Chemical
Diétionary, that this bleaching might perhaps be fhortened,
by expoting ribbands of yellow wax to the vapour of ful-
phur, as is practifed for wool and filk ; but this procefs has
not been found to fucceed. P
However, the operation of bleaching wax above defcribed
can be performed well only in fine weather, as it depends
chiefly on the aétion of the fun. This circumftance being
attended with much inconvenience to the manufaéturers, the
difcovery of a method of whitening wax independently of
the feafons would be very ufeful, and has been recommended
to the attention of chemifts by fome economical focieties.
With a view to difcover fuch a method, Mr. Beckman
has made experiments, an account of which is publifhed in
the fifth volume of the ** Novi Commentarii Societatis Re-
giz Scientiarum Gottingenfis.”? According to thefe experi-
ments, thin pieces of yellow wax were whitened and har-
dened, by being digefted and boiled in diluted and undi-
luted nitrous acid, in a few hours.. But the wax thus
whitened, being melted’ by means of boiling water, was ob-
ferved to acquire a yellow colour, lefs intenfe, however, than
it was before it had been treated with the mineral acids.
The marine and vitriolic acids were lefs effectual than the
nitric or nitro-muriatic. He expofed wax to the flames of
burning fulphur, but without fuccefs. Yellow wax being
melted in vinegar, was rendered of agrey colour. The oil
of tartar whitened wax, but lefs effe¢tually than acids had
done ; and this wax being wafhed in water, and afterwards
digefted in nitrous acid, was rendered {till more white;
but upon melting it in water, a yellowifh tinge returned, He
liquefied wax in folutions of nitre and alum, but without
any good effeé&t. Spirit of wine, which is recommended by
Mr. Boyle for this purpofe, did indeed whiten the wax, but
changed it to a butyraceous fubftance, fo frothy, that its
bulk was increafed thirty times, Refleéting that tartar is
purified from its oily particles by means of a calcareous
earth, he tried the effeéts of a kind of fuller’s earth, which
he threw upon wax liquefied in water, and he agitated the
mixture. This method rendered wax of a greyifh colour,
and is, therefore, recommended by him as preparatory to
bleaching ; the time neceffary for which, he thinks, may be
thus greatly fhortened.
M. Sennebier made fome remarks on the effect of light,
and other fuppofed difcolouring agents. Some yellow wax
was melted, and thinly {pread upon a plate of glafs; and a
fimilar plate was laid upon it when hot ; and the edges of the
plates were clofed with fealing-wax. Thus the bees’-wax
was deprived of the accefs of air, and it was placed in the
fun, to the light of which it was expofed for four or five
hours daily. Another quantity of wax was inclofed be-
tween plates ina like manner, but kept in the dark. In
two days the wax expofed to the fun began to bleach, and
c in
WAX.
in a month’s time the whole, when it did not exceed one-
fixth of an inch in thicknefs, was quite white ; whilft no
change at all took place in that which was kept in darknefs.
‘Alcohol has no fenfible a€tion on wax when cold, but if
the fluid be boiled, it will diffolve rather lefs than one-
twentieth of its weight of wax; and the greater part of it
feparates, when cold, in the form of white bulky flocculi,
while the {mall quantity that remains is wholly precipitated
by water. Such is the refult of Pearfon’s and Boftock’s ex-
periments; whereas Fourcroy, Chaptal, and Nicholfon
affert, that it is infoluble in this fluid. Sulphuric ether dif-
folves wax when heated, and much more copioufly than
alcohol diffolves it, but the greater part, like that of the
former, is feparated by cooling, and the remainder by water.
Wax boiled in cauftic potafh makes the fluid turbid, and in
procefs of time rifes to the furface in a flocculent form.
The portion of the wax, held in folution by the clear alkaline
liquor, may be feparated by an acid, and the relidue float-
ing on the furface is fo far converted into a faponaceous
ftate as to have loft its inflammability, and to be no lefs fo-
luble in pure water than white foap, and again precipitable
by acids nearly in its original form, with a reftoration of its
inflammability. Pure ammonia nearly refembles the fixed
alkalies in its a€tion; but the refulting faponaceous form is
lefs foluble in water.
When yellow wax has been long {wimming in a folution
of carbonate of potath, it becomes grey; and this colour
is entirely changed into a milk white by fubfequent digef-
tion in nitric acid, and the wax refumes its whitenefs.
If wax be diftilled with a heat greater than that of
boiling water, it may be decompofed. By this diftil-
lation, a {mall quantity of water is firft feparated from the
wax, and then fome very volatile and penetrating acid,
(probably a modification of the acetous,) accompanied
with a fall quantity of a very fluid and very odoriferous
oil. As the diftillation advances, the acid becomes more
and more ftrong, and the oil more and more thick, till
its confiftence be fuch, that it becomes folid in the
receiver, and is’ then called utter of wax. When the dif-
tillation is finifhed, nothing remains but a fmall quantity
of coal, which is almoft incombuttible, from the want of
fome faline matter. Wax cannot be kindled, unlefs it
be previoufly heated, and reduced into vapours ; in which
re{fpe& it refembles fat oils. The oil and butter of wax may,
by repeated diftillations, be attenuated, and rendered more
and more fluid, becaufe fome portion of acid is thereby
feparated from thefe fubftances ; which effec is fimilar to
what happens in the diftillation of other oils and oily con-
cretes; but this remarkable effet attends the repeated
diftillation of oil and butter of wax, that they become more
and more foluble in {pirit of wine; and that they never ac-
quire greater confiftence by the evaporation of their more
fluid parts. Boerhaave kept butier of wax in a glafs veffel
open, or carelefsly clofed, during twenty years, without ac-
quiring a more folid confiftence. Wax, its butter, and its
oil, differ entirely from effential. oils und refins, in all the
above-mentioned properties ; and in all thefe perfeétly re-
femble fweet oils. Hence Macquer concludes, that wax
only refembles refins in being an oil rendered concrete by an
acid; but that it differs effentially from thefe in the kind of
oil, which in refins is of the nature of effential oils ; while
in wax and other analogous oily concretions, it is of the na-
ture of fweet, un€tuous oils, that are not aromatic, and
not volatile, and are not obtained from segetablediy ex-
preffion.
Although wax is not diffoluble at all in watery liquors,
yet the gelatinous folution obtained by boiling it in fpirit
of wine, by mixture with a thick sak. rar acaba,
becomes foluble in water, fo as to form therewith an
emulfion or milky liquor: the wax itfelf is made in like
manner foluble, without the intervention’ of fpirit, by
ronkp a mixing it with the gum in fine powder; but
when thus diffolved, it proves {till infipid, and perfetly void
of acrimony. :
Wax is foluble abundantly in the fixed oils, and melted
with them, produces an uniform mafs, the confiftence of
ee risa be the proportion of each, is interme-
jate between the two. It is diffolved but fpari i
effential oils. aE HT
Bleached wax burns with a very pure white light, with-
out any offenfive fmell, and with much lefs fmoke than tal-
low ; and as it is lefs fufiblé than tallow, it requires a {maller
wick. (SeeCanpes.) Bleached wax melts at about 155° of
Fahrenheit ; and the unbleached at 142°, according to Pear-
fon and. Nicholfon, and alfo Dr. Boitock, but at 117° ac-
cording to Fourcroy ; whilit tallow melts at 92°, {perma-
ceti at 133°, adipocire at 127°, and the pelaof the Chinefe
at 145°. (See Nicholfon’s Journal, vol. i. p. 70, 4to.)
ae {pecific gravity is lefs than that of water, being about
The yellow wax is brought to market in round cakes about
two inches thick ; and large quantities of it are imported
from the Baltic, the Levant, and the Barbary coatt.
The white wax is ufed in the manufa€ture of candles,
torches, tapers, figures, and a variety of other wax-works.
See CANDLES, &c.
_ Itis alfo an article of the Materia Medica, and ufed as an
ingredient, partly for giving the requifite confiftence to other
ingredients, and partly on account of its own emollient
quality, in plafters, cerates, and divers pomatums. and un-
guents for the complexion.
The yellow fort, diffolved into an emulfion, or mixed
with fpermaceti, oif of almonds, conferve of rofes, &c..
into the form of anele€tuary ; or divided, by ftirring into it,
when melted over a gentle fire, as much as it will take. up of
powdery matter, as the compound crab’s-claw powder, has
been given alfo internally, and, as fome have pretended, often
with great fuccefs, in diarrhceas and dyfenteries, for ob-
tunding the acrimony of the humours, fupplying the natural
mucus of the inteftines, and healing their excoriations or
erofions.
The empyreumatic oil, into which wax is refolved by dif-
tillation with a {trong .heat, is greatly recommended by
Boerhaave and others, for healing chaps and roughnefs of
the fkin, for difcufling chilblains, and with proper fomenta-
tions and exercife, againft {tiffnefs of the joints, and con-
traGtions of the tendons. It is, without doubt, fays Dr.
Lewis, highly emollient ; but does not appear to have any
other quality by which it can aé in external applications ;
it has nothing of the acrimony or pungency which prevail
“in all the other known diftilled vegetable oils ;. though in
fmell it is not a little difagreeable and empyreumatic ; a cir-
cumftance which. occafions it to be at prefent more rarely
ufed than formerly. As the wax fwells up greatly in the
diftilation, it is convenient to divide it, by melting: it with
twice its weight of fand ; or putting the fand above it in the
retort, that it may mingle with the wax when brought into
fufion. ‘Fhe oil, which is preceded by a {mall quantity of
acid liquor, eee in the neck of the retort, from whence
it may be melted down, by applying a live coal, and made
fluid by rediftilling !t two or three times without addition.
The feces remaining, after exprefling the wax, have been
ufed
WAX.
ufed both by furgeons and farriers, with fuccefs, againft
ftrains. }
The officinal preparations are as follow: cera flava
purificata of Dub. Ph.; oxidum antimonii vitrificatum
cera of Edinb. ; emplaflrum cere of Lond. and Edinb. ;
emplafirum cumini of Lond. ; empl. picis compofitum of
Lond. ; empl. oxidi ferri rubri of Edinb.; empl. affa-
fatide of Edinb. ; empl. gummofum of Edinb. ; empl,
imeloes veficatorii of Edinb. and Lond. ; empl. galbani
of Dub. ; empl. aromaticum of Dub. ; ceratum of Lond.
and Dub.; ceratum calamine of Lond. and Dub.; ceratum
refine of Lond. Edinb. and Dub. ; ceratum fabine of
Lond. and Dub. ; ceratum faponis of Lond. ; unguentum
picis aride of Lond. and Edinb. ; wag. infu meloes veficatorii
of Edinb.; and ung. cantharidis of Dub. Ph. For the firtt,
fee white-wax below. The fecond, or vitrified oxyd of an-
timony with wax, formerly waxed glafs of antimony, is
formed by melting one part of yellow wax in an iron veflel,
and throwing into it eight parts of oxyd of antimony
vitrified with fulphur, reduced to powder, and roaiting
the mixture with a gentle fire for a quarter of an hour,
{tiring it affiduoufly with a fpatula; then pouring out the
latter, and when cold rubbing itinto a powder. ‘This pre-
paration is diaphoretic and cathartic, occafionally exciting
naufea and vomiting. It was formerly thought to poflefs
efficacy in diarrhoea and dyfentery ; but is now fearcely ever
prefcribed. The dofe may be from gr. ij. to gr. xv. given
twice or three times aday. For the empl. cere, fee Wax Puas-
ter. For the 4th, fee Emrpirasrrum é¢ Cymino. For the
sth, fee Compound Pitch Puaster. For the 6th, fee Pias-
TER of red Oxyd of Iron. For the 7th, fee Affa Fetida
Praster. Forthe 8th, fee Gum Praster. For the gth,
roth, and 11th, fee Prasrer. For the others, compre-
hending cerates and ointments. See UNGUENTUM.
The Jleached or white wax is generally melted and catt,
in the manner already ftated, into thin difcs, about 5 inches
in diameter, in which form it is found in the fhops. For
medical purpofes, it is regarded as a demulcent ; and has been
fometimes adminiftered in obftinate cafes of diarrhcea and dy-
fentery, with the view of fheathing the bowels ; which effect
is better produced by fimple mucilages and folutions. It is
generally exhibited diffufed in mucilaginous fluids by means of
{oap, in the proportion of jd part of the wax, with which it is
firft melted, and then rubbed in a mortar, with the fluid gra-
dually added; but a preferable method is faid to be that of
Poerner, which is firft to melt the wax with olive oil, and
then mix the oily compound while hot with the mucilagin-
ous fluid, by triturating with the yolk of an egg. The dofe
is a cupfull of the emulfion, containing about 9j of wax,
given every four or five hours. ‘This wax, as well as the
yellow fort, is much ufed in the compofition of plafters and
ointments. The officinal preparations ate ceratum cetacei
of Lond. Edinb. and Dub. pharmacopeias ; unguentum ce-
tacei of Lond. and Dub.; ung. hydrargyri nitrico-oxydi of
Lond. ; Jinimentum fimplex of Edinb.; and ung. Simplex of
Edinb. See Ceratum, LinimMEnT, and Uncuent. Lewis’s
Mat. Med. P bane
Yellow wax is made foft with turpentine, yet retains its
natural colour. Red wax isonly the white melted with tur-
pentine, and reddened with vermilion or alkanet. Verdi-
grife makes it green; and burnt paper, or lamp-black, black.
Some travellers tell us of a natural black wax ; afluring us
there are bees, both in the Eaft and Weft Indies, that make
an excellent honey, included in black cells. Of this wax,
they fay, it is, that the Indians make thofe little vafes, in
which they gather their balfam of Tolu.
Wax is alfo produced by the fecretion of many plants,
and forms the filvery powder or bloom, which covers their
leaves and fruit. It is found very abundantly combine
with refin, covering the trunk of the wax-palm i
of South America, found in the Quinoliu mountains, 180
feet high, with leaves 20 feet long, the trunk of which is
covered with the waxy fecretion about two inches thick,
and confifting of two-thirds of refin and one of wax; and
very-pure, encrufting the feeds of the Myrica cerifera, or
wax-tree of Louifiana, and other parts of North America.
The Pe-/a of the Chinefe is an animal wax, and the white
lac of India appears to be a variety of wax ; fo that wax
may be regarded, in the extended meaning of the term, both
as an animal and a vegetable produ&t. The croton {ebi-
ferum, the tomex febifera, the poplar, the alder, the pine,
as well as the Myrica, afford a concrete inflammable matter
by decoétion, that more or lefs refembles tallow or wax,
that is, a fixed oil faturated with oxygen. But the Myrica
cerifera fupplies it in the greateft abundance. The grains
of this tree, and the fhining wax obtained by boiling them
in water, have been long ago, viz. in 1722 and 1725, no-
ticed in the Hiftory of the Academy of Sciences. The
wax, it was obferved, is drier and more friable than our’s ;
and it was found, that the liquor in which the grain had
been boiled, and from which the wax was procured, af-
forded, on evaporation, a kind of extra& that checked the
moft obftinate dyfenteries ; and the inhabitants of Louifiana
are faid to have made candles of the wax. Several authors
have mentioned different {pecies of thefe trees; but the wax
they afford has more lately been the fubjeét of experimental
inveftigation, particularly by M. Cadet and Dr. Boftock.
The moft fertile of thefe fhrubs afford near feven pounds of
berries, the gathering of which employ feveral families.
Thefe berries are thrown into a kettle, and covered with
water. Whilft the water is boiling, the grains are ftirred
about againit the fides of the veffel, fo that the wax may
more ealily come off. In a little time it floats on the water
like fat, and being colleéted, is ftrained through a coarfe
cloth, to free it from any impurities. This operation is re-
peated with frefh berries ; and when a confiderable quantity
of wax has been obtained, it is laid upon a cloth to drain off
the water; and it is then dried and melted a fecond time ;
and when thus purified, formed into maffes. Four pounds
of berries afford about one of wax: that which is firk
obtained is generally yellow ; but in the latter boilings it
aflumes a green colour, from the pellicle with which the
kernel of the berry is covered. M. Cadet made a variety
of experiments on thefe berries, and found that the powder
which was obtained from them afforded an aftringent folu-
tion by alcohol, and that it contained gallic acid, but no
tannin ; and to this acid he attributes their effeé in dyfen-
teries. The wax, obtained either by the decoétion of the
grains, or the folution of the powder when precipitated
from alcohol by water, when melted, is always of a greenifh-
yellow ; of a firmer confiftence than bees’-wax, dry, and fuf-
ficiently friable to be pulverized; and evidently more
oxygenated than the wax prepared by bees. Candles made
of this wax yielded a white flame, a good light, without
f{moke, and without guttering ; and when quite frefh, they
emit a balfamic odour, confidered in Louifiana as very falu-
brious to perfons in bad health. Diftilled in a retort, this
wax, for the moft part, pafles over in the form of butter.
This portion is much whiter, and has no more confiftence
than tallow. Another portion that was decompofed af-
forded a little water, with fome empyreumatic oil and
febacic acid. Much carbonated hydrogen gas and carbonic
acid gas were difengaged; and there remained in the retort
a black and coaly bitumen. Ether was found to diflolve
Ccz this
WAX.
this wax better than alcohol. Oxygenated muriatic re
rendered this, as well as bees’-wax, perfeétly white ; bu
the vegetable wax was bleached with the greateft difficulty.
The folution in ammonia is of a brown colour, and a por-
tion of the wax is rendered foapy; and it forms foap with
fixed alkali. When the foap of Myrica is decompofed, a
very white wax is obtained, but in a ftate unfit for our ufes.
Litharge diffolves very well in this melted wax, and forms
a hard plafter, the confiftence of which may be diminifhed
at pleafure by the addition of a little oil. For bleaching
this wax, M. Cadet obferves, that two re-agents prefent
themfelves to manufacturers, the fulphuric acid and the oxy-
ated muriatic acid. He propofes the following method
as the mott {peedy in its effeét : —Let the wax be reduced to
a very divided ftate, and ftratified in a cafk with fuper-
oxygenated muriate of lime, and let them remain for fome
time in conta without water. Let the falt be afterwards
decompofed with water, acidulated by the fulphuric acid ;
taking care to pour the water a little at a time at different
intervals,’ until there fhall be no longer any perceptible dif-
engagement of muriatic gas; at which period a large quan-
tity of water is to be added, and the mixture agitated with
a ftaff. The infoluble fulphate of lime falls down by repofe,
while the bleached wax rifes and fwims at the furface.
This is to be wafhed and melted’ on the water bath. Our
author clofes his memoir with recommending the culture of
the plant that yields this wax, and with a brief detail of
methods for effeéting this purpofe. Dr. Boitock has alfo
profecuted an inquiry into the nature and ufes of myrtle
wax. He finds that in its more important properties 2t re-
fembles bees’-wax, but that in fome refpeéts they differ from
one another. The myrtle wax is moderately hard and con-
fiftent, pofleffing in part the tenacity of bees’-wax, without
its un@tuofity, and alfo, in fome degree, the brittlenefs of
refin. The prevalent colour is pale green, tending in molt
of the pieces to a dirty grey ; in others it is lighter, more
tranfparent, and of a yellowifh tinge. Its fpecific gravity
is about 1.0150, water. being 1.000, fo that it finks in it,
and the white bees’-wax being .g600. Water has no action
upon it, either when cold or at the boiling heat. Alcohol,
when cold, does not affect it; but roo parts, by weight,
of this fuid, when boiling, diffolve about five parts of the
wax. Nearly four-fifths are depofited by the cooling of the
alcohol ; one-fifth remains fufpended, but in the courfe of a
few days is flowly depofited, or may be precipitated by the
addition of water. Sulphuric ether, when at the common
temperature of the atmofphere, diffolves only a {mall quan-
tity of this wax, but a¢ts upon it rapidly when boiling.
It takes up fomewhat more than one-fourth of its own
weight. As the ether cools, it is moftly feparated, and the
{mall refidue may be precipitated by water. After folu-
tion, the wax is nearly colourlefs, and the fluid affumes a
beautiful green hue. ‘The depofit by evaporation fomewhat
refembles {permaceti. Reétified oil of turpentine, at the
temperature of the atmofphere, foftens the wax, but does
not diffolve it: aided by a moderate heat, 100 grains of the
turpentine diffolves fix grains of the wax. The turpentine
acquires alight green tinge, part of the wax is feparated as
the fluid cools, and part remains permanently diffolved inat.
Pure potahh renders it colourlefs by boiling, and forms a
foap with a fmall part, which being decompofed by acid,
affords the wax nearly unchanged. Pure ammonia acts
nearly as potafh, but more feebly. The three principal
mineral acids aét upon the myrtle wax, but with no great
force. The fulphuric acid, with a moderate heat, dif olves
about one-twelfth of its weight, and converts it into a thick,
dark-brown mafs, which en cooling becomes nearly con-
9
5
crete, but without any feparation of the wax. The nitric
and muriatic acids, even when heated, feem to poffefs little
attraCtion for the wax. From fuch experiments, Dr. Bof-
tock affigns to myrtle wax, with a confiderable degree of
probability, the place which it fhould occupy among che-
mical fubftances. Its inflammability, fufibility, infolubility
in water, and the action which takes place between it and
the alkalies, indicate its affinity to the fixed oils ; while its
texture and confiftence, and more particularly its habitudes
with alcohol and ether, manifeft a refemblance to the refins.
Upon the whole, we may confider the myrtle wax as a fixed
vegetable oil, rendered concrete by the addition of a quan-
tity of oxygen; and feeming to hold the fame relation to
the fixed, which refins do to the effential oils of vegetables.
Dr. Boftock has inftituted a comparifon between myrtle
wax and other fubftances which it refembles, fuch as bees’-
wax, {permaceti, adipocire, and the cryftalline matter of
biliary calculi; and, upon the whole, deduces this conclu-
fion, that though thefe five fubftances poffefs certain pro-
perties in common, and have a degree of fimilarity in their
external appearance, yet that they differ materially in their
chemical nature. There is indeed, he fays, reafon to con-
jeCture, that they are all compofed of the fame elements,
combined together in different proportions, and with dif-
ferent degrees of attraction. Nicholfon’s Journal, vol. iv.
8vo.
Wax, Chafe. See Cuare.
Wax, Crude or Rough, called by the French cire brute,
in Natural Hiftory, a name given to a fubftance called by the
ancients erithace, fandarac, and ambrofia. 5
We feem to have no name for it in Englifh, but may call
it after the name of the French, rough wax.
The Dutch call it the food of the bees, and that, per-
haps, very properly, there appearing many reafons to think
that the bees eat it.
This is the yellow fubftance found on the hinder legs of
bees in {mall lumps, of which, as Reaumur and fome others
erroneoufly thought, wax is made by this infect. See Pain
d’ Abeilles.
Wax, Myrtle. See Myrica, and Wax, /upra.
Wax, Virgin, Propolis, is a fort of reddifh wax, ufed
by the bees to ftop up the clefts or holes of the hive. It is
applied juft as taken out of the hive, without any art, or
preparation of boiling, &c. It is the moft tenacious of any,
and is held good for the nerves. See Propo.is.
Wax, Sealing, or Spanifh Wax, is a compofition of gum
lacca, melted and prepared with refins, and coloured with
fome fuitable pigment.
There are two kinds of fealing-wax in ufe: the one hard,
intended for fealing letters, and other fuch purpofes, where
only a thin body can be allowed; the other foft, defigned
for receiving the impreffions of feals of office to charters,
patents, and fuch written inftruments.
The beft hard red fealing-wax is made by mixing two
parts of fhell-lac, well powdered, and refin and vermilion,
powdered, of each one part, and melting this combined
powder over a gentle fire; and when the ingredients feem
thoroughly incorporated, working the wax into fticks.
Seed-lac may be Tibfhituted for the fhell-lac ; and inftead of
refin, boiled Venice turpentine may be ufed. A coarfer,
hard, red fealing-wax may be made, by mixing two parts
of refin, and of fhell-lac, vermilion and red-lead, mixed in
the proportion of one part of the vermilion to two of the
red-lead, of each one part ; and proceeding, as in the former
preparation. For a cheaper kind, the vermilion may be
omitted, and the fhell-lac alfo, for very coarfe ufes. The
hard black fealing-wax may be prepared in the fame manner ;
ufing
WAX
uling for the beft fort, inftead of the vermilion, the beft
ivory black; and for the coarfer fort, inftead of the ver-
milion and red-lead, the common ivory black. For hard
green fealing-wax, inftead of vermilion, ufe powdered ver-
digrife ; and for a sae colour, diftilled, or cryftals of
verdigrife. For hard blue fealing-wax, inftead of the ver-
milion, fubftitute well powdered {malt, or fora light blue,
verditer ; or a mixture of both. For yellow hard fealing-
wax, fubftitute mafticot, or, for a bright colour, turbith
mineral, inftead of the vermilion. The hard purple wax
is made like the red; changing half the quantity of the ver-
milion for an equal, or greater proportion of {malt, as the
purple is defired to be more blue or more red.
For uncoloured foft fealing-wax, take of bees’-wax, one
pound; of turpentine, three ounces; and of olive oil, one
ounce; place them in a proper veffel over the fire, and let
them boil for fome time ; and the wax will be then fit to be
formed into rolls or cakes for ufe. For red, black, green,
blue, yellow, and purple foft fealing-wax, add to the pre-
ceding compolition, while boiling, an ounce or more of any
ingredients directed above for colouring the hard fealing-
wax, and ftir the mafs, till the colouring ingredient be in-
corporated with the wax.
The hard fealing-wax is formed into fticks, by rolling
the mafs on a copper-plate, or ftone, with a rolling-board,
lined with copper, or block-tin, into rolls of any required
fize. In order to give them the fire-polifh, or glofs, a fur-
nace or ftove, like a pail, with bars at the bottom for fup-
porting the charcoal, and notches at the top of the fides for
putting the fticks of wax over the fire, is ufually provided.
By means of this ftove the fticks of wax may be conveniently
expofed to the fire, and turned about, till the wax is fo
melted on the furface as to become fmooth and fhining.
Hard fealing-wax may be formed into balls, by putting a
proper guantity on the plate or ftone, and having fafhioned
it into a round form, rolling it with the board till it be
fmooth.
The foft wax is eafily formed into rolls or cakes, by
pouring the melted mafs of the ingredients, as foon as they
are duly prepared, into cold water, and working it with the
hands into any defired figure. Some perfume both thefe
kinds of wax, by ufing, for a pound of the wax, half an
ounce of benjamin, one fcruple of oil of Rhodium, ‘ten
grains of mufk, and of civet and ambergrife, each five
grains ; rubbing the oil with the other ingredients powdered ;
and when the wax is ready to be wrought into fticks, {prink-
ling in and well ftirring the mixture; or by ufing one ounce
of benjamin, one {cruple and a half of oil of Rhodium, and
five grains of ambergrife, in the fame manner. Lewis’s
Com. of Arts, p. 370. Handmaid to the Arts, vol. ii.
p- 34, &c. :
W ax-Candles. See CANDLE.
Wax, To imitate Fruit, Sc. in. Take the fruit, and
bury it half-way in clay ; oil its edges, and the extant half
of the fruit; then nimbly throw on it tempered alabafter,
or plafter of Paris, to a confiderable thicknefs. When this
is concreted, it makes the half mould, the fecond half of
which may be obtained in the fame way. The two parts
of the mould being joined together, a little coloured wax,
melted, and brought to a due heat, being poured through
a hole made in any convenient part of the mould, and pre-
fently fhook every way therein, will reprefent the original
fruit. Boyle’s Works abr. vol. i. p. 136. .
Here we mutt not forget that pretty invention of M. Be-
noift, a man famous at Paris for his figures of wax. Being
by profeflion a painter, he found the fecret of forming
moulds on the faces of living perfons, even the faireft and
molt delicate, without any danger either to their health or
WAX
complexion: in which moulds he ca{t mafks of wax; to
which, by his colours, and glafs eyes imitated from nature,
he gave a fort of life: infomuch as, when clothed in proper
habits, they bore fuch a refemblance, that it was difficult
diftinguifhing between the copy and the original.
Wax, Gilding. See Gitpinc.
Wax, Grafting, is a compofition ferving to bind or fix
the bud, or graft, in the cleft of the ftock.
Inftead of grafting wax, the country gardeners, &c. only
ufe clay, over which they lay a piece of linen cloth, and fo
keep it moift ; and to prevent its cracking with the heat of
the fun, they tie mofs over it. But the wax ordinarily ufed
is a compott of one pound and a half of pitch, a quarter of
a pound of wax, and an ounce of oil of almonds, melted and
mixed together: with the addition, in {pring or autumn, of
a moderate quantity of turpentine.
For cleft-grafting, whip-grafting, and grafting by ap-
proach, Mr. Mortimer recommends tempered clay, or foft
wax ; but for rind-grafting, clay and horfe-dung.
Wax, Green. See Green Wax.
Wax, thorough, in Botany. See BurLeuRUM.
Wax, Painting in. See Encaustic Painting.
Wax-Bill. See Loxta Affrild.
Wax-Scot, or Wax-fhot, Ceragium, in our Ancient Cu/-
toms, money paid twice a year towards the charge of main-
taining lights, or candles, in the church.
WAXENBURG, in Geography, a town of Auftria;
10 miles W. of Freyttadt.
WAXHOLM, a fortrefs on the coaft of Sweden, in
the Baltic ; fituated on a {mall ifland at the entrance of the
channel of the Malar Lake, and built in the year 1649. It
has fince been greatly improved and enlarged, fo that it has
the appearance of a little town. Here all homeward-bound
fhips are fearched. On this ifland, which is called Waxon,
befides this fort, are a church, a {chool, and a cuftom-houfe,
The chief occupation of the inhabitants is fifhing ; 16 miles
E. of Stockholm. N. lat. 59°21/. E.long. 18° 16/.
WAXING, Crrarto, in Chemifiry, the preparation of
any matter to render it fit and difpofed to liquefy, or melt,
which of itfelf it was not.
This is frequently done, to enable things to penetrate
into metals, or other folid bodies.
WaAxtnG, in the Manufadure of Calico, &c., a procefs
by which the operation of certain colours is refifted by ftop-
ping out with wax; but it is too expenfive to be often
adopted among calico-printers, who are anxious to finifh
their prints with the leaft poflible charge. Formerly this
mode was very generally practifed, and great quantities of
wax were confumed in the procefs. In the Eaft Indies
wax is ftill ufed for preferving the whites in calico-printing.
In printing the filk handkerchiefs called bandanas, a pro-
cefs called qwaxing is ftill followed. It confilts in making
a preparation of tallow and rofin very liquid by heat, and
in printing it in that ftate with a block upon the filk.
When fuch goods are pafled through the blue vat, thofe
parts which are covered with the tallow and rofin are
preferved from the aétion of the indigo, and remain white,
while the whole remainder is dyed a faft blue. The
method afterwards taken to difcharge a part of this blue,
and produce yellow, orange, &c. is as follows:—The
agent employed for this purpofe is the nitrous, and fome-
times the nitro-muriatic acid. This was ufed for the pur-
pofe of putting yellow figures upon blue filk handker-
chiefs. With this view aqua fortis, or nitro-muriatic acid,
of a ftrength fuitable to the kind of blue that is to be dif-
‘charged, is mixed either with gum-tragacanth, or with
flour pafte, to a proper confiftence, and in this form it is
printed on the filk, by means of acommon block, on which
the
WAY
the intended pattern is cut. The confequence of this is,
that wherever the acid attaches,’ there the original colour is
difcharged, and a yellow dye is produced in its place. The
pieces are then fteamed, by pafling them over a veflel con-
taining boiling water, which gives brilliancy to the colour, and
finifhes the operation. Parkes’s Eff. vol. ii. p. 149..170-
See Difcharge Work, and Discnarcine of Golours.
WAXWAY, in Geography, an ifland in the Eaft In-
dian fea, near the E. coaft of the ifland of Celebes, about
thirty miles in circumference. S. lat. 3° 35’. E.»long.
123° 15).
WAY. See Puro Way.
Way, Via. See Hicuway, Roan, Turnpike, and
Via.
Roman ways are divided into confular, pretorian, military,
and public. “See Via.
We have four notable ones of thefe in England; an-
ciently called chimini quatuor, and intitled to the privileges
of pax regis. The firft is Watling-fireet, or Watheling-ftreet,
leading from Dover to London, Duntftable, Towcetter, At-
terfton, and the Severn, near the Wrekin in Shropfhire,
extending as far as Anglefea in Wales. The fecond, called
Hekineld, or Tkenild-ftreet, reaches from Southampton, over
the river fis at Newbridge, thence by Camden and Litch-
field, then paffes the Derwent near Derby, fo to Bolfover-
caftle, and ends at Tinmouth. The third, called Foffe-way,
becaufe in fome places it was never perfected, but hes as a
large ditch, leads from Cornwall through Devonfhire, by
Tetbury near Stow in the Wolds; and befide Coventry to
Leicefter, Newark, and fo to Lincoln. The fourth, called
Erming, or Erminage-ftreet, ftretches from St. David’s in
Welt Wales, to Southampton. ;
Way. See WEIGH.
Way, Milky. The opinion, long maintained among aftro-
nomers, but lately controverted, that the milky way contains
a great number of ftars, has been confirmed by the obferva-
tions of the ingenious and indefatigable Dr. Herfchel. On
applying his telefcope of the Newtonian form, with an
objeét-fpeculum of twenty feet focal length and an aperture
of 1842, inches, to a part of this fpace, he found that it
completely refolved the whole whitifh appearance into {mall
ftars ; which his former telefcopes had not light enough to
effeé&t In the traét immediately about the hand and club of
Orion, to which his obfervations were particularly directed,
the multitude of {tars of all poffible fizes that prefented
themfelves to view was aftonifhing : and in order to form
fome juft idea of their number, Dr. Herfchel counted many
fields, and computed from a mean of them, what a given
portion of the milky way might contain. Among many
trials of this fort, he found that fix fields, promifcuoufly
taken, contained 110, 60, 70, 90, 70, and 74 ftarseach. A
mean of thefe gives 79 ftars for each field. Hence, by al-
lowing fifteen minutes of a great circle for the diameter of
the field of view, it is inferred, that a belt of fifteen degrees
in length and two in breadth, which is the quantity often
obferved by this excellent aftronomer to pafs through the
field of his telefcope in one hour’s time, could not well con-
tain lefs than fifty thoufand ftars, that were large enough to
be diftinétly numbered. But, befides thefe, Dr. Herfchel
fufpeéted at leaft twice as many more, which, for want of
light, he could only fee now and then by faint glittering and
interrupted glimpfes. See GaLaxy and NeBuLa.
Way of a Ship is fometimes ufed for the fame with the
rake. But the term is more commonly underftood of the
courfe or progrefs which fhe makes on the water under fail:
thus, when fhe begins her motion, fhe is faid to be under
way ; when that motion increafes, fhe is faid to have fre/h
way through the water ; when fhe goes apace, they fay /he
a
WAY
has a good way; and they call the account how fait the fails
by the log, Hecping an account of her way.
And becaufe moft fhips are apt to fail a little to the lee-
ward of their true courfe; they always, in cafting up the
log-board, allow fomething for her leeward-way. Hence
alfo a fhip is faid to have head-way and flern-qway.
_ Way of the Rounds, Chemin des Rondes, in Fortification,
is a {pace left for the paffage of the rounds, between the
rampart, and the wall of a fortified town.
This is not now much in ufe; becaufe the parapet not
being above a foot thick, it is foon overthrown by the
enemy’s cannon,
Way, Covert, Fofs, Gang, Hatch, Spur, and Water. See
the feveral articles.
Way-Bread, in Agriculture, a name given in fome places
to the herb plantain, which is very vieful in fome grafs
lands, as increafing the quantity of feed very greatly. See
PLANTAGO.
Way-Going Crop, a term applied to that which is taken
from the ground the year the tenant or occupant leaves a
farm. Such crops are regulated in many different ways, ac-
cording to the nature of the leafes. See Lease.
Way-Leave, a provincial term for the ground purchafed
or hired to make a waggon-way upon, between coal-pits and
the river.
Wax-Pane, in Agriculture, a term applied to the flips left
for cartage in watered lands. It is that part of the ground
which lies, in a properly watered meadow, on that fide of a
main where no trenches are formed and taken out, but is
floated all the length of the main over its. banks, having a
drain parallel to it. It ferves as a road for conveying the
hay upon out of the ground, inftead of the teams having to
crofs all the trenches.
_Way-Thifile, a troublefome plant of the perennial weed
kind, with ftrong roots that branch out in a horizontal
manner. Some think it may be weakened or deitroyed
wholly by frequent cutting over, the beft feafon for which is
when it is coming into full bloom; as the wet then gets
te its sama ftalk, and aids the rotting of it. In tillage-
and it is fometimes got quit of by deep repeated ploughing.
See TuisTLe and ewan. alee a ee
Way-Warden, in Rural Economy, a name fometimes given
to the furveyor or overlooker of the roads of a diftriét or
county.
_ WAYA, in Geography, a town on the E. coaft of the
ifland of Celebes, in Tolo bay. S. lat. 1°50’. E. long.
121°. 52!o9
WAYAM, a {mall ifland in the Pacific ocean, near the
S.E. coaft of the ifland of Waygoo. S. lat. o°24'. E.
long. 131° 30.
WAYBARI, a river of Guiana, which runs into the
Atlantic, N. lat. 6° 25'. W. long. 58° 6’.
WAYBORN Horg, a creek and point of land, on the
N. coaft of the county of Norfolk, which takes its name
from a village, about five miles from Holt.
WAYED Horse, in Rural Economy, a term applied to
an animal of this kind which has been already backed and
broken in for work, and which fhews a difpofition to be
traGtable and ufeful. See Horse and Tram.
The term is likewife fometimes applied to team-oxen and
other animals.
WAYFARING-Tree. See Vinurnum.
WAYGAT?s Strait, in Geography, a ftrait of Ruffia in
Europe, feparating a fmall ifland, called Waygat ifland, from
the continent or country of the Samoiedes. It is alfo called
Vaigatfkoi and Vaiatch. ~N. lat. 68°. E. long. 60°. See
VAIGATSKOI. j
WAYGOO, an ifland in the Pacific Ocean, about 60
miles
WAY
miles in length, from E. to W., and 25 in breadth. N. lat.
0° 2! too° 30! E. long. 130° 31! to 131° gol.
WAYNE, a town of America, in the diftri€t of Maine,
and county of Kennebeck, containing 819 inhabitants.—
Alfo, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in Greene county, con-
taining 588 inhabitants.—Alfo, atownfhip of Pennfylvania,
in Crawford county, containing 502 inhabitants. —Alfo, a
townfhip of Pennfylvania, in Mifflin county, containing
1501 inhabitants:—Alfo, a county of Pennfylvania, con-
taining 4125 inhabitants.—Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in
the county of Adams, containing gor inhabitants.—Alfo, a
townfhip of Ohio, in the county of Butler, containing 1135
inhabitants.—Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in the county of
Columbiana, containing 377 inhabitants.—Alfo, a townfhip
of Ohio, in Jefferfon county, containing 1161 inhabitants.
—Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in Knox county, containing
478 inhabitants.—Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in Montgo-
mery county, containing 431 inhabitants.—Alfo, a town-
fhip of Ohio, in Pickaway county, containing 742 inha-
bitants.—Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in Scioto county, con-
taining 398 inhabitants.—Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in
Tufcarawa county, containing 191 imhabitants.—Alfo, a
townfhip of Ohio, in Warren county, containing 1862 in-
habitants.—Alfo, a county of Kentucky, containing 5393
inhabitants, of whom 226 are flaves; the town Monticilio
contains 37 perfons, including 4 flaves.—Alfo, a county of
North Carolina, containing 8687 inhabitants, 2756 being
flaves.—Alfo, a county of Georgia, containing 254 in-
habitants. —Alfo, a county of the Miffiffippi territory, con-
taining 1253 inhabitants, 262 being flaves.—Alfo, a large
townfhip of New York, in the N.E. part of Steuben county,
15 miles E. of Bath, called Frederick’s town till the year
1808: it has a pott-office called Rofecommon. The S. part is
hilly, but the central and other parts are arable and pro-
duGtive. The timber is chiefly oak and walnut, and fome
pine on the hills. Here are a congregation of Baptifts, and
a competent number of fchool-houfes. The fettlement
commenced about 1794, and the population is rapidly in-
ereafing. In 1810, the number of people was 1025, and
that of fenatorial eleGtors 57.
WAYNESBOROUGH, a town of Georgia, contain-
ing 111 inhabitants.
WAYS and Means, Committee of. See Suppuies.
WAYTE, in Geography, a rocky iflet in the ftraits of
Macaflar, near the welt coalt of Celebes. S. lat. 0° 4o’.
E. long. 119° 18/.
WAYTO, a town on the S.E. coaft of the ifle of Timor.
S. lat. 8° 39/. E. long. 126° 9!.
WAY-WISER, an inftrument for meafuring the road,
or diftance gone; called alfo perambulator, and*podometer,
or pedometer.
Mr. Lovell Edgworth communicated to the Society of
Arts, &c. an account of a way-wifer of his invention ;
for which he obtained a filver medal. This machine con-
fifts of a nave, formed of two, round flat pieces of wood, one
inch thick and eight inches: in diameter. In each of thefe
pieces there are cut eleven grooves, five-eighths of an inch
wide and three-eighths deep ; and when the two pieces are
{crewed together, they enclofe eleven fpokes, forming a
wheel of fpokes, without a rim: the circumference of the
wheel is exaétly one pole ; and the inftrument may be eafily
taken to pieces, and put up in a {mall compafs. On each
of the {pokes there is driven a ferril, to prevent them from
wearing out ; and in the centre of the nave, there is a {quare
hole ‘to receive an axle. Into this hole there is inferted- an
iron or brafs rod, which has the thread of a very fine {crew
worked upon it from one end to the other ; upon this ferew
WEA
hangs a nut which, as the rod turns round with the wheel,
advances or recedes towards or from the nave ef the wheel.
The nut does this becaufeit is prevented from turning round
with the axle, by having its centre of gravity placed at fome
diftance below the rod, fo as always to hang perpendicularly
like a plummet. Two fides of this ferew are filed away
flat, and have figures engraved upon them to fhew by the
progreflive motion of the nut, how many circumvolutions
the wheel and its axle have made: on one fide the divifions
of miles, furlongs, and poles, are in a direét, and on the other
fide the fame divifions are placed in a retrograde order.
If the perfon who ufes this machine places it at his right
fide, holding the axle loofely in his hands, and walks for-
ward, the wheel will revolve, and the nut advance from the
extremity of the rod towards the nave of the wheel. When
two miles have been meafured, the nut will have come clofe
to the wheel. But to continue. this meafurement, nothin
more is neceflary than to place the wheel at the left hand of
the operator; and the nut will, as he continues his courfe,
recede from the axle-tree, till another fpace of two miles is
meatured.
It appears from the conftrution of this machine, that it
operates like circular compafles; and does not, like the
common-wheel way-wifer, meafure the furface of every ftone
and mole-hill, &c. but pafles over moft of the obftacles it
meets with, and meafures the chords only, inftead of the arcs
of any curved furfaces upon which it rolls.
WAYWODE. See Warwone.
WEACHIN, in Botany, the name given by the Indians
of America to the maize, or Indian corn, which they culti-
vated for bread before we knew them.
WEADINGSTEDE, in Geography, a town of the
duchy of Holftein; 7 miles E. of Weflingburen.
WEAK, or Easy Brancu, in the Manege.
QUET, and BANQuET-Line.
Weak-Land, in Agriculture, that which is of a light, thin,
open nature, and which is deficient in itaple, or the quantity
of proper mouldy material. It is dire&tly contrary to that
of the cold watery kind, which often changes the nature and
quality of the produce, and retards vegetation in the early
{pring, or during wet feafons, as it forwards the growth of
the crops that are put upon it, but is frequently defe@tive
in the amount of produce which is afforded. It is to be im-
proved by the ufe of proper earthy fubitances and manures,
according as the quality of it may be, and by keeping the
{urface of it as much covered as poffible by fuitable green
crops, to prevent the too great expofure of it to the action
of the fun and winds. Such other means, of the fame kind,
as the nature, circumftances, and fituation of the land will
permit, may likewife be purfued. See Soi.
Weak-Pulfe. See PuLse.
WEAKY, in Agriculture, a term ufed to fignify juicy, in
contradiftin@tion to that of dry or hufky, as applied to
different kinds of food.
WEALD, or Weatp-Land, a name applied to a kind
of wild woody tra& of ground of a ftiff heavy quality in
fome fouthern diftriéts, as thofe of Kent, Suffex, &c.
It is moftly of a deep tenacious clayey, marly, and
loamy nature, but occafionally intermixed with earths of a
lighter and more open fort. The writer of the account of
the-agriculture of the former of the above counties, ftates,
that the weald part of that diftri& was in ancient times an
immenfe wood or foreft, inhabited only by herds of deer and
hogs, and belonged wholly to the king. That by degrees
it became peopled, and interfperfed with villages and towns ;
and by piece-meal, was, for the moft part, cleared of its
wood, and converted into tillage and paiture.. There are,
however,
See Ban-
WEA
however, fome woodlands {till in their original ftate; and
by the author of that of the latter, it is remarked, that fo
predominant is the timber and wood of one fort or another
in the weald of that county, that when viewed from any
eminence in the neighbourhood, it prefents to the eye hardly
any other profpect but a mafs of wood, which is, it 18
thought, to be afcribed to the great extent and quantity of
wood, preferved by a cuftom of a nature fo extraordinary,
that it is not a little furprifing no fleps have been taken to
put an end to it. ; ;
When this county was firft improved by clearing, as in
the other diftri@, it was, it is faid, a common practice to
leave a /haw of wood feveral yards in width, to encompa{s
each diftin@ inclofure, as a nurfery for the timber and other
plants. The fizes of thefe inclofures being fmall, they muft
of neceffity contribute to render the general appearance of
the tra&t woody. . :
Anterior to the Conqueft, the weald of this county was,
it is faid, a continued foreft, extending from the borders
of the firft diftri@ to the confines of Hampthire, acrofs
the whole of it; and the names of a variety of parifhes
fituated in this line, and evidently derived from Saxon
original, atteft this fa& to the prefent day. In fhort, the
foreft now remaining occupies, it is faid, a confiderable
portion of the county. :
The weald parts of both thefe counties were probably
once one great forett. :
It is noticed, that there is, perhaps, no obje& in the weald
of the latter county, fo worthy of attention and obfervation
as the growth of timber ; that there is no region of the
earth where trees of all kinds thrive better, but efpecially
thofe of the oak and afh forts. The traét there diftinguifhed
by the title of the Weald has formerly, it is ftated, been
covered with trees, and it was called the forett of An-
derida; and that now, even if a field be neglected, it will
become a wood, principally of oak and birch, intermixed
with hazel, fome kinds of willow, and dog wood.
This difpofition for the growth and raifing of wood and
timber fhould, in all cafes of weald land where it cannot be
converted to a better or more profitable purpofe, be taken
advantage of and promoted, by preper planting and en-
couraging the natural growth of the wood thrown up, as it
may form one great feature in the improvement of fuch
land, and be produétive of vait benefit in bringing every
portion and fort of it to the greatelft profit. 1
WEALREAF, in our Old Writers, fignifies the robbing
of a dead man in his grave.
The word comes from the Saxon weal, /lrages, and reaf,
Spoliatio.
WEANEL, a country term for a young beaft newly
weaned, or taken from fucking its dam.
WEANING, Azsractation. See ABLACTATION.
WEANING Young Live-Stock, in Rural Economy, the fepa-
rating them from the mothers in the different kinds, for dif-
ferent purpofes, and in different intentions.
Foals, where they are defigned for the faddle, fhould,
on being taken from the mothers, be put into fome fafe
fheds or other proper places at a diftance, where they can
be quiet and out of the hearing of the mares, being well
fupplied with the neceflary forts of food and good water for
a day or two; the buildings fhould be conneéted with
grafs-fields, into which they can be turned in the day-time,
but be always brought up for the night, for fome time,
having proper kinds of dry food then gre them in full
quantities, fo as to get them on well at firft. Some intel-
ligent breeders have their young horfe-ftock fed, after
weaning, with coarfely ground oats and one-third flour,
WEA
divided into proper feeds, and given on the nights ia the
houfes. This, it is faid, pufhes them on early to a full
growth, and that they never become ftunted afterwards.
In fome inftances, it may be ufeful and proper to put the
colt and filly foals into feparate paftures. Where a number
are to be weaned at a time, it is of advantage to have the
pafture-lands pretty large. See Breeptnc, Foa, and
Horse. :
In the weaning of the young of neat cattle, the bufinefs
is accomplifhed at different times or ages of the animals, as
the nature of the purpofe for which they are defigned may
be; when for rearing as ftock, it is often done immediately,
or in a few days or weeks, and when for fattening, not at
all. If for fale, the time is uncertain, depending on the
demand. Where good neat cattle-ftock is the objet, as foon
as the natural food milk is laid afide, a fubititute of fome
good fort of diet fhould be had recourfe to, fuch as oat or
barley-meal, ftirred in with the jelly of linfeed, that has
been produced by being fteeped in hot water, and mixed
with flet milk ; which fhould be continued until they be-
come capable of eating more firm and folid kinds of food,
fuch as either oats, {plit beans, and chopped hay, or bran,
and barley-flour mixed: in the early {pring they fhould
be turned out into good grafs paftures in warm fituations.
By thefe means they will be brought on well, and become
good ftrong ftock. For the purpofe of rearing, as well as
that of the butcher, thofe that are dropped ania are to be
preferred, as after the early {pring months, they are. not
found capable of gaining fufficient ftrength and hardnefs
before the fucceeding winter comes on, or a proper fize and
growth by the enfuing {pring.
In the buying of the young of neat cattle for weaning
there are many fyftems of management among farmers: fome
prefer bull calves for caitration, and which they. keep, in fome
cafes, until they become reared, and are fat bullocks fit for
the market ; others buy cow-calves of the true fhort-horned,
or fome other good milking-breed, which they fell at two
years, or two years and ahalf old, and upwards, to the cow-
keepers as milking-ftock. In this method, they are col-
le&ted from the latter end of the fummer through the autumn
of the above true breed, as others will not do from
Yorkfhire, and other places where they are to be met with
of the right kind, as fuch fell better, and more readily to
the cow-keepers for affording milk. In weaning, they are
then firft put to fkim-milk, and tempted as foon as poffible
to eat fome other good food, as bran, oats, oil-cake, the
fweeteft hay, common turnips, and cole or rape; but
nothing is found to do better for them than the Swedifh
turnip cut fmall. In keeping them, they fhould have great
attention to cleanlinefs, and the proper and regular feeding
of them. In this way they are continued, being kept in
fheds in the night-time, and turned out by day, until the
{pring, when the ray-grafs becomes ready, and then they
may go out gradually altogether, according as the weather
may be: after ray-grafs to the beft marfhes or paftures ;.
in the autumn to cole or rape that is feeding off for wheat,
and after that to turnips; it is arule with fome to feed them
through the whole period of keeping them as well as pof-
fible. This is expenfive, but it is conceived, that if they
will not pay for good keeping, they will not for bad.
Some, however, when they are turned out, make them the
followers of the fattening ftock.
In this fyftem there are thofe, too, who buy both cow
and bull-calves, difpofing of the former in the above manner,
and seeping the latter raifing a fucceffion of fteers for ‘the
grazing or fattening farmers.
All thefe modes, though hazardous in fome inftances, are
often
—_
WEA
often very beneficial. A man isrequired for the purpofe, in
autumn, winter, and fpring, when the bufinefs is carried on
upon a large fcale. See Cary, Breepine, and Carrre.
Alfo Cow-KEEPING.
The weaning of lambs is a matter of fome trouble and
difficulty in many cafes; it fhould be done towards the latter
end of the fummer, according to circumftances, but never
be delayed too long, as the ewes may thereby be greatly
hurt in different ways. After the lambs are taken, or
lifted as it is fometimes called, from the mothers, they
fhould be allowed to pafs the night about the fold or place.
In the following morning fome of them will begin to eat,
and teach the others to do the fame. They fhould then
be removed to fome convenient foft grafly pafture, difturb-
ing them as little as poflible, care being taken that they do
not wafte or exhauft themfelves by running. If there be
any danger of their not refting quietly the firft night after
they are removed, it is faid that it may be effectually pre-
vented by pafturing them with their mothers the night im-
mediately preceding their weaning, on their future pafture,
and driving them to the fold or other place dire&tly in that
road or way by which the lambs are to be removed from it.
In the courfe of ten or twelve days both the lambs and the
ewes may be paitured together again without inconve-
nience. See Lams and SHEEP.
Store {wine fhould conftantly be weaned at the end of a
few weeks, as about.fix or eight, otherwife they do much in-
jury to the fow. The young pigs fhould be well fed for fome
time afterwards, in order to pufh them on to their proper
growth, and prevent their becoming dwarfith. -The want
of attention to this often produces a poor ftunted fort of
pigs, worth little or nothing. See Swine.
WEANLING, a term applied in fome diftriéts to the
newly-weaned calf. See WEANING.
WEAPONS. See Arm and Armour.
Weapon-Salve, a kind of unguent, fuppofed to cure
wounds fympathetically, by being applied, not to the
wound, but to the weapon that made it. See Sympa-
THETIC Powder, and TRANSPLANTATION.
WEAR, or Weer, a great ftank, or dam in a river;
fitted for the taking of fifh, or for conveying the ftream to
the mill. “See Fisnine, and Weir.
Wear, in Geography. See WERE. :
WEARE, a townfhip of America, in New Hamphhire,
in the county of Kellfborough, containing 2634 inhabitants ;
18 miles S.W. of Concord.
WEARING, in Sea Language. See VEERING.
WEARY Bay, in Geography, a bay on the N.E. coaft
of New Holland, S. of Endeavour river.
WEASEL, Wesssx, Common, in Zoology, a {pecies of
the muftela. See Mustera Vulgaris.
The common weafel ufually refides in cavities under the
roots of trees, as well as of banks near rivulets, &c. from
which it occafionally fallies out in fearch of birds, and more
efpecially of field-mice, great multitudes of which it de-
ftroys.
i Norway, Sweden, Ruffia, and Siberia, the weafel
always changes to white at the approach of winter. In
Siberia it is called /afmitfea; and the fkins are fold to the
Chinefe for three or four rubles ger hundred.
We have authentic accounts of this animal’s being fo com-
pletely tamed, as to exhibit every mark of attachment to its
benefaGtors, and to be as familiar as a cat or lap-dog. A
lady took one of thefe animals under her proteétion; and
fed it from her hand with warm milk, and alfo with veal,
beef, or mutton. When it is fatisfied it generally goes to
Vou. XXXVIII.
WEA
fleep, and when it wakes, it amufes itfelf with various frolics,
and beftows the moft affeétionate careffes on its guardian.
It diftinguifhes the voice of its benefaétrefs amid{ft twenty
people, and gives her a decided preference to all the reft.
Among other curious particulars which this lady has re-
cited, we cannot forbear mentioning the curiofity of this
animal ; it being impoffible, as fhe fays, to open a drawer or
a box, or even to look at a paper, which this little creature
will not alfo examine. Aldrovandus indeed confirms the
account given by Buffon; exprefsly afferting, that weafels
are eafily tamed, and that, when tame, they are remarkably
playful; adding, at the fame time from Curdan, that if their
teeth are rubbed with garlick, they will not afterwards pre-
fume to bite. This writer alfo affirms, that the weafel
fometimes carries her young in her mouth from place to
place feveral times ina day, when fhe fufpeéts that they will
be ftolen from her; refembling fome other animals in this
refpe@. For other {pecies of weafel’ we refer to MusTELa
and Viverra; and we fhall here add fome few fpecies,
mentioned by Dr. Shaw, which have not been noticed under
either of thofe articles. Such are the Viverra Touan, or
ferruginous weafel, white beneath, with the tail naked to-
wards the tip, the “ Touan’”? of Buffon; a native of
Cayenne, that lives in hollow trees, and feeds on worms and
infects. The V. Cuja, or black weafel, with turned up
fnout, the ** Cuja’’ of Molina, refembling the ferret in
fhape, manners, and teeth; a native of Chili, and preying
upon mice. The VY. Maculata, or dufky weafel, {potted
with white ; the “‘ Spotted Martin’”’ of governor Phillips, in
its form fomewhat refembling the foffane. There are alfo
fome other f{pecies, not yet fufficiently defcribed, as the
grey-headed weafel, or ‘* La Grande Marte de Guiane,”’ of
Buffon; the South American weafel, or ** La Fouine de
la Guiane,” of Buffon ; the woolly weafel, or “ La petite
Fouine de la Guiane,”’ of Buffon; the mufky weafel of
Pennant, a native of Bengal; and the flender-toed weafel
with a bufhy tail, defcribed, as well as the other, by
Mr. Pennant from a drawing; this latter being a native of
Cochinchina.
WEASEL-Coot, in Ornithology, the red-headed fmew, or
mergus minutus of Linnzus.
WEATHER, in Agriculture, as denoting the ftate or
difpofition of the atmofphere, in regard to heat and cold,
drought and moifture, fog, fair, or foul, wind, rain, hail,
froft, fnow, and other changes, is a fort of knowledge which
is of vaft utility and importance to the farmer, as the fecur-
ing of his different produce in a perfeét manner greatly de-
pends upon it; and it is in and by means of the atmofphere,
that plants are in fome meafure nourifhed, and that animals
live and breathe: any alterations or changes in its heat,
denfity, purity, or any other refpeét, mutt, of courfe,
neceflarily be attended with proportionable changes in the
ftate of thefe.
The great but regular alterations which a little change of
weather makes in many parts and forts of inanimate matter,
is fully and ftrikingly fhewn in the common inftances and
cafes of barometers, thermometers, hygrometers, and other
fuch inftruments ; and it is owing partly to our inattention,
and partly to other caufes and circumftances, that we, like
other animals, do not feel as great and as regular ones in the
weight, preflure, and affeétions, in the tubes, chords, and
fibres of our own bodies.
In order, however, fully to form and eftablifh a proper
and confiftent theory or doétrine of the weather, it would
be neceffary to have accounts and regifters of it regularly
and carefully kept, in divers parts of the globe, for a long
Dd feries
WEATHER.
feries of years, wherice, it is poffible, we might be enabled
to afcertain and determine the direétions, breadths, and
bounds of the winds, as well as other matters, and the
nature of the weather they bring along with them; with the
corre{pondence there may be between the weather of differ-
ent places, in divers parts of the earth, and the difference
between one fort and another at the fame place; and thus,
in time, learn to judge of, and foretell many great changes
and emergencies ; fuch as extraordinary heats, droughts,
rains, froits, {nows, and fome others. But hitherto very
few, and only partial accounts in relation to the weather,
have been, for the moft part, kept. The general conclufions
that have been drawn from the experiments that have been
made, and the experience had upon this fubjeét, are, that
barometers generally rife and fall together, even at very
diftant places, and a confequent conformity and fimilarity of
weather ; and that this is the more uniformly fo, as might be
expeéted, as the places are the nearer together. That the
variations of thefe inftruments, too, are the greater, as the
places are nearer to the pole ; thus, for inftance, the quick-
filver in them at London, has a greater range by two or
three lines than at Paris, and at that place a greater than
at Zurich; and that at fome places near the equator, there
is {carcely any variation at all ; that the rain in Switzerland
and Italy is much greater in quantity, taking it for the
whole year, than in the county of Effex, though the rains
are yet more frequent, or there are more rainy days in that
county, than in either of the other places; that cold con-
tributes greatly to rain, and this apparently by condenfing
the fufpended vapours, and thereby making them defcend ;
thus, very cold months, or feafons, are very commonly
followed immediately by very rainy ones, and cold fum-
mers are always wet ones; that high ridges of country,
or mountains, fuch as the Alps and others, and the
fnows with which they are covered, not only affect the
neighbouring places, but even diftant countries, as thefe
often partake of their effects; and the weather is mottly
rainy in the vicinities of them, both in this and other
countries.
The prognoftics of the weather that are formed from
other circumftances and obfervations are, that a thick dark
fy lafting for fome time, without either fun or rain, always
becomes fair firft and then foul; that is, it changes to a fair
clear flcy before it turns to rain. The reafon is thought to
be obvioufly this: the atmofphere is replete with vapours,
which though fufficient to refleét and intercept the fun’s rays
from us, yet want denfity to defcend, and while thefe vapours
continue in the fame ftate, the weather will do fo too: ac-
cordingly fuch weather is commonly attended with moderate
warmth, and with little or no wind to difturb the vapours,
but having a heavy atmofphere to fuftain them; the baro-
meter being commonly high: but when the cold approaches,
and by condenfing the vapours, drives them into clouds, or
drops, the way is made for the fun-beams to difplay them-
felves; until the fame vapour, by farther condenfation, be
formed into rain, and fall down in drops. And that a
change in the warmth of the weather is often followed by a
change in the wind. Thus, the northerly and foutherly
winds, though commonly accounted the cau/es of cold and
warm weather, are in reality the effeés of the cold or warmth
of the atmofphere ; of which Dr. Derham affures us he has
had fo many confirmations, that he makes no doubt of the
fa&.. Thus, it is common to obferve a warm foutherly
wind, fuddenly changed to the north, by the fall of fnow or
hail; or to be the wind in a cold frofty morning north,
when the fun has well warmed the air, wheel towards the
6
fouth, and again turn northerly or cafterly in the cold of the
evening.
From the rules laid down by the fhepherd of Banbury,
many interefting and ufeful dedu€tions may be made in re-
gan to the weather: it may be concluded, that when the
un rifes red and fiery, there will be wind and rain; but that
when it rifes cloudy, and the clouds foon difappear or leffen,
there will certainly be fair weather ; and that when the even-
ing is red and the morning’ grey, a fine day may moftly be
prediéted.
That when there are {mall and round clouds, of a dapple
grey colour, with a north wind, it may be determined, that
there will be fair weather for two or three days; but that
large clouds like rocks are a fign of great fhowers. And
that when {mall clouds increafe, it is an indication that there
will be much rain; but that if the large clouds are feen to
leffen, there will be fair weather. In fummer or harveft,
it may alfo be confidered, when the wind has been fouth two
or three days and it grows very hot, and clouds are feen to
rife with great white tops like towers, as if one were on the
top of another, being joined together with black on the
lower fide, a fign that there will be thunder and rain
fuddenly. And that when two fuch clouds rife, one on
each hand, it is high time to make hafte to fhelter.
That when a cloud is feen to rife againft the wind, or the
fide wind, it is a fure fign that when the cloud comes up near
you, the wind will blow the way in which the cloud came.
It is the fame, too, with the motion of ‘a clear place in the
fy, when all the parts of it are thick except one edge.
That, at all times, when the clouds look black in the weft,
it is fure to rain; or if raining, it is fure to continue, what-
ever quarter the wind may be in: and that, on the contrary,
if it fhould break in the weft, it is fure to be fair. That
fair weather for a week, with a fouth wind, is likely to pro-
duce a great drought.
That the wind ufually turns from north to fouth quietly,
but comes back to north ftrong and with rain. That fudden
rains never laft long ; but that when the air grows thick by
degrees, and the fun, or moon and {ftars, fhine dimmer and
dimmer, it is likely to rain for fome time.
That when it begins to rain from the fouth with a high
wind for two or three hours, and then the wind falls but the
rain continues, it is likely to rain twelve hours or more ;
and that at generally rains until a {trong north wind clears
the air. But that when it begins to rain an hour or two
before fun rifing, it is likely to be fair before noon, ‘and to
continue fo that day ; but that if the rain begin an hour or
two after fun rifing, it is likely to rain all that day, unlefs
the rainbow be feen before it rains.
That when mitts rife in low ground and foon difappear, it
is a fign that there will be fair weather; but that when they
rife to the hill tops, there will be rain in a day or two.
That a general mift before the fun rifes, when near the time
of full moon, is a fign of fair weather. That when there
are mifts in the new moon, there will be rain in the old; and
if there are mifts in the old moon, there will be rain in the
new. ‘That in regard to the feafons, as {pring and fummer,
when the laft eighteen days of the month of February and
the firft ten days of the following month are for the. moft
part rainy, the {pring and fummer may be concluded likely
to be fo too. It is faid alfo, that a great drought has
never been known by the writer, but which began at that
time. In refpeé to the winter, when the end of O&ober
and the beginning of the following month are, for the moft
part, warm and rainy; the two beginning months of the new
year are likely to be frofty and cold, except after a very
dry
WEATHER.
dry fummer. But that when Oober and the following
month are fhowy and frofty, the two beginning months of
the new year may be likely to be open-and mild.
Something may be drawn from the habits, cries, and courfe
of animals, in refpeét to the weather. It is remarked, that
in fummer, when fheep rife early in the morning, it is a fure
fign of either rain, or a very hot day; and that, in all
feafons, when they jump and play much about, it is an in-
dication of rain or wind, but generally of both, in the fum-
mer, and of very ftormy weather in the winter. ‘That in
winter, when the fheep lie under a hedge, and feem loath to
go off to pafture, and bleat much, it is confidered a fign of
a ftorm. And that, when fheep are fed with hay in the
winter, and in frofty and fnowy weather they leave the hay,
it is a certain fign of the frofts breaking up.
That when rabbits get out to feed early in the morning,
it is a fign of rain in the night in fummer, and of either rain
or fnow in winter; and that when it is likely to be a bad
‘night, they will be apt to get home before it is dark.
That pigs appear very uneafy before high winds, and run
about fqueaking as if they were in great pain.
That when owls fcreech, it is a certain fign of rain, and
moftly in a very fhort time. Alfo, that when wood-peckers
cry, it isa fign of rain. For this reafon, they are called, in
fome places, rain-fowl. That likewife, when peacocks cry
much, it is a fign of rain. That when the cocks begin to
crow while it rains, it is a fign of fair weather.
That before a wet fummer, the fwans build their nefts
very high; but that before a dry fummer they build very
low. That the bittern or bitter bump does the fame.
But that when the raven is obferved early in the morning
foaring round and round at a great height in the air, it is a
fure fign the day will be fine, and that the weather is likely
to fet in for fair. And that in fummer when the bat is feen
flying and flitting about very late in the evening, the next
day is likely to be fair. That likewife when the {wallow is
obferved to fly high, the weather will moft likely be warm
and fair. But that when it is noticed to fly low, and dip
the tips of its wings in the water as it flims over the furface,
the weather is likely to be rainy. And that the continued
{qualling of the guinea-fowl, and the quacking of ducks and
eefe, are certain figns of rain.
That before great ftorms the miffel thrufh fings parti-
cularly loud, and continues to do fo until the rain begins.
On this account, in fome places, it is called the ftorm-fowl.
Alfo, that in autumn, when flocks of wild geefe are feen
flying over in a wefterly direétion, it is a fign there foon
will be hard weather. That the early appearance of the
wood-cock and field-fare likewife indicate cold hard winters.
That when in the time of hay-making the black fnails
are to be feen ftretched along on the {wath of grafs, it is a
fign of rain. That when frogs look black inftead of a
golden yellow colour, it is a fign of rain. And the loud
hoarfe croakings of frogs are fure figns of rain.
That in autumn, when the dor beetle is feen flying about
in the evening, the next day is likely to be fine. Allfo, that
when bees do not go out as ufual, but keep in their hives, it
is a fign of rain. Much information of this nature may be
found in Marfhall’s “* Minutes of the Southern Counties,’’
which may be confulted by the cautious farmer with great
utility and advantage, in regard to the weather he may have
for fecuring his produce in different cafes.
There are other conclufions, too, in refpeé& to the wea-
ther, that may be drawn from plants of different kinds, as
moft vegetables expand their flowers and down in fun-fhiny
weather; and towards the evening and againft rain clofe
them up, efpecially at the beginning of their flowering,
when the feeds are fenfible and tender. This is vifible and
evident enough in the down of dandelion, and many other
downs, and eminently fo in the flowers of pimpernel ;_ the
opening and fhutting of which make what is termed the
countryman’s weather-qwifer, by which he foretels the wea-
ther of the following day. .The rule is, when the flowers
are clofe fhut up, it betokens rain and foul weather; but
when they are open and abroad fair weather. And lord
Bacon obferves, that the ftalks of trefoil {well againft rain,
and grow more upright; and that the like may be noticed,
though lefs fenfibly, in the ftalks of moft other plants. It
is added, too, that in the ftubble fields there is found a {mall
ted flower, called by the country people pimpernel, which
Opening in a morning is a fure indication of a fine day.
“ Eft & alia (arbor in Tylis) fimilis, foliofior tamen,
rofeique floris; quem no@tu comprimens, aperire incipit
folis exortu, meridie expandit. Incolz dormire eum dicunt.
Plin. Nat. Hift. lib. xii. c. 11. See Sleep of Puants, and
Viciti® Florum.
It is readily conceivable that vegetables fhould be affeéted
by the fame caufes as the weather, as they may be confi-
dered as fo many hygrometers and thermometers, confifting
of an infinite number of frachee or air-veflels, by which they
have an immediate communication with the air or atmo-
fphere, and partake of its moifture, heat, and other changes.
And hence, too, it is, that all wood, even the hardeft and
moft folid, fwells in moilt weather, the humid vapours eafily
infinuating themfelves into the pores of it, efpecially of the
lighter and drier kinds, from which they become applicable
to many purpofes of art, and may tend to fhew the change
of the weather in fome inltances.
Hence we derive a very extraordinary ufe of wood, viz.
for breaking rocks for mill-{tones.
_ The method at the quarries is this: —Having cut a rock
into a cylinder, they divide that into feveral lefs cylinders,
by making holes at proper diftances round the great one ;
the holes they fill with fo many pieces of fallow wood,
dried in an oven, which, in moift weather, becoming im-
pregnated with the humid corpufcules of the air, {well ;
and, like wedges, break or cleave the rock into feveral
ftones.
The attentive farmer fhould {tore up in his mind as many
of the ufeful rules relating to the weather as poflible, as they
may fervée him very effectually, on many occafions, in the
performance of his various bufinefs. See ATMOSPHERE,
Merrorotocy, Heat, Rain, Winp, &c.
The members of our Royal Society, the French Acay
demy of Sciences, and many authors of note, have made
confiderable effays this way; and the praétice of keeping
meteorological journals has, of late years, become very
general. For inftruétions and examples pertaining to this
{ubject, fee Phil. Tranf. vol. lxv. part ii. art. 16.
Eraf. Bartholin has obfervations of the weather for every
day throughout the year 1671. Mr. W. Merle made the
like at Oxford, for feven years, with a very remarkable care
and accuracy. Dr. Plott did the fame at the fame place,
for the year 1684. Mr. Hillier, at Cape Corfe, for the
years 1686, 1687. Mr. Hunt, &c. at Grefham college,
for the years 1695, 1696. Dr. Derham, at Upmintter in
Effex, for the years 1691, 1692, 1697, 1698, 1699, 1703,
1704, 1705. Mr. Townley, in Lancafhire, in 1697, 1698.
Mr. Cunningham, at Emin in China, for the years 1698,
1699, 1700, 1701. Mr. Locke, at Oats in Effex, 1692.
Dr. Scheuchzer, at Zurich, in 1708; and Dr. Tilly, at
Pifa, the fame year. See the Phil. Tranfaétions.
The form of Dr. Derham’s obfervations we give as a
fpecimen of a journal of this kind ; obferving that he notes
Ddz the
WEATHER. |
the ftrength of the winds, by 0, 1, 2, 3, &c. and the quan-
tity of rain, as it fell through a tunnel, in pounds and
centefimals.
Phenomena of the Weather, Ofober 1697.
Barometer. | Rain.
27 7 | Fair. S.W 2129 37/1 52
12 {Rain | S.W. by W.5 | 29 34
9 | Stormy. | o| 29 88]0 29
We have feveral fchemes for keeping meteorological
journals or diaries of the weather, extant in the Philofophi-
cal Tranfaétions, the Medical Effays of Edinburgh, and in
other books. The Ephemerides Ultrajetine may alfo be
confulted. The inftruments requifite for fuch journal are, a
Barometer, Thermometer, Anemofcope, and Ombrometer, which
fee in their proper places. Sve a Colleétion of ingenious
obfervations, and meteorological conjectures, by Dr. Frank-
lin, in his Experiments, &c. p. 182, &c. See Evapora-
tion, Rain, and Winn.
We fhall here {pecify fome of the common indications of
changes of weather that may be obferved at fea. Under
the article Tunes we have already ftated, that they are raifed
by the joint a€tions of the fun and moon; the {pring-tides
being raifed by the fum, and the neap-tides by the differ-
ence of the ations of thefe bodies; and, alfo, that the {pring-
tides, near the time of an equinox, are higher than at other
times of the year. Now, fince the atmo{phere is a fluid
much lighter than water, it mutt, therefore, be more affected
about the times of new and full moon, and in the months of
March and September, than at other times. This is con-
firmed by obfervation ; for, about the times of new and full
moon, an alteration in the ftate of the weather ufually
happens; and the violent gales about the time of the
equinoxes, called eguinoxial gales, are well known, and ex-
pected by every feaman.
According as the ftate of the atmofphere is more or lefs
difturbed, it is evident the appearance of the heavenly bodies
will be more or lefs altered. Thus, if the moon appears
paler than ufual, or if there is a halo about the moon, rain
will probably follow foon after. Several circles about the
moon portend wind. Thefe obfervations are alfo applicable
to the fun. Ifthe moon appears of a red colour, or if the
moon’s horns are blunt, they are figns of wind, which may
be expected from that quarter to which the blunteft horn is
dire&ed. In viewing the moon with a telefcope in a quiet
evening, if one part of the moon’s limb be obferved to be
tremulous, while the oppofite part of the limb is without the
leaft apparent tremor, the wind may be expected from that
point to which the limb free of tremors is direéted. A red
circle about the moon towards the time of full moon in-
dicates wind.
One of the beft known figns in the heavens is the Rain-
bow ; which fee. When the blue and yellow parts of the
rainbow are very bright, or if all of it vanifh at the fame
time, it will be fair weather: if the bow appears to be
broken in feveral places, tempeftuous weather may be
expected.
From the various appearances of the clouds, (fee CLoup, )
which are vapours floating in the atmofphere, producing rain,
hail, fnow, thunder, and lightning, the approaching weather
may, in fome meafure, be prediéted. ‘The height of the clouds
feldom exceeds a mile ; and the fummits of high mountains
are free of clouds.
When the fky is of a fine blue colour, without any clouds,
3
it will continue to be fair weather; but if it is of a very
dark blue, clouds will be formed, and rain, wind, or fog,
will foon follow.
When the fky appears very much clouded for fome time,
without rain, it generally firft clears up, and then changes
to rain. This is accounted for as follows:—The atmo-
{phere at that time being replete with vapours, which,
though fufficient to intercept the rays of the fun, yet want
denfity to defcend; and while the vapours contiaue in the
fame ftate, the weather will do fo too; and fuch weather is
commonly attended with moderate warmth, and with little
or no wind to difturb the vapours, and.an heavy atmofphere
to fupport them, the barometer being commonly high.
But when the cold approacheth, and, by condenfing the
vapours, drives them into clouds or drops, then way is made
for the fun-beams, till the fame vapours, by farther conden-
fation, be formed into rain, and fall down in drops.
If the clouds, in a fummer evening, gradually diminifh,
and at laft vanifh, it will be fine weather; but, if they
increafe, and {mall clouds be obferved to move very {wiftly
underneath, it will be rain foon after; or, if the clouds
change to a dark colour, thunder may be expected.
If the clouds in the weftern hemifphere, at the time of
fun-fet, are tinged with a light red and yellow; or, if there
are no clouds, and the fky, towards that part of the horizon
where the fun fets, be of a beautiful red and yellow, it will
be fine weather: but if the fun be of a pale colour, or if
the clouds change to a dark red, and continue, it will be
rain. The clouds: tinged with a dark red in the oppolite
heaiiphere to the fun, whether at rifing or fetting, prefage
wind.
In winter, when large clouds are obferved with white
edges, and a ftrong blue fky above them, it will be hail or
{now ; or probably thefe may be diffolved into rain before
they reach the earth.
When there are two or more ftrata of clouds moving in
different dire€tions, rain generally follows. Many {mall
clouds pretty high, and other appearing at the fame time in
form of fleeces of wool, denote wind.
A cloud of an oblong form, fometimes called Noah’s
Ark, {een in a clear fly, and changing from a fine light to
a dark colour, is a fign of rain; but, fit changes from dark
to light, it isa fign of fair weather.
A {mall black cloud feen in a clear fky, or feveral {mall
clouds colleGting near each other, are an indication of wind
from the quarter from whence they are obferved to move :
alfo, if the clouds are obferved to diverge from a point in
the horizon, wind may be expected from that, or from the
oppofite point.
When ftars of the fecond and third magnitudes are fud-
denly ob{cured, wind or rain will foon follow. ‘Thofe
meteors, commonly called falling or /hooting ftars, are ufually
the forerunners of wind.
That appearance in the heavens refembling a portion of
the rainbow, but apparently broader than any part of the
arch when complete, and generally known by the name of
a Wind-gall, is an indication of-an approaching gale.
The Aurora Borealis, (which fee,) or northern light, is a
fign of wind from between the’S. and S.W. points, attended
with hazy weather, and {mall rain, the gale generally eom-
mencing between twenty-four and canaries after the firft
appearance of the aurora. The violence of the gale, and the
time of its commencement after the aurora borealis is feen,
and duration, depend, in a great meafure, upon the brightnefs
and motion of the aurora; for the more brilliant the aurora,
and the quicker its motions, the gale will happen fooner, be
more violent, and of fhorter duration,
A change
WEA
A change in the wind commonly produces a change in
the weather. Thus, in fair weather, if the wind changes to
the oppofite point, rain may be expected: but, in rainy or
foggy weather, it will clear up foon after the change of the
wind.
In a florm at fea, a fiery meteor, in form of a ball, afford-
ing an obfcure flame like a candle burning faintly, is fome-
times feen adhering to the malts, yards, &c. or leaping from
one part to another. When only one is feen, it is called
Helena, arid is a fign that the fevereft part of the ftorm is
yet to come. When two are obferved, they are called
Caffor and Pollux, and fometimes Tyndaride, and denote the
ftorm to be near anend. If five of thefe balls are feen toge-
ther, which the Portuguefe call the Virgin Mary’s Crown, it
is confidered to be a fure fign that the ftorm will be foon
over. When the meteor adheres to the mafts, yards, &c. it
is concluded, from the air not having fufficient motion to
diffipate the flame, that a calm will foon enfue; but if it
leaps from one place to another, that it denotes a {torm.
At the Cape of Good Hope, an approaching ftorm, or
gale of wind, is ealily known by the following obfervations :
—When a {mall black cloud, called the Ox-eye, is obferved to
rife from the top of Table Mountain, which continues to
increafe until the heavens be almoft entirely overclouded,
the ftorm then commences. A fimilar phenomenon ufually
precedes a ftorm at the Arabian gulf: this florm comes
from the north, and is accompanied with a great quantity of
red fand. : ;
When a hurricane happens in the Weft Indies, it is gene-
rally either at new or full moon, or at the quarters, and the
figns are as follow :—The fun and moon appear redder than
ufual, and are fometimes furrounded with a halo; the ftars at
night appear larger and fainter; the fky in the N. W. quarter
is dark ; the hills are clear of thofe clouds and mifts which
ufually hover about them; the fea emits a ftrong fmell, and
is violently agitated, often when there is no wind; the wind
alfo veers about to the weft, from whence it fometimes blows
with intermiffions violently and irregularly for about two
hours at a time.
The tumbling of porpoifes indicates a gale of wind.
When a {well fets from any particular point, there being no
wind, a gale may be foon expeéed from that point.
From a very great number of meteorological obfervations,
made in England between the years 1677 and 1789, Mr.
Kirwan has deduced the following probable conjeGtures of
the weather :
1. That when there has been no ftorm before or after the
vernal equinox, the enfuing fummer is generally dry, at leaft
five times in fix.
z. That when a ftorm happens from any eatfterly point,
either on the 19th, 2oth, or 21{ft of March, the fucceeding
fummer is generally dry, four times in five.
3. That when a ftorm arifes on the 25th, 26th, or 27th
of March, and not before, in any point, the fucceeding
fummer is generally dry, four times in five.
4. If there be a ftorm at S.W. or W.S.W. on the rgth,
zoth, 21{t, or 22d of March, the fucceeding fummer is
generally qwer, four times in five.
We fhall further fubjoin the following obfervations :
x. A moilt autumn, with a mild winter, is generally fol-
lowed by a cold and dry f{pring, which greatly retards
vegetation.
2. If the fummer be remarkably rainy, it is probable that
the enfuing winter will be fevere; for the unufual evapora-
tion will have carried off the heat of the earth. Wet
fummers are generally attended with an unufual quantity of
WEA
feed on the white thorn and dog-rofe bufhes. Hence, the
unufual fruitfulnefs of thefe fhrubs is a fign of a fevere
winter.
3. The appearance of cranes, and birds of paflage, early
in autumn, announces a very fevere winter; for it is a fign
that it has already begun in the northern countries.
4. When it rains rien thal in May, it will rain but little
in September, and vice verfa.
5- When the wind is S.W. during fummer or autumn,
and the temperature of the air unufually cold for the feafon,
both to the feeling and the thermometer, with a low baro-
meter, much rain 1s to be expeted.
6. Violent temperatures, as ftorms or great rains, produce
a fort of crifis in the atmofphere, which produces a conftant
temperature, good or bad, for fome months.
7. A rainy winter prediéts a fteril year ; a fevere autumn
announces a windy winter.
For indications of the weather by the barometer, fee
Barometer. By the Thermometer, (which fee,) Mr.
Dalton deduces the following conclufions :
The mean altitude of the mercury in the thermometer in
Britain is about 55°: if higher, the weather is warm; but
if lower, it is cold. . .
A quick and confiderable alteration in the altitude of the
mercury in the thermometer indicates rain.
If it begins to {now when the thermometer is below 32°
the mercury generally rifes to that altitude, and continues
while the {now falls. If the weather clears up foon after, a
fevere cold may be expected. See alfo Hycromerer, from
which it is inferred, that, when the index of the hygrometer
points to dry, and continues. proceeding towards extreme
drynefs, fair weather, and probably wind, may be expeGted;
but if the index returns to the mean ftate, it will be rain.
If the index points to moift and increafing, rain will foon
follow; if it returns towards the mean, it will be fair
weather. :
As to the fuppofed influence of the moon upon the wea-
ther, fee Influence of the Moon.
Weatuen, in Sea Language, is ufed as an adjeGtive, and
applied by mariners to every thing lying to windward of
a particular fituation: thus, a fhip is faid to have the wea-
ther-gage of another, when fhe is farther to windward.
Thus alfo, when a fhip under fail prefents either of her fides
to the wind, it is then called the weather-fide, or weather-
board ; and all the rigging and furniture fituated on it are
diftinguifhed by the fame epithet ; as the weather-fhrouds,
the weather-lifts, the weather-braces, &c.
To Weartuer, is to fail to windward of fome hip,
bank, or head-land.
Weatuer-Beaten. Scattered by a ftorm.
WeaTuHer-Bit, denotes a turn of the cable of a fhip
about the end of the windlafs, without the knight-heads.
It is ufed to check the cable, in order to flacken it gra-
dually out of the fhip, in tempeftuous weather, or when the
fhip rides in a {trong current. See Rinc-Ropes.
WeatHER-Boarding, among Carpenters, &c. denotes the
nailing up of boards againit a wall, and fometimes the boards
themfelves when thus nailed up.
Weatuer-Cock, or Weather-Vane, a moveable vane,
in form of a cock, or of other fhape, placed on high,
to be turned round according to the direétion of the
wind, and point out what quarter the wind blows from.
See VANE.
Weatuer-Cord. See HycromeTEr.
Weatuer, Hard-a. See Harp.
Weartner-Houfe. See Hycromeren.
WEATHER-
WEA
WEATMER-Gage, in Sea Language. When a thip or
fleet is to windward of another, fhe is faid to have the wea-
ther-gage of her.
WEeATHER-Glafés are inftruments contrived to indicate
the ftate or difpolition of the atmofphere, as to heat, cold,
ravity, moilture, &c. to meafure the changes befalling it
in thofe refpe&ts; and by thofe means to predi& the alter-
ation of weather, as rains, winds, {now, &c.
Under the clafs of weather-glaffes, are comprehended
barometers, thermometers, hygrometers, manometers, and ane-
mometers, of each of which there are divers kinds. See their
theories, conftruétions, ufes, kinds, &c. under BAROMETER,
THERMOMETER, HyGromerter, &c.
WeAarHeER-Quarter, in Sea Language, that quarter of the
fhip which is on the windward fide,
Weatuer-Quoil or Coile, is the turning of the fhip’s head
about, fo as to lie that way which her ftern did before with-
out loofing any fail, but only by bearing up the helm.
Weatuer-Side, the fide of a thip upon which the wind
blows. .
Wearuer-Shore, a name given to the fhore lying to
windward.
Wearuer-Ziling, in Building, the covering of the up-
right fide of a houfe with tiles.
WEATHERER, in Geography, one of the fmaller
Shetland iflands. N. Jat. 60° 35’. W. long. 1° 13/.
WEATHERING, a doubling, or failing by a point,
or place.
Weatuerine, among Mill-wrights. See Wixv-Mill.
The WeatHeERinG of a Hawk, among Falconers, is the
fetting of her abroad to take the air.
WEATHERSFIELD, in Geography, a town of the
- {tate of Conneticut, in the county of Hartford, founded
about the year 1639, containing 2868 inhabitants ; 5 miles
S. of Hartford.—Alfo, a townfhip of Vermont, in the
county of Windfor, containing 2115 inhabitants ; 3 miles
S. of Windfor.—Alfo, a town of Ohio, in the county of
Trumbull, containing 232 inhabitants.
WEAVER, in Manufa@ures, one who praétifes the art
of weaving.
Perfons ufing the trade of a weaver, fhall not keep a
tucking or fulling-mill, or ufe dyeing, &c. or have above
two looms in a houfe in any corporation or market-town,
on pain of forfeiting 20s. a week: and fhall ferve an ap-
prenticefhip for feven years to a weaver or clothier, or fhall
{hall forfeit 20/. &c. 2 & 3 Ph. & M.
Weaver’s Alarm. This contrivance is only a weight
faftened to a packthread, which is placed horizontally, fo
that in a certain time a candle may burn down to it. ‘Then
the flame of the candle fetting fire to the thread, the weight
falls, and awakens the fleeping perfon. See Phil. Tranf.
No. 477. feé&t. 14, where we have a figure to explain the in-
vention, which has got its name from being in frequent ufe
among the weavers.
Weavenr’s Lake, in Geography, a lake of New York ;
3 miles N.W. of Orfego lake.
WEAVING, in Manufaéures, is the art of combining
and uniting threads together, to form cloth. Stocking-
knitting or weaving is a diftin& art from cance mp8 the
manner of combining the thread, being effentially different
in the two. In the ftocking fabric, the whole piece con-
fifts of one continuous thread, which is formed into a feries
of loops in fucceflive rows ; and the loops of each row are
drawn through the loops of a former row. See STOCKING-
Frame.
Woven cloth is always compofed of two diftinét fyftems
WEA
of threads, called the warp and the weft: thefe traverfe the
piece of cloth in oppofite direétions, and are ufually at right
angles to each other. Thofe threads, (or, as the weavers
call them, yarns,) which run in the dire€tion of the length
of the web or piece of cloth, are called the warp, and they
extend entirely from one end of the piece to the other.
The crofs thread, or yarn, runs acrofs the cloth, and is
called the woof or weft. This is in fa& one continued
thread through the whole piece of cloth, being woven alter-
nately over and under each yarn of the warp, which it
croffes, until it arrives at the outfide one. It then paffes
round that yarn, and returns back over and under each
thread, as before ; but in fuch a manner, that it now goes
over thofe yarns which it pafled under before, and wice
verfa ; thus firmly knitting or weaving the warp together.
The outfide yarn of the warp, round which the woof is
doubled, is called the felvage, and cannot be unravelled
without breaking the weft. The ftrength of the cloth, in
the direétion of the length, muft depend on the threads of
the warp; but its ftrength in the oppofite dire&tion will de-
pend upon the weft; and the ftrength of thefe two threads
fhould be always properly proportioned to each other.
The combined arts of {pinning and weaving are among
the firft effentials of civilized fociety, and we find both to
be of very ancient origin. The fabulous ftory of Penelope’s
web, and, ftill more, the frequent allufions to this art in
the facred writings, tend to fhew, that the fabrication of
cloth from threads, hair, &c. is a very ancient invention.
It has, however, like other ufeful arts, undergone a vait
fucceflion of improvements, both as to the preparation of
the materials of which cloth is made, and the apparatus ne-
ceflary in its conftru€tion, as well as in the particular modes
of operation by the artift. Weaving, when reduced to its
ee principle, is nothing more than the interlacing of the
weft or crofs threads into the parallel threads of the warp,
fo as to tie them together, and form a web or piece of
cloth, This art is doubtlefs more ancient than that of
{pinning, and the firft cloth was what we now call matting,
i.e. made by weaving together the fhreds of the bark, or
fibrous parts of plants, or the ftalks, fuch as rufhes and
ftraws.
This is ftill the fubftitute for cloth amongft moft rude
and favage nations. When they have advanced a ftep far-
ther in civilization than the {tate of hunters, the fkins of
animals become f{carce, and they require fome more artificial
fubftance for clothing, and which they can procure in
greater quantities. | Neverthelefs, fome people are {till
ignorant of the art of weaving; for the cloth made in the
iflands of the South fea appears to be made by cementing or
glueing the fhreds together, rather than by weaving. From
the defcription given by captain Cook, and other circum-
navigators, and from the {fpecimens which have been brought
to Europe, their cloth, or rather matting, is in general
produced by cohefion of the parts, rather than texture.
This aflimilates it more to the ideas which we attach to
paper, or pafteboard, than to thofe which we form of cloth.
When it was difcovered that the delicate and fhort fibres,
which animals and vegetables afford, could be fo firmly
united together by twilting, as to form threads of any re-
quired length and {trength, the weaving art was placed on
a permanent foundation. By the rosie of {pinning, which
was very fimple in the origin, the weaver is furnifhed with
threads far fuperior to any natural vegetable fibres in light-
nefs, ftrength, and flexibility ; and he has only to combine
them together in the moft advantageous manner.
The art of weaving cloth has been forextenfively applied
Ly
WEAVING.
in almoft every civilized country, and the knowledge of its
various branches has been derived from fuch a variety of
fources, that no one perfon can ever be practically em-
ployed in all its branches; and though every part bears a
ftrong analogy to the reft, yet a minute knowledge of each
of thefe parts can only be acquired by experience and re-
flection. We will endeavour to give the reader as compre-
henfive an idea of the hiftory and progrefs of this ancient
and invaluable art as the nature of the thing, and the limits
to which we are neceflarily confined, will permit. _
The hiftory of this art 1s very little known, and its great
antiquity neceflarily involves the earlier eras of it in the moft
perfect obfcurity. l
The art of making linen, which was probably the firft
fpecies of cloth invented, was communicated by the Egyp-
tians, the inhabitants of Paleftine, and other ealtern nations,
to the Europeans. By flow degrees it found its way into
Italy ; and it afterwards prevailed in Spain, Gaul, Ger-
many, and Britain. The Belgx manufactured linen on the
continent ; and when they afterwards fettled in this ifland,
it is probable they continued the praétice, and taught it to
the people among whom they refided. ;
When it is confidered that the wants of mankind are
nearly the fame in all countries, it is not improbable that
the fame arts, however varied in their operations, may have
been feparately invented in different countries. It 1s not,
however, certain that the art of making cloth is one which
the Britons invented for themfelves. ;
It is moft probable that the Gauls learned it from the
Greeks, and communicated the knowledge of it to the
people of Britain. It is very certain that the inhabitants of
the fouthern parts of Britain were well acquainted with the
arts of dreffing, {pinning, and weaving, both flax and wool,
when they were invaded by the Romans. Neverthclefs,
we have the authority of Julius Cefar, that when he in-
vaded Britain, the art of weaving was totally unknown to
the Britons.
Whatever knowledge the Britons might poflefs of the
clothing arts, prior to the invafion, it is very certain that
thefe arts were much improved amongft them after that
event. It appears from the Notitia Imperii, that there
was an imperial manufactory of woollen and linen cloth, for
the ufe of the Roman army then in Britain, eftablifhed at
Venta Belgarum, now called Winchetter.
Many public a¢ts relative to the woollen manufaéture, in
the earlier period of Englifh hiftory, evidently prove that
the greater part of our wool was, for a very long feries of
years, exported in a rawsftate, and manufactured upon the
continent. iy
In bifhop Aldhelm’s book concerning ‘ Virginity,”
written about A.D. 680, it is remarked, “ that chaftity
alone forms not a perfect character, but requires to be ac-
companied and beautified by other virtues.”’ This obferv-
ation is illuftrated by the following fimile, borrowed from
the art of figure-weaving : ‘ It is not a web of one uniform
colour and texture, without any variety of figures, that
pleafeth the eye, and appeareth beautiful; but one that is
woven by ‘huttles, filled with threads of purple, and many
other colours, flying from fide to fide, and forming a variety
of figures and images, in different compartments, with ad-
mirable art.’
Perhaps the moft curious fpecimen of this ancient figure-
weaving and embroidery, now to be found, is that pre-
ferved in the cathedral of Bayeaux. It is a piece of linen,
about 19 inches in’ breadth, and 67 yards in length, and
contains the hiftory of the Conqueft of England by William
of Normandy; beginning with Harold’s embafly, A.D.
1065, and ending with his death at the battle of Haftings,
A.D. 1066. This curious work is fuppofed to have been
executed by Matilda, wife to William, duke of Normandy,
afterwards king of England, and the ladies of her court.
Although it is certain that the art of figure-weaving was
then known in Britain, it muft be owned, that the piece of
tapeftry juft mentioned owes mott of its beauty to the ex-
quifite needle-work with which it is adorned.
The filk manufaGture was firft praétifed in China, and
the gotton in India. Both the woollen and linen were bor-
rowed by the Englifh from the continent of Europe; and
for many ages, all the improvements in them in this country
were firft introduced into this country by foreign artificers,
who fettled amongft us.
About the clofe of the eleventh century, the clothing
arts had acquired a confiderable degree of improvement in
this ifland. About that time, the weavers in all the great
towns were formed into guilds or corporations, and had
various privileges beftowed upon them by royal charters.
In the reign of Richard I., the woollen manufacture be-
came the fubjeé& of legiflation ; anda law was made, A.D.
1197, for regulating the fabrication and fale of cloth.
The number of weavers, however, was comparativel
{mall, until the policy of the wife and liberal Edward III.
encouraged the art, by the moft advantageous offers of re-
ward and encouragement to foreign cloth-workers and
weavers, who would come and fettle in England. In the
year 1331, two weavers came from Brabant, and fettled at
ork,
The fuperior fkill and dexterity of thefe men, who com-
municated their knowledge to others, foon manifefted itfelf
in the improvement and fpread of the art of weaving in this
ifland.
Many Flemifh weavers were driven from their native
country, by the cruel perfecutions of the duke d’Alva, in
the year 1567. They fettled in different parts of England,
and introduced or promoted the manufaéture of baizes,
ferges, crapes, and other woollen ftuffs.
About the year 1686, nearly 50,000 manufa@turers, of
various defcriptions, took refuge in Britain, in confequence
of the revocation of the ediét of Nantz, and other aéts of
religious perfecution committed by Louis XIV. Thefe
improvements chiefly related to filk-weaving.
The arts of {pinning, throwing, and weaving filk, were
brought into England about the middle of the 15th cen-
tury, and were practifed by a campany of women in Lon-
don, called filk-women. About A.D. 1480, men began
to engage in the filk manufaéture, and the art of filk-weaving
in England foon arrived at very great perfection. See
SILK.
The civil diffentions which followed this period, retarded
the progrefs of thefe arts; but afterwards, when the nation
was at reft, the arts of peace, and among others that of
weaving, made rapid advances in almolt every part of the
kingdom.
In the latter part of the laft century, the invaluable in-
ventions of fir Richard Arkwright, introduced the very
extenfive manufacture of cotton, and added a lucrative and
elegant branch of traffic to the commerce of Britain. The
light and fanciful department of the cotton manufaéture
has become, in fome meafure, the flaple manufacture of
Scotland, whilit the more fubftantial and durable cotton
fabrics have given to England a manufaéture inferior, in
importance and extent, only to the woollen trade.
At the prefent day, our fuperiority in point of quality
5
WEAVING.
is univerfally acknowledged in the cotton manufacture ; but
in thofe of flk, linen, and woollen, it is ftill difputed by other
countries.
Loom.—Weaving is performed by the aid of a machine
called aloom. The common loom for plain cloth is a very
fimple machine ; but fome of the varieties which are ufed
for weaving ornamental and figured cloth are very curious :
{till there are parts common to all. The principal of thefe
are as follows. ;
1. The yarn-beam, which is a round wooden roller, on
which is wound or rolled the warp, or yarns that are to
form the length of the piece of cloth. 2. The cloth-beam
is a fimilar roller, on which the cloth is rolled up when
woven. The yarns of the warp are extended in parallel
lines, between the yarn-roll and the cloth-roll, fo as to
form a horizontal plane, or fheet, and are combined toge-
ther by the crofs-threads, or weft. 3. The fhuttle, which
has a hollow to contain a bobbin or pirn of the weft.
4. The heddles, which are threads with loops or eyes,
through which the yarns of the warp pafs: the heddles are
conneéted with the treadles, upon which the weaver places
his feet, to draw down one fet of heddles and raife up
another, fo as to open and feparate the warp into two
divifions, and allow a paflage, called the fhed, for the
fhuttle between them. 5. The reed, which is a frame
containing a row of parallel fhreds of reeds or cane, and
the yarns of the warp pafs between them, as it were be-
tween the teeth of a comb. 6. The reed is fixed in a
frame, called the lay or lathe, which fwings upon centres
of motion. The ufe of the reed and lay is to comb or pufh
the threads of the weft clofe to each other, and make the
cloth clofe and denfe.
The operation of weaving or working the loom for plain
cloth confifts of three very fimple movements, viz. 1. Open-
ning the fhed in the warp alternately, by prefling the
two treadles with his feet in oppofite direGtions. 2. Driv-
ing or throwing the fhuttle through the fhed when opened.
This is performed by the right-hand, when the fly-fhuttle
is ufed, and by the right and left alternately, in the common
operation, wherein the fhuttle is thrown from one hand and
caught in the other. 3. Pulling forward the lay or batten
to ftrike home the woof, and again pufhing it back nearly
to the heddles. This is done by the left-hand with the
fly-fhuttle, or by each hand fucceffively in the old way.
There are feveral different ways of fetting up a loom
for weaving plain cloth; but the principal parts are always
made the fame. We fhall firft defcribe that which is
ufed for weaving plain filks: it is fhewn in perfpective in
Plate 1. Weaving. In this A is the yarn-roll or beam,
on which the thread to form the warp is regularly wound ;
B, the cloth-beam, or breaft-roll, on which the finifhed
cloth is wound up ; D E, the treadles, on which the weaver
preffes his feet ; dd, ec, are the heddles, or harnefs. Thefe
are each compofed of two {mall rods dd and ee, conneCted
together by feveral threads, forming a fyftem of threads,
which is called a heddle; ¢e¢ is another heddle, behind the
former. In the middle of each thread of the heddle is a
loop, through which a yarn of the warp is paffed, every
other yarn going through the loops of the heddle ee, and
the intermediate v:aus paffing between the threads of that
heddle, and siterwards through the eyes or loops of the
other hed‘e dd.
The two heddles, dd and ee, are conneéted together by
two fivall cords going over pulleys, fufpended from the
top of the loom, fo that when one heddle is drawn down,
the other will be raifed up. The heddles receive their
motion from the levers or treadles DE, moved by the
weaver’s feet. ‘The yarns of the warp being paffed alter-
nately through the loops of the two heddles, by prefling
down one treadle, as E, all the yarns belonging to the
heddle ee are drawn down ; and by means of the cords and
pulleys, the other heddle dd, with all the yarns belonging
to it, are raifed up; leaving a fpace, called the fhed, of
about two inches between the yarns, for the paflage of the
fhuttle.
F, GG, H, (fg. 2.) is a frame, called the batten or lay,
fufpended by the bar F, from the upper rails of the loom,
fo that it ean {wing backwards and forwards, as on a centre
of motion; the bottom bar H is much broader than the
rails G G, and projeéts before the plane about an inch
and a half, forming a fhelf, called the fhuttle-race. The
ends of the fhuttle-race H have boards nailed on each fide,
to form two fhort troughs or boxes II, in which pieces of
wood or thick leather ££, called peckers or drivers, traverfe.
The peckers are guided by two {mall wires, fixed at one end
to the uprights G G, and at the other to the end-pieces
of the troughs I I. Each pecker has a ftring faftened to
it, tied to the handle y, which the weaver holds in his right-
hand when at work, and with which he pulls, or rather
fnatches, each pecker either to the right or left alternately.
R is the reed: it is a {mall frame, fixed upon a fhuttle-
race H, containing a number of {mall pieces of fplit reeds
or canes ; or elfe of pieces of flat wire, of fteel or brafs;
but the cane is moft common, although the frame is called
the reed. When fg. 2. is in its place in the loom, the yarns
of the warp pafs between the canes or dents of the reed.
In fig. 2. the reed is reprefented without the top or piece
which covers it, and which is called the lay-cap. It is a rail
of wood with a longitudinal groove along its lowermott fide,
for the purpofe of fuftaining the upper edge of the reed.
The’ lay-cap is that part of the machine on the middle of
which the weaver lays hold with his left-hand when in the
a&t of weaving.
The fhuttle (fee Plate I.) is a {mall piece of wood pointed
at each end, from three to fix inches long. It has an ob-
long mortife in it, containing a {mall bobbin or pirn, on
which is wound the yarn which is to form the weft; and
the end of this yarn runs through a {mall hole in the fhuttle,
called the eye. The fhuttle has two little wheels on the
under fide, by which it runs eafily upon the fhuttle-race H.
Operation.—The weaver fits on the feat M, ( fg. 1.)
which hangs by pivots at its ends, that it may adapt itfelf
to the eafe of the weaver when he fits upon it. It is lifted
out when the weaver gets into the loom, and he puts it in
again after him. He leans lightly againft the cloth-roll B,
and places his fect upon the treadles D E. In his right-
hand he holds the handle y ( fg. 2.), and by his left he lays
hold of the rail, called the lay-cap, which croffes the batten
or lay GG, and ferves to fupport the upper edge of the
reed R. He commences the operations by prefling down
one of the treadles with his foot : this depreffes one-half of
the yarns of the warp, and raifes the other, as before-
defcribed. The fhuttle is previoufly placed in one of
the treughs I, againft the pecker K, belonging to that
trough. By the handle of the pecker, with a fudden jerk,
he drives the pecker againft the fhuttle, fo as to throw it
acrofs the warp upon the fhuttle-race, into the other
trough I, leaving the yarn of the weft, which was wound
on the bobbin after it, in the fpace between the divided
yarns. With his left-hand he pulls the lay towards him ;
and, by means of the reed, the yarn of the weft, which before
was lying loofe between the warp, is driven up towards
the
WEAVING. :
the cloth-roli: the weaver now prefles down his other foot,
which reverfes the operation, pulling down the heddle
which was up before, and raifing that which before was
depreffed. By the other pecker he then throws the fhuttle
back again, leaving the woof after it between the yarns of
the warp; and, by drawing up the batten, beats it clofe
“up to the thread before thrown.
In this manner the operation is continued until a few
inches are woven ; it is then wound upon the cloth-roll, by
putting a fhort lever into a hole made in the roll, and turn-
ing it round, a click ating in the teeth of a ferrated wheel,
prevents the return of the roll. At each end of the yarn-
roll A, (fig. 1.) acord is tied to the frame of the loom;
the other ends of the cords have weights hanging to them.
The rope caufes a fri€tion, which prevents the roll from
turning (unlefs the yarn is drawn by the cloth-beam), and
always preferves a proper degree of tenfion in the yarn.
TT (fg. 1.) are two fmooth fticks (cotton-weavers have
ufually three) put between the yarns, to preferve the leafe,
and keep the threads or yarns from entangling.
In cotton-weaving thefe fticks or rods are kept at an uni-
form diftance from the heddles, either by tying them toge-
ther, or by a fmall cord with a hook at one end, which lays
hold of the front rod, and a weight at the other, which hang
over the yarn-beam.
The cloth is kept extended during the operation of weav-
ing, by means of two hard pieces of wood, called a templet,
with {mall fharp points in their ends, which lay hold of the
edges, or felvages, of the cloth.
Thefe pieces are connected by a cord pafling obliquely
through holes, or notches, in each piece. By this cord
they can be lengthened or fhortened, according to the
breadth of the web.
They are kept flat after the cloth is ftretched by a {mall
bar turning on a centre fixed in one of the pieces of wood.
This ftretcher is called the templet. Silk-weavers ufually
ftretch their cloth by means of two {mall fharp-pointed
hooks faftened to the ends of two ftrings, with little
weights at the other ends; and the ftrings are made to pafs
over little pulleys in each fide of the loom, at a fuitable dif-
tance from the felvages of the cloth.
The perfe&tion of the work depends very much upon the
previous operations which the yarn muft undergo. It is
obvious that the yarns of the warp mutt be Stretched with
great parallelifm and equality of tenfion, fo that when the
cloth is finifhed, every individual yarn may bear an equal
fhare of any ftrain which tends to tear the cloth; hence
great care muit be taken to ftretch the yarns of the warp to
an equal length, and roll them with great regularity upon
the yarn-roll. Thefe operations are called warping and
beaming. Previous to warping, the yarn mutt be prepared
by fizing or ftarching, in order to cement all the loofe fibres,
and render the yarn fmooth.
The fpinners of yarn, whether they employ machinery or
not, ufually reel the yarn into fkeins and hanks of a deter-
minate length; and the weight of thefe hanks, or the num-
ber which will weigh one pound, is the denomination for the
finenefs of the yarn. (See Manufadure of Corron.) In
this {tate the yarn is bought by the weaver. The hanks
of yarn are firft boiled in water ; if it is linen-yarn a little
foap and potafh are put into the water, and for cotton-yarn
a {mall portion of flour is added, to render the thread firm.
When the hanks are perfe@tly dry they are wound off upon
bobbins, each thread having a feparate bobbin, and a cer-
tain length is wound upon each. This winding is performed
by a very fimple hand-wheel to turn the bobbin rapidly
round, the hanks of yarn being extended upon a reel, or
Vou. XXXVIII.
over two {mall reels placed at a diftance afunder, which are
called wifks.
Warping. —The obje& of this operation is to ftretch the
whole number of parallel threads which are to form the
warp of the cloth to an equal length. For this purpofe as
many of the above bobbins are taken as will furnith the
quantity of threads which is required in the warp of the
piece of cloth. The bobbins are ufually one-fourth or one-
fixth of the number of threads required, and are mounted
on fpindles in a frame, fo that the thread can draw off freely
from them. All thefe threads are drawn off at once, fo
as to combine them all into one clue, which will be ready for
the warp. The ancient method was to draw out the warp
at full length, and ftretch it in a field; and this is {till prac-
tifed in ‘India and China, but is fo very uncertain in our
climate that it is feldom ufed. The prefent mode of warp-
ing is either by the warping-frame or warping-mill.
The eee is a large wooden frame, which is
fixed up againit a wall in a vertical pofition. The upright
fides of the frame are pierced with holes to receive wooden
pins, which project fufficiently to wind the clue of yarns for
the warp round them.
The operator having the threads which are to compofe
the warp wound on the bobbins before-mentioned, places
thofe bobbins in a frame; then tying the ends of all the
threads together, and attaching them to one of the pins at
one end of the frame, he gathered all the threads in his
hand into one clue; and permitting them to flip through his
fingers, he walked to the other end, where he paffed the
yarns over the pin fixed there, and then returned to the
former end of the frame and paffed the warp over another
pin, then went back again, and fo on till he formed the re-
quired length of the warp. This being done, he fecured
the end of the warp by crofling it round the pin, and then
he worked back and returned over all the fame {pace again,
laying the threads over the fame pins, fo as to double the
clue; and he repeated the doubling until the number of
threads neceflary for the breadth was made up. The num-
ber of doublings would be according to the number of
bobbins and threads which he took in his hand at once.
This method is ufed very much in France, particularly at
Lyons: it is alfo ufed in Devonfhire. It is adapted to the
weaving carried on in cottages, becaufe the frame is fixed
clofe to the wall, and takes little or no room ; but the warp-
ing-mill or reel is very fuperior, and is adopted in all im-
proved manufaétures where the warping is a feparate bufi-
nefs, and is ufually done at the mill where the yarn is fpun.
The warping-mill is a large reel of a cylindrical form, or
rather of a prifmatic form, bein g made with twelve, eighteen,
or more fides. The reel is ufually about fix feet diameter
and feven feet high; it is turned round on a vertical axis by
a band, pafling from a grooved wheel which is turned by 2
winch, and is placed beneath the feat on which the warper
fits. (See a figure of the warping-machine for filk Plate
Silk, fig. 6.) The bobbins which contain the yarn are placed
on a vertical rack fufpended from the ceiling, and the
threads from them are all colleéted together and paffed be-
tween two {mall upright rollers in a lee: which is wound
up by the reel when it is turned round. To guide the clue
and diftribute it equally on the length of the reel, the above
rollers are fixed on a piece of wood, which flides perpendi-«
cularly on an upright bar fixed at one fide of the reel. The
fliding-piece is fufpended by a {mall cord, wrapped‘round a
part of the perpendicular axis that rifes above the reel. The
cord paffes over a pulley at the top of the upright bar, and
goes down to the fliding-piece which carries the two rollers.
When the reel turns round, the guide-rollers are flowly
Ee drawn
WEAVING.
drawn up by the coiling of this cord round the axis; and
the yarn is wound ina regular fpiral about the reel, until
the length which the warp requires is wound upon it. When
the full length of the yarn is wound on the reel, the clue of
thread is croffed over pins projeting from the frame of the
reel, and the mill is then turned the reverfe way, fo that the
flider and guide-rollers defcend, and the yarn is laid down-
wards along the fame {piral which it before afcended, fo as
to double the clue of thread; and this doubling is repeated
until the required number of threads is colle€ted together
in one clue upon the reel.
When the warp is thus completed, it is taken off the reel
and wound upon a itick into a ball; the eofing which dif-
tinguifh the different returns or doublings of the fimple
clue being firft properly fecured, as a means of dividing the
warp into as many equal portions as is neceflary for the con-
venience of the weaver, in counting the threads in the fuc-
ceeding operation of beaming.
There is likewife another kind of divifion of the threads
of the warp ; this is called the leafe, and ferves to feparate
all the threads which are to go through one of the heddles
of the loom, from thofe which are to go through the other
heddle. To effeé& this feparation, the bobbins from which
the threads are drawn are arranged in two rows, and a
thread is alternately drawn from thé upper row and from
the lower row. Then at the beginning and end of every
doubling of the warp, the threads of one row of bobbins
are crofled over the threads of the other row, and two pins
are put into the croflings to retain them. Thefe pins are
put into holes made in pieces of board fixed to the warping-
reel. One of thefe boards at the top of the reel is fixed
faft, but the other is moveable, and can be fixed at any part
of the reel, according to the length of the warp.
In the moft improved warping-machines, the feparation
is made by an apparatus called in Scotland the heck. It
confifts of a row of fteel pins with eyes through one end of
each for the threads to pafs through like large needles.
Thefe are ftuck into two pieces of wood, by which they
are fupported in a row near to the warping-reel. Every al-
ternate pin in the row is faftened in one piece of wood, and
the intermediate pins are faftened in the other piece, fo that
by lifting up one piece of wood the pins and threads be-
longing to it will be raifed up, whilft the intermediate pins
and threads are held down. This occafions the divifion of
the threads, and a pin is put in to keep them fo divided.
The other piece of wood is then lifted up, which occafions
all the threads to be croffed ; that is, every thread forms a
crofs over that which is adjacent to it. A fecond pin is
then put in, and before the warp is taken off from the reel,
this crofling is fecured by a ftring.
Beaming.— When the weaver receives his warp in a large
ball or bundle, he proceeds to roll it up regularly upon the
yarn-roller of his loom: this is called beaming. For this
purpofe he employs an inftrument called a feparator, or
ravel, which confifts of a number of fhreds of cane, faftened
together, and fixed to a rail of wood, like the teeth of a
long comb ; the threads are intended to be put into the
{paces between thefe teeth, fo as to ftretch the warp to its
proper breadth.
‘Ravels are fomewhat like reeds, but much coarfer, and
are alfo of different dimenfions. One proper for the pur-
pofe being found, one of the fmall divifions of the warp is
placed in every interval between two of the teeth. The
upper part of the ravel, called the cape, is then put on, to
fecure the threads from getting out between the teeth, and
the operation of winding the warp upon the beam com-
mences. In broad works, two perfons are employed to
Il
hold the ravel, which ferves to guide the threads of the warp,
and to fpread them regularly upon the beam; one or two
other perfons keep the threads at a proper degree of tenfion,
and one more turns the beam upon its centre. .
The knottings which fecure the croffings or doublings
made in warping, are very ufeful to the weaver in beaming,
to afcertain the number of threads, and to diftribute them
with regularity. He cuts the knotting before he can put
the warp in the ravel, but he ftill keeps them diftin& by a
{mall cord.
The French weavers ufe a fmall reel, upon which they
wind the warp from the ball, and then from this reel they
draw off the warp through the ravel, by winding up’ the
beam. The reel is loaded with a weight, to make a regu-
lar fri€tion, and draw the warp with a regular tenfion.
Drawing.—The warp being regularly wound upon the
beam, the weaver mutt pafs every yarn through its appropriate
eye or loop in the heddles: this operation is called drawing.
Two rods are firft inferted into the leafe formed by the pins
in the warping-mill, and the ends of thefe rods are tied to-
gether ; the twine by which the leafe was fecured is then
cut away, and the warp ftretched to its proper breadth.
The yarn-beam is fufpended by cords behind the heddles,
fomewhat higher, fo that the warp hangs down perpendi-
cularly. The weaver places himfelf in front of the heddles,
and opens the eye of each heddle in fucceffion ; and it is the
bufinefs of another perfon, placed behind, to feleét every
thread in its order, and deliver it to be drawn through the
open eyes of the heddles. The fucceflion in which the
threads are to be delivered is eafily afcertained by the leafe-
rods, as every thread croffes that next to it. The warp,
after pafling through the heddles, is drawn through the reed
by an inftrument called a fley, or reed-hook, and two
threads are taken through every interval in the reed.
The leafe-rods being paffed through the intervals which
form the leafe, every thread will be found to pafs over the
firit rod, and under the fecond ; the next thread paffes under
the firft, and over the fecond, and fo on alternately. By
this contrivance every thread is kept diftin& from that on
either fide of it, and if broken, its true fituation in the
warp may be eafily and quickly found. This is of fuch im-
portance, that too much care cannot be taken to preferve
the accuracy of the leafe. There is likewife a third rod,
which divides the warp into what is ufually called /plitfuls,
for two threads alternately pafs over and under it ; and thefe
two threads alfo pafs through the fame interval betwixt the
fplits of the reed.
Thefe operations being finifhed, the cords or mounting
which move the heddles are applied; the reed is placed in
the lay, or batten, and the warp is knotted together into
{mall portions, which are tied to a fhaft, and conneéted by
cords to the cloth-beam, and the yarns are {tretched ready
to begin the weaving. ;
Manner of Weaving.—The operations of weaving are
fimple, and foon learned, but require much praétice to per-
form them with dexterity.
In prefling down the treadles of a loom, moft beginners
are apt to apply the weight or force of the foot much too
fuddenly. The bad confequences of this are particularly
felt in weaving fine or weak cotton-yarn ; for the body of the
warp mutt fuftain a ftrefs nearly equal to the force with
which the weaver’s foot is applied to the treadle. The art
of {pinning has not yet been brought to fuch perfection as
to make every thread capable of bearing its fair proportion
of this ftrefs. Befides this, every individual thread is fub-
jeGted to all the friétion occafioned by the heddles and fplits
of the reed, between which the threads pafs, and ny
whic
WEAVING.
which they are generally in contraft when rifing and finking.
A fudden preflure of the foot on the treadle muft caufe a
proportional increafe of the ftrefs upon the warp, and alfo
of the frition. As it is impoflible to make every thread
equally ftrong and equally tight, thofe which are the weakeit,
or the tighteit, muft bear much more than their equal pro-
portion of the ftrefs, and are broken very frequently. Even
with the greateft attention, more time is loft in tying and
replacing them, than would have been fufficient for weaving
a very confiderable quantity into cloth.
If the weaver, from inattention, continues the operation
after one or more warp-threads are broken, the confequence
is fill worfe. The broken thread cannot retain its parallel
fituation to the reft, but crofling over or between thofe
neareft to it, either breaks them alfo, or interrupts the paf-
fage of the fhuttle : it frequently does both.
In every kind of weaving, and efpecially in thin wiry
fabrics, much of the beauty of the cloths depends upon the
weft being well ftretched. If the motion given to the
fhuttle be too rapid, it is very apt to recoil, and thus to
flacken the thread. It has alfo a greater tendency, either to
break the woof altogether, or to unwind it from the pirn or
bobbin of the fhuttle in doubles, which, if not picked out,
would deftroy the regularity of the fabric. The weft of
muflins and thin cotton goods is generally woven into the
cloth in a wet ftate.
This tends to lay the ends of the fibres of cotton fmooth
and parallel, and its cffe& is fimilar to that of drefling of
the warp.
The perfon who winds the weft upon the pirn ought to
be very careful that it be well formed, fo as to unwind
freely. The beft fhape for thofe ufed in the fly-fhuttle is
that of a cone; and the thread ought to traverfe freely
round the cone, in the form of a {piral, or {crew, during
the operation of winding.
The fame wheel whichis ufed for winding the warp upon
the bobbins preparatory to warping, is alfo fit for winding the
weft on the pirn. It only requires a f{pindle of a different
fhape, with a fcrew at one end, upon which the pirn, or
bobbin of the fhuttle, can be fixed. The wheel is fo con-
ftruéted, that the fpindles may be eafily fhifted, to adapt it
for either purpofe.
The reeds are formed of a number of fhort pieces of reed
or cane, or of brafs wire, faftened parallel to each other
between two fticks, and cemented with pitch. This frame is
enclofed between two pieces of the frame of the lay, one of
which is made wide, to form the fhuttle-race ; the other
piece, which is the lay-cap, extends acrofs the frame, but is
fitted fo that it can be eafily removed to take away the reeds,
and fubftitute a finer or coarfer fort, as the nature of the
goods to be woven require. The manufacture of reeds,
both of cane and of fteel, is a feparate trade. Thefe are
fully defcribed in Les Arts et Metiers, vols. g and 15.
To render the fabric of the cloth uniform in thicknefs,
the lay or batten muft be brought forward with the fame
force every time.
In weaving fome kinds of foft or light goods, the reed is
not fixed faft to the lay-cap, but is, held in its place by a
long thin piece of wood, -which is elaftic, and yields or
{prings when the weft is beaten up. In fome cafes the reed
is fuitained by a double woollen cord, ftretched acrofs the
lay, juft beneath the lay-cap, and twifted; this bears the
reed, and is very elaftic, but can be rendered more ftiff by
twifting the two cords tighter.
In the common operation of weaving, a regular force of
the ftroke for beating up the weft muft be acquired by
practice. It is, however, of confequence to the weaver to
mount or prepare his loom in fuch a manner, that the range
or {wing of the lay may be in proportion to the thicknefs of
his cloth. As the lay {wings backwards and forwards, upon
centres placed above, its motion is fimilar to that of a pen-
dulum. Now the greater the arc, or range through which
the lay pafles, the greater will be its effect in driving home
the weft ftrongly, and the thicker the fabric of cloth will
be, as far as that depends upon the clofenefs of the weft.
For this reafon, in weaving coarfe and heavy goods, the
heddles ought to be hung at a greater diftance from the
place where the weft is ftruck up, and confequently where
the cloth begins to be formed, than would, be proper in
light work. The line of the laft wrought fhot of weft is
called by the weavers the fell. The pivots upon which the
lay vibrates ought, in general, to be fo placed, that the
reed will be exaétly in the middle, between the fell and the
heddles, when the lay hangs perpendicularly. As the fell
is conftantly varying in its fituation during the operation, it
will be proper to take its medium ; that is, the place where
the fell will be when half as much is woven as can be done
without taking it up on the cloth-roll, and drawing frefh
yarn from the yarn-roll.
The periods for taking up the cloth ought always to be
fhort in weaving light goods ; for the lefs that the extremes
of the fell vary from the medium, the more regular will be
the arc or fwing of the lay. Mr. James Hall had a
patent, in 1803, for a method of perpetually winding up the
cloth-beam, fo as to take away the cloth as faft as it was
woven, or fhoot by fhoot. This was effeéted in a fimple
manner by a ratchet-wheel fixed on the end of the cloth-
beam, and a proper catch to move it round one tooth at a
time : the catch was aétnated by the motion of the lay. A
fimilar method is ufed in ribband-weaving.
The variations in the ftru€ture of looms frem that which
we have defcribed, are not material. The framing is varied
in almoft every different kind of loom, and ought always to
be fuitable in ftrength to the kind of cloth which is to be
woven. The loom ufed for filk is very flight in all its
parts; but for carpet and fail-cloth it muft be very
{trong.
In looms for heavy goods, the cloth-beam is not placed
at the breaft of the weaver, as it is fo large that it would
impede his working ; the cloth is therefore pafled over a
fixed bar in the place of the cloth-beam reprefented, and
the beam is placed lower down, and near the weaver’s feet,
out of the way of his knees. The heddles are connected
by levers, in fome looms, inftead of pulleys ; but the effeé& is
always the fame ; viz. to make one heddle afcend when the
other defcends. For weaving fine goods, the heddles would
be inconveniently clofe together, if all the yarns went
through two heddles ; hence they ufe four heddles inftead of
two ; but their ation is juft the fame, becaufe they are con-
neéted together in pairs, and when one pair rifes the other
pair finks. Many looms are ftill made without the fly-
fhuttle ; and in that cafe the fhuttle is merely thrown from one
hand to the other, and then thrown back again: this
obliges the weaver to change his hands continually, and the
operation is more complicated. For wide cloths, which are
more than a man can reach acrofs, two perfons were always
employed before the fly-fhuttle was introduced, which is only
within a few years ; but by its affiftance one perfon can weave
the greateft breadths. The fly-fhuttle is the beft for all
kinds of work, and its conftruétion is fo fimple that no other
ought to be ufed.
Treatment of different Kinds of Yarns. —'The manner of
weaving all kinds of plain cloth is much the fame, whether
it is wool, filk, flax, or cotton; except that the two latter
Eez require
WEAVING.
yequire what is called dreffing. Silk and woollen warps re-
quire little preparation after being put into the loom, ex-
cept to clear the yarn occafionally with a comb, to remove
knots or lumps which might catch in paffing through the
reed ; the comb deteéts {uch lumps, and they are removed
with the affiftance of a pair of {ciffors. Flax and cotton,
but particularly the latter, require the warp to be dreffed
with fome glutinous matter, to cement the fibres, and lay
them clofe. This is applied in a fluid ftate, andas the weav-
ing does not proceed well after it is fuffered to dry, the
warp is dreffed with a brufh when in the loom, a fmall quan-
tity at a time, immediately before it is woven.
A La farpa ufe of dreffing is to give to yarn fuffi-
cient ftrength or tenacity, to enable it to bear the operation
of weaving into cloth. By laying fmooth all the ends of
the fibres of the raw materials, from which the yarn is fpun,
it tends both to diminifh the friGtion during the procefs, and
to render the cloth fmooth and glofly when finifhed. The
drefling in common ufe is fimply a mucilage of vegetable
matter boiled toa confiftency in water. Wheat-flour, boiled
to a pafte like that ufed by book-binders, or fometimes po-
tatoes, are commonly employed. Thefe anfwer fuffi-
ciently well in giving to the yarn both the fmoothnefs and
tenacity required; but the great objection to them is, that
they are too eafily affefted by the ation of the atmofphere.
When dreffed yarn is allowed to ftand expofed to the air
for any confiderable time, before being woven into cloth, it
becomes hard, brittle, and comparatively inflexible. It is
then tedious and troublefome to weave, and the cloth is
rough, wiry, and uneven. This is chiefly remarked in dry
weather, when the weavers of fine cloth find it neceflary to
work up their yarn as {peedily as poffible, after it is dreffed.
To countera& this inconveniency, herring or beef brine, and
other faline fubftances which attra& moifture, are fome-
times mixed in {mall quantities with the dreffing : but this
has not been completely and generally fuccefsful ; probably,
becaufe the proportions have not been fufliciently attended
to; for a fuperabundance of moifture is equally prejudicial
with a deficiency. The variations of the moifture of the
air are fo great and frequent, that it is impoffible to fix
any univerfal rule for the quantity of falt to be mixed.
Some weavers put butter-milk in the pafte.
To apply the dreffing, the weaver muft fufpend the
operation of weaving, whenever he has worked up that quan-
tity of warp which he has dreffed, or within two or three
inches ; he then quits his feat, and applies the comb to clear
away knots and burs; next pufhes back the leafe-rods
towards the yarn-roll, one at a time, and if they flide freely
between the yarns, it fhews they are clear from knots ; he
then brufhes the yarn with the pafte by two bruthes, holding
one in each hand, The fuperfluous humidity is afterwards
dried by fanning the yarns with a large fan, and then a {mall
quantity of greafe is brufhed over the yarn; the leafe-rods
are returned to their proper pofition, and the weaving is
refumed.
Dreffing is of the firft importance in weaving warps {pun
from flax or cotton ; for it is impoflible to produce work
of a good quality, unlefs care be ufed in drefling the
warp.
The fame praétice, when ufed upon filk, has a very de-
ftruCtive tendency : it injures the colours of the filk when
ufed, as it is fometimes very improperly, by the weavers of
white fatin. The injury done to the work is irreparable.
In cotton, the operation of drefling is indifpenfable ; but in
filk, this is by no means the cafe.
The preparation of pafte or fize for warp, has been the
fubje& of feveral patents. Mr. Foden, in 1799, recom-
mends a quantity of calcined gypfum, or plafter of Paris,
to be reduced to a very fine powder, and then mixed with
alum, fugar, and the farina or ftarch of potatoes, or an’
other vegetable farina. This powder, when mixed wel
with cold water, forms a foft pafte, to which boiling water
is to be added, and the mixture thoroughly ftirred till it be-
comes fufficiently gelatinous for ufe. ‘
Another fize, for which Mr. Wilks had a patent in 1801,
is prepared as follows :—The ftarch or flour is to be ex-
tracted from any kind of potatoes which are mealy when
boiled, by grating them while raw (but wafhed clean) into
a tub of water. The water, thus impregnated with the
grated potatoes, is run through a fieve or ftrainer, which
will retain the coarfer and fibrous parts of the potatoes, but
admit the finer particles, conitituting the ftarch or flour, to
pafs with the water into a veffel beneath the fieve or
itrainer. This water muft remain in the veilel feveral hours
undifturbed, to permit the ftarch to fubfide to the bottom ;
then the water is poured off, and the ftarch fo obtained is
put into frefh water, and paffed through a finer fieve into
another tub, where the ftarch is left to fubfide to the bottom
as before, and the water is again poured off.
About two-thirds the quantity of potatoes, which fur-
nifhed the ftarch, are alfo to be boiled without peeling, fo as
to make them mealy when boiled ; they are then mafhed, and
diluted with water, fo that they will pafs through a fieve
into a boiler. In this the mafhed potatoes are heated till
they almoit boil; and the ftarch from the grated potatoes is
then to be added, and the whole boiled and ftirred for 20
minutes, when it will become paite proper for ufe. It
fhould be {pread in a flat open veffel to cool.
Improved Syftem of Weaving by Machinery.—In our article
Corron we mentioned that weaving-looms, worked by me-
chanical power, were then coming into ufe: fince the time
that article was printed thefe have made great advances ; but
to ufe them with advantage, the preparatory procefles of
warping and drefling muft be conduéted in a particular man-
ner. Many attempts have been made to diminifh the number
of operations through which the yarn muft pafs by combin-
ing feveral together. Mr. Stuart had a patent in 1800 for
fizing or ftarching cotton-yarn whilft in the cop, fo that it
would be ready to warp at once. Mr. Marfland had a patent
in 1805 for the fame obje@: his plan was to expofe the
cops of cotton to the aétion of the hot ftarch in an exhauited
receiver; the preflure of the atmofphere being thus removed,
the fize penetrated readily to the centre. It was found dif-
ficult to dry the cop perfe&ly, and the threads were fome-
por fo glued together as to render the winding off dif-
cult.
Another plan has therefore been introduced both for flax
and cotton: this is to wind off the yarn from the cop or
bobbin in which it is fpun, and gather it upon the bob-
bins ready for the warping ; by this manner the reeling is
faved. A {mall quantity of ftarch is applied to the yarn
during the operation, by caufing it to pafs over a horizontal
wooden cylinder, which revolves on its axis in a trough
filled with fluid ftarch. The threads, in pafling from the
cop to the bobbin, are drawn over the upper furface of the
cylinder, and receive the ftarch with which it is covered.
The winding machine for this a€tuated a great number of
bobbins at once; the warping is then conducted, as we
have before defcribed, and the drefling is performed in the
loom whilft weaving, that is, if woven by hand ; but for
: power-loom it is dreffed previoufly to placing it in the
oom.
Dreffing Machines.—Mr. Johnfon, of Stockport, had a pa-
tent, in 1804, for a method of drefling whole webs of warp at
once,
WEAVING.
once, byamachine. The yarns were wound off from the bob-
bins or cops of the {pinning machines upon beams or rollers.
Several of thefe rollers were placed parallel to each other, in
an horizontal dire&tion, at the oppotite ends of the machine,
from three to fix at each end; and the yarns from them were
all combined together in one web, which was received and
rolled up on the yarn-beam of the loom placed in the middle
of the machine, and raifed up confiderably above the other
rollers, fo that the yarns proceeded from both ends of the
machine towards the middle. In their paflage they pafled
through feveral reeds to keep them feparate, and were fup-
plied with the pafte by pafling over two cylinders revolving
in atrough of fluid patte. This pafte was drefled or worked
into the yarn by means of two brufhes, of a length equal to
the breadth of the web; oue of the brufhes acted upon the
upper fide of the yarns, and the other on the lower fide. A
fimilar pair of brufhes were applied at both ends; each
brufh had a motion given to it by means of cranks, exa@ly °
fimilar to the movement with which the weaver brufhes the
yarn in the loom. Near the yarn-rollz= a fan was placed,
like that ufed in a winnowing machine, which blew a current
of air through the yarns of the warp to dry them before
they were rolled up by the beam. To preferve the leafe, the
yarns were conducted through a pair of heddles, fimilar to
thofe of the loom, but they remained flack to avoid friétion.
The machine was moved by the mill with a conftant and
regular movement.
When a warp is thus warped, beamed, and drefled, the
arn-beam is carried to a loom, on which the yarn is juft
exhaufted, and is made to replace the empty yarn-roll. The
ends of the yarn are joined to the old yarns by twilting, and
are thus drawn through the heddles and reed, fo that the
weaving can be refumed with very little lofs of time, and
the weaver can proceed with his work without any interrup-
tion for drefling. The principal objection to the above
machme is the fri€tion which the yarns muft undergo in
brufhing, and in pafling through fo many reeds: it was,
however, praétifed in a large work at Stockport; but the
weaving was performed by hand.
Another drefling machine was invented by Mr. M‘Adam,
and he obtained a patent in 1806: it is pratifed by Mr.
Monteith, at Pollockfhaws near Glafgow. This machineis very
much like the former in its manner of aétion. Inftead of ufing
three, four, or fix beams at each end of the machine, there
are only two beams, each containing one half the number of
yarns for the intended warp. ‘The ftarch is fupplied in the
fame manner as the former, or fometimes by making the two
yarn-beams themfelves turn in a trough of ftarch without
employing a feparate cylinder. The brufhing is performed
in a more fimple end effeCtual manner by ufing cylindrical
brufhes, which revolve with a regular motion, two of them
are applied on the upper fide of the warp, and two on the
lower fide ; alfo four fanners are applied to dry the warp
inftead of one. The yarns were conducted between reeds and
through heddles, like the firft machine; and hence the fame
objection of friction applies to both.
Mr. Duncan, in his Effays on Weaving, defcribes another
method of dreffing warps, which is praétifed by Mr. Dunlop
at Barrowfield. In this the yarn is warped and beamed in
the ufual manner, upon a yarn-roll: from this the yarn is
unwound, and taken up upon another beam; and in its paf-
fage from one to the other it is extended, fo that the pick-
ing’ and clearing can be performed in the ufual way by hand
with a comb and {ciffors, and the drefiing is applied with
brufhes in the ufual way : beneath the warp a fan is placed,
to blow a current of air up through the yarns and dry them.
In this machine all the operations, except the fanning, are
ie
performed by hand ; the advantage, therefore, confitts only
in the divifion of labour, by making the dreffing and weaving
diftin& operations.
_ Power-Looms.—In the article Corron we have men-
tioned Mr. Dolignon’s claim to the invention of weaving by
mechanical power. j
The original project, we believe, was by M. De Gennes,
and is publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfaétions for 1768,
N° 140. See alfo Lowthorp’s Abridgment, vol. i. p.499."
This is a very ingenious invention. The fly-(huttle was
not then invented, and he fupplied the want of it by a con-
trivance which held the fhuttle as it were in a hand by fingers ;
this carried it half way through the cloth, and then it a4
transferred to another fimilar hand, which drew it through
the remainder. By this means there was a greater certainty
than in throwing the fhuttle from one fide to the other, be-
caufe the fhuttle always continued engaged with the me-
chanifm : the whole machine is ingenious and worthy of
notice.
M. Vaucanfon, the celebrated French mechanift, made a
machine for weaving ten ribbands at a time, which was
worked by a circular motion given by the workman ; and it
might, therefore, have been worked by mechanical power.
This is defcribed in the Encyclopede Methodique in
great detail, with ten folding plates, and is an ingenious
machine.
We believe both thefe inventions were prior to that of
Mr. Dolignona ; and alfo that the merit of inventing the ma-
chine, and firft reducing it to practice, is due to Mr. Auttin,
of Glafgow. In this gentleman’s memoir to the Society of
Arts, he ftates, that his firft attempt was made in the year
1789, when he entered a caveat for a patent, but did not
apply for it further ; fince that time he made many improye—
ments upon the original plan. In 1796 a report in its fa-
vour was made by the Chamber of Commerce and Manu-
fatures at Glafgow ; and in 1798, a loom was fet at work
at Mr. J. Monteith’s {pinning works, at Pollockfhaws near
Glafgow, which anfwered the purpofe fo well, that a build-
ing was ereGted by Mr. Monteith for containing thirty looms,
and afterwards another to hold about two hundred.
Mr. Auftin’s Power-Loom.—The model from which our
drawing (Plate 1. Weaving) was made, is depofited in the
Society of Arts: it is an improvement upon the looms con-
ftruGed for Mr. Monteith.
The drawing Plaie I. is a perfpedtive view, exhibiting the
whole loom at one glance: it is viewed from the back rather
than from the front.
A is a {quare iron axis extending through the whole
length of the machine ; to this the power of the firft mover
is applied by a cog-wheel B, of thirty-fix teeth, turned bya
pinion of twelve leaves fixed to the axis of the fly-wheel D.
A handle is fixed to one of the arms of the wheel to give mo-
tion to the model ; but in the large machine a live and dead
pulley are adapted to the axis of the fly-wheel ; and by means
of an endlefs ftrap, the power is communicated from any
convenient part of the mill in which a great number of looms
are placed together.
The axis A has feveral eccentric wheels or camms fixed
upon it; as thefe revolve they give motion to a number of
levers or treadles, by which all the ufual operations of the
loom are performed at the proper intervals: thefe are,
Firft, To feparate the two parts of the yarns of the warp,
as fhewn at G, and admit of the paflage of the fhuttle.
Secondly, To throw the fhuttle, in order to lay the weft
or crofs-threads of the cloth.
Thirdly, To move the lay 7.8, and return it; fo that
the reed g will beat up the weft clofe to the fell, or pre-
; ceding
WEAVING.
ceding fhoot of the weft: this renders the cloth of uniform
texture.
Fourthly, To wind up the cloth upon the cloth-roll, as
faft as it is formed by the preceding operations.
~ The yarns, which are to form the warp of the cloth, are
warped in the manner before defcribed upon the yarn-roll
F; and from thence they are extended horizontally to the
cloth-roll E, of which only a fmall part can be feen at the
oppofite fide of the loom: in their way the yarns pafs
through the eyes of the heddles G H, which effe& the firft
operation above-mentioned. Each heddle is compofed of a
number of perpendicular threads equal to half the number
of yarns in the warp; thefe are ftretched between two
{mall rods aa and 64, and in the middle of each thread is
a fmall eye, through which a yarn of the warp is pafled ;
thus, the firft yarn of the warp is paffed through the eye
of the heddle G, but has no conneétion with the heddle H,
becaufe it paffes between its threads. The fecond yarn is
put through the eye of the heddle H, but has no con-
neGtion with G; the third yarn is attached to H; the
fourth to G, and fo on alternately throughout the whole
number. By this means if one heddle is raifed up, and
the other at the fame time depreffed, a feparation of the
yarns will take place as fhewn at G, every other yarn
being raifed up, whilft the intermediate ones are drawn
down, fo as to admit the paflage of the fhuttle and weft
between them.
The two heddles are moved by camms upon the main
axis A; and they are fo conne¢ted by fhort levers Da,
which are fufpended from the upper part of the loom, that
when one heddle is pulled down, the other will be drawn
up at the fame time, becaufe they are fufpended from the
oppofite ends of the levers I.
The camms on the main axis for the heddles are marked
L;; the two are exa@ly fimilar, but are reverfed upon the
axis; that is, the fhorteft radius of one is placed on the fame
fide with the longeft of the other. They a& upon two
levers, which are the fame as the treadles in a common loom;
only one of thefe treadles or levers (viz. that which belongs
to the camm L) can be feen at M, the other lever being
concealed from the view ; both levers move on centres at n
between the {mall uprights dd; the other ends flide freely
up and down between fimilar uprights at the oppofite fide
of the frame, which cannot be {een in the figure; the levers
are conneéted with the heddles, which being fufpended
from the levers I as before mentioned, the levers will
therefore move in contrary dire¢tions, the one rifing when
the other is prefled down by the ation of the camm on the
axis A.
The conne&tion between the levers or treadles M and
the heddles G H, is made by cords communicating with
two counter-levers O P, which are centered in uprights
fupported by the frame at the ends of the machine.. The
counter-levers O P are conneéted with rods 4 and &, and
thefe by a double cord are attached to the heddle-rods aa
and 44,
This machinery which we have now defcribed effects the
feparation of the warp thus: when the axis A turns round,
every revolution of its camms*L will caufe two feparations of
the warp, and each one ina different manner, for thofe yarns
which are raifed up at one time are drawn down the next.
The fecond operation, viz. throwing the fhuttle, is per-
formed by two camms R S, which are reverfed to each
other upon the axis A. They aé& upon two levers, only
one of which can be feen at T ; they are placed beneath the
camms. The fhuttle requires to be projected with a
fudden jerk ; thefe levers are therefore centered at d on the
fame pin as the levers M and N, but the other ends prefs
down {maller levers W, which are centered at the oppofite
end of the frame, and lie beneath the long levers. The ex-
treme ends of thefe {maller levers are conneéted by a ftrap f
with a fegment of a wheel, which has a long ftem of whalebone
Y faftened to it ; and by means of two ftrings, one of which
is fhewn at g 4, it moves the peckers or drivers x upon the
wires 3, 3, and throws the fhuttle. The fhuttle, which is
fhewn in a feparate figure, is pointed at each end, and fhod
with iron: it contains two {mall rollers 31 31 upon which it
runs ; and as they projeét through both furfaces, it will run
either way upwards, or either end firft. In the centre of the
fhuttle is an oblong mortife, containing the pirn or bobbin
33, on which the thread for the weft of the cloth is wound ;
and the end of the weft marked 34, is brought through a
{mall glafs tube, called the eye of the fhuttle.
The ation of the mechanifm for throwing the fhuttle is
as follows :—By the revolution of the camm_ R, the long
lever beneath it is deprefled, and at the fame time the ex-
tremity of the fhorter lever W defcends, but with an in-
creafed velocity ; this by means of the ftrap f turns the
fegment of a wheel on its centre, and its tail Y {natches the
ftring g4.0f the pecker x, and makes it ftrike againft the fhuttle
with fuch a velocity, as to drive the fhuttle out of the
trough Q, acrofs the fhuttle-race, into the oppofite trough,
where it will pufh back the pecker, and remain at reft in the
trough ready for the next ftroke: by this ftroke it will be
returned back again with an aétion fimilar to the laft, but
oe by the other camm S, and its correfponding
evers.
The threads of the warp, which are loweft when the
feparation takes place, are drawn down by their heddle
G or H, fo as to lie clofe upon the fhuttle-race, and caufe
no obitruétion to the paflage of the fhuttle. To facilitate
this, the fhuttle muft be very {mooth on the furface, that it
may not catch the threads and be ftopped. The fhuttle-
race is inclined towards the reed, both that the yarn may
lie flat upon it, and that the fhuttle may not be liable to
run off its race ; for as it leaves the weft, which is drawn off
from its bobbin, in the {pace between the divided yarns of
the warp, it might be drawn off its race fideways, without
this precaution. In this manner the fecond operation is
performed.
The third motion is that of the reed g: this is fixed clofe
behind the fhuttle-race, and is a frame containing a at
number of parallel flips of reed or cane ; between thefe the
yarns of the warp pafs, and when the whole frame of reeds
is moved towards the cloth-roll E, they will a&t in the man-
ner of a comb, to beat up the thread of the weft, which is
left by the fhuttle lying loofely between the yarns of the
warp.
For this purpofe, the fhuttle-race, reeds, peckers, &c. and
their ftem Y, with its fegment of a wheel, are all placed on
a framer which moves on hinges at the lower ends, 8, of the
two upright fides 78. This frame, which is termed the lay,
is drawn backwards by means of {traps 10, 10, rolled upon
pulleys 11, faftened upon the axis 12 ; upon this fame axis
are two other fmaller pulleys, upon which two ftraps, 13,
are rolled, to conneét with the long levers 14, which”are
moved by the camms 15, upon the axis A.
The long levers, 14, are centered at one end of the frame,
and the pulleys on the axis, 12, being of different diameters,
the motion of the reeds will be performed very quickly.
To move the lay in a contrary direétion, and give the ftroke
to beat up the weft, two large weights, like m, are fufpended
by {traps from pulleys on an horizontal axis, which carries
two larger wheels x ; on thefe, {traps are wound, tocommu-
nicate
WEAVING.
nicate with the upright fides, 7 8, of the lay, and draw it
forwards.
When the loom is ating very quickly, thefe weights
would not aé& with fufficient fharpnefs to throw the reeds
againft the threads of the weft with the proper force.
The weights’ are therefore conne&ted by fpiral wire-
{prings, with long levers 16, which are prefled down by a
camm or rather tappet 17, fixed on the main axis. Thefe
levers aét before the lay is at liberty to move, and by prefl-
ing down the levers extend the fprings; confequently, as
foon as the camm 15 fuffers the lever 14 to rife, the fprings
a& inftantaneoufly, to throw the lay and the reeds forwards
to beat up the weft.
The inftant after the blow has been given, the lay is drawn
back again by the camm 15, and returned into the vertical
pofition, in which fituation the lay muft continue whilft the
fhuttle is threwn; for this purpofe, the outfides of the
camms 15 are portions of circles. This completes the
third motion.
As faft as the cloth is fabricated by the foregoing move-
ments, it is gathered upon the cloth-roll E. This is turned
flowly round by a fmall crank 19, on the extreme end of
the main axis A; the crank moves a {mall rod 20 up and
down, in order to turn a fmall ratchet-wheel round one
tooth each revolution of the main axis; the return of the
ratchet is prevented by a click. On the axis 21 of the
ratchet-wheel is an endlefs fcrew, to engage the teeth of a
cog-wheel upon the end of the cloth-roll, and give it a flow
motion.
The yarn is kept to a proper degree of tenfion by the
fri@tion occafioned by a line 28 paffed twice round the yarn-
roll, one end being faftened to the frame, and the other to a
lever 30, loaded with a weight.
The framing of the loom is too evident to need defcrip-
tion. In the conftru€tion of the machine, the principal
circumftance to be attended to, is the figure of the different
camms ; alfo that they are placed upon the axis A in the
proper pofitions relative to each other. Thefe cautions will
enfure the accurate performance of the machine.
The camm R or S, -for throwing the fhuttle, is formed
with afudden beak or projeétion, that it may ftrike the
levers T down inftantaneoufly, and throw the fhuttle ; from
this beak the curve continues circular for fome diftance,
that the lever may be held ftationary ; the remainder of the
camm gradually diminifhes its radius like a fpiral, and quits
the lever, in order to leave it at liberty to rife up when its
correfponding lever is forced down by the beak of the other
fimilar camm S.
The camm L for the heddles is made circular where it is
to come in contaét with the lever, and which is all the time
it is in action. This occafions the levers and heddles to be
ftationary whilft the fhuttle is thrown.
The inventor ftates that, by the addition of fome fimple
improvements, his looms have the following advantages ;
viz. 300 or 400 of them may be worked by one water-
wheel, or fteam-engine, all’ of which will weave cloth in a
fuperior manner to what can be done in the common way.
They will go at the rate of 60 fhoots ina minute, making
two yards height of what is called a nine hundred web in an
hour. They will keep regular time in working, ftop and
begin again, as quick as a ftop-watch. They will keep
conttantly going, except at the time of fhifting two fhuttles,
when the weft on the pirns is exhaufted. In general, no
knots need be tied, and never more than one in place of two,
which are requifite in the common way when a thread
breaks. In cafe the fhuttle ftops in the fhed, the lay will
not come forwards, and the loom will inftantly ftop work-
ing. They will weave proportionally flower or quicker,
according to the breadth and quality of the web, which may
be the broadeft now made. They may be mounted with a
harnefs or fpot-heddles, to weave any pattern, twilled,
ftriped, &c.
There is but one clofe fhed, the fame in both breadths,
and the ftrain of the working has no effect on the yarn be-
hind the rods.
The fell and temples always keep the fame proper dif-
tance. There is no time loft in looming, or cutting out the
cloth ; but it is done while the loom is working, after the
firft time.
The weft is well ftretched, and exaétly even to the fabric
required.
Every piece of cloth is meafured to a ftraw’s breadth,
and marked where to be cut at any given length.
The loom will work backwards in cafe of any accident,
or of one or more fhoots miffing. Every thread is as re-
gular onthe yarn-beam as in the cloth, having no more than
two threads in the runner. If a thread fhould appear too
coarfe or fine in the web, it can be changed, or any ftripe
altered at pleafure. They will weave the fineft yarn more
tenderly and regularly than any weaver can do with his
hands and feet.
When a thread, either of warp or weft, breaks in it, the
loom will inftantly ftop, without {topping any other loom,
and will give warning by the ringing of a bell. A loom of
this kind occupies only the fame {pace as a common loom ;
the expence of it will be about half more ; but this additional
expence is more than compenfated by the various additional
machinery employed for preparing the yarn for the com-
mon loom, and which this loom renders entirely un-
neceflary. : 5
The preparatory procefles of reeling, winding, warping,
beaming, and looming, and the interruptions occafioned by
combing, drefling, fanning, greafing, drawing bores, fhift-
ing heddles, rods, and temples, which is nearly one-half of
the weaver’s work, do not happen in thefe looms. The ge-
neral wafte accompanying the above operations 1s ftated at
about fix per cent. of the value of the yarn, all which occur
in the operations of the common loom. The power-loom,
without further trouble, performs every operation after the
{pinning, till the making of the cloth is accomplifhed, by
which a faving is effeéted of about 20 fer cent. of the
arn.
The heddles, reed, and brufhes, will wear longer than
ufual, from the regularity of their motion. More than one-
half of workmanfhip will be faved ; one weaver and a boy
being quite fufficient to manage five looms of coarfe work,
and three or four in fine work.
Mr. Miller’s Power-Loom.—A patent was taken out for
this in 1796. It is fo much like Mr. Auftin’s in its
general principle, that it is unneceflary to enter into the de-
{cription. The motions are all produced by camms fixed
on a horizontal axis, and operate upon a number of hori-
zontal levers, difpofed beneath the loom, in the fituation of
treadles: in other refpeéts the arrangement of the parts is
very different. This is fometimes called the wiper-loom,
wiper being a different name for a camm.
Crank Loom by Power.—In this the treadles are a€tuated
by cranks, inftead of camms or wipers. The reciprocating
motion produced by a crank is not uniform, but accelerated
at one time, and retarded at another. ‘This is an advantage
in fome of the operations of a loom, It is true, that, by
means of wipers, any required law of acceleration may be
produced; but in a crank, the acceleration muft preceed
according to one law. The fuperiority of cranks ale
rom
WEAVING.
from the circumftance, that they will communicate motion
in both dire€tions ; whereas a camm will only pufh a lever
in one diretion, and the return of the motion muft be made
by a {pring or counterweight. Now, if this counterweight
is too large, it makes, unneceffary lofs of power and fric-
tion ; and if it is too fmall, there is fome uncertainty in the
return of the lever.
Mr. Todd of Boulton had a patent, in 1803, for im-
provements in power-looms. :
Mr. Horrocks of Stockport had three fucceflive patents
for this kind of machinery, in 1803, 1805, and 1813. The
machine defcribed in the latter is a crank-loom ; that-is, the
lay is a€tuated by a crank to beat up the weft. The prin-
cipal improvement confifts in a fyltem of levers, which
tranfmit the a€tion of this crank to the lay, and fo modify
it, that the lay will advance quickly, and give an effective
ftroke to the weft, and then withdraw quickly to a fta-
tionary pofition, in which it will remain whilft the fhuttle is
thrown. The advantages which are ftated are, that a large
fhuttle may be ufed, fufficient to hold a full-fized cop of
weft: the wafte and lofs of time by renewing the cop will,
therefore, be lefs. From the fmartnefs of the ftroke, lefs
weight will be required on the yarn-beam, and this will
occafion the heddles to work more lightly, fo as to break
fewer threads. From the fame caufe, more threads of the
weft may be laid in an inch, and make clofer work.
Mr. Johnfon of Prefton had a patent in 1805, and
another in 1807, for a power-loom, in which the warp is
ftretched on a vertical plane, inftead of horizontal, as in
former machines. ‘The advantages of this are ftated to be,
rft, that it takes lefs fpace; 2d, the reed ferves for the
fhuttle-race, becaufe the fhuttle runs upon the reed itfelf,
and, therefore, makes no fri€tion upon the yarns; 3d, alfo
in drefling, picking, and clearing the warp, the attendant
always remains in fit of the machine, and can continue to
watch the machine; whereas, in the other looms, he muft
quit his poft in front, and go round behind the looms for
thefe operations. When the dreffing is to be applied to the
warp, whilft it is in the loom, that part of the warp is con-
duéted horizontally for that purpofe, and a fan is applied
to dry the warp.
The lateft inventions of power-looms are Mr. Peter Ewart’s
patent, 1813; and Mr. Duncan’s loom, which he calls a
vibrating loom.
The Indian Loom.—This is a ftriking contraft to our power-
looms ; it confifts merely of two bamboo rollers, one for
the warp, and the other for the finifhed cloth ; and a pair of
heddles. ‘The fhuttle performs the double office of fhuttle
and reed: for this purpofe, ‘it is made like a large netting-
needle, and of a length fomewhat exceeding the breadth of
the piece of cloth which is to be woven.
This apparatus the weaver carries to any tree which
affords a fhade moft grateful to him: under this he digs a
hole large enough to contain his legs, and the lower part of
the geer or heddles; he then ftretches his warp, by faften-
ing his bamboo rollers at a due diftance from each other on
the turf, by wooden pins; the balances of the geer or
heddles he faltens to fome convenient branch of the tree over
his head ; and two loops underneath the geer, in which he
inferts his great toes, ferve inftead of treadles; his long
fhuttle, which performs alfo the office of a batten, draws
the weft, throws the warp, and afterwards ftrikes it up
clofe to the web. In fuch looms as this are made thofe ad-
mirable muflins, whofe delicate texture the Europeans can
never equal, with all their complicated machinery.
The weaving, even of their fineft muflins, is thus con-
duéted in the open air, expofed to all the intenfe heat of
their climate. We know well that this would be impraéti-
cable with fine work in this country, even in an ordinary
fummer day, on account of the fudden drying of the dreff-
ing. It is not known what is the fubftance which the
Indian weavers employ for dreffing their warps. It might
be of ufe to our manufa&turers, were this inveftigated in a
fatisfattory manner. It is faid to be a decoétion of rice,
formed by boiling the rice in a {mall quantity of water, and
expreffing the juice: when this is cool, it forms a thick
glutinous fubftance, which undergoes fome kind of fer-
mentation before it is ufed, ‘
Figure-weaving.—Having given an account of the nature
and procefs of plain weaving, we muit notice the fanciful
and ornamental parts of the bufinefs. The extent to which
this {pecies of manufacture is carried renders it an objet of
very great national importance, and deferving a more minute
defcription than our limits will admit.
Figures or patterns are produced in cloth, by employing
threads of different colours, or of different appearance, in
the warp, or in the weft. By the weaving, the threads
muft be fo difpofed, that fome colours will be concealed
and kept at the back, whilft others are kept in the front ;
and they muft occafionally change places, fo as to fhew as
much of each colour, and as often as it is neceflary, to make
out the figure or pattern.
The weaver has three means of effe€ting fuch changes of
colour: Firft, by ufing different coloured threads in the
warp, or threads of different fizes and fubftances ; thefe are
arranged in the warping, and require no change in the man-
ner of weaving. This is confined to ftriped patterns, the
ftripes being in the direétion of the length of the piece.
Secondly, by employing feveral fhuttles charged with
threads of different colours or fubitances, and changing one
for another every time a change of colour is required. This
makes ftripes aerofs the breadth of the piece; or, when it
is combined with a coloured warp, it makes chequered and
{potted patterns of great variety.
Thirdly, by employing a variety of heddles, inftead of
two, as we have hitherto defcribed; each heddle having a
certain portion of the warp allotted to it, and provided with
atreadle. When this treadle is deprefled, only a certain
portion of yarns which belong to that heddle will be drawn
up, and the reft will be depreffed ; confequently, when the
weft is thrown, all thofe yarns which are drawn up will ap-
pear on the front or top of the cloth; but in the intervals
between them, the weft muft appear over thofe threads
which are depreffed. The number of threads which are
thus brought up may be varied as often as the weaver
choofes to prefs his foot upon a different treadle, and by
this he produces his pattern.
All thefe means may be combined together, and give the
weaver the means of reprefenting the moit complicated
patterns.
The principal varieties of woven cloth, including only
thofe which require a different procefs for their fabrication,
are the following :
Stripes are formed upon the cloth either by the warp or
by the woof. When the former of thefe ways is prac-
tifed, the variation of the procefs is chiefly the bufinefs of
the warper; but in the latter cafe, it is that of the weaver,
as he muft continually change his fhuttle.
By unravelling any thred of ftriped cloth, it may eafily
be difcovered whether the ftripes have been produced by the
operation of the warper or thofe of the weaver.
When the fly-fhuttle is ufed, the changing of the fhuttle
is very readily effected by a fimple contrivance. One of the
fhuttle-boxes or troughs, as we have before called them,
( Plate
. WEAVING.
{ Plate 11. Weaving, fig. 2.) is made in two parts, fo that a
part of the trough I near the pecker, where the fhuttle lies
during the time it is at reft, can be removed, and another
trough fubftituted, which contains a different fhuttle. For
the purpofe of making the change with facility, a moveable
fhuttle-box a is fufpended by two perpendicular {tems 0 from a
wire or centre of motion mattached to the lay, as is fhewn by
the dotted lines. The moveable box is juft on the fame
level with the fhuttle-trough I, and is divided by partitions
into two or three feparate troughs, each exa@tly the width
of the regular trough, and as long as is neceflary to contain
a fhuttle. The pecker 4, and the wire upon which it flides,
remain exaCtly as before defcribed; but by {winging the
moveable box z on its centre any one.of its compartments
may be brought to line with the real place for the fhuttle-
trough in which the pecker runs. The moveable box mutt
have proper catches to hold it exaétly in its true pofitions.
In working with this contrivance a fhuttle of a different
colour. muft be placed in each cell or divifion of the move-
able box 1; and when the weaver defires to change the fhuttle
he pulls the conneéting ftring. ‘This moves the fhuttle-
troughs either backwards or forwards, fo as to carry away
that fhuttle which had been juft before in ufe, and place
another before the pecker. ‘hen if he pulls the pecker-
handle y the new fhuttle will be thrown acrofs the fhuttle-race,
juit as the old one was in the former inftance. If only one
moveable fhuttle-box is ufed there will be fome limitation in
the pattern, becaufe the ftripes of different colour mutt al-
ways confift of an even number of the fame coloured thread,
as two, four, fix, &c. This may be obviated, and a greater
change of fhuttles may be introduced, by ufing two move-
able fhuttle-boxes, one at each end of the fhuttle-race: in
that cafe the two moveable boxes are provided with cranks
and ftrings, fo that the weaver can reach either of them
with eafe. '
Checks are produced by the combined operations of the
warper and the weaver.
Tweeled cloths are fo various in their textures, and fo
complicated in their formation, that it is difficult to convey
an adequate idea of the mode of conftru€ting them without
the aid of feveral drawings.
In examining any piece of plain cloth, it will be obferved
that every thread of the weft crofles alternately over and
then under every thread of the warp which it comes to; and
the fame may be faid of the warp: in fhort, the threads of
the warp and weft are thus interwoven at every point where
they crofs each other, and are therefore tacked alternately.
Tweeled cloth is rather different, for only the third,
fourth, fifth, fixth, &c. threads crofs each other, to form
the texture.
Hence two, three, four, or more, of the fucceflive threads
or fhoots of the weft will be found to pafs under or over the
fame thread of the warp; or, in other words, by tracing any
thread of the warp it will be found to pafs over two, three,
four, or more threads of the woof at once, without any
interweaving the warp. ‘Then it croffes and pafles between
the threads of the weft, and proceeds beneath two, three,
four, or more threads, before it makes another paflage be-
tween the threads of the weft.
Tweeled cloths are of various defcriptions, and produce
different kinds of patterns; becaufe at all the interfe&ting
points where the threads aétually crofs or interweave both
threads of warp and weft are feen together, and thefe points
are therefore more marked to the eye, even if the warp and
weft are of the fame colour. Thefe points in plain tweels form
parallel lines extending diagonally acrofs the breadth of the
cloth, with a different degree of obliquity, according to the
. Vor. XXXVIII.
number of weft-threads over or under which the warp-
threads pafs before an interfection takes place. In the
coarfeft kinds every third thread is croffed: in finer fabrics
they crofs each other at intervals of four, five, fix, feven,
or eight threads; and in fome very fine tweeled filks the
croffing does not take place until the fixteenth interval.
Tweeling is produced by multiplying and varying the
number of heddles, or, as the weavers expre(s it, the number
of leafes in the harnefs, which is the name given to the
whole number of heddles employed in a loom; by the ufe
of a back-harnefs or double-harnefs, by increafing the num-
ber of threads which pafs through each fplit of the reed,
and by an endlefs variety of modes in drawing the yarns
through the heddles; alfo by increafing the number of trea-
dles, and changing the manner of treading them.
The number of treadles requifite to raife all the heddles
which muft be ufed to produce very extenfive patterns,
would be more than one man could manage; for if he placed
his foot by miftake on a wrong treadle he would disfigure
his pattern. In thefe cafes, recourfe is had to a mode of
mounting or preparing the loom, by the application of
cords to the different heddles of the harnefs; and a fecond
perfon is employed to raife the heddles in the order required,
by pulling the ftrings attached to the refpective heddles of
the back-harnefs, and each heddle is returned to its firft po-
fition by means of a leaden weight underneath. This is the
moft comprehenfive apparatus ufed by weavers, for all fan-
ciful patterns of great extent, and it is called the Draw-
Loom. See that article.
The manner of mounting the harnefs of looms, to pro-
duce all the principal varieties of fabrics, is detailed in our
articles Desten, Draucur, and Corvine of Looms ; alfo
Damask, Diaper, Dimitry, Dornock, Fustran, and Ta-
pestry. A perufal of thofe articles will render it unnecef-
fary for us to proceed farther on that fubje& in the prefent
article. We fhall however defcribe a moft valuable inven-
tion, which has of late years come into ufe, as a fubftitute
for the fecond perfon or draw-boy, who muit be employed
in the draw-loom, by which loom alone all the complicated
patterns can be woven.
Machine called the Draw-Boy, becaufe it performs the Office of
a Draw-Boy in Weaving.—The faving of labour is not the
only advantage of this machine; the certainty of its opera-
tion and fecurity from miftake are obvious. The weaver
produces the required a€tion upon the moft complicated
harnefs by two treadles only, which he works alternately,
juft with the fame motion as in plain cloth-weaving. The
machine, when once fet up, performs every thing elfe.
Like moft other inventions, this was at firft imperfe@,
but has been gradually improved. We do not know its hif-
tory, but we have feen great numbers of machines, for
carpet-weaving and coarfe goods, which have been fome
years in ufe. The machine is fituated in a {mall fquare
frame, not larger than a chair, which ftands at the fide of
the loom, and cords from all the different heddles are con-
duéed from the draw-loom down to this frame, where they
are arranged in order. Each cord has a knot anfwering to
the handle, which the boy muft pull in the common draw-
loom ; and there is a piece of mechanifm aétuated by the
treadles which at every ftroke fele€ts the proper cord, and
draws it down fo as to raife the heddles belonging to it.
The next time it changes its pofition and takes another
cord, and fo on until the whole number of cords has been
drawn and the pattern completed.
Thefe original machines have a great defeGl, wiz. that
they only proceed with regularity to raife up all the heddles,
until all the cords have been drawn, and one feries of changes
1D as
WEAVING.
hae been gone through ; but when this is completed, and a
repetition of the pattern is wanted, the weaver muft ftop
and reftore the machine to its original pofition by pulling a
ftring. This appears very eafy, but it diverts his attention;
and if he does not do it at the exact moment his pattern
may be {poiled. This defeét was remedied by Mr. Alexan-
der Duff, who received a fmall and inadequate premium
from the Society of Arts in 1807, probably becaufe they
were not aware of its value and importance; but in 1810
we find them with a liberality truly difcouraging to real
merit, giving an equal reward to another perfon, for the
moft trivial alteration of Duff’s machine. The latter ma-
chine is alone defcribed in their TranfaGtions ; fee vol. xxviii.
Mr. Duff's Draw-Boy.—Fig. 4. Plate 11. Weaving, is a
plan of this machine, and fig. 2. a perfpective view. It is
fixed at the fide of a draw-loom, in the fame place as a draw-
boy would ftand, and H fhew the cords which are to draw the
harnefs. The fame letters are ufed in both figures. AA
is a fquare wooden axis, mounted fo as to turn backwards
and forwards in the frame B B, on points or centres of mo-
tion. At one end of it a pulley D is fixed, to receive a line
aa faftened to it at the higheft point, by means of which
the axis receives motion from the two treadles of the loom,
one of the treadles being attached to one end of the line, and
the other to the oppofite end of it. EE are two rails of
wood, fixed acrofs the frame parallel to the axis; and ee
are two brafs plates ferewed to the rails, and pierced with a
great number of holes to receive as many cords. Each
cord is tied by one end to a central rail F of the frame be-
neath the axis; and after paffing through one of the holes
in the above plate ¢, and turning over a round wooden rod
G, has a lead weight fufpended to the other end of it.
Thefe weights are fhewn at 64. The rods GG are fuf-
pended by itrings at their ends from the ceiling of the room.
To each of the above cords another is tied juft before it
pafles over G. Thefe are reprefented by H, and hang
loofely. The upper ends of thefe cords are tied to hori-
zontal cords extended acrofs the ceiling of the room, and
made faft to the ceiling at one end; the other-ends pafs over
pulleys fituated at the top of the loom, in a frame called
the table of mullets, and the harnefs or heddles are fuf-
pended by them.
By this arrangement it will be feen, that when any one of
the cords faftened at Fis pulled down, it muft draw one of
the itrings H, and raife fuch an arrangement of the har-
uefs or heddles as is proper to produce the figure which is
to be woven. The weight 4 draws the cord fo as to keep it
ftraight ; all that is therefore neceflary is to draw down the
cords at F one at a time, but to take a different one each
time, and thus raife a different feries of the heddles each
time ; this is the bufinefs of the machine, and which it ac-
complifhes in the following manner.
The bar, or axis, A A, has an iron femicircle, d,
grooved like a pulley, and each of its ends divided, fo as
to form a cleft-hook or claw.
Each of the ftrings made faft at F has a large knot tied
ta it, juft beneath where it paffes through the brafs plate ee,
and which knot ftops the farther afcent of the cord, in con-
fequence of the pull of the weight 4. Now when the’ axis
A vibrates backwards and forwards by the treadles of the
loom, as before mentioned, the hook of the femicircle d
feizes the knot of one of the cords F, and draws down that
cord, and raifes the heddles belonging to it. The weaver
throws the fhuttle, and then returns the treadles, and the
axis A-with the femicircle returns back again, and allows
the cord F to take its original pofition. “When the femi-
circle digclines over to the other fide, its oppofite hook
5
takes hold of the cord F, which is next to the one op-
pofite to that which it juft quitted; it draws dowa this
cord, and the weaver again throws his fhuttle, then re-
turns the femicircle to the oppofite fide, and it will take
the cord next to the oppofite one, and fo on; fo that the
femicircle will in fucceffion take every alternate cord in each
of the rows ¢ e, and leave every other.
This is effe&ted by the femicircle fliding along its axis A
every time, by means of two wooden racks, 4 and é, in
the plan, which are let into grooves in the axis A; thefe
racks have teeth like faws, but inclined in contrary direc-
tions. The racks move backwards and forwards in their
grooves, the extent of a tooth at each vibration of the axis,
by the ation of two circular inclined planes of iron faftened
to the frame at LM, againft which the ends of the racks
are thrown by fpiral {prings concealed beneath each rack.
The femicircle is fixed on a box or carriage N, which flides
upon the axis A, and has two clicks upon it; one at J,
which falls into the teeth of the rack 4; the other at m
for the rack i: nis a roller fixed over the box, and connetted
with the two clicks / and m, by threads wound in oppofite -
direGtions ; fo that oneclick is alwaysraifed up, and difengaged
from its rack, while the other is in a¢tion. O is a piece of wire
fixed to the frame, fo as to intercept a fmall wire projeGting
from the roller when the axis is inclined, and turn the roller
a fmall quantity; P is another wire for the fame purpofe,
but fixed to a crofs bar, Q, which is moveable, and can be
faftened at any required place, farther or nearer from the
end of the axis. Suppofe the roller x to be in fuch a pofi-
tion that the click m is down, and / drawn up, the action
will be as follows : the femicircle firft inclines to the direGtion
of fig. 2., itshook taking down one ftring ; during this mo-
tion the end of the rack i comes to the inclined part of the
circular inclined plane M, and moves by its fj ring towards
D, the {pace of one tooth, which the click m falls into. On
the return of the axis, the rack # is thruft back, and the box.
N and femicircle with it towards L, caufing the hook to take
the next oppofite ftring : in this manner it proceeds, adyan-
cing a tooth each vibration, tillit gets to the end of its courfe;
the tail of the roller then itrikes againft the pin P, and turns
the roller over, raifes the click m, and lets down the other, J,
into the teeth of the rack 4; this was all the time moving
in a contrary, direGtion to i, by its inclined plane L, but haa
no aétion, as its click / was drawn up ; this being let down,
the femicircle is moved back, atoothat a time, towards M,
until it meets O, which upfets the roller 7, and fends the
femicircle back again.
Tweeled Silks.—In weaving very fine filk tweels, fuch as
thofe of fixteen leafes, the number of threads required to
be drawn through each interval of the reed is fo great, that
if they were woven with a fingle reed, the threads would
obftrué each other in rifing and finking, and the fhed, or
opening of the divided warp, would not be fufficiently open
to allow the fhuttle a free paflage. .To avoid this inconve-.
nience, other reeds are placed behind that which trikes up.
the weft ; and the warp-threads are fo difpofed, that tho
which pafs through the fame interval in the firft reed are di-.
vided-in pafling through the fecond, and again in -pafling,
through the third. By thefe means the obftruction, if not
exninay removed, is greatly leffened.
In the weaving of plain thick woollen cloths, to prevent
obftruétions of this kind arifing from the clofenefs and rough-
nefs of the threads, only soeiatia of the warp is funk and
raifed by one treadle, and a fecond is prefled down to com-
plete the fhed between the times when every fhot of weft is.
thrown acrofs.
Double Cloth is compofed of two webs, each of which.
confitts
WEAVING.
confifts of feparate warps and feparate wefts, but the two are
interwoven at intervals. The junétion of the two webs is
formed by pafling each of them occafionally through the
other, fo that any particular part of both warps will be found
fometimes above and fometimes below.
This fpecies of weaving is almoft exclufively confined to
the manufa€ture of carpets in this country. The material
employed is dyed woollen, and as almoft all carpets are de-
corated with fanciful ornaments, the colours of the two webs
are different, and they are made to pafs through each other
at fuch intervals as will form the patterns required. Hence
it happens that the patterns at each fide of the carpet are the
fame, but the colours are reverfed. Carpets are ufually
woven in the draw-loom, or with the machine called the
draw-boy before deferibed.
Marfeilles is a fabric woven of cotton, which is a double
cloth. The loom for weaving Marfeilles is fomewhat fimilar
to the diaper loom. A good idea of the manner in which
it is prepared may be had, by conceiving two webs woven
one under the other in the fame loom, which are made to
intermingle at all the depreffed lines, and form the reticula-
tions on the furface, in imitation of the quilting performed
by hand. ‘
When the fpecies of Marfeilles, called Marfeilles quilting,
is made, a third warp, of fofter materials than the two others
defcribed, lies between them, and merely ferves as a fort of
ftuffing to the hollow fquares formed by them.
Quilting is another fort of cotton ftuff, folely appropriated
to quilts, which fhould, in ftri€tnefs, be fet down exclufively
to the cotton manufaéture, although there is nothing to pre-
vent its being made of other materials.
The weft of thofe quilts is of very. coarfe and thick yarn,
which is drawn out by a {mall hook into little loops, as it is
woven, that are fo arranged as altogether to form a regular
pattern; every third or fourth fhoot of the fhuttle, the
weaver has to ftop to form thofe loops from a draft, which
caufes the weaving of thofe quilts to take up more time than
that of any other ftuff, except tapeftry ; which accounts for
the greatnefs of the price at which they are fold, in propor-
tion to the value of the materials of which they are princi-
pally compofed.
Gauze differs in its formation from other cloths, by having
the threads of the warp croffed over each other, inftead of
lying parallel. They are turned to the right and left alter-
nately, and each fhot of weft preferves the twine which it
has received.
This effect is caufed by a fingular mode of producing the
fheds, which cannot eafily be defcribed without the aid of
drawings.
Crofs, or Net Weaving, is a feparate branch of the art, and
requires a loom particularly conftruéted for the purpofe.
Spots, brocades, and lappets, are produced by a combina-
tion of the arts of plain, tweeled, and gauze weaving, and
as in every other branch of the art are produced in all their
varieties by different ways of forming the divifion of the
warp by the application of numerous heddles, and their con-
ne@tions with the treadles which move them. Indeed the
great fkill of the art confiftsin the proper management of
this part of the apparatus of a loom.
Ribband Weaving.—This was formerly performed by a
{mall common loom, weaving one ribband at atime. Rub-
bands are commonly ftriped in the length by laying a ftriped
warp, and patterns are produced by changing the colour of
the weft occafionally ; fometimes an ornamented edging is
formed by a fucceffion of open loops at the borders of the
ribband. Figured ribbands are alfo woven by a great num-
ber of treadles, but as they rarely extend to a greater number
than the weaver can manage by his feet, they feldom employ
a draw-loom.
Engine-Loom for weaving Ribbands.—The weavers at Co-
ventry, which is the principal feat of the ribband trade, uni-
verfally employ what they call an engine-loom : it is worked
by the hands and feet like a common loom, but weaves twelve,
fixteen, or even twenty ribbands at once. The fhuttles are of
courfe fly-fhuttles, and are driven by what is called a ladder,
becaufe it is a {mall frame exaétly like a ladder, whith flides
horizontally in a groove in the lay ; and every crofs-bar of
the ladder aéts upon one fhuttle in the manner of a pecker :
the ladder has a handle to give it motion.
Another peculiarity of this loom is, that the ribbands are
taken away as they are woven, with very few interruptions
to wind up the work: for this purpofe they condu& the
warps over pulleys, and the ribbands alfo, fo that both hang
down in long loops. Thefe looped parts are condu@ted
through pulleys, which are loaded with weights, and tend
always to draw the loops down, and keep the warp tight.
The weight which is thus fufpended by the finifhed ribband
tends to draw it forwards at every ftroke which the lay
makes; and the weight which is fufpended by the yarn of
the warp is drawn up. When thefe weights have run
through their refpective courfes, the weaver mutt ftop to
wind up the finifhed ribband, and unwind a frefh length of
yarn. In fome looms this is rendered unneceffary by a
fimple mechanifm, which continually winds up the ribband
as faft as it is woven.
In 1801 the Society of Arts rewarded Mr. Thomas
Clulow, for an improved loom for weaving figured rib-
bands.
This loom differs from the common figured ribband-
looms in the method of forming the figure, which, in the old
mode, was tedious, from the work being ftopped, whilft the
figure was drawn by hand.
In the prefent loom, the tire-cords which form the fi
are drawn or worked by a cord or leather-ftrap fixed to the
centre-treadle, which ftrap pafles over two vertical and one
horizontal pulley to the back of the loom, and has a weight
hung to the end thereof. Upon this ftrap above the weight
is fixed an iron, of a bevel or floping form, which when the
{trap is pulled up by preffing with the foot upon the treadle,
raifes a wire-lever placed acrofs the main-wheel of the move-
ments placed vertically, and allows this main-wheel to move
one-fourth of its circumference, where it is ftopped by an
iron pin, placed on its rim, and prevented from returning by
a or catch on the edge of the wheel on its right
ide.
Within the rim of the main-wheel is a {mall catch-ftrap
conneéted with the {trap above-mentioned ; this catch-ftrap
pulls forward the main-wheel one-fourth of its circum
ference, until it is ftopped by the wire-lever and one of the
pins on the rim, of which there are four in number in the
ground.
There are alfo four iron pins projeéting from the left fide
of the main-wheel in oppofite quarters of it: thefe a ona
hanging lever, to the lower part of which a ftring is ate
tached, which pafles behind the box containing the whole
machinery, and raifes four clicks or catches on four rollers,
which permits any one of the four rollers to run back. as the
figure may require, each roller by fuch motion drawing up
the number of threads neceflary to form the figure, by cords
extending from thefe rollers over pulleys to the pafs-cords,
which draw the figure.
Machine Loom for Ribbands.—We have before mentioned
M.Vaucanfon’s loom for weaving ten ribbands by a rotatory
motion. We do not know that this is in ufe in this country.
Piz Mr,
WEB
Mr. James Birch invented an improvement on the fwivel-
loom, fo as to weave fatin-guard or figured laces, and re-
ceived a reward from the Society of Arts in 1804.
This loom is worked by a circular motion of the hands,
without treadles, or any application of the feet.
A wooden bar, to which the hands are applied, works
two cranks on a large iron axle, extending the width of the
loom ; one crank is near each end of the above axis. A fly-
wheel is attached to one of the ends of the axis, to regulate
the motion of the machinery ; an endlefs fcrew is placed
upon the axis, works a ftar-wheel underneath it, which turns
a barrel that has arefemblance to that of a hand-organ, and
has wooden pegs fixed in different parts around it: thefe
pegs catch upon levers, which draw forward the cords
that form the figure, and pull them down by a claw, which
fecures the cords thus brought within its power, and by thofe
means raife the upper geer conneéted with the cords.
In this loom fourteen pieces of fatin-guard or bed-lace
are wove at the fame time, either one pattern and breadth,
or all of different patterns and breadths, as may be re-
quired. The figure may be extended to any number of
fhoots defired.
The loom takes up no more {pace than a common {wivel-
loom, fuch as is employed in plain-work. It appears to
work with eafe and expedition, to make good work, and to
be cafily managed. It does not break or chafe the filk
during its working. The weaver can move to any part of
the front of the loom to infpe@ the work, and to continue
the motion during that time ; and the figure or pattern may
be formed double the length of thofe ufually done in the
engine-loom. The loom can be ftopped when required, at
any one fhoot of the fhuttle ; and it will anfwer to weave
articles made of filk, wool, cotton, or linen, or mixtures of
thofe articles, or gold or filver lace, and performs its work
in half the time of an engine-loom.
The want of uniformity in the technical phrafeology of
the art of weaving, and the intricacy of the fubjeét, have
compeélled us to render our defcriptions far more intricate
and difficult than they otherwife would have been.
We mutt acknowledge the affiftance which we have de-
rived from the very excellent “ Effays on the Art of
Weaving,” by Mr. Duncan, 1808, in 2 vols. 8vo. Itis a
moft curious and valuable publication, embracing almoft
every thing neceffary to be known concerning the art on
which it profeffes to treat ; if we except fome of the recent
improvements in machine-weaving, which are only flightly
noticed.
The French have long excelled in the various branches of
figure-weaving ; but this is more from dexterity of their
weavers than from their machinery. Defcriptions and
drawings of all looms ufed by them, with every detail of
their ftru€ture, will be found in the different articles of
L’Encyclopede Methodique, and Les Arts et Metiers,
D’ Art de Fabriquer le Soie, &c.
Weavine of Cloth, Cotton, and Silk.
upra.
WEAVING of Tapsfiry, &c. See Tapestry, &c.
WEAVING, Stocking. See Srockrnes.
WEAUME, in Ceograpiy, a river of Frarice, which
runs into the fea, near Marfeilles.
WEAUS, or Wezas, Indians dwelling near the head of
the river Wababh.
WEAUTENANS, Indians of North America, about
N, lat. 40°20!. W. long. 87° 20!.
WEB, a fort of plexus, or texture, formed of threads
interwoven with each other; fome of which are extended in
See WEAVING
WEB
length, and called.the warp, and others drawn acrofs them,
called the qvoof or weft. See WEAVING /upra. ©
Wes is alfo a technical term for all weavers and
bleachers, both in Great Britain and Ireland, for a piece of
linen cloth.
Wes, Spider’s, or Cob-Web, is a very delicate and won-
derful plexus, which that infe& {pins out of its own bowels ;
ferving it as a fort of toil, or net, to catch flies, &c. See
SPIDER. .
For the manner in which the fpider fpins his web, the ad-
mirable mechanifm of the parts fubfervient to it, and the
ufes of it, fee SILK, and Dudility of Spider-Werss infra. _
Dr. Lifter tells us, that, attending nearly to a fpider
weaving a net, he obferved it fuddenly to defift in the mid-
work ; and turning its tail to the wind, it darted out a
thread, with the violence and ftream we fee water {pout out
of a jet: this thread, taken up by the wind, was imme-
diately carried to fome fathoms Tong; {till iffuing out
of the belly of the animal. By-and-bye the fpider cal
into the air, and the thread mounted her up fwiftly. After
this difcovery he made the like obfervation in near thirty dif-
ferent forts of {piders, and found the air filled with young
and old, failing on their threads, and doubtlefs feizing
gnats and other infe&s in their paflage: there being often
manifeft figns of flaughter, legs and wings of flies, &c. on
thefe threads, as well as in their webs below.
Dr. Hulfe difcovered the fame thing about the fame time.
In a letter of Dr. Lifter to Mr. Ray, he thinks there is a
fair hint of the darting of fpiders in Ariftotle, Hift. An.
lib. ix. cap. 39: and in Pliny, lib. x. cap. 74. But with re-
gard to their failing, the ancients are filent, and he thinks it
was firft feen by him. In another letter to Mr. Ray, dated
January, 1670, {peaking of the height fpiders are able
to fly to, he fays, * Laft O&ober, &c. I took notice
that the air was very full of webs; I forthwith mounted to
the top of the higheft fteeple on the minfter (in York),
and could there difcern them yet exceeding high above
me.”’ :
Duéility of Spider-Wezs. M. Reaumur obferves, that
the matter of which fpiders and filk-worms form their
threads, is brittle when in the mafs, like dry gums. As it
is drawn out of their bodies, it affumes a confiftence, much
as glafs-threads become hard, as they recede from the lamp,
though from a different caufe. The du&tility of this matter,
and the apparatus for this purpofe, being much more extra-
ordinary in f{piders than in filk-worms, we fhall here onl
confider the former. Something alfo has already been faid
of each under Sirk.
Near the anus of the fpider are five or fix papilla, or
teats. The extremities of the feveral papillz are furnifhed
with holes, that do the bufinefs of wire-drawers, in forming
the threads. Of thefe holes, M. Reaumur obferves, there
are enough in compafs of the fmalleft pin’s-head, to yield a
prodigious quantity of diftin& threads. The holes are
perceived by their effects: take a large garden-{pider
ready to lay its eggs, and applying the finger on a
part of its papille, as you withdraw that finger, it
will take with it an amazing number of different thread
M. Reaumur has often counted feventy or eighty with a mi-
crofcope, but has perceived that there were infinitely more
than he could tell. In effeét, if he could fay, that each tip
of sa papilla furnifhed a thoufand, he is perfuaded he fhould
fay much too little. The part is divided into an infinity of
little prominences, like the eyes of a butterfly, &c. each
prominence, no doubt, makes its feveral threads ; or rather,
between the feveral protuberancés, there are holes that give
vent to threads; the ufe of the protuberances, in all proba-
bility,
WEB
bility, being to keep the threads at their firft exit, before
they are yet hardened by the air, afunder. In fome {piders
» thofe protuberances are not fo fenfible; but in lieu thereof
there are tufts of hair, which may ferve the fame office, viz.
to keep the threads apart. Be this as it will, there may
threads come out at above a thoufand different places in
every papilla; confequently, the fpider having fix. pa-
-pille, has holes for above fix thoufand threads. It is
not enough that thefe apertures are immenfely fmall: but
the threads are already formed before they arrive at the
papilla, each of them having its little fheath or dué, in
which it is brought to the papilla from a confiderable
diftance.
M. Reaumur traces them up to their fource, and fhews
the mechanifm with which they are made. Near the origin
of the belly he finds two little foft bodies, which are the
firft fource of the filk. Their form and tranfparency re-
femble thofe of glafs-beads, by which name we fhall hereafter
denote them. The tip of each bead goes winding, and
makes an infinity of turns and returns towards the pa-
pilla. From the bafe, or root of the head, proceeds another
branch much thicker; which winding varioufly, forms feve-
ral knots, and takes its courfe like the other, towards the
hind part of the fpider. In thefe beads and their branches,
is contained a matter proper to form the filk, only that it is
too foft. The body of the bead is a kind of refervoir, and
the two branches two canals proceeding from it. A little
farther backwards, there are two other lefler beads, which
only fend forth one branch a-piece, and that from the tip.
Befide thefe, there are three other larger veffels on each fide
of the f{pider, which M. Reaumur takes for the laft refer-
voirs, where the liquor is colle&ted. The biggeift is near the
head of the infeét, and the leaft near the anus. They all
terminate in a point; and from the three points of thefe three
refervoirs it is, that the threads, at leaft the greateft part
of the threads drawn out at the three papillz, proceed.
Each refervoir fupplies one papilla. Laftly, at the roots of
the papille, there are difcerned feveral flefhy tubes ; pro-
bably, as many as there are papille. Upon lifting up the
membrane, or pellicle, that feems to cover thefe tubes, they
appear full of threads, all diftin& from each other, and
which, of confequence, under a common cover, have each
their particular one ; being kept like knives in fheaths. The
immenfe quantity of threads contained here, M. Reaumur
concludes, upon tracing their courfe, does not wholly come .
from the points of the refervoirs; but fome from all the
turns, and angles; nay, probably from every part of it.
But by what conveyances the liquor comes into the beads,
and out of the beads into the refervoirs, remains yet to be
difcovered.
We have already obferved, that the tip of each papilla
may give paflage to above a thoufand threads ; yet the dia-
meter of that papilla does not exceed a fmall pin’s-head :
but we were there only confidering the largeft {piders.
If we examine the young growing fpiders produced by
thofe, we fhall find, that they no fooner quit their egg, than
they begin tofpin. Indeed their threads can fearce be per-
ceived; but the webs may: they are frequently as thick,
and clofe, as thofe of houfe-fpiders ; and no wonder : there
being often four or five hundred little fpiders concurring to
the fame work. How minute muft their holes be? the
imagination can fcarce conceive that of their papille! The
whole fpider is, perhaps, lefs than a papilla of the parent
which produced it.
This is eafily feen ; each big f{pider lays four or five hun-
dred eggs; thefe eggs are all wrapped up in a bag ; and as
WEB
foon as the young ones have broke through the bag, they
begin to f{pin. How fine muit their threads at this time
be!
Yet is not this the utmoft nature does: there are fome
kinds ef fpiders fo {mall at their birth, that they are not vi-
fible without a microfcope. There is ufually found an in-
finity of thefe in a clutter, and they only appear like a
number of red points. And yet there are webs found
under them, though well nigh imperceptible. What mutt
be the tenuity of one of thefe threads ; the {malleft hair
mutt be to one of thefe what the moft mafflive bar is to the
fineft gold-wire.
The matter of which the threads are formed, we have ob-
ferved, is a vifcid juice. The beads are the firft receptacles
where it is gathered, and the place where it has the leaft con-
fiftence. It is much harder when got into the fix great re-
fervoirs, whither it is carried by canals from the former ;
this confiftence it acquires in good meafure in its paflage ;
part of the humidity being diffipated in the way, or fecreted
by parts deftined for that purpofe.
Lattly, the liquor is dried ftill ‘farther, and becomes
thread, inits progrefs through the refpeétive canals to the
papille. When thefe firft appear out at the holes, they are
itill glutinous ; fo that fuch as {pring out of neighbouring
holes ftick together. The air completes the drying.
By boiling the fpider, more or lefs, the liquor is brought
to a greater or lefs confiftence, fit to draw out into threads;
for it is too fluid for that purpofe while yet inclofed in its
refervoirs.
The matter contained in thefe refervoirs, when well
dried, appears a tranfparent gum, or glue, which breaks
when much bent: like glafs, it only becomes flexible by
being divided into the fineft threads. And probably it was
on this account nature made the number of holes fo immenfe.
The matter of filk formed in the bodies of fpiders being
much more brittle than that formed in filk-worms, needed
to be wound fmaller: Otherwife we do not conceive, why
they fhould form a great number of threads, which were
afterwards to be re-united: a fingle canal might elfe have
done,
The thread of a fpider being ftrong enough to bear five
or fix times the weight of the {pider’s body, is compofed of
feveral finer threads, that are drawn out feparately, but
unite together at the diftance of two or three hairs’ breadth
from the body of the {pider. The threads are coarfer or
finer, according to the fize of the fpider that {pins them.
Mr. Leewenhoeck computes that 100 of the fineft threads of
a full grown fpider, are not equal to the diameter of the
hair of his beard ; and confequently, if the hair be round,
10,000 fuch threads are not bigger than fuch a hair. He
calculated farther, that when young fpiders firft begin to
{pin, 400 of them are not larger than one that is full-grown ;
and therefore the thread of fuch a little {pider is 400 times
{maller than the thread of a full-grown one ; allowing this,
four millions of a young fpider’s threads are not fo big as
the fingle hair of a man’s beard.
Wes, in Ship-Building, the thin partition on the infide of
the rim, and between the {pokes of an iron or brafs-fheave.
Wes of a Coulter, in Agriculture, that part of it which is
drawn out thin and fharp, in order to cut and feparate the
ground, in oppofition to the others which are thick and
blunt. ..In the fock, too, any thin fharp part has. the name
of web or wing. ;
Wes on the Eye, among Animals, a term fometimes ufed
to fignify a film on that part. See Eyz, Fim, and White
Fit.
WEB-
WEB
Wes-Cafe. See Curysacis.
Wes, Pin and. See Pannus.
WEBB, Puitte-Carteret, in Biography, a member of
the fociety of antiquaries, was born in 1700, and admitted
an attorney in 1724, and diftinguifhed for his acquaintance
with the records of the kingdom, and with conftitutional
and parliamentary law. He was returned in 1754, and again
in 1761, as a member for the borough of Haflemere ; and
being attached to the then exifting adminiftration, he obtained
the place of fecretary of bankrupts in the court of chancery,
and in 1756 became one of the joint folicitors of the treafury.
He wasemployed in 1763 in conducting the profecutionagaintt
Mr. Wilkes, for writing a number of the North Briton; and
printed on that occafion ‘* A Colleétion of Records about
General Warrants,” and ‘‘ Obfervations on difcharging Mr.
Wilkes from the Tower.”? He died at his houfe in Buf-
bridge, Surrey, in June 1770, and left a valuable library, and
curious colleGion of coins, medals, and relics of antiquity,
which were fold by auétion. He had fold 30 MSS. of the
rolls of parliament to the honfe of lords, and a number of
other MSS. were fold to lord Shelburne, and afterwards to
the Britifh Mufeum. Among his publications we may reckon
« A Letter to the Rev. Mr. Warburton, on fome paffages
of his Divine Legation ;”? ‘* Various Pieces relative to the
State of the Law in this Kingdom ;” “ Account of fome
Particulars concerning Domefday Book ;”’ “A fhort Ac-
count of Danegeld ;”? ** Account of a Copper Table, dif-
covered near Heraclea.’? Mr. Webb was twice married,
and by his firft wife left a fon of his own name. Nichols’s
Lit. Anecd. Gen. Biog.
Wess Pond, iv we A a town of the diftri@ of
Maine, in the county of Oxford, containing 318 in-
habitants.
WEBBER, Joun, in Biography, who accompanied
captain Cook in his laft voyage to the South fea, in the ca-
pacity of draughtfman, was a native of London, though his
father was a Swifs. He was born in 1752, and was fent
young to Paris for his education as an artift. After his re-
turn he ftudied at the Royal Academy, of which in 1785 he -
became a member. His talents for drawing land{cape re-
commended him to the lords of the admiralty, who ap-
pointed him to go with’ captain Cook on his voyage of dif-
covery ; and when the veffels returned in 1780, they alfo
commiffioned him to fuperintend the engraving of the prints
from his own drawings of the fcenes he had beheld. When
thefe were completed, he was permitted to publifh a
work confifting of other views which he had made, which he
etched and aquatinted himfelf, and publifhed on his own ac-
count ; and thefe produced him a handfome remuneration.
He afterwards applied himfelf to painting, but his piétures
are weak and unfubftantial, without colour or effect, or any
great degree of merit, though they pleafe from their neat-
nefs and minutenefs. He died in 1793, aged 41.
WEBERA, in Botany, owes its name to Schreber, who
dedicated this genus to the memory of George Henry
Weber, late profeffor of medicine and botany at Kiel; an
excellent cryptogamic botanift, moftcelebrated for his Spict-
legium Flore Goettingenfis, publifhed in 1778, and one of the
elaffical books in that department of the fcience. He died
in 1786, at the age of 35. Hedwig had previoufly comme-
morated Weber in a genus of Mofles, fome fpecies of which
are now referred to Bartramia, others to Bryum. (See
Muscr and Frince of Moffs.) Itis to be regretted that
Webera did not take place of Bartramia, the perfon after
whom the latter was named, however meritorious, being
fcareely at all converfant with moffes.——Schreb. Gen. 794.
WEB
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.1224. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4. Aic
Hort. Kew. v. 1. 371. (Chomelia ; Linn. Gen. ed. 2. 72.)
Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rubia-
cea, Juff. :
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, divided
half way down into five ere, acute, permanent fe ts.
Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped; tube cylindrical, longer
than the calyx: limb in five ovate-oblong, reflexed feg-
ments. Neé¢tary a flefhy ring, furrounding the bafe of the
{tyle. Stam. Filaments five, very fhort, inferted into the
margin of the tube; anthers linear, incumbent, {preading.
Piff. Germen roundifh, inferior ; ftyle fimple, longer than
the tube of the corolla; ftigma club-fhaped, with ten fur-
rows. eric. Berry nearly globular, of two cells, crowned
with the permanent enlarged calyx. Seeds from two to four
in each cell, angular.
Eff. Ch. Calyx fuperior, in five permanent fegments.
Corolla funnel-fhaped, five-cleft. Stamens in the mouth of
the tube. Stigma club-fhaped, with ten furrows.
inferior, of two cells. Seeds feveral, angular.
A genus of evergreen Eaft Indian fhrubs, with oppofite
branches and leaves ; and axillary or terminal, aggregate flow-
ers, which are occafionally augmented in the number of their
divifions and {tamens, from five to fix. Canthium of La-
marck’s Di&. v. 1. 602. Juff. 204. Cavan. Ic. v. 5. 21,
confounded by Willdenow with this genus, is certainly very
diftin& in ixs habit, peltate ftigma, folitary feeds, and four-
cleft flowers.
1. W. corymbofu. Corymbofe Webera. Willd. n. 1.
Ait. n.1. (Rondeletia afiatica; Linn. Sp. Pl. 244.
Cupi; Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 2. 37. t. 23. Rati Hift.
v. 2. 1494.)
Leaves elliptic-oblong. Corymb terminal, forked, many-
flowered. —Native of fandy ground in the Eaft Indies ; cul-
tivated by Miller in the ftove at Chelfea, in 1759, but it is
not recorded by Mr. Aiton to have flowered, nor do we recol-
le& having ever feen the plant in any collection. A wild
fpecimen from Dr. Rottler is before us. The fem is
fhrubby, about the height of a man, with fmooth, leafy,
fomewhat compreffed, branches. Leaves on fhort’ thick |
ftalks, entire, coriaceous, very f{mooth, four inches long,
rather acute, with a ftout rib, and numerous reticulated
veins ; their upper fide fhining ; lower paler. Stipulas in-
trafoliaceous, triangular, fhort, pointed. Fower-/lalks hairy.
Flowers three-quarters of an inch long, whitifh, agreeably
fragrant, turning yellowifh as they fade. Berries firm, the
fize of acurrant, blackih, fweetifh, but not eatable. Rheede
defcribes 7 or 8 feeds in each fruit.
This plant has the appearance of an Jxora or Pavetia, as
we have obferved at the end of our article RoNDELETIA ;
but perhaps the /ligma, very important in this natural order,
may keep it diftinét.
2. W. cymofa. Cymofe Webera. Willd. n. 2.—* Leaves
ovate, pointed. Cymes axillary, ftalked, many-flowered.’?—
Native of the Eaft Indies. ‘A ¢ree, with round downy
branches. Leaves ftalked, ovate, obtufe with a point, en-
tire, very {mooth, rigid, fimply veiny ; fhining above,
Cymes convex. Flower-ftalks downy. Corolla halt the fize
of the former. Style much longer than the corolla. Stigma
capitate, cloven. Berry the fize of Juniper.”’—Willdenow,
from a dried f{pecimen.—We have not feen this f{pecies.
The defcription of the figma does not anfwer to the gene-
ric character.
WEBHAMET, in viene A ariver of the diftri@ of
Maine, which runs into the Atlantic, near Wells.
WEBUCH,
Berry
WED
WEBUCH, Carr, acape on the E. coaft of Labrador.
NN. Jat. 55° 21'. W. long. 58° 10’. ;
WECHMAR, or Wartumar, a town of Germany, in
the principality of Gotha; 4 miles S.E. of Gotha.
WECHQUETANK, a Moravian fettlement in Penn-
fylvania; 30 miles N.W. of Bethlehem. }
WECHSELBURG, a townfhip of Germany, in the
lordfhip of Schonburg ; 4 miles N.N.E. of Penig.
WECHSTEN, a town of Germany, in the county of
Verden; 12 miles S.E. of Verden.
WECHTERBACH,a town of Germany, in the county
of Ifenburg ; 7 miles S.E. of Budingen.
WECHTERSWINCKEL, a town of the duchy of
Wurzburg ; 3 miles N.N.W. of Neuftadt am Saal.
WECKHOLM, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Upland ; 22 miles S.W. of Upfal.
WED ex Casaaz, a river of Algiers, which runs
into the Mediterranean, 5 miles S. of Cape Falcon.
Wen el. Kibbeer, a river of Algiers, anciently called
Ampfaga, which runs into the Mediterranean, 15 miles S.
of Sebba Rous. N,. lat. 36°57'. E. long. 6° 28/.
Werp el Mailah, i.e. the Salt River, a river of Algiers,
which runs into the Mediterranean, 10 miles S.S.E. of
Cape Figalo.
Wen el Shaier, a river of Africa, which rifes about 12
miles E. from the mountain of Zeckar, in the Sahara, and
aftér a north-eaft courfe about 30 miles changes its name to
Mailah, and finally lofes itfelf in the Short.
WEDDER, the name of a certain ftate of fheep. See
Weruer-Sheep.
WEDDRA, in Commerce. See Vepro.
WEDEKINSTEIN, in Geography, a town of Weft-
phalia, in the principality of Minden; 3 miles S.W. of
Minden.
WEDEL, Grorcre Wotrreane, in Biography, an emi-
nent phyfician, was born in 1645, at Golzan, in Lufatia, and
ftudied phyfic and took his doétor’s degree at Jena, in 1667,
where, after a temporary exercife of his profeffion at Gotha,
he became medical profeflor, in which {tation he continued
with reputation for almoft fifty years. He combined with
his medical fkill a confiderable acquaintance with mathematics
and philology, as well as with the oriental and claflical
languages. He was an aflociate to the Academy Nature
Curioforum, and to the Royal Society of Berlin, phyfician to
feveral German fovereigns, a count palatine, and an imperial
counfellor. Notwithftanding thefe high offices and nume-
rous engagements, he was attentive to the poor, and affiduous
in his literary labours. His pathology was derived from the
fyftems of Helmont and Sylvius ; in his praétice he depended
much on abforbents, and the volatile falts of vegetables.
Wedel was addiéed to aftrology ; but he is chiefly cele-
brated for his pharmaceutical knowledge, and his elegance
of prefcription, fo that many of his compofitions have been
adopted in difpenfatories. Of his works, befides his aca-
demical differtations, the principal are the following ; viz.
* Opiologia ;”? “‘ Pharmacia in Artis formam redaéta ;’’
“ De Medicamentorum Facultatibus cognofcendis et appli-
eandis ;?? ‘* De Morbis Infantum ;”’ and ‘* Exercitationes
Medico-Philologice.”” Haller. Eloy.
WebeL, in Geography, a town of Holitein; 13 miles
N.W. of Hamburg.—Alfo, a town of the New Mark of
Brandenburg ; 11 miles E. of Reetz.
-WEDELITA, in Botany, was fo called by Jacquin, in
honour of Dr. John Wolffgang Wedel, of Jena, whom he
celebrates as a highly meritorious botanift, and who wrote
a Tentamen Botanicum, publifhed at Jena in 1747, with a
preface by his friend Hamberger. The defign of this
WED
work is to combine the fyftems of Rivinus and Linneus,
the clafles of the latter making fubdivifions of the former.
We prefume that no fcheme could be lefs natural or ufeful,
whatever the betanical {kill of the author might be ; of which
indeed we are not difpofed to think highly, as he made a
point of excluding the fruit from his principles of claffifica-
tion. He wrote a German eflay againft Haller, on the
fubjeét of botanical terms, of which the latter {peaks as full
of taunts and reproaches. Wedel died in 1757, at the age
of 49. Some others of the fame name, and probably the
fame family, who were Profeffors at Jena, appear full as
well entitled to botanical honours; efpecially George
Wolffgang Wedel, who died in 1721, aged 76, and: has
left behind him numerous differtations on botany and the
materia medica.—Jacq. Amer. 217. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3.
2334. Juffl.189. Gaertn. v.2. 435. (Alcina; Cavan.
Ic. v.1. 10. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 164.)—Clafs: and
Order, Syngencfia Polygamia-neceffaria. Nat. Ord. Compo-
Site oppofitifolie, Linn. Corymbifere, Jufl.
Gen. Ch. Common Calyx fimple, of four or five large
leaves. Cor. compound, radiant. Florets of the difk per-
fe&t, numerous, funnel-fhaped, five-cleft ; thofe of the ra-
dius from eight to twelve, roundifh-ovate, cloven. Stam.
in the florets of the difk. Filaments five, capillary fhort ;
anthers united into a tube, as long as the partial corolla.
Pift. in the fame florets, Germen minute, imperfe& ; ftyle
thread-fhaped, the length of the anthers; ftigma fimple or
divided: in thofe of the radius, Germen oblong, quadran-
gular ; ftyle thread-fhaped ; {tigmas two, revolute. eric.
none, the calyx remaining unaltered. Seeds in the dif im-
perfeé& ; in the florets of the radius folitary, obovate, gib-
bous, crowned with four, five, or ten teeth. Recepi.
chaffy, flightly convex ; the feales ovate, concave, 4s long
as the florets.
Eff. Ch. Receptacle chaffy. Seed-crown of from five
to ten teeth. Calyx fimple, of four or five leaves.
Obf. This genus is feparated from PorymniA, (fee that
article, ) on account of its fimple calyx, and the prefence of
a crown to the feeds, which appear to us fufficient cha-
racters.
1. W. frutefcens. Shrubby Wedelia. Willd. n.-1.
Jacq. Amer. 217. t.¥30. (Polymnia Wedelia; Linn.
Mant. 118. Poiret in Lam. Di&. v. 5. 506.) — Stem
fhrubby. Leaves diftin@, ftalked, lanceolate. Seed-crown
of ten teeth.—Native of Carthagena, South America, in
bufhy woody places, flowering in July and Auguft. Stem
fhrubby, climbing, with round leafy branches, rough in
our {pecimen with minute points. eaves acute, two or
three inches long, fomewhat ferrated, briftly on both fides ;
the upper rough with callous points; lower paler. Foot-
Jtalks \inear rough, hardly half an inch in length, combined
at the bafe by a narrow annular flipula. Flowers terminal,
ftalked, folitary, yellow, near an inch broad, with a rough
calyx ; the outer {cales of their receptacle looking like a co-
loured inner calyx. Seeds, according to Jacquin, each with
a little cup-fhaped crown, having about ten teeth.
2. W. perfoliata. Perfoliate Wedelia. Willd. n. 2.
(Alcina perfoliata ; Cavan. Ie. vy. 1. 11. t.15. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 5. 164.)—Stem herbaceous. Leaves rhomboid,
tapering at the bafe, perfoliate. Seed-crown of five teeth.
—Native of Mexico, from, whence its feeds were brought
to Madrid, and thence difperfed through the botanic gar-
dens of other parts of Europe. This is an annual plant,
with nothing to attraét the attention of florifts. It flowers
late, and does not always ripen feed in England. The
Jem is four feet high, angular or furrowed, leafy, branched,
nearly fmooth, often purplifh. Leaves three or four eee
ong,
WED
long, including their narrow bafe, pointed, ferrated, triple-
ribbed, light green, roughifh. Flowers yellow, ftalked,
much {maller than the foregoing. Calyx broad, extend-
ing far beyond the rays. Seeds of the marginal florets
large, tumid, each crowned with four, five, or more, irre-
gularly placed tubercles, or teeth, not agreeing precifely
with the crown of the firft {pecies, but fcarcely affording
fufficient reafon to form a generic diftin@ion.
WEDENSCHWEIL, in Geography, a town of Swit-
rerland, and principal place of a bailiwick, in the canton of
Zurich, on the S.W. coaft of lake Zurich; g miles S. of
Zurich.
WEDGE, Cuneus, in Mechanics, the laft of the five
powers, or fimple machines.
The wedge is a triangular prifm, whofe bafes are ifofceles
acute-angled triangles.
Authors are divided about the priaciple whence the wedge
derives its power.
Ariftotle confiders it as two levers of the firit kind, in-
clined toward each other, and ating oppofite ways. Guido
Ubaldus, Merfennus, &c. will have them levers of the fe-
cond kind. But Fr. de Lanis fhews, that the wedge can-
not be reduced to any lever at all.
Others refer the wedge to the inclined plane. Others,
again, with De Stair, deny the wedge to have fearce any
force at all; and afcribe much the greateft part to the mal-
let that drives it.
Its do&rine (according to fome writers) is contained in
this propofition. ‘‘ If a power be applied to a wedge, in
fuch manner, as that the line of dire€tion C D ( Plate XL.
Mechanics, fig. 1.) perpendicular to A B, is to the refift-
ance to be overcome, as A B to C D; the power will be
equal to the refiftance.”’
Or thus: .‘ If the power diretly applied to the head of
the wedge, be to the refiftance to be overcome by the wedge,
as the thicknefs of the wedge is to its height; then the
power will be equivalent to its refiftance ; and, if increafed,
will overcome it.’’
In proof of this propofition, they allege, that the. firm-
nefs by which the parts of the obftacle, fuppofe wood, ad-
here to one another, is the refiftance to be overcome by. the
wedge ; and that while the wedge is driven into the wood,
the way or length it has gone is B H ( fig. 2.); and DC
is the way or length gone in the fame time, by the impedi-
ment; that is, the parts C and D of the wood are fo far
divided afunder : and according as the wedge is driven down
farther and farther along its height ; fo the parts C and D
of the wood are divided more and more; along the thicknefs
of the wedge.
But Dr. Defaguliers has proved, that, when the refiftance
acts perpendicularly againft the fides of the wedge, the
power is to the whole refiftance as the length of both fides
of the wedge, taken together, is to the thicknefs of its
back.
According to the poeding theory, if the thicknefs of
the wedge (that is, the way of the impediment, and confe-
quently its yelocity) be to the height of the wedge (that is,
the way, and confequently the velocity of the power) as
the power to the impediment, or refiftance ; then the mo-
mentum of the power, and the impediment, will be equal
the one to the other : and confequently the power, being in-
creafed, will overcome the refiftance.
Hence, 1. The power equivalent to half the refiftance, is
to it as AC to DC, ( fig. 1.) that is, as the whole fine
to the co-tangent of half the angle of the wedge A DC.
And z. As the tangent of a lefs angle is lefs than that of a
greater, the power mut have a greater proportion to half
OL
WED
the refiftance, if the angle be greater than if lefs; confe-
quently, the acuter the wedge is, the more does it increafe
the power.
The above proportion is adopted by Wallis, (Op. Math.
vol. i. p. 1016.) Keil, (Int. ad Ver. Phyf.) and S’Grave-
fande (EL Math. lib. i. cap. 14.); but S’Gravefande, in his
Scholium de ligno findendo (ubi fupra), obferves, that when
the parts of the wood are feparated before the wedge, the
force by which it is thruft in is to the refiftance of the wood
as a line, drawn from a point in the middle of the bafe to
the fide of the wedge, and at right angles with the fide of
the feparated wood continued, to the height of the wedge;
but when the parts of the wood are feparated no farther
than the wedge is driven in, the equilibrium will be, when
the power is to the refiftance as the half bafe of the wedge
to its fide.
To this method of eftimating the power of the wedge it
has been objected that, by allowing each part of the weight
to have moved through a {pace equal to half the back of the
wedge, whilft the power has moved through its height, and
the whole weight to have moved through a {pace equal to
the whole “hs the whole is made to move farther than its
arts.
M. Mufchenbroeck ftates the proportion of the power to
the weight in a fimple wedge, or half the wedge (fig: 1.)
bifeGting it by a plane pafling through C D, as its back is
to its length, or in that cafe as A C to C D: and in a dou-
ble wedge or the wedge ABD, as ABto2CD. Int.
ad Phil. vol. i. p. 132.
Mr. Fergufon eftimates the power of the wedge, in the
two cafes mentioned by S’Gravefande, in the following man-
ner. -When the wood does not cleave at any diftance before
the wedge, there will be an equilibrium (he fays) between
the power impelling the wedge downward, and the refiftance
of the wood a&ting againft the two fides of the wedge, if the
power be to the refiftance as half the thicknefs of the wedge
at its back is to the length of either of its fides; and if
the power be increafed fo as to overcome the friction of the
wedge, and the refiftance arifing from the cohelion or ftick-
age of the wood, the wedge will be drove in, and the wood
fplit afunder.
But when the wood cleaves at any diftance before the
wedge (as it generally does), the power impelling the wedge
will be to the refiftance of the wood as half its thicknefs is
to the length of either fide of the cleft, eftimated from the
top or acting part of the wedge: for fuppofing the wedge
to be lengthened down to the bottom of the cleft, a
power will be to the refiftance as half the thicknefs of the
wedge is to the length of either of its fides; or, which
amounts to the fame thing, as the whole thicknefs of the
wedge is to the length of both its fides. :
In proof of this proportion we may fuppofe the wedge
divided lengthways into two equal parts, and then it will
become two equally inclined planes; one of which, as abc
(fig. 3.) may be made ufe of as a half-wedge for fepa-
rating the moulding cd from the wainfcot A B. When
this has been driven its whole length ac between the wain-
{cot and moulding, its fide ac will be at ed, and the mould-
ing will be feparated to fy from. the wainfcot.
From the property of the inclined plane, it appears, that
to have an equilibrium between the power impelling the
half-wedge and the refiftance of the moulding, the former
mutt be to the latter, as ad to ac; that is, as the thicknefs
of the back which receives the ftroke is to the length of the
fide againft which the moulding aéts. Confequently, fince
the power upon the half-wedge is to the refittance againft
its fide, as the half back a6 is to the whole fide ac, it is
plain,
WED
plain, that the power upon the whole wedge (where the
whole back is double the half back) mutt be to the refiftance
againft both its fides, as the thicknefs of the whole back is
to the length of both the fides, fuppofing the wedge at the
‘bottom of the cleft ; or as the thicknefs of the whole back
to the length of both fides of the cleft, when the wood
{plits at any diftance before the wedge. For when the
wedge is driven quite into the wood, and the wood f{plits at
ever fo {mall a diftance before its edge, the top of the
wedge then becomes the aéting part, becaufe the wood does
not touch it any where elfe. And fince the bottom of the
cleft muft be confidered as that part where the whole ftick-
age or refiftance is accumulated, it is plain from the nature
of the lever, that the farther the power acts from the refift-
ance, the greater is the advantage.
Some writers have, indeed, advanced, that the power of
the wedge is to the refiftance to be overcome, as the thick-
nefs of the back of the wedge is to the length only of ‘one
of its fides ; but this, fays Mr. Fergufon, feems very ftrange;
for, if we fuppofe A B (fig. 4.) to be a ftrong inflexible
bar of wood.or iron fixed into the ground at C B, and D
and E to be two blocks of marble lying on the ground on
oppofite fides of the bar; it is evident that the block D
may be feparated from the bar to the diftance d equal
to ad, by driving the inclined plane or half-wedge abo
down between them ; and the block E may be feparated to
an equal diftance on the other fide, in like manner, by the
half-wedge cdo. But the power impelling each half-wedge
will be to the refiftance of the block againft its fide, as the
thicknefs of that half-wedge is to the length of its aéting
fide. Therefore the power to drive both the half-wedges is
to the refiftances, as both the half backs are to the length
of both the aéting fides, or as half the thicknefs of the
whole back is to the length of either fide. And, if the bar
be taken away, the blocks put clofe together, and the
two half-wedges joined to make one ; it will require as much
force to drive it down between the blocks, as is equal to
the fum of the feparate powers a&ting upon the half-wedges
when the bar was between them. Fergufon’s Le&. p. 40,
&c. ato. See alfo Defag. Exp. Phil. vol.i. p. 107, &c.
Mr. Ludlam, in an Effay on the Power of the Wedge,
printed in 1770, propofes, with a particular view to the
machines defcribed by S’Gravefande, Defaguliers, and Fer-
gufon, for eftimating the power of the wedge, to determine
this power, when two equal forces aé on the fides of an
ifofceles triangle in direGtions parallel to the back but op-
pofite to each other, and are fuftained by a third force aé-
ing perpendicularly on the back of the wedge. For this
pilipofes let A BC ( fig. 5.) be an ifofceles wedge, whofe
angular point is C, fides AC and BC, back A B, and
perpendicular height HC: let F E reprefent the quantity
and direétion of the force applied to one of the fides ; this
may be refolved into two other forces F D and D E, the
former parallel and the latter perpendicular to the fide AC;
and the oblique force F E will have juft the fame effec
upon the wedge as a lefs perpendicular force DE; the
former being to the latter as AC isto HC. But this laft
perpendicular force on the fide A C is to that on the back
which balances it as A C is to AH; whence compounding
thefe ratios, the oblique force againft one fide of the wedge
is to the perpendicular force on the back which balances it,
as A C*isto AH x HC. The oblique force fe on the
other fide of the wedge, being equal to F E, will require
another perpendicular force on the back to balance it equal
to the former perpendicular force ; whence the whole force
on both fides of the wedge is to the whole force on the
back as AC* isto AH x HC; oras the fquare of the
Vou. XXXVIII.
WED
fide of the wedge to the reétangle under half the back and
the perpendicular height.
For other methods of eftimating the effe& of the wedge
in various cafes, fee MecHANICAL Powers.
The wedge is a very great mechanical power, fince not
only wood but even rocks can be {plit by it; which it
would be impoffible to effeét by the lever, wheel and axle,
or pulley ; for the force of the blow or ftroke, fhakes the
cgire: parts, and thereby makes them feparate the more
eafily.
To the wedge may be referred all edge-tools, and inftru-
ments which have a fharp point, in order to cut, cleave, flit,
chop, pierce, bore, or the like ; as knives, hatchets, fwords,
bodkins, &c.
WencE, in Ship-Building, a triangular folid made of
wood or iron. It is one of the mechanic powers, the moft
fimple, and of the greateft force.
WEDGE Isranp, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the
North Pacific ocean, near the E. coaft of the Prince of
Wales’s Archipelago, in the Duke of Clarence’s Strait.
N. lat. 55° 8’. E. long. 228° 20!
WEDGES, in Agriculture, are a fort of levers or dif-
tending powers that are of great ufe to the farmer on many
occafions, as in tearing and fplitting wood of all forts,
the roots of trees in taking them out of the ground, ftones,
and many other forts of hard materials. About farm-
houfes of any extent, it is always of advantage to have a
proper mallet and fet of wedges for tearing up wood and
other matters.
WEDGWOOD, Jostas, in Biography, was the younger
fon of a Staffordhhire potter, and born in July 1730. His
education was reftri€ted, but his mental powers were of a
fuperior kind, fo that by the fixed and perfevering exercife
of them he made very confiderable improvement in the art
of pottery to which his attention was direted, and gave a
name as well as veputation to the place of his nativity. (See
Porrery and Tue Porreries.) His patrimony was fmall,
but by his fuper-eminent {kill and fteady application he was
the founder of his own fortune as well as fame. The prin-
cipal feat of the potteries of Staffordfhire was Burflem ;
and there is reafon to believe that they have exifted in or
near this place for many centuries, and even, as fome fay,
fince the time of the Romans. But they had continued for
a long time in the fame rude ftate in which Plot found them
when he furveyed this county. The merit of introducin
into this country improvements in the art of pottery itt
be afcribed to two brothers of the name of Eders, who
came hither from Holland about the year 1700, and fettled
in the neighbourhood of the Staffordfhire potteries. They
manufactured a red unglazed porcelain from a clay, which
they found in the eltate on which they fettled, called
“ Bradwell ;”” but this was only the brown ftone ware, in
the compofition of which no flint is ufed; but they made
ufe of falt in glazing it: this falt, or muriate of foda, was
thrown into the oven at a certain ftage of the firing procefs,
and the pieces of ware were fo difpofed as to receive the
fumes of it on every part of their furfaces. The fumes,
however, occafioned an alarm in the neighbourhood, which
obliged them to leave the country. A fimilar menufaétory,
however, was foon after eftablifhed at Shelton, in the Pot-
teries, by one of their workmen, whofe name was Aftbury,
and who had poffeffed himfelf of their fecret ; and as it was
found very ufeful, it was tolerated by the inhabitants, though
on the day of glazing, the denfe offenfive fumes from fifty
or fixty manufactories filled the valleys, and covered the hills
through an extent of feyeral miles. The white ftone ware,
Gg and
WED
and the ufe of ground flints in pottery, were introduced at‘a
later period, and, as it is faid, (fee Parkes’s Chem. Cate-
chifm,) in confequence of the following incident. About
the year 1720, a potter, fuppofed to be the above-mentioned
Aftbury, ftopped at Dunftable in his way to London, and
fought a remedy for a diforder in his horfe’s eyes; and the
oftler of the inn by burning a flint ftone reduced it to a fine
powder, which he blew into them. The potter, obferving
the beautiful white colour of the flint after calcination, in-
ftantly thought of applying the difcovery to the improve-
ment of his art, and afterwards introduced the white pipe-
clays found on the fouth fide of Devonthire, inftead of the
iron-clays of his own country, and thus produced the white
ftone ware. At firft the flints were pulverized to the great
injury of the perfons employed ; till the famous Brindley,
in the early period of his life, conftruéted the mills that are
now ufed for grinding them in a moift ftate. It is farther
faid, that an. ingenious mechanic, named Alfager, after-
wards improved the conftru€tion of the potter’s wheel, fo
as to give much greater precifion and neatnefs to the work.
But flill the French pottery exceeded in beauty that of Staf-
fordfhire ; and about the year 1760, a confiderable quantity
of it was imported, and purchafed by perfons of opulence
to the great detrimentYof the Englifh manufacture. Mr.
Wedgwood direéted his attention to this article, and made
feveral improvements with regard to the forms, colours, and
compofition of his manufature; and in the year 1763 in-
vented a kind of ware for the table, which gave a turn to
the market, and under the name of queen’s ware, conferred ~
upon it in confequence of the patronage of her majefty,
came into very general ufe. Its materials were the whiteft
clays from Devonfhire and Dorfethire, mixed with ground
flint, and covered with a vitreous glaze. By varying and re-
peating his experiments, Mr. Wedgwood difcovered the mode
of manufatturing other fpecies of earthenware and porce-
lain, excellent and beautiful, and adapted to various pur-
pofes both of ufe and ornament. With a view of profe-
cuting his improvement in pottery he applied to the ftudy
of chemiltry, and for his farther affiftance engaged the in-
genious Mr. Chifholme, who had been employed in a fimilar
department by the celebrated Dr. Lewis, author of the
«‘Commercium Philofophico-Technicum ;”’ for whom he not
only built a comfortable habitation near the manufactory,
but liberally afforded him an annuity for his fupport under
the decays of age, which he continued till his death. Aided
alfo by the claflical tafte of his partner, Mr. Bentley, pot-
teries were furnifhed which ferved as models for various ar-
ticles, formed of other materials, that were held in high
eftimation. We learn from Dr. Bancroft, that almoft all
the finely diverfified colours which Mr. Wedgwood applied
to his pottery were produced only by the oxyds of iron.
In the manufacture of his beautiful jafper ware, which ri-
valled the produétions of antiquity, and which found its
way into the colleétions of the curious in all parts of Eu-
rop¢, he employed the native fulphate of barytes, and from
this ufe of it he derived great profit, until by the infidelity
of a fervant the fecret was difclofed and fold, fo that others
employed inferior workmen at a reduced falary, and thus
prevented Mr. W. from employing his exquifite modellers
on that branch of the manufaéture.
Among other curious produétions of this inventive manu-
faéturer we may mention his imitation of the Barberini or
Portland vafe, which was difcovered in the tomb of Alex-
ander Severus, and for which the late duchefs of Portland
paid 1000 guineas. The fub{cription for Mr. W.’s manu-
ya@ture was at the rate of sol. each for fifty vafes, but fuch
were the expences of its éxecution, that the partners loft
9
WED
money by the undertaking. Mr. Webber, it is faid, received
te Sven merely for modelling it.. See VAsr.
e cannot forbear in this conneétion noticing two-cameos
of Mr. Wedgwood’s manufacture ; one of a flave in chains,
of which he diftributed many hundreds, with a view of ex-
citing the humane to affift in the abolition of the flave-trade ;
and the other a cameo of Hope, attended by Peace and
Art and Labour, which was made of argillaceous earth
from Botany Bay, to which place he fent many of them, in
order to fhew what their’ materials were capable of, and to
encourage the indultry of the inhabitants.
To this brief account of fome of the numerous produc~
tions of Mr. Wedgwood, we fhall fubjoin the tribute paid to
his induftry and genius by an elegant modern poet :
“Gnomes! as you now diffe& with hammers fine
The granite rock, the noduled flint calcine ; '
Grind with ftrong arm, the circling chertz betwixt,
Your pure kaolins and petuntfes mixt ;
O’er each red faggar’s burning cave prefide,
The keen-eyed fire-nymphs blazing by your fide ;
And pleafed on Wedgwood ray your partial {mile, .
A new Etruria decks Britannia’s ifle.
To call the pearly drops from Pity’s eye ;
Or ftay Defpair’s difanimating figh,
Whether, O Friend of Art! the gem you mould
Rich with new tafte, with ancient virtue bold ;_
Form the poor fetter’d flave on bended knee
From Britain’s fons imploring to be free ;
Or with fair Hope the brightening {cenes improve,
And cheer the dreary waltes of Sydney-cove ;
Or bid Mortality rejoice and mourn
O’er the fine forms on Portland’s myftic urn.
Whether, O Friend of Art! your gems derive
Fine forms from Greece, and fabled gods revive ;
Or bid from modern life the portrait breathe,
And bind round Honour’s brow the laurel wreath ;
Buoyant fhall fail, with Fame’s hiftoric page,
Each fair medallion o’er the wrecks of age ;
Nor Time fhall mar, nor Steel, nor Fire, nor Ruft,
Touch the hard polifh of the immortal buft.’?
The demand for Staffordfhire ware very much increafed,
and it became a commercial article of exportation of very
confiderable value. y
The diftri& which Mr. Wedgwood ‘inhabited became by
his means the feat of population and abundance. The vi-
cinity was enriched, and a new canal of importance, ‘called
the Grand Trunk canal, and conneéting the Trent and the
Merfey, was obtained and executed by his influence. "The
ample fortune which he acquired was liberally enjoyed, and
benevolently applied to many purpofes of private charity and
public utility. Chemiftry and the arts in their mutual con-
netion were objeéts of his attention; and he contrived an
inftrument for meafuring high degrees of heat, called a py-
rometer, of which he gave an account in the Phil. Tranf.
for 1782, 1784, and 1786. See THeRMOMETER.
The difpofition and manners of Mr. Wedgwood were no
lefs eftimable than the powers of his mind; fo that he was
as much the object of admiration and efteem for his moral
as for his intellectual qualities. So much was he refpe&ed,
and fo defirable was the continuance of his ufeful life, that
he died, univerfally regretted, at his houfe in Staffordfhire,
to which he gave the name of Etruria, in January 1795, in
the 65th year of his age. Aikin’s Chem. Dié&. nt.
Mag. Parkes’s Chemical Catechifm. Parkes’s Effays.
WEDINOON, in Geography, a diftri& of Sufe in the
fouthern divifion of Morocco, inhabited by a tribe of Arabs.
This
WED
This territory is adjacent to the river Akafla, called by fome
Wed Noon, that is, the river of Noon. Jackfon ftates the
population of Wedinoon at 200,000 perfons. In this dif-
trict the foyereignty of the emperor of Morocco is fearcely
acknowledged ; and the difficulty of paffing an army over
that branch of the Atlas, which feparates Sufe from Haha,
fecures to the Wedinoonees their arrogated independence.
Wedinoon is a kind of intermediate depot for merchandize
on its way to Soudan, and for the produce of Soudan con-
veyed to Mogodor. Gums and wax are produced here in
abundance ; and the people, living in a ftate of independence,
indulge in the luxuries of drefs, and ufe many European
commodities. A great quantity of gold duft is bought and
fold at Wedinoon. The inhabitants fometimes trade to Mo-
godor, but prefer felling their merchandize on the fpot, as
they do not wifh to truft their perfons with property within
the territory of the emperor of Morocco. With Tombuc-
too they carry on a conftant and advantageous trade, and
many of the Arabs are immenfely rich. They alfo fupply
the Moors of Morocco with (ftatas) convoys through the.
defert, in their travels to Tombuétoo. ‘The coaft of Wedi-
noon extends a long way to the fouthward, nearly as far as
Cape Bojador. The river Akafla, commonly called the river
of Non or Nun, and in fome maps Daradus, is a large ftream
from the fea to the town of Noon, which is about fifteen
miles inland, and about two miles in circumference: from
hence the river becomes fhallow and narrow ; and it is to the
fouthward of this river that fhips are generally wrecked.
The diftri& of Wedinoon is nominally in the dominions of
the emperor of Morocco; but lately an army having been
fent farther fouth than Terodant, and the Pacha Alkaid Ma-
hommed ben Delamy being dead, that diftri€& has fuffered
negleé&t, and the people pay no tenth, according to the
mode of raifing taxes in Weft Barbary, viz. ten per cent. on
the produce of the land, and two per cent. on that of cattle;
and the emperor has recently ordered his Pacha of Haha to
purchafe the Britifh flaves that had been wrecked there.
This place being only thus nominally in his dominions is
another impediment to the redemption of the failors who
happen to be fhipwrecked about Wedinoon ; for if the em-
peror had the fame authority over this diftri€, that he has
over the provinces north of the river Sufe, meafures might
be adopted by the conful, aéting under-his orders, for their
delivery, without pecuniary difburfements. Jackfon’s Mo-
rocco-y See VLED pE Nun.
WEDLOCK. See Marriace, Wire, Huspanp, &c.
WEDNESBURY, in. Geography, an ancient market-
town in the fouth divifion of the hundred of Offlow, and
county of Stafford, England, is fituated at a fhort diftance
from the fource of the river Tame; 19 miles S.S.E. from
the county-town, and 125: miles N.W. from:London. In
the time of the Mercians, this place had a noble-caftle, which
was fortified by Adelfleda, who was for fome time governefs
of this extenfive kingdom : but no:part of the fortrefs now
remains, except a fe traces of its foundations. At the
Norman Conqueft, the manor became.a portion of the royal
demefnes.. .Henry II. beftowed it on the family of the Hh -
ronviles, from whom it paffed, after various: fucceffions, to
the Beaumonts... The town is diftinguifhed for its numerous
and. valuable manufaétures, the principal of which are of
guns, coach-harnefs, iron- axle-trees, -faws, trowels, edge-
tools, bridle-bits, ftirrups, nails, hinges, {crews, and. caft-
iron works of every defcription:, For their. proficiency in
thefe various branches, the inhabitants are chiefly indebted to
the abundance and excellence of the coal obtained in the
immediate vicinity. . This coal is indifputably the beft in the
kingdom for the {mith’s forge, on account of the intenfe
WEE
heat which it produces. It extends in a variety of feparate
veins or ftrata, which are particularized by the miners with
the greateft accuracy. Here is alfo found that peculiar
{pecies of iron-ore denominated blond-metal, ufed in the
manufaéture of horfe-fhoes, hammers, axes, and heavy tools.
Some fpots likewife abound with a fort of reddifh earth,
called hip, employed in painting and glazing veffels of various
kinds. A weekly market on Wednefday affords the town a
plentiful fupply of all kinds of provifions. The populatign
of the parifh, in the return of the year 1811, waa ftated to
be 5372, the number of houfes 1004. One of the collateral
branches of the Birmingham canal, entering this parifh,
affords the inhabitants great facility of commercial commu-
nication. The church is an ancient ftruéture, and fome
writers abineely relate, that it was built in the year 711, by
Dudo, lord of Dudley. At one end rifes a tower, fup-
porting a lofty {pire: the interior is divided into a chancel,
nave, and two aifles; the latter are feparated from the nave
by a range of arches, fupported by oéagonal pillars. In
the chancel are feveral prebendal ftalls, ornamented with ex-
quifite carved work. Here is alfo a variety of monuments
in honour of the anceftors of the Dudley and Harcourt
families, and feveral other ancient tombs and memorials.
Round the church-yard fome veftiges of the caftle: may be
diftinétly traced.—Shaw’s Hiftory of Staffordfhire, folio,
1798.. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiii. Stafford-
fhire, 1811.
WEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week; formerly
confecrated by the inhabitants of the northern nations: to
Woden or Odin, who, being reputed the author of magie
and inventor of all the arts, was thought: to anfwer ‘to the
Mercury of the Greeks and Romans, in: honour of whom
they called the fame day dies Mercurii.
Wepnespay, Afb. See Asu-Wednefday.
WEDNOCH, in Geography, a river of England, whieh
joins the Wever, near Northwich, in Chefhire.
WEDUM, a town of Sweden, m Weft Gothland; 18
miles S. of Skara.
WEE-CHAUNG-HOO, an extenfive Jake of China,
which divides the province of Shan-tung from that of.
Kiang-nan, and fupplies an adjoining canal when it: is de-
ficient of water. This lake affords a charming» profpe,
particularly at {un-rife ; when its borders fringed with wood-
houfes. and pagodas on the floping grounds behind, and the
furface of the water almoft covered with veflels croffing it in
different direftions, and by all the various modes of naviga-
tion that poles, paddles, oars, and fails,- could furnifh, are
exhibited to advantage. Fifhing- forms a. confiderable part
of the occupation of the people on-this lake, and they have
various modes of condu@ting it... Befides nets, which are in
moft common ufe, they have another method, which is'more
fingular : to one fide of a boat a flat. board, painted white,
is fixed at an angle of about forty-five degrees, the edge in-
clining towards the water on moon-light nights; the boat! is
fo placed.that the painted board isturned to the moon, from
whence the rays of light dtriking on the whitened furface
give it the appearance of moving water, on which’ the fh
being tempted to leap as on their element, the boatmaw raif-
ing with a ftring the board, turns the fifh into the boat.
Water-fowl are alfo taken upon this Jake by a: peculiar
device. . Empty jara or. gourds are fuffered to: float apon
the water, that fuch obje&ts may become: familiar to. the
birds; the fifherman then wades into the lake withione of the
empty veffels on his head, and walks gently towards a bird,
and lifting up his arm draws it, down below the furface of
the water, without difturbing or alarming the reft,-and thus
prefently fills the bag with which he was provided for feeur-
Gg2 ing
WEED.
ing his prey. A fimilar prattice exifts, as we learn from
Alloa, among the nations of Carthagena, upon the lake
Cienego de Terias. Staunton’s Embafly, vol. ii.
WEED, in Agriculture and Gardening, any fort of un-
cultivated and unprofitable plant or vegetable which grows
in ground, and which, in confequence of the mifchief it
does, requires to be extirpated and deftroyed. :
Weeds may be diftinguifhed, according to the different
periods of their duration, into the annual, biennial, and
rennial kinds.
The firft divifion comprehends all fuch as die after per-
feGting their feeds in the firft year. Weeds of this clafs,
though abundantly produétive in feeds, and confequently in
plants, are capable of being deftroyed without any great
difficulty. ;
The fecond divifion includes all fuch weeds as endure a
reater length of time than one year, and which after per-
FAing their feeds in the fecond year perifh. Thefe, like
the former, are in general abundant in the produétion of
feeds as well as plants, but they are deftroyed with greater
difficulty. ’
The third divifion comprifes all thofe weeds which are
capable of continuing many years. Some of which have
the property of perfeGting their feeds annually, without
being thereby deftroyed; while others, lefs prolific in feeds,
have the faculty of reproduétion in their vivaceous roots ;
and there are others that are capable of increafe both by
feeds and roots. The plants of this clafs are therefore much
more troublefome and difficult of deftruétion than the
others.
In the nature and vegetation of the feeds of weeds of
different forts, there is confiderable diverfity. Some are found
to {prout forth as foon as they have a fufficient degree of
moiiture, fending down their roots though not in exact con-
ta& with the earth; others only begin to germinate when
they are depofited and inclofed in a fuitable foil, and have
the proper influence of the atmofphere ; and ‘there are many
of thefe kinds of feeds, even of the very {mall fort, which
are capable of remaining in a dormant or inaétive ftate for
avery confiderable length of time, and afterwards vegetate
on being placed in a favourable fituation, in regard to the
influence of the air, and other matters.
There are other feeds of weeds, too, which are provided
with a foft feathery material which performs, in fome mea-
fure, the office of wings, by which they are conveyed from
their native fituations, and diffeminated over lands and places
at a confiderable diftance.
There is likewife a difference of fome confequence in the
vivaceous roots of vegetable weeds; fome being branched,
others entire ; fome defcendinig dire€tly downwards, others
inclining; fome fibrous, others tuberous; fome creeping,
others Ecusa or jointed, &c.
The great variety and multiplicity of weeds render it a
difficult matter to arrange them in any ufeful manner for the
purpofes of the farmer, as different forts of them are found
to prevail in different, fituations and kinds of land. A late
intelligent writer has, however, confidered them as or
gardens; corn-fields and tillage-lands ; meadows and paf-
tures; wafte and uncultivated grounds; the hedges of in-
clofares ; and woods and plantations.
Weeds injurious to garden grounds are chiefly thefe :
Couch-grafs, or which in fome places is known by the
names of twitch, fquitch, and many others, and which not
unfrequently comprehends the creeping roots of the hardy
perennial graffes, which are particularly tenacious of growth,
as dog’s-grafs, white bent-grafs, tall oat- fs, 2nd fome
others. Of which, the two firft are readily diftinguifhed
by their flowering ftalks, as well as by the ears which con
tain the feeds; and the laft has been obferved to have =
bulbous-jointed root, that affords fhelter to various deftruc-
tive grubs, worms, and infeéts: they fhould all be carefully
rooted out and deftroyed. Thefe are to be deftroyed in
gardens by carefully picking out the roots in digging, and
as carefully rooting up whatever remaining fragments of the
roots may fend out a fhoot above the ground.’ Thefe fhould
never be allowed to get to any height, but be exterminated
as foon as poffible. See Triticum Repens, AGrostis Alba,
AvENA E£latior, &c.
Suffolk-grafs, or dwarf meadow-grafs, is another grafs,
which, though ufeful in paftures, is a very pernicious weed in
gardens and places about houfes. It is common in places
where the furface is not liable to be often difturbed by means
of eultivation. Its prolific quality, in ref{peé to feeds, is
fo great, that it is faid to be capable of producing and re-
producing itfelf four times in the courfe of one fummer.
It may be deftroyed by rooting it out before its feeds are
perfeéted and fhed about, otherwife the vegetation of them
will be fo abundant and extenfive as almoft to bid defiance
to the powers of the weeder. See Poa Annua, &c.
Catchweed, or what in different fituations is called goofe-
grafs, cleavers, hariff, &c. is fometimes a troublefome gar-
den weed, but it is more common in the hedges. This is a
weed that may be readily deftroyed in garden-grounds, by
pulling it up before the feeds are perfected.
It is faid that young geefe are very fond of the tender
branches of this weed ; and that the feeds of it are capable
of being ufed inftead of coffee. See Gatium Aparine.
Garden night-/iade is {aid to be a common weed in the
garden-grounds about Chelfea and Brompton, but which
is feldom found in thofe in the country, though fometimes
met with on dung-hills, and other fuch places. See SoLANUM
Nigrum.
Goofefoot, whieh is a weed of the wild orache defcription,
is common and luxuriant in many garden-grounds, being
very prolific in feeds, and in the produce of weeds there-
from, if not rooted out before the feeds are fcattered about
on land under cultivation. 'Thefe, like all other annual
feedling weeds, is to be deftroyed only by rooting up be-
fore the feeds of it are fcattered. See CHENOPODIUM
Album, Viride, and Hybridum.
Wild orache, or fat-hen, is a weed nearly allied to the
above, and from which it is diftinguifhed only by fome
of the flowers having pointals only, while others on the
fame weed-plant have both chives and pointals, in common
with the above fort of weeds. The flowers are {mall, fo
that this diftinGtion can only be afcertained by the micro-
fcope. It is a weed which grows much in kitchen-gardens,
on rubbifh, and on dung-hills ; is an hardy annual, very
fertile in feeds ; and which is to be prevented or deftroyed
in the fame way. as the above kinds. See AqdRIPLEx
Haftata.
Fools? parfley, or leffer hemlock, is a weed common in
gardens, and which, in its early growth, has much refemblance
to parfley, for which it is often miftaken, and when eaten
occafions ficknefs, fwelling, and uneafinefs about the ftomach:
it fhould always be rooted out of garden-ground, when it is.
running to feed, as at that time it is eafily known and beft
deftroyed. See AiSrnusa Cynapium.
Knot-grafs is a weed that fometimes grows much on
the gravel-walks of gardens and pleafure:grounds, trail-
ing to a confiderable ie in all dire€tions, being very
prolific in feeds, which readily take root. It is, therefore,
neceflary to root it well up before they become ripe: hogs
are
WEED.
are faid to’ be very fond of eating it. See PoLyconum
Aviculare. :
Greind-af is faid to be a very troublefeme weed
in the garden-grounds-in the neighbourhood of London ;
but which fome fuppofe to be moftly confined to the fhade
of hedges. It is believed to be perennial in its nature. In
order to get rid of it, the beft mode is to cut it up on its
firft appearance. See Aicoropium Podragraria.
Chickweed is a weed that fometimes grows with
great rapidity, and in a very luxuriant manner on garden-
ground that is much pulverifed and reduced by operofe
cultivation by the fpade, and which is much enriched by
good manure: it is an annual weed, very produétive of
feeds, and where it abounds much, it is perhaps improper
to give the land or ground a fine culture until it in fome
meafure difappears : {wine are extremely fond of this weed,
and it is faid to be a grateful food for young chickens. See
Asine Media.
Black-bind-weed in {ome places is called bear-bind. It is
a parafitical weed-plant, often climbing up bean and other
garden crops: it is hardy, and extremely prolific in feeds.
To keep garden-ground clear of it, the feeds fhould never
be fuffered to fhed or fow themfelves: the feeds contain a
white flower, and are faid to be good for pigeons, poultry,
and {mall birds of different kinds. See Potyconum Con-
aolvulus.
Sun /purge is an annual weed, faid to be not very trouble-
fome or difficult of eradication, yet not uncommon in gar-
den-grounds. See Eurnorsia Heliofcopa, &c.
Red dead neitle, or dee nettle, is a weed of the annual kind,
according to fome, but which others confider as a perennial.
It is common in garden-grounds, flowering early, and for
the greater part of the year. The feeds fhould not be
fuffered to fhed or difperfe themfelves over the ground, but
the weeds be cut up as foon as they appear. See Lamium
Purpureum.
Henbit is an annual garden-weed, that fhould likewife
be weeded out before the feeds of it are perfe&ted and {cat-
tered. See Lamium Amplexicaule.
Nettle hemp is a weed of the luxuriant, difagreeable, gar-
den kind, that fhould always be rooted out of the ground,
and kept under in time to prevent its future mifchief. See
Ga ropsis Tetrahit.
Garden Sow-thifile is a common weed of luxuriant growth,
doing great injury to the cultivated crops. It is direfted
that the feeds of this weed fhould never be fuffered to fhed
and fpread themfelves in any fituation ; for, being furnifhed
with feathers, they fly over a country with the wind, dif-
feminating themfelves widely, and vegetate on the firft loofe
or cultivated ground on which they fertle. It is a favourite
food with rabbits and hogs. See Soncuus Oleraceus, and
THISTLE.
Fumitory is a common, though not very injurious or
hurtful weed. It is an annual, and may, confequently,
be deftroyed by preventing its feeding in an effeCtual manner.
See Fumaria Offcinalis.
Common eine is a difagreeable and troublefome weed ;
the feeds of which are numerous, and provided with a downy
material to carry them any diftance before the wind. They
fhould be drawn up by the roots in moift weather with
forceps or tongs for the purpofe, as they cannot be pulled
by the naked hand.
Garden-grounds are always to be kept well freed from
weeds of this fort by all proper means. See SERRATULA
Arvenfis, and THISTLE.
Groundfel, which is another very common and trouble-
fome weed in garden-grounds, and the feeds of which are
*
feathered, as in the former cafe, being capable of fowing
and fpreading themfelves far and near, with this farther
chance of propagating themfelves, that the plant or weed
is extremely quick of growth. The eradication of this
weed from gardens muft confequently require unremitting
attention, by cutting up the young plants as foon as ever
they can be difcoyered, and letting them run to feed as little
as poflible. See Senecio Vulgaris. :
Common nettle is a weed that generally grows in hedges
or other fhady places, but which fometimes appears in other
places and in garden-grounds ; in which cafes, it muft be
deftroyed by rooting it up in a complete manner. The
leaves of this weed, when cut fmall, may, it is faid by fome,
be mixed with the food of turkeys, and other poultry, with
benefit. See Urtica Divica.
Mifletoe may be ranked as a garden-weed, and is very
common on fruit-trees, and it is faid to be very hurtful in
preventing their bearing ; it fhould, of courfe, be pulled off
in time, fo as to prevent that fort of injury. It is fome-
times, too, plucked off as a fheep-food in the winter, in hard
ftormy feafons. See Viscum Album.
Cultivated early potatoe, though it cannot be properly
ranked as a weed, is often troublefome in gardens. It is
faid, that however valuable as a crop, it is very apt to re-
main in the ground, and intrude itfelf among other after-
crops, to their injury, as well as giving a flovenly appearance
to the culture. As, however, it is now found that the
fhoots of this root will crop well after being tran{planted, it
would feem to be the beft way to have them taken up from
among other crops as they appear, taking the advantage of
fhowery weather, and putting them into a bed by themfelves,
where they may fucceed fome early crop, fuch as winter
greens, {pinach, forward cabbage, and fuch like, by which
means other crops may be rendered clean, and thefe roots
be provided without any expence of feed or fets. See
SoLtanum Tuberofum, and TRANSPLANTING.
Weeds injurious in Tillage and Corn Lands.—The principal
of thofe weeds which decidedly infeft and injure grounds,
under the plough are thofe given below.
Ivy-leaved chickweed is a weed that is faid fometimes to
abound very much amongit wheat very early in the {pring,
but that as feeding and leaving the ground early, may per-
haps not much injure the crop: the feed is aflerted to mpen
in twenty-eight days from the firft vegetation of it and the
fpringing up of the plant, which moftly appears in the
month of March, and often fends forth a plentiful produce
of feeds, which will lie in the ground many years, ready to
vegetate the next time the land is broken down and pul-
verized early in the {pring : this fort of work fhould, there-
fore, in this cafe, be done in the fallow, where that practice
is in ufe, which would occafion the feeds to vegetate ; but in
other cafes it may be deftroyed by being ploughed under
before the feeds of it begin to ripen. See Veronica Hede-
rifolia.
Lambs lettuce, or corn-fallad, is a weed that has lately
been obferved to be more frequent in fome diftriéts than
formerly. It has been found in a hard tilled field in great
abundance. It is an annual weed; and, though not very
formidable, ought to be removed from tillage-lands, as it takes
away a portion of the nourifhment belonging to the culti-
vated crops. This may pretty readily be done by pulling
or cutting it up, or turning it under by the plough, where
it can be ufed, before the feeds of it be perfeGily formed.
See Vateriana Locufta.
Couch of tillage-land is the produce of the three graffes
already noticed in a fimilar title, under the head of garden-
weeds, with the addition of the roots of the creeping foft
2 grafe,
WEED.
grafs, and probably fome others. It is faid to be the
plague of arable cultivation ; and that the roots of thefe
weeds are fometimes fo interwoven together in the land or
foil’ in’ ground that has been under hard tillage and bad
management, as to form a perfe& matting, and to choak
the plough : they abound molt, it is obferved, in light and
mixed foils, not infefting ftrong clays in an equal manner.
The arable land fauiteherats which is the moft general,
is; itis faidy of the agroflis family ; but to which particular
{peciés or fort that the moft complained of by farmers be-
longs, isnot yet well agreed upon. Some refer it to the fine
bent, while others affert it to be a variety of the white.
And there are others of great authority who think this
{quitch-grafs has never yet been rightly {pecified or referred.
The ear or awn of this grafs has, however, been often ob-
fervéd'to have the general habit of the agroffis ; and that it
is very probable that more fpecies than one of this genus
have the property of running in the roots, and producing
couch.
It is noticed, in addition, that the creeping red-ftalked
bent grafs, and the creeping foft grafs, are common fquitch
of couch-graffes on ftrong or cold wet tillage-lands';) and
that the tall oat-grafs is a very ufual fquitch+grafs, on the
light’ gravelly fous of fome neighbourhoods ; that its roots
aré’éonipofed of a bunch of bulbs, which afford fhelter to
periiiciots “vermin, as already feen ; and that it is difficult
Of 'éradication, and very pernicious to crops, efpecially in
wet feafons.
The dog-graf couch, which, in the county of Salop, is
often termed /éutch, is very common every where, and well-
known to the coft ‘of the farmers.
~ Withering, after obferving’ that it can only be deftroyed
by fallowing in a dry fummer, ftates, that at Naples the
roots‘are colleted in quantity, and difpofed of in the mar-
ket 'to feed horfes.. The talte is much fimilar to that of
liquorice, dried and ground into meal, which has. been made
into bread in years of fcarcity. They have befides ‘a deter-
gent quality; and may be ufeful in the difeafed’ livers’ of
animals.
* However, thefe graffes, though fo troublefome and inju-
ridus'as weeds on arable lauds, are yet probably ‘good as
affordiig =meadow-herbage, where their’ roots are not fo
liable’ to run or fpread themfelves as on tillage-land that is
looferied, broken, and reduced, by being conftantly wrought
by the’ plough, ‘arid other tools.
“The dettru@ion of weeds of this fort on arable land; is
chiefly effeGted by the free ufe of the plough, and other
fuitable implements, when the weather is in a proper {tate
of heat for the purpofe: fome think the bufinefs can only
beéffeGed by giving an early and complete fpring and
fummer fallow, by repeated ploughings in time of hot
weather, with fufficient harrowings between each ploughing,
to work out the fquitch, and bring it to the top ; and that
unlefs the fummer prove dry for fome length of time, even
this will be infufficient; in which cafe, many a€tive and
induftrious farmers have it forked together by hand and
burnt: others have it colle@ted and carried into heaps to
rot ; and it is fometimes mixed with quick-lime, and reduced
into a fort of compoft heap, which is a praétice to be much
commended, as wholly deftroying it, and at the fame time
converting it to ufe: it fhould not, however, be forgot,
that the great increafe of the roots of thefe weeds is oc-
cafioned by hard tillage, or bad management, and often by
both. In the county of Gloucefter, it is faid by the
writer of the correted account of the agriculture of that
diftri&,; to be a moft troublefome and almoft unconquerable
weed ‘on clay-lands, but that on light’ lands and ‘loams it
feed grain, and in other ways.
may be dragged out and finifhed by hand-picking with
tolerable eafe ; while on the {tiff foils, and particularly in
the wet furrows, nothing but repeated ploughings and ex-
pofure to the heat of the fun during the fummer can check
the increafe of it; hence, in that county, the vale-lands,
after a wet fummer, are generally foul. A crop of {pring-
vetches is faid to be well fuited to {mother and keep it
down, and other {mothering green crops may be had re-
courfe to in the fame intention. See Triticum Repens,
&c. Alfo Acrosris Stolonifera, Hocus Mollis, &c.
Wild oat, or haver, is a common weed on hard tilled
land, and when abundant, very unfightly and injurious
to a crop. It has been obferved by Dr. Anderfon, it is
faid, that this weed-plant abounds fo much in the corn-fields
in moft parts of Aberdeenfhire, as in many cafes to con-
ftitute nearly one-half of the bear or fix-rowed barley-crop,
which is much grown in that part of the kingdom: it may
be deftroyed or greatly reduced by the turnip-culture, or
by well-managed early fallowing ; and prevented by fhort
tillages; and frequent feeding down to grafs. Dr. Wither-
ing, and the Flora Ruftica, have ftated, that the awns
of*it are ufed for hygrometers, and the feeds inftead of
artificial flies in fifhing for trout. The author of the
Correéted Report of the Agriculture of the County of
Gloucefter ftates, that it is the growth of particular diftri@s,
and that it cannot be deftroyed ; that in fields where the
greateft care has been taken to hand-pull every ftalk, it has
appeared in the following year in equal abundance. That
in new broken up leys, which have been in turf or fward
beyond the memory of man, thefe weeds often fpring up
with as much luxuriance as if they were the natural produce
of the foil. When the land is planted with beans or peas,
hoeing will check and reduce them ; but when they grow
among wheat, it is not eafy to diftinguifh the plants while
young; and that in this cafe, they are left until they are
nearly in ear, and are then drawn out _by the hand. See
Avena Fatua.
White darnel is a weed not unfrequently found in wheat-
crops, though, it is believed, almoft always produced from
the feed of it fown with that grain, to prevent which, con-
fequently, great attention fhould be paid to clean feed-
wheat, and particularly that it contain none of the feeds of
this weed, as it is extremely prolific, very injurious to a
crop while growing, and to the value of the produce at
market. It is an annual weed, which has never been recol-
leG&ted to have been feen growing, except in a crop, and
but rarely there without negle& in the management of. the
See Lotium Temulentum.
Goofe-gra/s, or catchweed, &c. isa weed in tillage-land,
the feeds of which are roundifh, rough, two from each
flower, fo large as not all to be eafily feparated from the
grain in dreffing. . This weed is not. very common in well-
managed lands and crops, being more- generally reftri&ted
to the hedge banks. It is obferved, in the Gloucefter Cor-
reGted Agricultural Survey, to be a troublefome and fre-
quent weed, on all forts of foils among corn, and which is
not eafily deftroyed, except by much early care and attention.
See Garium Aparine, and Spurium.
Field feabius is a weed found fometimes in’ corn-fields,
as well as paftures, though :mot+very: abundants See
ScaBiosa Arven/is.
Parfley-piert is a diminutive weed of but {mall account,
though fometimes too much ‘abounding “in tillage-lands.
This weed might probably be weakened and leffened when
in too great quantity by pulverifing andreducifig ‘the foil
well when in fallow, very early in the fpring feafon, and by
ploughing
WE
ploughing it under in due time, fo as to prevent its feeding.
See APHANES Arvenfis.
Dodder is a parafitical: weed, that is faid not to be un-
common, in fome diftri€ts, in the corn-lands. This weed
has been obferved twining round the ftems or ftalks of a
bean crop in the county of Buckingham, climbing in a
fpiral dire@tion round them, from which, by means of veflels
for the purpofe, it draws‘its nourifhment and {upport, and
mutt, confequently, very much fret and injure any plant to
which it may attach itfelf: it is called in different places,
as ftated by writers on hufbandry, beggar’s-weed, hell-weed,
and devil’s guts, names which fufficiently fhew in what fort
of eftimation it is held by farmers. It is an annual weed, and
produced from feed, which takes no root in the earth, but
in fome part of its fofter-plant. It is remarked, by the
author of the Correéted Report on Agriculture for the
County of Gloucefter, to be a great enemy to beans,
vetches, and fome other fuch plants, but is never there feen
among wheat, barley, or oat-crops. That as foon as it has
fixed itfelf upon the plant, it feparates from the root, and,
like other parafitical weeds, draws all its nourifhment from
the plant it has fo fixed upon andembraced. Large quantities
of beans are, it is faid, often ruined completely by it, fo as
not to carry a fingle pod; and that no method has yet
been difcovered to deftroy it; for though the root cannot
be found, yet it furely returns, it is thought, in fome part
of the field where it has once begun to grow, whenever
the plants on which it feeds, form the crop of the feafon.
Sheep, in fome cafes, have been found ufeful in leflening it,
by feeding upon it and breaking its runners, when they can
be turned into the land where it prevails. See Cuscura
Europea.
* Corn bind-weed is another troublefome parafitical weed in
arable-land, often growing amongft wheat, and, when
abundant, twining round the ftalks of the corn, and very
much injuring the crop, when the wheat has been laid by
heavy rain. It is faid not to be fo common in fome of the
midland counties, as in fome of thofe nearer the metropolis,
whence they are in the habit of procuring and being fup-
plied with feed-wheat ; on which account it has fometimes
been feared that it might be introduced more abundantly
by fuch means: but as the feeds are fmall, they may eafily
be dreffed out in cafe of fuch accidents. It is a perennial
weed, and much addiéted to running in the root. It has
been proved by an experienced writer, that cutting it off,
even below the furface of the ground, only tends to {pread
it farther: it mutt be reduced and deftroyed, if poffible, by
means of fallowing, and ufing the fame procefs as for couch
or fquitch. In fome diftri&s this weed is moft frequently
found in clays and deep loams, in which the roots {trike fo
down, that even trenching two fpits and an half deep will
not, it is faid, reach their extremities ; and that the {malleft
bit of a root left in the ground will {pring and rife to the
furface. It entwines round and entangles all plants in fuch
a manner, as either to bring them to the ground, or check
their-vegetation, by injuring their ftruéture on the furface of
it. See Convortvutus Arvenjis. '
Wild carrot is a common and fometimes a troublefome
weed, in dry tillage-land. It is a biennial weed-plant, pro-
ducing feed in a plentiful manner. Though fome, as
Withering, aflert that this, in its cultivated ftate, is the
common well-known garden carrot; yet others, as Miller,
contend that the wild carrot could never be improved fo as
to render the roots in any degree comparable with the culti-
vated carrot. . However this may be, where it is found in
quantity,» it fhould be prevented from feeding, in order to
reduce it, and bring it properly under, which may be ef-
ED.
- feed by cutting or pulling it up ints early growth. See
Daucus Carota.
Shepherd’s needle, or beggar’s needle, is a weed fometimes
abounding in hard tilled land, and the feeds of which are
not wholly feparable with eafe from grain in dreffing, It
is a {mall annual weed, that produces a plentiful crop of
feeds, each feed being furnifhed with a {pike or beak of
from one to two inches long, whence its name. of needle.
It feldom abounds much in well cultivated and managed
land. See Scanprx Peéfen.
Chickweed is, in fome cafes, a troublefome weed in a
crop on land which has been rendered fine by tillage, and
from which it fhould, therefore, be rooted out. It has
been remarked by the Rey. Mr. Shaw, it is faid, that this
weed is an excellent out-of-door barometer :—that when the
flower expands boldly and fully, no rain will happen for
four hours or upwards; that if it continue in that open
. ftate, no rain will difturb the fummer’s day ; that when it
half conceals its miniature flower, the day is generally
fhowery; but that when it entirely fhuts up, or veils the
white flower with its green mantle, let the traveller put on
his great coat, and the ploughman with his beafts of draught
reft and retire from. their labour. In Gloucefterfhire it, is
ftated that it grows mott plentifully on the good and well
cultivated lands. It there mats fo.clofely round the plants,
and covers the furface fo completely, as to keep out the in-
fluence.of the fun and air; and confequently requires to be
removed, which is moftly belt performed by the hoe. _ It
may be thus kept under, if not wholly removed and de-
ftroyed.. See Atsine Media.
Curled dock is a mifchievous weed in tillage-land, and
fhould never be fuffered on any account to feed its feeds,
and fpread them on any land, but be rooted up and carried
off in time, to prevent injury. In arable ground, the roots
are beft picked off with care during the time the land is in
tillage, as they will otherwife produce vigorous luxuriant
plants which will draw, much nourifhment from the foil, to
the great injury of the ground, and of the intended crop.
It is a hardy perennial weed, which is very tenacious of
growth by its roots, and producing a wonderful increafe of
feeds: too much caution cannot, therefore, be ufed to avoid
fowing it, nor too much pains be beftowed in its extirpation
and, deftruGtion.. Withering afferts it to be the peft of
clover-fields in Norfolk. See Rumex Cri/pus.
Arfmarts, or lake weeds, are plants of this kind, fome-
times met with on the wetter forts of arable lands. They
abound mott in wet feafons, on the heavier and more moiit
forts of ground; and as being hardy annuals, producing a
plentiful fupply of feeds, are apt to fhew themfelves in the
crops of grain. They are weeds which are to be deftroyed
by proper fallowing, by the removing of the wetnefs of the
land, and by the rooting out of the plants in proper time to
prevent their feeding. See Potyconum Perficaria, and
Penfylvanicum.
Knot grafs is fometimes a tillage-weed; trailing in its
habit of growth; flourifhing moft by the way-fides: when
out of the {mothering crops, it is very prolific in feeds. It
fhould be got under by preventing its feeding, by rooting
it out fufficiently early for the purpofe. See Potyconum
Aviculare.
Bearbind, or black bindweed, is a parafitical weed that
twines round any thing it can lay hold of, and which is
fometimes found among field crops, to their great: injury.
It is very produdtive of feeds, which, being angular, are
not eafily feparated from grain in drefling or winnowing it.
It is nearly allied, it is faid, to buck-wheat, and to which
it is preferred by Dr. Withering, who afferts that the feeds
are
WEED.
are quite as good for ufe as thofe of that wheat, are pro-
duced in greater quantity, and the plant, bears cold better.
From its twining hurtful nature, when among crops, it
fhould be early deftroyed, and prevented from feeding and
multiplying itfelf. See Poryconum Convolvulus, and Sa-
gopyrum.
Knawell is a diminutive weed, but prolific in feeds, and
of vigorous growth; it is often found on pieces of poor
thin foil, when in tillage, but is not believed to be very
pernicious: it may probably, when neceflary, be weakened,
reduced, or deftroyed, by an early {pring working of the
land when in fallow. See ScreRANTHUS Annuus, and
Perennis.
Bladder campion is a weed that is common in wheat and
barley crops, growing in tufts, with many ftalks from each
root; which, when the cafe, fhould be rooted out by the
hand, or other convenient method. It is a perennial weed,
and has the habit and property of increafing from the roots.
See CucusaLus Behen.
Cockle is a luxuriant, vigorous, annual weed ; perfecting
many feeds, and drawing much from the foil or land: care
fhould, therefore, be taken not to fow the feed of this in-
jurious weed. The feeds are fo large, that they cannot all
be drefled out from the grain, it is faid: the plant fhould,
therefore, be plucked out by hand, before the feeds ripen
and fhed themfelves. It is a common weed among wheat
and other crops, in many diftri€ts. See AGRosTEMMA
Githago. ;
Red and white campion are weeds of the perennial kind,
growing occafionally in hedges, corn-fields, and paftures.
‘When they become abundant and injurious, they may be
weakened, reduced, or deftroyed, by well-managed fallows,
in moft cafes. See Lycunis Divica.
Mou/e-ear is a weed that has fomewhat the habit of chick-
weed, but is of a duller appearance : it is frequent amongtt
corn-crops, and in paftures, but perhaps not very injurious
to the former. See Cerastium Arven/e.
Corn fpurry, or yarr, is a frequent weed in corn-fields,
though not very bulky or luxuriant, yet quick and tena-
cious of growth, and producing feeds in a plentiful manner.
Dr. Anderfon has ftated, that in Aberdeenfhire it is a per-
nicious weed, growing in fuch abundance among the crops
as to choke the grain: it has often been feen fo thick, that
over a vaft extent of furface a pin could not have been put
down, without touching a plant of it; and that the farmers
there think it indeftrutible: and it is added, that whenever
any of the land had been poached, by being ufed as a road,
efpecially in wet weather, none of this weed appeared there :
that it was evident that this was occafioned by the clods,
thus produced, not giving room for the {mall feeds to ger-
minate freely ; which fuggefted, that if, therefore, he could
contrive to bring the ground into a cloddy ftate, when
fown, he fhould be free of the weed for that crop. Asa
crop of bear or fix-rowed barley in one field was entirely
loft, the foil or mould being in a loofe, mealy, incoherent
ftate when fown ; it was refolved to delay ploughing it the
next feafon as long as poffible, and to plough it at latt
when it was very wet. Fortunately it came a violent rain in
the beginning of the month of March, and it was ploughed
when nearly in the ftate of a puddle, turning over more like
mud than foil or earth: dry weather fucceeding, this mud
bound, it is faid, a little on the furface, and produced a
kind of clod; the corn was then fown; it got a very flight
harrowing, barely to cover the feeds, in an imperfect man-
ner, and to leave the field as rough as poflible: mone of the
weed appeared, and the crop at harveft was one of the moft
Juxuriant that had ever been feen by the writer. The fuc-
cefs of this cafe is not, however, fufficient to recommend it
as a general praétice.
It has been fuggefted, that as {mall birds are very fond
of the feeds of this weed, it is probable that, by the farkace
of the ground being left undifturbed through the wiuter, a
large portion of the feeds would be picked up and devoured
by them. It is believed too, that in all cafes of a ftubble
very full of {mall feeds, it is well to defer the ploughing as
long as it conveniently can, on this account. In refpeét to
land rendered very fine by tillage, it is well underftood, it
is faid, by the farmers of fome diftriéts, as thofe of Staf-
fordfhire, to be a fault, and that it is much better left only
knappy, as they call it, that is, in fmall lumps. This is
attained in fallows, by working the land early in fummer,
and letting it lie to confolidate through the latter part of it ;
and in the turnip culture, by the treading of fheep and
cattle: and it is one great reafon, it is fuppofed, why land
fhould not have too many ploughings, but only a proper
number judicioufly timed; however, that ploughing in
general, particularly of broken land, is much beft done
when the land is dry.
By fome means of this kind, this {mall weed may be kept
under without much difficulty. See SpERGULA Arvenfis.
Bafe rocket is a weed of the annual kind, that does not
abound very much, though it is met with in fome places.
It has been obferved among corn in the county of Gloucef-
ter. See Resepa Lutea.
Dwarf fpurge is a weed that is common in corn-fields,
and generally in fingle plants, but is not very injurious to
the crops. See Eupnorsia Exigua.
Corn-poppy is an annual weed that produces numerous
feeds, and is fometimes very abundant,in corn-fields, bein
a pretty fure indication of alight crop. It has been ed
tioned, whether the lightnefs of the crop be occafioned by
the abundance of this weed, or the increafe of this weed en-
couraged by the lightnefs of the crop; and fuggefted, that
probably both are the cafe. In a full crop it is fcarcely to
be found; its flowers appear in July. In the Corrected
Report on Agriculture for the County of Gloucefter, it is
ftated to be common in all light and fandy foils, parti-
cularly in the neighbourhood of that town. But that fince
the practice of hoeing has become more general, this weed
has been much diminifhed in quantity. It abounds much,
too, on chalky ftone-brafh poor foils, in fome cafes. And
in fome parts of Berkfhire, it is faid, in the account of its
agriculture, that the poppy almoft conceals the corn, when
it isin bloffom. It is fuppofed that it might without doubt
be weakened, reduced, or wholly deftroyed, in fallows, by
promoting an early vegetation in common with other feed-
ling plants. See Papaver Rheus.
Corn crowfoot is a weed that is fometimes very abundant,
and injurious to a wheat-crop, on ftrong moift and. It is
an annual weed of early growth, which can only be brought
into a full ftate of vegetation in the fallow by an early til-
lage ; otherwife the growth of the feeds is, it is faid, de-
ferred 3 the next fpring, to the great injury of the crop.
In the Flora Ruttica it is noticed, that in fome countries it
has the name of hunger-weed, whence it is fuppofed to in-
dicate a barren foil. The orthography, however, is not, it
is faid, derived from the nature of the foil, but from the
hungry profpeé it holds out to the farmer, In the county
of Gloucefter, it is faid to grow moft abundantly in ftrong
loamy or clayey foils; and that deep and frequent ftirrings
with the hoe are to be had recourfe to, as the moft proper
means for reducing it, and keeping it under. See Ranun-
cuLus Arvenjis.
Dee neitle, or dead nettle, is a weed that much abounds
among
WEED.
among tillage-crops, on fome lands, efpecially in moitt
feafous. As the weeds are perennial, and produced both
from feeds and the roots, great pains are neceflary to be
ufed in their extirpation and deftru€tion. There’ are fome-
times different ‘forts met with among crops. See Lamium
Album, and Purpureum. ,
Calves? fnout is a weed in tillage-lands, in different dif-
tri@s. It has been obferved not to be uncommon among
the corn-crops in Hampfhire, in fome fummers. It would
appear too from Withering, that feveral other fpecies of
this genus are common in corn-fields, which are annuals ;
but the nature of them, or how far they are injurious to
cultivated corn-crops, has not yet been determined. See
ANTIRRHINUM Orontium, Elatine, Spurium, Arvenje, and
Minus.
Shepherd’s purfe, or pouch, which, with fome others, are
well-known weeds, are {ometimes troublefome on arable land.
They are annuals of early appearance, and continue a
great part of the year. They are to be reduced and de-
ftroyed by early and well-direéted fallowing, or by being
rooted up from the ground at an early period. See
Tuuaspi Arvenfe, Campeftre, and Burfa Paftoris.
Whitlow grafs is faid to be a weed among corn, in fome
cafes and forts of land, early in the fpring ; but how far
injurious is not well afcertained: it fhould, however, when
in quantity, be kept well under. It is but fmall, though
quick in growth, and exhaufted in a fhort time. See
Drasa Verna.
Codded moufe-ear is another diminutive weed, that fhews
itfelf early fometimes among corn in tillage-lands; but
being rapid in its vegetation and decline, is not of much
importance as a weed to farmers.
Smooth and rough-leaved and pale-flowered chadlocks, Se.
are weeds that are extremely troublefome and diftrefling to
farmers on tillage-lands, in fome places. The writer of
the paper on weeds alluded to above has ftated, that thefe
three plants are fometimes confounded together by farmers,
under the general uame of chadlock, pronounced in the
diftri& where he lives kedlock, and in fome others ketlock,
though they are as diftin€& to the inveftigating inquirer as
wheat, barley, and oats. That they are all extremely com-
mon, or nearly equally fo, if a large range of country be
examined; though the different forts are more or lefs
abounding in different places ; that in his neighbourhood he
can generally gather the three kinds in the fame field, but
the muitard is much the moft abundant. In the vicinity of
Litchfield, where chadlock is indeed very abundant, it is
almoft univerfally wild rape. Some years ago, the writer
obferved, in the common fields of the county of Rutland,
that the whole furface was tinged over with the flowers of
the wild radifh. They are all great nuifances, and, when
fuffered in abundance to ripen their feeds, mutt of ‘neceflity
draw much from the foil, to the great injury of the crop
among which they are ;. and that as they are very quick of
growth, and perfeét their feeds expeditioufly, it is not un-
common for thefe weeds to fhed their feeds at the rate of
feveral bufhels on the acre ; and as it is well known that the
feeds are capable of vegetating, after lying many years in
the ground, it is no wonder they fhould produce a plentiful
crop; yet, being fimply annuals, they are not difficult of
deftruétion, if due attention and proper means be ufed.
In order to deftroy thefe, as well as all other feedling weeds,
the land in tillage fhould, it is thought, be pulverifed and
reduced early in the {pring by ploughing and harrowing,
after which warm weather and rain will foon caufe all the
feeds that are near the furface to vegetate; they may then
be permitted to grow until they begin to flower, when they
Vou, XXXVIII.
are to be ploughed in, and the land again harrowed ; and
the next rain will then caufe moft of the remaining feeds to
fhoot, which are in due time to be ploughed under as be-
fore; and if any fhould afterwards appear amongft the
crop, they fhould be hoed or hand-weeded out: by this
means, in one or two tillages, thefe weeds may be totally
eradicated ; but if they be permitted to fhed their feeds,
their increafe cannot be wondered at, when their prolific
nature is confidered, as well as the extreme hardinefs of
their feeds. The feeds, when dreffed from grain, have, it
is underftood, been frequently manufactured into oil.
The weed called charlock, in many places, is faid to be
the moft common of any in the vale of the county of Glou-
cefter. Itis moft probably the fame with the wild muftard,
juft noticed. It is faid, that during the fummer, both on
the fallows and in the planted fields, its yellow bloffoms
predominate over every other plant, and that unlefs de-
ftroyed in this ftate, leave an immenfe crop of feeds behind.
In order to check the increafe of this weed, the attentive
farmer fuffers it to come into bloffom on the fallows, and
then turns it in with the plough. This is not always,
however, effectual; as frequently the plants being merely
moved, but not from the roots, and two or three inches of
the tops left above ground, foon recover the injury they
have fuftained, and go on to feed before the next plough-
ing. Women and children fhould, therefore, go over the
ground with the hoe a few days after the ploughing, and
cut up the reviving plants; or lambs fhould be kept on fuch
fallows, which are faid to eat off the tops with avidity. In
the planted fields they are hoed and weeded, but as fome
will unavoidably efeape, women are put in among the corn,
after it is grown to a confiderable height, to pull out the
weeds in bloffom with the hand. Though the farmer will
certainly diminifh the quantity, and prevent any new accef-
fion by this attention, yet many years of good hufbandry
mutt elapfe, before the ill effeéts arifing from the negligence
of former cultivators can be conquered ; for the feeds being
ftrongly charged with effential oil, will continue in the
ground for an incalculable length of time uninjured ; and as
often as the foil is turned up, a quantity of them will be
brought fufficiently within the influence of the atmofphere
to vegetate. In 1804, in the parifh of Brockthorpe, in
the above county, a confiderable portion of the land in the
common field was feen completely covered with this weed,
and the feeds perfeGtly ripe and fcattering on the ground.
The ploughing had been negleéted until nearly the autumn,
and as the land was not cropped, the charlock grew in great
abundance, and left more feeds than the good hutbandry of
half a century will be able to eradicate.
It has been ftated, that what is vulgarly ‘ealled charlock
in the vale of the above diftri&, is in reality the common
wild muftard grown in the north for its flour. That it. is
there often collected by the country-people for the fame
purpofe; and before the fimple mode of living among the
ancient farmers fell into difufe, few farm-houfes were with-
out a cannon-ball and bowl, in which the muftard-feeds were
bruifed, and the flour faved for the table with the black
hufks unfeparated from it.
The name charlock is not unufually applied by farmers to
different plants of the weed kind, that are equally noxious
and hurtful in arable lands, and fome of them perhaps more
frequent in fuch fituations than fome of the above, fuch as
wild muftard and rape, &c. See Brassica Napus, SINAPIS
Arvenfis et Nigra, RapHanus Raphaniftrum, &c.
Wild rocket is a weed found in tillage-lands in fome dif-
tris. It is faid, that this weed has made great progrefs in
the corn-fields in fome places, and is confidered as a very
Hh formidable
WEED.
formidable and hurtful plant of thet kind. All the parts of
this are confiderably acrid, and have a rank difagreeable
{mell; whence it is called by thofe farmers who have it in
their lands finkweed. It may, it is fuppofed, doubtlefs, be
reduced and deftroyed by the proceffes already recommended
for the deftruGtion of chadlock. See Brassica Muralis.
Fumitory is an annual weed, that is not uncommon or un-
ufual in corn-fields, though not very greatly pernicious in
them. It fhould, however, be kept well under where it is
in any quantity. See Fumarra Offcinalis.
Ref harrows are weeds fometimes met with in tillage-
lands. They are chiefly two forts, the former of which is
{aid not to be uncommon in arable lands, whert there are no
yery defirable plants. It is common in fome diftris among
corn-crops, and an hardy perennial weed. In its deftruétion,
if the root can be got rid of in the fallow, there is little
danger, it is faid, from the feeds: the roots are fometimes
fo ftrong as almoft to ftop the plough, unlefs the team be
pretty itrong. The latter is frequently met with in fome
places, but is unknown in fome of the midland counties.
See Ononis a. or Spinofa.
Tare, particularly in the wild ftate, is.a weed very
injurious to corn-crops. It is faid to be a terrible enemy
to a wheat-crop, where it abounds in confiderable quantity.
Withering fays, that in wet feafons whole fields of corn have
been overpowered and wholly deftroyed by it. Care fhould
be taken, that feed-wheat be perfeGtly free from the feeds
of tares; and all land fubje&t to them fhould be got, if
poflible, fo forward in the fallow, as to bring on the vegeta-
tion of this weed previoufly to the fowing of the wheat :
the feeds of this weed are {aid to be good food for pigeons,
poultry, and many other forts of birds. See Ervum
Tetrafpermum, and Hirfutum.
Rape, in fome cafes, is a very injurious weed in arable
land. It fhould, in all cafes where it prevails much, be pre-
vented from ripening and fhedding its feeds, as when this is
not the cafe, the farmer has long to regret the confequence
of his negle&. . See Chadlock fupra.
Melilot is a weed very troublefome in tillage-land. The
writer of the paper already noticed fays, that it is a very
injurious corn-weed in many parts of the kingdom. That
Miller marks Cambridgeshire, and Gerard, Effex, as abound-
ing init, That it has been heard of in Bedfordfhire, and
n among corn in Gloucefterfhire and Rutlandfhire : that
in the latter county, five or fix fhillings the acre have fome-
times been faid to be expended in weeding it out, without
fully effeGting the purpofe. According to the Flora
Ruftica, there cannot be a worfe weed among bread corn,
for a few of the feeds ground with it fpoil the flour, by
communicating their peculiarly ftrong talte toit. That it
flowers in June and the following month, and the feeds ripen
with the corn; and that it is probably capable of propa-
pating itfelf, both by its roots and feeds, but might doubt-
s be much weakened and reduced by proper iiwing :
that horfes are very fond of it ; cows, fheep, and fwine, eat
it; and bees are very fond of the flowers: it is, therefore,
though a corn-weed, a good pafture plant. It is faid to be
common in the vale part of the county of Gloucefter, in the
arable lands ; and it has been fuggefted, that if the feeds did
not afford an unpleafant tafte to the flour of wheat with
which it may happen to be mixed, it might probably be
eultivated with advantage, as all domeftic animals are fond
of it in fome degree. See Trirottum Melilotus officinalis.
Sow-thiflle is avery common and troublefome weed in
tillage-land: it is a perennial, and common among corn-
crops in fome diftri€s; which, in all cafes, when it happens
to be fo abundant, fhould be drawn up by the hand or other
11
-
per means before it ripens and fpreads its feeds ; whichs
ee furnifhed with a Giachesey divans, would otherwife
fly over the whole country and diftri&, as has already been
feen. See Soncnus Arvenfis, and TuIstLe.
Common thiffle, curfed thiftle, or fow-wort, is, in many
cafes, a troublefome and difagreeable weed in and about
corn-lands and crops. It is commonly called thiftle, grow-
ing almoft every where: when injurious in corn-crops, it
may, it is faid, be weakened and reduced by good ti
and weeding, but not totally deftroyed, in perhaps thefe or
any other ways, otherwife than by univerial agreement to
root it up, before its feeds ripen and become fpread, or b
fome regulation of police enforcing the fame. This mif-
chievous weed is produced by its numerous fibrous roots,
which are hardy and ftri€tly perennial, and which if fepa-
rated in parts or pieces in ploughing, digging, or working
the land, each part will, when left frefh in the foil, often
grow or vegetate, and produce 2 new plant; and by its {till
more numerous feeds which are feathered, will fly and
be carried to a great diftance by the wind; and when it
becomes calm alighting upon cultivated land, will there
vegetate and rife luxuriantly, fo that it would be in vain for
any perfon to attempt clearing his land of this weed, unlefs
his neighbours did the fame Ikewife : however, the roots of
this weed may, it is faid, be pretty effeually deftroyed by
a well-managed fummer-fallow, as they will not furvive re-
peated ploughings up in hot weather; and if due attention
were beftowed to prevent the feeding of the weed, its num-
bers might be diminifhed very greatly: it is found very
hurtful to all field-crops. Some think it eafily conquered,
however, by proper management and attention in tillage-
lands, and that it may either be drawn by the tool for that
purpofe, or be cut off deep by the hoe or fpeed-hook.
It is fuppofed, on the authority of the Flora Ruttica, that
the goat and the afs will eat it; that horfes will fometimes
crop the heads while young and tender; but that no other
fort of cattle touch it growing. That when burnt, it is
faid to yield a very pure vegetable alkali. See SeRRATULA
and THIsTLe.
Spear, bur, or boar thiftles, are weeds of a very pernicious
nature in corn-lands, in many inftances and parts of the
kingdom. They are faid to be called by the lait of thefe
names in Staffordfhire, to diftinguifh them from the above
weeds, which are likewife termed thiftles. There are feveral
forts of them, and they often abound about the hedge-fides
and borders of corn-fields, whence they fhould be rooted up
after rain as much as poffible; before their feeds ripen and
are ready to {pread, otherwife fuch feeds are liable to fly all
over the country, as has been feen: thefe are weeds that
grow very luxuriantly, drawing much from the ground or
foil, when among the crops, as is frequently the cafe in
many places. They fhould always be drawn out as much
as can be done in fuch cafes in hot weather: they are moftly
weeds of the annual or biennial kinds. It is faid by Wither-
ing, in {peaking of the ufes of them, that fhould a heap of
clay be thrown up, nothing would grow upon it for feveral
years, did not the feeds of the {pear thiftle, wafted by the
wind, fix and vegetate thereon; that under the fhelter of
thefe, other vegetables appear, and the whole foon becomes
fertile.
They are never to be trufted among crops, but be kept
well cut or pulled up in their early growth. See Carpuus
Lanceolatus, Pratenfis, and Acaulis. Alfo Tuisrve.
Colt’s-foot is a weed that is very apt to abound in hard
tilled land, It has been faid that the only time to deftroy
this weed, is by cutting it up in thofe months when it
begins to throw out its ower, at which time, if fo cut, 4
wi
WEED.
will bleed to death; thefe months are February and March,
at which time all land in fallow, which is fubje& to this
weed, fhould undoubtedly be ploughed and harrowed down,
which would, without doubt, check the growth of, and
very much weaken the weed; but when negleéted at this
period, it will foon afterwards ripen its feeds, which fur-
nifhed by nature with feathers, fly all over the country, and
eftablifh themfelves very quickly on cultivated land, and
banks of earth newly thrown up. This weed may, it is
faid, be confiderably weakened by repeated fummer plough-
ing, and be afterwards, for the moft part, weeded out by
hand, as the ground is thus rendered light. It is a weed
which in Gloucefterfhire is not found, except on foils that
are poor in their nature, and fubje& to moifture. The
obvious remedies are confequently fertilization by manure
and the removal of wetnefs by draining. See TusstLaco
Farfara.
Groundfél is a mifchievous and troublefome difeufting
weed, not unfrequently found in fallows, on good free foils
rendered fine by cultivation, as its feeds ripen quickly in
fuch cafes, and fly over the country with the wind: it is a
weed that fhould be got quit of in time by being pulled out,
or turned under by the plough, and the feed of it be by no
means permitted to ripen and difperfe. See SrnxEcio
Vulgaris.
Corn marigold, goulans, goul, or buddle in Norfolk, is an
extremely troublefome weed in fome foils: it is an annual,
producing feeds plentifully,-which vegetate whenever the
land is cultivated, and very commonly in the crops of corn :
it would, without doubt, it is fuppofed, be deftroyed, as
other annual feedling weeds, by early and complete fallowing
to bring the feeds into vegetation in due time, and after-
wards ploughing them under. According to Withering, in
Denmark, there is a law to oblige the farmers to root it up:
and it is faid to be ftated in the fecond volume of the
Statiftical Account of Scotland,” that the late fir William
Grierfon, of Lag, held gou/ courts as long as he lived, for
the purpofe of fining fuch farmers on whofe growing crop
three heads or upwards of this weed were found; and it
has been obferved, that fome regulation of police for fining
thofe who harbour weeds, the feeds of which may be blown
into their neighbour’s grounds, has no injuftice in the prin-
ciple of it.
It is ftated in the Berkfhire Correted Report on its Agri-
culture, that it may be deftroyed by the application of
chalk as a manure, as well as by extirpation. c
On the authority of the Flora Ruttieca it is noticed, that
if this weed be cut when young in flower, and dried, horfes
will eat it. See CHrysANTHEMUM Segetum.
Corn mint is a weed that is faid by the writer of the Cor-
reted Report of the Agriculture of the County of Gloucefter,
to be common on damp foils; and that it increafes faft by
the root, where, for want of frequent ploughing, dragging,
and other tillage, it is negle@ted. See MenrHa Arvenjis.
Corn camomocle is a weed that is fometimes prevalent in
corn-fields : it is very prolific in feeds, which fhould never
be fuffered to fhed, as in that cafe it would be multiplied to
an almott endlefs degree. See Anruemis Arvenfis.
Stinking May-weed is a plant of this kind that 1s common
in corn-fields among the crops, but which is often con-
founded with the above and other weeds of that fort, from
which it is to be diftinguifhed by its difagreeable fmell : it
is very injurious to corn-crops, and fhould be prevented or
deftroyed by good fallowing, or by being timely rooted out
of the land. The Gloucefter Report on its Agriculture
ftates, that maithe or mathern there often overruns a whole
field, particularly when planted with peas,-fo that only the:
white bloffom of the weed is to be feen. The only chance
of deftroying this ftinking weed is, it is fuppofed, by the
drill hufbandry, where room is left for the free ufe of the
hoe. In the broadcaft mode the weeds muft be pulled out
by the hand, which is not only tedious, but, in fome mea:
{ure, dangerous, as there is a noxious quality in the plant
which is liable to injure the hands of the weeders, if the
happen to have fores on them. See Anruemis Cotula and
Marricarta Chamomilla.
Llue bottle is a weed that is common in corn where the
tillage of the land has. been imperfeét, or too long carried
on, and continued without cleaning by means of turnips or
fallow : it is an annual-weed with a fomewhat elegant blue
flower. It is very common in the corn-fields of Shropfhire
and Lancafhire, as well as in fome other counties. — It is
faid that, in Gloucefterfhire, blue bonnet, knapweed, or
corn flower, is a weed common in fome fields, principally
where the foil is loamy and mixed with pebbles. It is ad-
vifed to be extirpated at firft by the hoe, and, when grown
to bloffom, by the hand. See Cenraurea Cyanus.
Great knapweed is a perennial corn weed, growing in
tufts of many {tems or ftalks from the fame root; and
which is to be deftroyed in the fallow, or by being weeded
out of the crop. See Cenraurea Scabiofa.
Panfy is an annual flower weed that is often found
among corn-crops in different diftri€ts, where it is produced
by feeds that have not been deftroyed in the preparation for
the corn-crop. It is feldom very hurtful, but when abun-
dant fhould be weeded out in fome way or other. The
beauty of the colours of its flowers has gained it a place as
an ornamental plant. See Vioxa Tricolor.
Corn horfe-tail is a weed often met with in corn-land, the
fertile ftem of which appearing early in the {pring, with
that of colt’s-foot, and decaying before the other part of
the plant appears. The author of the paper already
noticed ftates, that Loefel fays, if ewes in lamb eat it, abor-
tion is the confequence ; but it is believed that fheep or
cows will not eat it, unlefs compelled by hunger. — It is to
be deftroyed by the fame kind of tillage and extirpation, as
that recommended for colt’s-foot. In the Gloucefter
Report on Agriculture, it is tated to be found only on moift
foils, and cannot be eafily overcome, but by draining and
completely removing the wetnefs. See Equiserum Ar-
VENfIS»
fern is a weed not uncommon in corn-fields on dry fandy
land: it is a hardy perennial plant, tenacious of growth, and
ftriking along tap root into the ground, beneath the reach
of the plough, which fhoots up vigoroufly when the fun
becomes powerful: it prevails largely and ftrongly on fome
deep dry hazel loamy foils. 1n order to deftroy it, after
foaking rain, it fhould be drawn or deeply ploughed up ;
though, in fome cafes, it will require much pains and atten-
tion to get quit of it, efpecially on land where it ‘has been
eftablifhed for a great length of time. See Preris dgui-
lina.
There are different other weeds which are occafionally
met with in lands of this fort, but which, as their nature,
habits, and effeéts, have not been well or fully afcertained,
they have not been noticed here.
Weeds injurious in Meadow and Pafture Lands.—From its
not having yet been fully and exaétly decided which are to
be confidered as noxious and hurtful, and which beneficial
and ufeful plants, in the herbage of grafs-lands, it may be
proper and of utility to confider them under the heads of
fuch as are really found prejudicial in fuch fituations, and
fuch as have not been difcevered to be a€tually fo, and the
particular qualities of whieh are not well known.
Hhz Of
WEED.
Of the firft fort are thofe which are defcribed below, on
she authority of the writer of the paper on weeds mentioned
above, and that of fome others.
Cotton gra/s, hare’s-tail, or mofs crops, are weeds that
grow in bogs or boggy meadows; and with the down of
which poor people {tuff their pillows, and make the wicks
of candles. This weed is a certain indication that drainage
has been neglected, and that it is of courfe neceffary to be
attended to and praétifed, in order tovreftore the meadow
or other fuch land to the proper ftate for the growth of
geod herbage. See EriopHorum Vaginatum, and Poly/la-
Pion.
Hog weed, or cow parfnip, is a weed often found in mea-
dows, but which is too coarfe and of too weedy a nature
and appearance to be fuffered to abound in well cultivated
and managed grafs-land, though, it is believed, that cattle
will eat it either green or in the ftate of hay: it is thought
that it may probably be weakened or deftroyed, by annually
cytting up in its early growth. See Heracteum Angu/-
tifalium, and Sphondylium.
The latter is frequently met with, efpecially in moift
meadows in Chefhire,
Wild cicely, or cow-weed, is a common weed in orchards,
hedges, meadows, and paftures, Cattle are faid to be fond
of it in the fpring, but it is too coarfe to be permitted or
encouraged among good herbage of the grafs kind; and
as it flowers, and ripens its feeds before the grafles, it is a
bad and improper addition to the grafs-plants of both mea-
dow and paiture lands; it is frequent in the meadows of
Chefhire. It has been fuggefted, that this and the laft
noticed plant may probably be worthy of a trial in cultiva-
tion by themfelves, as being of luxuriant growth, they
. would yield a large produce: their value has not, however,
yet been fully afcertained ; nor efpecially in this method of
culture and management. See CH#RoPHYLLUM Sy/ve/fre.
Garlick, in the wild ftate, is a weed that is frequently
found in meadows and pafture lands, and which is confi-
dered as greatly injuring the latter when ufed for cows.
t is faid to give a difagreeable flavour to the produce of
the dairy, as butter and cheefe, but it does not feem that
cows much diflike or refufe to eat it. It is fuppofed, how-
ever, that this may probably happen on account of its being
fo much blended and intermixed with the other grafles, that
they cannot avoid cropping it a little. This weed is fre-
quent in the cow paltures of*fome parts of Lancafhire,
Gloucefterfhire, and moft probably many others. See
Ax.ium Ampeloprafum.
Ramfon is a weed that is found in fome meadows and
other grafs-lands, but more commonly in the hedges; other
plants will nor, it is faid, flourifh near it: cows eat it, but
it, like the above weed, gives their milk and its produce a
an flavour; it fhould, of courfe, be weeded out of grafs-
ands as foon as difcovered and be deftroyed. See ALLIUM
Urfinum.
Rujhes of different forts are a fort of weed-plants which
are not unfrequently met with in meadows and pattures,
efpecially when of the cold clayey kind, and which are a
fure indication that the land, in fuch cafes, wants the fuper-
fluous wetnefs removed ; which, when it has been effeéted,
always gives way to better herbage, though their extirpa-
tion and deftruétion afterwards will be promoted and acce-
lerated by top dreffings of afhes and other matters. In the
Gloucefter Report on its Agriculture, it is ftated, that the
common rufh is an inhabitant of foils that are moilt and
ftrong, that it abounds in the furrows of pafture-lands, and
on the meers or {trips of grafs-land left between the grounds
in the vale of that county, as the dividing mark of different
3
properties, and that it is deftroyed in the manner above.
See Juncus, different forts. Alfo Rus.
Docks are weeds that are found in ftrong four heavy
land of the meadow and pafture kind. As thefe weeds are
refufed by moft forts of domeftic animals, they should be
rooted up after rain, and every pains be'taken to deftroy
and remove them from grafs-land, which they injure greatly
by their fhade, and by caufing the herbage about them to
become rank. ‘They are faid to be eaten only by fallow-
deer, by which their flourifhing in parks and pleafure-
grounds is prevented. It is remarked that in Gloucefter-
fhire docks are extremely injurious to the herbage of paf-
ture-lands, but that if taken in time they may be eafily
conquered. If, however, they are permitted to ripen, they
leave an immenfe quantity of feed for future crops; and,
that being perennial, the evil is increafing in fuch a multi-
plied proportion, as almoft to exclude the growth of all
other plants. In a large meadow adjoining the county-
town, thefe weeds have matured and fhed their feeds, it is
faid, fo often, and for fo many years, that, at the time of
mowing, the whole appears like a crop of docks. Where
thefe weeds are not got up by the roots, it is ufeful, in fome
cafes, to cut through the ftalks under the ground; and to
repeat the practice as fhoots are again thrown up. See
Rumex €ri/pus, Acutus, Obtufifolius, kc. Alfo Wespixnc
Dock-Spit, &c.
Biftort is a weed that, in fome places, occupies large
portions or patches in meadows, to the injury and deftruc-
tion of better herbage: it is a perennial, but may without
doubt be weakened or deftroyed by rooting up repeatedly.
The root is one of the ftrongeft vegetable aftringents, and
may probably be applied to many purpofes in the arts with
benefit. It is the inhabitant of moift meadows in Chefhire.
See Potyconum Bifforta.
Wild campions are weeds often found abundantly in paf-
tures formed from ploughed lands: there are two forts, as
thofe with white and red flowers. Care fhould be taken to
exterminate them from fuch paftures by proper fallowing
the land when’ in the broken up ftate. See Lycunis
Dioica, &c.
Goofe-tanfy, filver-weed, or feathered cinquefoil, is a weed
common in many paftures laid down from the arable ftate,
but generally untouched by cattle: it fhould therefore be
deftroyed and got rid of in the tillage ftate of the land, and
by keeping it free of flagnant wetnefs, See PoTENTILLA
Anferina.
Tanfey is a weed that is found in Gloucefterfhire, in
fome paitures by the fide of the Severn, and in a few other
places in that county, but not in abundance, as well per-
haps as in fome others, efpecially in the northern parts. of
the kingdom, It is an unpleafant weed, it is faid, which
fhould be eradicated by the fpade, or fome other proper
means. See TANACETUM Vulgare.
Pilewort is a weed that flowers very early in the fpring,
and abounds in fhady or moift pafture ground; it fome-
times occupies much room in fome meadows, and chokes
other plants which grow near it; and not being eaten by
cattle, it fhould certainly be extirpated: nothing difcou-
rages its increafe more than coal and wood-afhes, the writers
of the Flora Ruftica fuppofe. See Ficaria Verna, and
Rawnuncvtus Ficaria.
Loufewort, or red-rattle, is a weed found in moift mea-
dows and pattures, and, it is thought, rarely but where the
land is in want of being rendered dry : it is faid to be very
difagreeable to cattle, and injurious to fheep, giving them
the {cab, and occafioning them to be overrun with vermin :
it is believed, however, that thefe injuries are principally
caufed
WEED.
eaufed by the unwholefome nature or ftate of the land on
which it grows: it may be deftroyed, it is fuppofed, by re-
moving the wetnefs and top drefling. See Prpicuraris
Sylvatica.
Yellow-rattle is a weed that 1s faid to grow generally in
moift meadows in the county of Glouceiter, and which
ripens its feeds, and fheds them before the time of mowing,
when the dry hufks make a rattling noife under the {cythe :
at this time, it contains no nutritious juice at all, though,
when green, oxen and horfes will fometimes eat it rather
eagerly, and at other times refufe it. Having, however,
no defirable quality to recommend its cultivation, and often-
times overrunning large patches of ground, it fhould be
eradicated and deltroyed; and being a biennial, this, it is
thought, may ealily be done, by grazing the land for three
or four years in fucceffion, and taking care that the ftalks
that are left by the cattle be flimmed off by the fcythe be-
fore they are ripe enough to fhed their feeds, or while they
are in full’blofflom. In regard to its removal, it is ftated,
that a farmer near the northern borders of the fame county,
fhewed the writer a floping piece of grafs-land which had
been overrun with rattle; without any view to the deftruc-
tion of that he conduéted the water of an adjoining ftream,
as well as he could, over the piece which was not, however,
wholly watered; but it proved that on the watered part,
the rattle was deftroyed, while it continued to grow on the
portion which had efcaped. No plant is more frequently
found mixed with the graffes in the meadows of Chefhire
than this; but as it has nothing to recommend it, and the
farmers diflike it, the removal of it fhould be effe&ed to
make way for better herbage. Sce Ruinantuus Criffa-
galli.
Dyer’s-broom is a weed that is feen very abundant in fome
paftures on {trong and moift land, whence, as it is often
troublefome, it fhould be grubbed up, and be got quit of.
Wood waxen, dyer’s-weed, or bafe broom, grows abundantly,
it is faid, in many parts of the vale of Gloucefterfhire, but
generally on dry paftures: it is refufed by no cattle but
fheep ; yet, being inferior to good graffes, fhould be rooted
out, except in places where, as in the neighbourhood of
Brittol, it is colle&ted and carried while in Fall bloffom to
the manufaturers, who, by boiling and other means, ex-
tract a fine yellow colour from it. See Grenista Tindoria.
Reft-harrow, or commock, is faid to be a weed often
found in paftures, where it is eaten by cattle, efpecially the
younger fhoots of it; but that it is too coarfe and rubbifhy
to be fuffered to increafe, and fhould confequently be rooted
out or grubbed up as foon as poflible. In Glouceftershire it
is faid, teo, to be a moft troublefome weed, and a pretty fure
proof of want of attention, culture, and manure; as by the
two former it may be eafily cleared from arable land, as has
been feen, and by well-rotted horfe-dung even pafture-lands
may be affilted ; but that rather than fuch a difgufting plant
fhould continue to grow, where its place might be fupplied
with good herbage, neither labour nor expence fhould be
fpared. The little advantage it gives to fheep, which will
eat the young fhoots before the prickles are formed, is not,
it is fuppofed, a fufficient inducement in the calculation of
a good farmer to leave it undifturbed. In the parifh of
Elmore, in that county, there is, it is faid, a pafture-ground
almoft covered with it, which lies too far from the farm-
houfe to have manure eafily conveyed toit. In this cafe,
the occupier tried the experiment of drawing it out by the
roots, but difcontinued it from the idea that it came up with
greater ftrength, and.in more abundance the fucceeding
year. The fact is, that the bufinefs is but half done, if the
reots are not entirely removed, as every broken piece will
throw out fhoots; and from long continuance of the plant
on the fpot, and the annual fhedding of the feeds of it, it
is prohable that a new crop will arife in the following {pring =:
but the farmer fhould not be difcouraged, it is faid, on his
firft attempt ; fince, by continually watching the weeds. in
their early growth, and cutting them off with the hoe, they
would gradually be deftroyed; and the procefs would be
much alfitted by well drefling the places with rotten horfe-
dung, as fuggeited above. See Ononis Spinofa, and Ar-
venfis.
aes thifle is a moft noxious weed among grafs
herbage: it has ftrong roots which {hoot out in a lateral
manner, and is a perennial plant of vigorous growth in fome
foils. It may be got quit of by cutting it off within the
ground, or by being rooted up ; for the former fort of work
the beft time is when the plants are coming into full bloffom,
as they then become fooneft rotten and deftroyed in their
hollow root parts ; and for the latter in pafture-lands when
the ground is well foaked with rain, and they can be drawn
eafily. They are fometimes very hurtful to the hay lands in
the vicinity of the metropolis, where the management is bad.
See SerRATULA Arvenfis, and THIsTLE.
Rough large thiftles, or boar-thittles, are weeds of a very
troublefome nature among grafs-crops, and which are always
to be got rid of without delay. They are generally mown
or otherwife cut over, but are much better rooted or drawn
up. It is remarked by the writer of the Correéted Account
of the Agriculture of the County of Gloucetter, that thiftles
of all kinds are very unpleafant weeds in grafs-lands ; either
when green or dried with the hay, they annoy the cattle in
feeding, and confequently fhould never be permitted to grow
long on any fuch land; to prevent their growing at all, is,
it is thought, perhaps impoffible, but the increafe of them
may be checked by early attention: while, however, they
are left to be mown with the grafs, or to remain undifturbed
in the highways during the fummer, the feeds will be dif-
perfed by the wind in various direétions over the country :
until a method be therefore adopted to correé the evil in its
infancy, the labour beftowed by good farmers for the extir-
pation of this weed will not, it is faid, produce a complete
effect, although it will prevent the plant from being carried
to the mow in a {tate of equal maturity with the hay, and
its feeds afterwards from being difperfed with the dung in
the fields. Was every farmer to do the fame, the encou-
ragement to perfevere in the practice would be powerful;
but that it is not probable, that a farmer will expend much
in doing what the negligence of a neighbour will render in-
effe&tual. Some of thefe thiftle-weeds are annual, others
biennial and perennial ; confequently, where the diftinétion is
not known, the fafe methed is, it is faid, to cut the root
with a paddle, deep in the ground, or to draw up the root ;
and that this fhould be done for the firft time in the fpring,
and. again on the lattermath in autumn. See CArpuus
Lanceolatus, &c. Al{o THISTLE.
Cudweed, or chafeweed, is a weed faid not to be uncom-
mon in paftures from arable land. It has been feen abun-
dantly in an upland pafture after barley, where the cloyer
had failed of fuccefs; cattle refufe it, but it has been fup-
pofed to be fuccefsful in the bloody flux of cattle and of
the human f{pecies: it feldom appears much in a gra‘s-crop,
or efpecially when the artificial grafles fucceed well. See
GNAPHALIUM Germanicum.
Ox-eye, white marigold, or great daify, is a weed common
in fome pattures, and not grateful, but which feldom abounds
fo as to be much injurious to the grafs, and which is eafily
drawn out by the hand or other fuch means. See CurysAN-
THEMUM Leucanthemum. ’
Black
WEED.
Black -weed is a common and abundant weed in fome
moift and cold meadows and paftures, where it is a very bad
plant, being coarfe, hard, and ftubborn, feldom touched by
cattle, either in the green or dry ftate, and not extirpated
from the ground without much difficulty: it is a perennial
weed, which increafes much by the rovt, according to the
Flora Ruftica. It is fuppofed that it might probably be
much weakened and reduced, and be extirpated by degrees
by drawing up after rain. It is ftated too, that in Glou-
cefterfhire the common black knap or knob-weed, provin-
cially hard heads, is a vile and worthlefs weed, which cattle
of no kind will touch, in any ftate; and yet it is fuffered,
on fome paftures, to grow and increafe to fuch a degree, as
to exclude the appearance of almoft every other plant, and,
though ufelefs, is mowed with the other herbage, and pre-
ferved for winter fodder. That it is a weed which indicates
poor land, though probably, by the ufe of foaper’s afhes,
it might be conquered, otherwife the ground fhould be
pleated up and converted to a better purpofe. The writer
of this article lately faw it wholly covering a poor pafture
field in the north of Lancafhire, to the exclufion of all ufe-
ful graffes. See Cenraurea Nigra.
Sedge-grafet, various forts, are weeds that are moft com-
mon in cold, old, four, moift clayey lands of the meadow
and pafture kind, undrained and unimproved ; in which
they are faid, in fome places, to occupy the whole furface :
they are extremely hardy, and flourifh where fearcely any
thing elfe will grow: feem produced by nature from this
principle in her economy, that a bad plant is better than
none, for thefe plants are not eaten by any fort of cattle
which can get any thing better; yet, upon getting quit of
the-fuperfluous moifture or wetnefs, and top-dreffing the
land, it will commonly give way to a finer and more valuable
herbage. See Carex.
They have provincially the titles of hard-grafs, iron-grafs,
and carnation-grafs, fometimes applied to them.
Common nettle is a weed fometimes growing in tufts on
pafture-land, where it fhould always be rooted up, as it will
prevent the growth of good herbage, and render the grafs
rank near it: affes are Bid to be fond of it, and cows eat it
in the ftate of hay. See Urtica Dioica.
Mofes, various forts, are weeds that are fometimes faid
to {pread on pafture and other grafs lands, and, it is be-
lieved, indicate that the herbage is ftarving and torpid,
and ftands in need of a ftimulus to quicken its growth:
proper top-dreffing fhould be ufed, and the wetnefs be re-
moved, if neceflary. Treading by fheep, and {cratching the
furface by means of fine-teethed implements, have likewife
been found of great utility. See Muscr, and Moss.
Such plants as the above mutt be confidered as proper and
neceflary to be extirpated from grafs-lands of moft kinds ;
but there are various others which are of lefs importance,
and the charaé&ters of which are more doubtful, and their
ufes not fo well determined and decided upon.
Of this latter fort or clafs, the following may be noticed
as being moftly improper in fuch fituations.
Crowfoots, butter-flower, butter-cup, king-cup, or gold-
cup, are plants almoft every where found in meadow and
pafture lands. The pile-wort is common in fome places,
and the bulbous-rooted fort, it is obferved, has knotty roots,
rifes little above the ground, bloffoms early in the {pring,
and is chiefly found in meadows that are rather moift, being
eaten only by fheep. The other forts are common in the
meadows and paftures everywhere, being very abundant in
the hay-grounds near the metropolis. Their good qualities
in fuch Tide have been much queftioned and difputed by
many ; but the writer of the paper already noticed is inclined
to think favourably of » efpecially as promoting the di-
geftion of the Tie sk thet feed in fuch paftures ae as
not having been difcovered to be injurious in fuch fituations
by farmers in their long experience. The writer of the
Gloucefter report, however, ftates, that the feveral forts of
crowfoot, provincially termed crazys, which in the {pring
throw a yellow veil over the meadows, are to be reckoned
among the ufelefs weeds, having little to recommend them
to notice but their gaudy appearance. That the three latter
forts are acrid and biting to the tafte, and are therefore re-
jected by cattle nearly alike. It is indeed faid, that the
creeping crazy is more mild and palatable to fome cattle,
ener it is to be fufpe&ed that cattle eat it rather from
neceffity than liking; as from its {preading along the furface,
it becomes fo matted with the herbage, that it muft be
taken up, in fome degree, with it. The ftalks of the two
others are left ftanding when the ground is quite bare about
them; yet, when made with the hay, they are faid to lofe
the pungent quality ; and the brightnefs of the bloffom in
the rick, is always a fign of the whole having been well
harvefted.
All the forts of this tribe of plants, though pleafant to
the eye in meadows and pattures, in confequence of their
difplay of yellow flowers, are, it is faid in the Berkfhire re-
port, injurious to the herbage, and little relifhed by animals
of any kind. Although difficult to be eradicated, fome of
the larger forts of them may be reduced greatly by proper
care and attention. See RanuncuLus Ficaria, Bulbofus,
Repens, and Acris.
Wild mint is a plant found in moift paftures, and which
prevents. the coagulation of milk; fo that when cows have
eaten it, as they are apt to do largely at the end of fummer
when the paitures get bare, their milk can hardly be made
to yield cheefe ; a cireumftance which occafionally puzzles
the dairy-maids. It is a plant that fhould be removed from
paftures, and which, it is fuppofed, may be weakened by
effectually removing the wetnefs of the land. See MenrHa
Arvenfis.
Marfb marigold is a plant that occupies much f{pace, and
which is dangerous to cows. It fhould confequently be re-
moved from paftures and other grafs-lands. See CarrHa
Palufiris.
Water hemlock is a plant fuppofed poifonous to horfes,.
and fhould therefore be eradicated from pafture-lands. See
THELLANDRIUM Aquaticum.
Water cowbane, meadow-faffron, and treacle-muftard, are
plants in pafture and grafs lands, that are faid to communi-
cate an unpleafant odour to the milk of cows, and to be
fometimes fatal to them. When abundant they ought to
be removed from fuck lands. See Cicura Virofa, Coucut-
cum Autumnale, and Tuxarsi Arvenfis.
Moufe-ear fcorpion-gra/s is a plant that often proves fatal
to fheep, it is faid, and fhould of courfe be extirpated from
fheep-walks. See Myosoris Scorpoides.
Rag-wort is a plant in grafs-land which cows and horfes
refufe, and which fheep will only eat when very young: it is
a plant that is ftated, in the Chefhire Report on Agriculture,
to be regarded as worfe than ufelefs both in meadows and
paltures. That it frequents rich foils only; and that the
farmer there often exhibits the keddle-dock, as it is provin-
cially termed, as a proof of the goodnefs of his land. That
while his vanity is flattered by its prefence, he not only
neglects to extirpate it, but frequently fuffers it to f{pread
over one of his beft pieces of land, to the injury of himfelf
and the annoyance of his neighbour. It is faid that by
mowing it is prevented from propagating its feeds ; but
that the roots are not deftroyed. That this is beft effected,
either
WEED.
either by eating it down while young with fheep, or pulling
it up by the hand. This lait fhould be done when the
ground is moift, in order that no confiderable fibres may be
loft or left in the land, as if there are the roots will ftrike
again. See Senecto Jacobea. |
Meadow forrel is a plant common in meadows, and efpe-
cially where the foil is ftrong and rather wet: it is a coarfe
plant that is injurious by its fhade, and feeds in good grafs-
lands. See Rumex Aceto/a.
Wood ot meadow anemone is a plant common in meadows,
though difregarded by farmers; the whole plant is faid to
be acrid. Withering afferts, that when fheep that are un-
accuftomed to it eat it, it brings on a bloody-flux. . See
ANEMONE Nemoro/fa.
Lye-bright is a plant common in paftures, and refufed
by cattle in general ; confequently occupying the place of a
better plant. See Eupurasta Offcinalis and Odontitis.
Dandelion is a difagreeable plant, though common in
grafs-lands in moft diftrifts: it is faid to be confiderably
diuretic, and on that account may probably have a good
effe& on cattle at firft going to grafs: it is coarfe, but
good in hay with graffes. See Leonropon Taraxacum.
Yarrow, and {neeze-wort, are plants common in pattures,
but indifferent to cattle-{tock. The former has been recom-
mended for poor land. The common yarrow has been found
plentifully intermixed with the herbage in the vale part of
the county of Gloucefter, where much fed with horfes.
Some have, it is faid, fuppofed, that cattle are not averfe to
it; but it has been obferved, that this weed has remained
uneaten until every blade of grafs has been cropped clofe to
the ground, and therefore that it fhould be extirpated by
the fpade or fome other means, fuch as the three-pronged
fork, at the expence of manual labour. See AcHILLEA
Millefolium and Ptarmica.
Orchifes of feveral forts are plants that are common in
moft meadows, having broad, entire, {potted leaves in gene-
ral, and large bunches of pale or purple flowers. They
generally remain untouched by moft, or all forts of cattle-
ftock. See Orcuis Maculata, Bifolia, &c.
Plants of this fort have hitherto been much too little
examined and inquired into, in fo far as relates to their
utility and importance, or the contrary, for the ufes of the
farmer, to afford any thing fatisfa&tory on the fubje& ; but
that a great many fuch plants fhould be rooted out of grafs-
lands of different kinds there can be no fort of doubt. This
would render the meadows and paftures much better for the
purpofes of hay, and the pafturing and feeding of live-ftock
of every fort, and be greatly beneficial to the farmer in
many ways.
Weeds injurious in wafte and uninclofed Lands.—It is ftated
by the writer of the paper on weeds, that thofe confidered
as particularly hurtful to fuch land, are not very numerous;
for though many forts of plants, ufelefs as the food of do-
meflic animals, grow there, yet, as there is no poffibility of
introducing any thing better until fuch lands are appro-
priated and improved by cultivation, they can hardly be
conceived as noxious, fo long as nothing better can be put
in their ftead. That, as fuch lands in their prefent condi-
tion are ufeful only as fheep-walks, or for producing fuel,
the bettering of them, in the former refpe@, is an objec de-
ferving of attention, particularly as fuch amelioration would
render them of greater value in cafe of inclofure, and would
much fhorten the bufinefs of bringing them into the ftate of
improvement. See Waste Land.
‘The weeds that encumber fuch lands, and reduce their
value as fheep-walks, are confidered as of two kinds; the
common upland rubbifh, and the bog produce of plants :
the former {mothers the land, fo as to prévent the growth
of better herbage ; and the latter are generally hurtful to
animals that feed on them, either from their own nature, or
becaufe the land on which they grow is uncomfortable for
oe unwholefome to the health of them, efpecially to
eep. 5
Upland weeds are all thofe that rife in high barren fitua-
tions, and which chiefly confift of heaths of different forts 5
furze or gorfe, the petty whin, or hen-gorfe, and broom,
but which is more commonly met with in negleéted dry
lahds of the arable kind: thefe fhould all, it is faid, where
the ground is of tolerable ftaple, or depth of mould, be
burnt off, or grubbed up, early in the {pring ; and if the
land be afterwards fown with grafs-feeds of the hay kind in
moift weather, it will much improve the herbage: the fern
fhould alfo be mown, and carried off in the fummer, the
value of it as litter being well worth the labour and trouble.
See Erica, ULEx Curopeus, Genista Anglica, SPARTIUM
Scoparium, and Preris Aquilina.
Bog weeds are thofe that arife in fwampy places, and are
caufed by ftagnant moifture or wetnefs, being principally
cotton graffes, matt-grafs, rufhes of feveral forts, red-rattle
or loufe-wort, marfh, St. Peter’s-wort, kingfpear, which
laft two are of but little confequence in themfelves: they,
however, indicate boggy land; and in their company are often
found purple-flowered money-wort, fedge graffes of feveral
forts, &c.: all which would give way to better herbage,
upon the ftagnant wetnefs of fuch bogs being removed,
which fhould, it is faid, be done by a rate, levied on the in-
habitants of the neighbourhood, having right of common
upon fuch wattes. See EriopHorum Polyflachion and
V aginatum, Narovus Strida, Juncus, PepicuLARris Sy/vatica,
Hyrericum Clodes, Nartuecium Ofifragum, ANAGALLIS
Tenetla, and CAREX.
The difeafe, termed the rot, in fheep, which fo commonly
arifes in thefe fituations, has been often attributed by ftock-
farmers and others to the fun-dew, marfh penny-wort, and
common butter-wort, weeds found in fuch lands; but it is
more probably caufed by the flat infe& known by the name
of flake, fa/ciola hepatica, which is not unfrequently met
with in fuch watery grounds, fticking to different parts of
the plants, and which has been difcovered in the difeafed
livers and bile duéts of fheep thus affe&ted. See Drospra
Anglica, Hyprocory Le Jnundata, &Fc.
The writer juft noticed fuggetts, that if the country
fhould not yet be ripe or ready for inclofing all the commons
and waite lands, the improvement of their ftaple by mea-
fures of this kind, by deftroying weeds and introducing
better herbage, by removing the wetnefs of the bogs, and
deftroying the aquatic weeds growing thereon, would better
their prefent flate, and improve their value to the public,
would render them capable of maintaining a greater number
of better fheep, and preferve the ftock in better health, as
well as render the land more fufceptible of a rapid and eafy
improvement by cultivation, whenever the time may arrive
for their inclofure, and for fuch full amendment of their
condition.
Weeds injurious in Hedges and other fuch Fences.—It is re-
marked in the paper on weeds and weeding, that all kinds
of them are hurtful to young hedges, which conftantly re-
quire to be well cleaned and freed from them for three or
more years after planting, as otherwife the young quick or
other plants would be choked and deftroyed ; and that there
are alfo fome kinds of weed-plants which very much injure
old full-grown hedge-fences. That many kinds of weeds
growing in hedges are a great nuifance if the feeds be fuf-
fered to ripen, becaufe fuch feeds are liable to be carried into
cultivated
WEED.
cultivated land by the wind ; that there are fome kinds of
hedge-weeds, too, which bear the character of being inju-
rious to live-ftock; thefe, if the obfervation be well founded,
ought, it is faid, to be well cleared from the hedges that
fuch ftock frequent ; and that, laftly, the improper {pecies
of the vegetable kingdom, compofing or growing in hedges,
may be termed hedge-weeds, becaufe they prevent the main
objeé&t and end of fuch hedges, that of dividing, fencing out,
and defending the land ina proper manner.
The moft hurtful weeds and plants of this fort are,
Catch-weed, or cleavers, a weed that has a tendency to
choke and injure young hedges, by means of its numerous
creeping and twining rough branches: it fhould, of courfe,
be well cleaned out in due time, before it {fpreads itfelf much
in the bottom of the fence. See Gatius Aparine.
Great bind-weed is a plant of this fort that is injurious in
fome hedges, by twining round the growing quick or other
plants, and reftricting their growth: its roots fhould confe-
quently be extirpated from fuch fituations, which may pro-
bably be worth collefting for medicinal ufes, as the infpif-
fated juice of them compofe fcammony, a powerful purga-
tive remedy. It is eaten greedily, too, by hogs without in-
jury. See ConvoLvuLus Sepium.
Great wild climber is a weed-plant common in hedges, and
which, in the chalk counties, is faid provincially to be
called old man’s beard, from the hoary appearance of the
plant after flowering, the feeds being furnifhed with nume-
rous grey hoary tails. It is very injurious to hedge-fences,
as the leaf-ftalks twine about any thing they can lay hold
of, and thus fupport the plant, which is large, luxuriant, and
heavy, without any ftrength to fupport itfelf, and by its
weight hauling down, obltru€ting the proper growth, and
deforming the fences of this kind. Withering remarks,
that the fine hairs that give the cottony appearance are, he
apprehends, too fhort to be employed in manufacture,
though, it is probable, they may be ufed to advantage for
the ftuffing of chairs. See CLtematis Vitalba.
Wild hop, \adies’ feal, or black bryony, and wild vine
or bryony, are all weed-plants common in hedges, where
they are fuppofed to be fomewhat injurious to the hedge-
fences. They do mifchief in thefe fituations, by crowding
and {mothering up the hedge-plants, and preventing their
healthy and vigorous growth, as well as by taking away
the proper nourifhment from their roots. See Humutus
Cupulus, Tamus Communis, and BryontA Dioica.
There are other fpreading, twining, and climbing weed-
plants, which are occafionally very injurious and troublefome
in hedges ; {uch as the common ivy, which fpreads and creeps
on the banks, and runs up and winds round the ftems of the
plants, greatly injuring and impeding their growth and
ftrength; the honey-fuckle, which binds itfelf clofely about
the flalks and branches of the hedge-woods, doing them
much injury in different ways; and the briar, which extends
its rampant fhoots in various dire€tions, to the great annoy-
ance and mifchief of the hedge-plants in many cafes, All
thefe fhould be eradicated and cleared out from hedges in
moft cafes, 2s they conftantly tend to weaken and render
them in bad condition. See Hepera Helix, Lonicera
Periclym:num, and Rosa Canina.
Sow-thi/lles, large rough thiftles, knap-weeds, and rag-
wort, are weeds that have been already noticed, and are
great nuifances in hedges, if their feeds be fuffered to ripen
in fuch fituations. The common nettle, too, is fometimes
found in hedges to their great injury. They fhould all,
therefore, be extirpated and cleared out from hedges in
their early growth, to prevent future inereafe.
In addition to thefe, the writer of the above paper has
gen the following, the feeds of which are farnifhed with
eathers too, and they are capable of being carried to a great
diftance.
Yellow devil’s bit, wild lettuce, yellow hawk-weed, bufhy
hawk-weed, and fmooth hawk’s-beard, are weeds often
troublefome in hedges, and which fhould be kept well
weeded out at an early period. See Leonropon Autum-
nale, Lactuca Virofa, Hieractum Murorum et Umbella-
tum, and Crepis Teforum.
Burdock is a well-known plant of the weed kind, that
fhould not be fuffered to perfeé its feed in hedges, as it is
of very luxuriant growth, and of courfe very injurious and
difagreeable in fuch fituations. Withering afferts, that
before the flowers appear, the ftems, {tripped of their rind,
may be boiled and eat as afparagus; and that when raw,
they are good with oil and vinegar. See Arctium
Lappa.
Dog’s mercury is a weed {aid to be noxious to fheep, and
which is very common and abundant in fome hedges, ap-
pearing very early in the fpring, when fheep-food is the moft
fcarce ; on which account itis thought {till more danger-
ous, if it be fo at all. When in very large quantity it may
be hurtful to hedges, and fhould be kept under. See Mer-
CURIALIS Perennis.
Barberry is a frequent plant in fome hedges; if
found to really poffefs a blighting quality, it fhould be re-
moved from the hedges of corn-fields. See BERBERRIS
Vulgaris.
It is advifed by the author of the above paper, that thefe,
as well as other plants of a fimilar nature, together with all
luxuriant weeds and fhoots of the bramble kind, and what-
ever elfe grows beyond the bounds of the hedge-fence,
fhould be brufhed out of fuch hedges about the middle of
the fummer, as is very often done in fome counties, as Staf-
fordfhire, for the fake of their afhes, which are worth all
the labour and expence incurred in burning them, &c.
Weeds injurious in Woods and Plantations of different
Kinds.—The weed-plants which are neceflary to be con-
fidered under this head, are not very numerous: thofe
which are given below are the chief of fuch as are peculiar
to or commonly found in fituations of this nature, where no
art has been ufed. They are the moft common herbs and
plants which are fpontaneoufly produced in woods and
plantations without attending to the timber and underwood
forts ; but many other kinds are to be met with, which are
lefs common, and which have been lefs noticed and con-
fidered.
Enchanters’ night-/oade is a weed found in the woods of
Bedfordfhire, and fome other counties, and by no means un-
common. See Circa Lutetiana.
Wood-reed is a weed met with in many woods, See
Arunpo Arenaria.
Woodroffe is a weed common in many woods about
Enfield, in Staffordfhire, and Berkfhire. Sometimes very
plentiful. See AsperuLa Odorata.
Wild angelica is a weed common both in woods and
hedges, in many places. See ANGELICA Sy/veffris.
Solomon’s feal, or wood lily, is a weed found in woods
in many different parts of the kingdom. See Con-
VALLARIA.
Englifh hyacinth, or hare-bell, and willow herbs, are weeds
in fome woods. See HyacintTuus non Scriptus, and Ept-
LOBIUM.
Bilberry is a weed met with in moift woods in many
parts of the country. See Vaccintum Myrtillus.
Whntergreen is a weed-plant met with in the ree
woods
WEED.
woods in Staffordfhire, and fome other counties. See
PyroLa. j j
Wood-forrel is a weed very common in woods. See
Oxatis Acetofella. ‘
Wood-/purge is a weed frequently met in woods, fituated
in a clayey foil. Plentifully in Needwood-foreft, in Stafford-
fhire. See EupHorsra Amygdaloides.
Ra/fpberry, dewberry, and common bramble, are weeds
common in moft woods, in fome of the forts. See Rusus.
Wild Strawberry is a weed common in fome woods. See
Fracaria Vefca.
Tormentill is very common as a weed in fome woods.
See TormENTILLA Reftans.
Herb bennet, and wood anemone, are common weeds in
fuch fituations. See Geum Urbanum, and ANEMONE
Nemorofa.
Wood crowfoot is a common weed in woods on a clayey
foil. See RanuncuLus Auricomus.
Stinking Hellebore is a weed in woods, in many parts of
the kingdom. See Herresorus Fetidus.
Wood fage, betony, hedge-nettle, and baftard baum, are
weeds of the common wood kind. See Trucrrum Scoro-
donia, Berontca Offcinalis, Sracuys Sylvatica, and Mz-
uirtis Meliffophyllum.
Cow-gra/s, or cow-wheat, is very common in many
woods, and faid to be an excellent cow-herbage; but
little found in paftures, in any fituation. See MeLampy-
RUM Pratenfe.
Fig-wort, and coral-wort, are weeds in fome woods.
GROPHULARIA Nodofa, and Dentarta Bulbifera.
Pea-everlafting is a luxuriant weed-plant, that has been
feen with the ftem five or fix feet long, in a wood in Rut-
landfhire. See Laruyrus Sylveffris.
Wood-vetch, wood-peafling, St. John’s wort, fhrubby
hawk-weed, fow-wort, hoary groundfel, golden-rod, butter-
fly-orchis, friary-blade, fedge-graffes, and fpurge-olive, or
fpurge-laurel, are all plants of the weed kind in woods in
different places. See Victa Sylvatica, Onosus Sylvatica,
Hypericum Perforatum, Hieractum Sabaudum, SERRA-
TULA Tin@oria, Senecio Crucifolius, SoLipaco Virgaurea,
Orcuis Bifolia, Opuryis Ovata, Carex and DAPHNE
Mezereum and Laureola.
It has been remarked, that as no fort of cattle can be
properly introduced into thefe fituations, in the early
growth of the woods, there appears no particular room for
the choice of the under herbage ; but all large coarfe grow-
ing weeds of thefe and other kinds, fhould be removed or
kept well under, and that briars and brambles, if they ap-
pear, fhould on feveral accounts be grubbed up and de-
-ftroyed. Ivy, too, as clafping, confining, fretting, and in-
juring the plants on which it rifes, fhould be early cleared
away to prevent the mifchief of its after removal.
It is hardly necefflary to obferve, as it muft be evident,
that this account is far from comprehending all the plants
which have been confidered as weeds by writers, and thofe
engaged in the cultivation of land; as fuch as are known to
be prejudicial or hurtful, in fome way or other, to fome
forts of cultivation or other, have, for the moft part, been
only introduced.
Thofe who may with for further information on the fub-
ject, may confult the paper on weeds, by Mr. Pitt, inferted
in the fifth volume of ‘* Communications to the Board of
Agriculture ;”? and alfo the new edition of Miller’s Dic-
tionary, by Martyn, in which a very large catalogue of
weed-plants is given; as well as many of the Corrected
Reports on the Agriculture of different Counties.
It is remarked by the writer of the above paper, that the
Vou. XXXVIII.
See
plants we term weeds, confidered as refpeGting mankind, are
not totally ufelefs; many of them have valuable medicinal,
and, perhaps, other qualities and properties, and fome of
them may be applied to ufes fo as to pay fomething towards
the expence of clearing them from the ground: thus, fow-
thiftles are good for rabbits or hogs, the hog-weed is ufeful
for either pigs or cattle: horfes are faid to be fond of
young thiftles when partially dried, and the feed may be
prevented from fpreading by gathering the down, which
makes good pillows; however, there is fome danger in
trufting them to this ftage of growth, as a high wind would
and frequently does difperfe them over a whole country, as
has been feen already. Chadlock, when drawn, may be
given to cows, who are very fond of it; and it is fatd in the
Oxford Report on Agriculture, that it can be converted into
good hay. Further, that nettles, fern, and the more bulky
hedge-weeds, may be colle&ted and annually burnt, as has
been feen above ; their afhes being afterwards formed into
balls, which are of confiderable value, as being ufed in eom-
pofing a ley for feouring and cleaning linen and other
cloths.
It is ftated, too, that pigeons are of ufe in picking up the
feeds of many weeds that would otherwife vegetate; and
the writer has no doubt but that a prodigious quantity of
the feeds of weeds are eaten by different forts of {mall birds,
particularly of thofe of moft of the lake-weeds, of fpurry,
and in fevere weather, of the different forts of chadlocks, as
well as of many other kinds. But that it has been ob-
ferved, that bees have not thriven or done fo well in this
country fince the extirpation of weeds has been more at-
tended to, and become more general.
; It is noticed, that in Japan, and in China, not a weed, it
is faid, is to be feen ; and that they make ufe of night-foil
only as a manure, partly with the view of preventing any
rifk of weeds being produced in that way.
In aishgoer it may be noticed, too, that the fame
writer has remarked, that the vegetables we term weeds are
more hardy and tenacious of growth than any others; nor
can it indeed be otherwife than that thofe plants, which fuc-
ceed in fpite of oppofition, muft be of the moft hardy kind.
But that the produ@tion or growth of weeds is equally con-
fiftent with the divine goodnefs with that of the moft va-
luable plant, for myriads of diminutive creatures, enjoying
life and animation, are fed and fupported by them, and to
whom they are a more natural prey than the dietetic plants
of mankind : and that man, poffeffed of reafon, refleétion,
and intelligence, has powers and abilities to feleét and culti-
vate fuch vegetables as are adapted to his ufe, and proper
for his fuftenance, and to deftroy and extirpate others ; and
thus to appropriate to himfelf what proportion he may think
proper of the earth’s furface; which if he fhould negleé& to
drefs and cultivate properly, it will, in fome degree, revert
to its natural ftate, producing the hardier and more coarfe
and acrid plants for the fuftenance of numberlefs tribes of
infe&ts and other little animals, and for an infinity of other
known and unknown ufes and purpofes; and that indeed
were it otherwife, the indolence of the human race might, in
fome meafure, fufpend the bounty of providence, and the
fertile parts of the furface of the earth, inftead of being co-
vered with an univerfal verdure, would, by inexer ton or
ain be rendered little different to the fterile and barren
elert. ,
Weep, Dyer’s. See Dyen’s Weed, Baflard Rocker,
and WeELp.
Werp, Fuller’s. See Teazet.
Weep-Hook, in Agriculture, a very ufeful implement for
cutting up thiftles, and other ftrong plants of the fame na-
Ti ture ;
WEE
ture ; but as thiftles, when cut either at an early —_ of
the feafon, or before much rain falls, are apt to {pring up
afrefh, and produce four or five {tems in place of one; they
fhould, perhaps in every inftance, be pulled up by the roots,
or, if they be cut, the operation fhould be done with a
chifel within the ground, which is formed with a divifion
in. the mouth of it, fo as to feize the ftem part of the plant,
and cut it deep down. See WeEpine Dock- Spit.
Weep, Sea. See Fucus.
Ween, Silver. See CinQueFOLL.
WEEDA, in Geography, a town on the E. coaft of the
ifle of Gilolo. N. lat. 0° 15’. E. long. 127° 45/.
WEEDEL, atown of the duchy of Hollftein ; 7 miles
S.S.W. of Pinneburg.
WEEDING, in Agriculture and Gardening, the opera-
tion of freeing crops of any kind from noxious weeds. On
the indifpenfible neceffity, and great utility of this practice,
it is altogether needlefs to enlarge. -See WEED. :
There are obvioufly two different methods to be princi-
pally-employed in the removal and deftru€tion of weeds ; one
of which occurs in the preparation of the land, and the
other during the growth of the crop. In the former me-
thod it is neceflary that fuch weeds as are of the root kind
fhould be diftinguifhed from thofe of the feedling defcrip-
tion, as the deftru€tion and removal of them mutt be effect-
ed in different ways, and upon different principles.
Weeding in garden-grounds is always a bufinefs that
fhould be regularly and well performed in both the circum-
tances above-mentioned. Much may be frequently done in
the former café by properly ridging or laying up the ground
before the fevere winter-feafon fets in, and in reducing and
breaking it down in the early {pring or other time, forlevelling
it, and making it ready for putting in the neceflary crop, as the
root as well as the feedling, weeds may be greatly extirpated
and deftroyed in thefe different operations; the former
affording the ready means of taking out the firft fort, and
the latter by putting them in the {prouting fate, giving the
opportunity of deftroying the other. In the latter cafe, a
great deal will be effe&ted by the fteady and repeated appli- |
cation of the hoe while the crops are upon the ground; and
by good and careful hand-weeding, before the weeds have
had time to ripen and fhed their feeds.
It has been remarked with great truth, in regard to the
extirpation and prevention of garden-weeds, that many will
almoft conftantly appear, from the feeds being brought by
the wind ; as well as by being introduced by ufing raw
dung, particularly of hogs and horfes, which often contains
feeds poffeffing their vegetative power, and the litter inter-
mixed therewith not soequettly containing more; which
ftrongly fhew that raw dung is very improper for gardens,
though often ufed, particularly for early and other potatoe-
crops, as it caufes much trouble and expence in weeding.
Much labour in weeding muft neceflarily be faved, too, by
drawing up all feedling weeds in time, as they appear, and
before they have fown their feeds.
The extirpation and removal of weeds from garden-
grounds are fomewhat differently effected in various places :
in fome they principally ufe the fpade, and the three-
pronged or fanged fork, for cleaning out root-weeds ; but
the different kinds of hoes are employed for other purpofes,
of which the common ones are moftly made ufe of for
{cuffling over the furface, and thofe of the triangular and
parallelogramic form, for cutting up weeds, moulding up
and clearing growing plants, and loofening the furface of the
ground for promoting the {prouting of any feeds that may
be prefent, and other fuch ufes. With thefe the fcuflle or
fcufller is fometimes had recourfe to for cutting the-weeds,
11
WEE
and working the furface of the land over in large gardens»
In the {mall planted broad-caft fown crops, the weeding cat
only be well accomplifhed- by performing the work by the
hand. See Hor, Forx, Spape, Scurrie, &c. z
In regard to deftroying and removing weeds in tillage-
lands, it has been well obferved by Naifmith, in his * Ele-
ments of Agriculture,”? that when the ground is greatly
overrun with weeds, a complete winter and fummer fallow
will, for the moft part, be found unavoidable, in order to.
tentirely quit of them. Rib-fallowing, before the winter
ets in, will, it 1s faid, prepare the foil for parting freely
with the vivacious roots, the ploughing and harrowing re-
quifite to tear them up when the {pring drought commences,
will pulverife and reduce it, and provoke the dormant and
inactive feeds to vegetate with the firft moifture ; by repeat-
ed turnings, during the fummer, the greateft part may be
made to vegetate, and be deftroyed as they rife ; and the vi-
vacious roots, which lie beyond the reach of the plough, by
being long prevented from exercifing their vegetating
powers, will be impared in vigour. When printerenedl or
any crop which is to ftand through that feafon, is intended
to be put in on fuch ground, it would be proper that the
feed fhould be fown in drills, that by ftirring the intervals
in the enfuing fummer, the tendency which moft foils have
to condenfe or confolidate too much when greatly pulverifed
or reduced in their parts, may be counteraéted. If {pring-
feed be intended, the laft ploughing fhould be given to
the land before the winter’s rain commences, and the field
be accurately and fully furface or furrow-drained, and laid
dry. The influence of the atmofphere during the winter
will, by thefe means, communicate the happy medium of
confiftence, on. which fo much depends; and the foil, as
foon as it gets dry in the early {pring, will be in the beft or-
der for the reception of the feed at that time, and the
weeds the moft fully and effeCtually deftroyed and re-
moved, . .
| But where ground has been under any tolerable manage-
ment, drill culture will, it is faid, for the moft part, fuit all
the purpofes of a clean fallow, or be the means of rendering
the land wholly free of weeds. In repeatedly turning the
intervals, moft of the annual weeds may be attacked in the
group, and be expeditioufly deftroyed as often as they
{pring up ; and the roots of the perennial ones be turned up
and expofed to the heat and drought, which, if not altoge-
ther extirpated, will have their progrefs checked and pre-
vented. But the rows fhould alfo be hand-weeded, and the
hand-hoe will not unfrequently be found an important im-
plement in this work. Drill culture may thus be partiall
exercifed, in this intention, it is thought, every where wit
great advantage, adapting the application to any particular
fituation or circumftances. For example, where alternate
courfes of tillage and grafs crops are adopted, in a courfe
of three years’ tillage, the fecond might always be in the
drill manner ; or if there were manure to {pare, to keep a
field in good condition in tillage-crops for four years, both
the fecond and third might be in the drill method : the firft
on account of the tough turf or {ward ; and the laft for the
fake of fowing the land down with grafs-feeds would be
more convenient in the broad-caft ftate: but the weeding
in thefe cafes fhould not be neglected; the larger weeds
efpecially ; and all thofe which are moft prevalent, and moft
productive of feed, fhould be taken out by hand labour, or
fome fuch means, when they. begin to flower. By fuch
ftri& care and attention to weeding tillage-land and crops
and ftocking the ground with proper perennial grafles when
laid to reft, weeds would at length be fo much fubdued, it
is fuppofed, as to be feldom injurious to the farmer. aa
WEEDING.
The writer of the paper on weeding has ftated, that it is
remarked by the author of the Effays on Rural A ffairs, that
there is only one mode of extirpating annual weeds, the feeds
of which are indeftruétible ; which is to put the ground into
fuch a ftate as to induce them to {prout or germinate, and
then to deftroy the young plants by harrowing them up, or
ploughing them under. This, it is believed, is ftri€tly true ;
but the author of the paper juft noticed does not exaély
agree with the writer of the effays in the procefs to be pur-
fued for the purpofe; the ground, in this intention, in his
opinion, fhould be ploughed before winter, but not har-
rowed, it being better to lie rough through that feafon, fo
as to have the greateft extent of furface poffible expofed to
the aétion and mellowing effeéts and influence of frotts ;
that, as foon as it becomes dry, in or about March, it
fhould be crofs-ploughed and harrowed well down; many
of the feeds and roots will then vegetate, which fhould in
due time be ploughed under, and the land harrowed again,
and this fort of procefs be repeated as often as neceflary :
this, it is faid, is the true ufe and manner of {ummer-fal-
low in this view, which, to have its full and proper effeét,
fhould always, it is thought, be attended to early in the fea-
fon, when the powers of vegetation are the greateft, and the
heat of the fun is powerful; as under fuch circumiftances
the greater number of weeds will be brought into a ftate of
growth.
It is thought that the great defect in the management of
fummer-fallows in the intention of deftroying weeds would
feem to be the negle& of working them early in the feafon,
by which omiffion the vigorous annual feedling-weeds are
not brought into vegetation in due time ; as, after which,
they will not grow until the {pring following, when they
appear in fuch abundance among the wheat or other crop, as
fometimes to choke it up: this is the reafon, it is faid, why
the field poppy, the corn-crowfoot, the tare, and many other
annual. weeds, make {uch havoc among wheat, when by a
proper and judicious early working of the fallow, they
might have been brought to exhauft themfelves in the follow-
ing fummer: this appears very clear from the effe&t, for if
no wheat were fown, the feeds of thefe weed-plants would
often fill the ground with a full crop ; but feeds can vegetate
but once, confequently had this vegetation been brought on
in the fallow, and the plants afterwards been ploughed under
in due time, none could have appeared in the wheat-crop.
It is fuppofed, too, that the turnip-culture is peculiarly
adapted to the deftruétion of weeds, as for this fort of crop
the ground mutt of neceflity be in early and fine preparation,
by which weeds of early growth are conveniently brought
into vegetation, and deftroyed ; and thofe which remain in
the living {tate in the foil may be exterminated by hoeing.
It has been obferved by the writer, that wet weather is as
neceflary as dry to give a f{ummer-fallow its whole effect ; for
without a foaking of rain after the land is pretty well pul-
verifed, numbers of the feeds of weeds will not vegetate,
but remain and grow amongtft the crop ; the root-weeds are
therefore to be deftroyed in dry weather, and the feedling
ones after rain; and though the land fhould, after a dry
feafon, be apparently in excellent order for fowing, it will
be better to wait the effe& of rain, and even give time for
the feedling weeds to vegetate, before the feed for the crop
be aétually fown.
It is, therefore, fuggefted, that the deftruétion of root
weeds, and thofe of the feedling kind, on corn-land, muft
be effected upon different principles, and in different man-
ners; the former, by working them out of the foil in dry
weather only ; the latter, by pulverifing and reducing the
particles of the foil, fo as to induce the feed to germinate
and fpring up fully after rain, and afterwards ploughing
under the young plants: alfo that frequent ploughings and.
harrowings are neceflary, to expofe all the feedlings con-
tained in the foil to the powers of vegetation. . But it is
conceived, that the ploughings and harrowings of fallow
ground fhould not, however, ‘immediately fucceed each
other ; time fhould be given for the confolidation of the
foil, which, after well harrowing, will undergo a flight
fermentation, and fettle, as it were, into a mafs; after which
it will turn up mellow, and the deftru@tion of weeds will go
on apace. It is thought, that the frequent ploughings,
which have been recommended by fome, are not only un-
neceflary, but injurious. It has always been obferved, that
one ploughing of a fallow too foon fucceeding another has
no other effect, when ufed in this intention, than that of
rooting about the clods, and preventing the general effec
of confolidation and fermentation in the land. The fuffering
of the weeds to fpread their leaves a little between the fe-
veral ploughings of a fallow, for this purpofe, is not, it is
fuppofed, injurious: care, however, muft be taken not to
carry this notion too far, particularly in the cafe of {quitch
or couch grafs, or fo as to fuffer any of the quick growing
weeds to ripen their feeds, or the luxuriant ones to become
too large for being buried with the plough. As thefe re-
marks are judicious, and perfe@tly praétical, they deferve
the particular attention and confideration of the farmer,
wherever the weeding and proper cleaning of his ground is
concerned.
It is ftated too, that in this view, if a fallow for turnips
be crofs-ploughed and harrowed down in the month of
March, it will generally lie very well to the beginning of
May ; and that in general no fallow will want ploughing
oftener, in fuch intention, than once in fix weeks, if fuffi.
cient harrowings be given between the ploughings. The
particular time moft proper for thefe operations muft, how
ever, be determined not by any general rule, but by local
circumftances, experience, and obfervation.
In cafes where lands have not undergone proper improve~
ment, or been under a bad ftate of management, weeds
cannot be deftroyed without much labour and expence.
(See Weep.) But where lands are already improved, and
have been for fome length of time under a good fyftem of
management, the bufinefs is in part performed, and the evil
much leffened ; as in fuch cafes, as well as all others, every
rotation or courfe of cropping fhould render the land cleaner
and freer from weeds, which will certainly be the cafe,
where there is a proper and correé attention beftowed on
the bufinefs. The means which are neceflary to be ufed in
this intention are commonly, it is faid, thefe: complete and
well-managed fallows, as above, when fallows are neceflary
or proper; the ufe of manures, which are free from the
feeds or quick roots of weeds; the careful choice of fuch
feed grain as is clean; the practice of fhort tillages, or that
of not taking too many crops in rotation; the having re-
courfe to attentive weeding and a {pirited ufe of the hoe, in
which view the drill hufbandry doubtlefsly, it is fuppofed,
affords fuperior advantages to the broad-caft, in keeping
land clean from weeds; but that land muft be well cleaned
before the drill hufbandry is applicable ; the plentiful ufe of
the clean feeds of the beft graffes and trefoils at the end of
the tillage, in each cafe; the weeding of the land, when in
or at grafs, fo as not to fuffer the feeds of any noxious or
injurious plants to fpread themfelves; and that when upon
again breaking up the land, to purfue fuch a fyftem or
plan of cropping as will not increafe or encourage weeds.
But though much might be faid on each of thefe points, it
is thought unneceflary, as the intelligent farmer will readily
Ti adopt
WEEDING.
adopt every neceffary regulation and precaution from his
own obfervation and experience. It will, therefore, only
be needful to flightly touch upon the different particulars
or objects. . As the fubjeét of fallows has been already con-
fidered and explained, it is unneceflary to be further noticed
in this place. In regard to fold-yard manure, it fhould al-
ways, it is fuppofed, in this intention, undergo a ferment-
ation before itis laid upon the land, fufficient to prevent the
future vegetation of any feeds that may be contained in it:
but it fhould likewife be kept as free as poffible from the
feeds of weeds; and perhaps it is belt laid on grafs-land,
applying only lime, or other manures certain of being clean,
to fallows; or if dung not certainly clean from feeds be
laid on fallows, it fhould be applied on them early enough
to give time to have the feeds to vegetate and {pend them-
felves before fowing for the crop. It is faid, that every
one knows the neceflity of clean feed-corn to the producing
of aclean crop, but fometimes negle&ts to apply fuch know-
ledge ; and indeed clean ay iy is not always to be pro-
cured. If weed-feeds be fufpeéted, they fhould, as often
as poffible and practicable, be dreffed out before fowing the
corn. The weeding of crops is paaey: imperfetly per-
formed, and is likely to continue fo, it is thought, in many
places, on account of the difficulty of procuring hands
enough for work which is only fo temporary in its nature.
Thiftles are generally only cut off, but they fhould always,
it is faid, by drawn up by tongs, or other tools for the
purpofe, and the other forts of weeds by the hand. The
hoe has yet been only of general ufe in turnip crops, nor is
it likely to extend further, unlefs the drill hufbandry fhould
be more eftablifhed; nor even, in its prefent application,
can proper hands enough be always, it is faid, procured at
fufficiently reafonable rates. As much, however, fhould
conftantly be done in all thefe ways as circumftances will
allow. In the laying down of land to grafs, the importance
of clean grafs-feed is well underftood ; yet the feeds of
docks are not unfrequently fown with clover, and thofe of
other pernicious weed-plants with ray-grafs. In all cafes,
the utmoft attention fhould be paid to the fowing of clean
feed of this {mall kind. And in the weeding of grafs-land,
docks and thiftles are often mown, or me cut off, but
they fhould always be rooted up; for which purpofe,
docking irons formed upon fufficiently good principles are
moftly had recourfe to. They are, it 1s fuppofed, evéry
where well underftood, confifting fimply of a forked or
clefted {pike of iron, which is jogged within the cleft, and
4ixed to the end of a wooden lever: this being foreed down
by the hand or foot, fo as to inclofe the root of a dock, or
large thiftle, will eafily bring it up, particularly after rain ;
but mowing them off, being done with more expedition, is
often practifed ; and they are fometimes left undifturbed,
and fuffered to {catter their feeds without any effort being
made to prevent it, which is very injurious, and always to
be avoided as much as poffible. Itis ftated too, that upon
breaking up a turf or {ward, it is underftood in the writer’s
neighbourhood, that unlefs a wheat fallow or a turnip crop
compofe a part of the tillage, the land will be injured, and
rendered fouler, and more addicted to produce weeds: this
notion is, it is believed, a juft one, though often deviated
from in praétice, for the fake of prefent profit, and under
the delufive idea of cleaning,the land again next tillage. It
is, however, well afcertained, that land well cleaned by
former good management will beft bear this deviation ; for
the fewer weeds it contains at breaking up, the lefs will be
the increafe of them during the tillage or after-culture of
the ground.
e writer of the Elements of Agriculture noticed
4
above has obferved, that it is not enough to attend to weed-
ing in the time of tillage-culture only ; it is proper that grafs-
fields and lands fhould likewife be kept free of all noxious,
hurtful, and unprofitable herbage. The negligence which
may be feen in this refpeét, in many diftriéts and places, is,
it is faid, fhameful. Paftures and other grafs-lands. are
fometimes fo clofe covered with large weeds, that the paf-
turing animals have fearcely room to pick up a mouthful ;
and thus the vegetable food and other matters, which fhould
nourifh good and wholefome pafture and other grafs-land
herbage, is confumed by ufelefs weeds. And {peaking of
different coarfe and difgufting weed-plants, fuch as the
dock, ragweed, bur, corn, and fow-thiftles, and fome
others, it is remarked, that the two laft are of the fort
which extend their vivacious roots below the reach of the
plough, when the land is in tillage. It is not, it is faid,
uncommon with thofe who affe& to pay a little more atten-
tion than ordinary to their paftures and grafs-lands, to cut
down thefe plants in the flower. If this be done in a rainy
time, or if {uch rain falls foon after,,the water defcending
into the frefh cut wound of the ftem, debilitates the roots,
and difcourages the growth of the plants for a time, though
they are feldom wholly deftroyed by it; but that if fuch
critical rains do not occur, freth leaves immediately arife to
fupport the roots, and the cutting over has very little or no
effe&t. They fhould confequently be annually pulled up by
the roots as foon as poflible, after the flower begins to form
and fhew itfelf, taking advantage of the firft fhower which
happens to fall, to foften the ground and make them draw
up more freely. By purfuing this pra@tice regularly and
fteadily for a number of years, the deep lying perennial
roots are, it is faid, gradually weakened, and fall into de-
cay. Nor is cutting down the ragweed of much avail.
Some of the plants die, but many furvive, and branch out
more copioufly the enfuing year. But this plant not being
deep-rooted, is eafily pulled up when in flower, if the
ground be foft at the time. The bur-thiftle being a biennial
plant, may be killed at any time by cutting it under the
firft leaves. The eommon dock is the moit troublefome
plant -in grafs-land, efpecially in clayey foils, where it is
always the moft frequent. Every bit of its long tap-root
left in the ground will continue to vegetate and grow, and
at length form a new ftem and plant. It fhould, in all
cafes, be fully turned out with the dock-iron, in the manner
already noticed, as foon as the flowering-{tem is formed ;
and as the plants of this kind rife at two Sakon the pafture
or grafs fields fhould be weeded twice in the fummer, that
no feeds may be allowed to ripen. The roots fhould be
fully expofed to the heat and drought ; for if they be in a
moiit place, they will continue to vegetate on the furface,
as they lie and itrike out fide-roots into the ground. All
other inefculent herbage on paftures and other forts of grafs
grounds, and all weeds bearing feeds by the s of roads,
ditches, brooks, and other fuch places, fhould be cut down
too, when they begin to flower, in order to prevent their
increafe by their feeds being difperfed over the grafs fields
and grounds.
The writer of the Gloucefterfhire’ Report on Agriculture,
in reprobating the practice of confimng the bufinefs of
weeding almoit folely to the tillage-lands, while the mea-
dows and paftures are almoft wholly negleGted, and over-
run with docks, thiftles, nettles, hemlock, and many other
fuch weed-plants, remarks, that it is fuppofed by the
farmers, that the fcythe will be early enough to cut them
off: the feeds, however, are generally ripened and difperfed
before mowing time; and if not, they are carried with the
hay to the ftall, and mixed with the dung, or into the paf-
ture
WEEDING.
ture for fodder during the winter ; in either of which cafes
they cannot fail, it is fuppofed, of increafing greatly. Be-
fides, the mere cutting off this kind of weeds rather im-
proves than diminifhes their growth, by forcing them to
throw out new fhoots from the roots, and that in greater
abundance than before. Thus, a thiltle, which rifes at firft
with a fingle ftem, if cut off above the furface of the ground,
fpreads with feveral lateral branches, and covers a large
{pace of ground. The moft likely method of deftroying
them is to draw them up by the roots, as already feen,
which may eafily be done when the ground is moift, and is
done by thofe farmers there, it is faid, who are anxious for
their credit, nice in their herbage, and proud of feeing their
paftures rivalling the neatnefs of alawn. The negligence,
indeed, of a neighbour often operates as a difcouragement,
and it is an evil not eafily to be prevented: it is, however,
furprifing in another inftance, it is faid, to obferve an almoft
unanimous encouragement given to the multiplication of
noxious weeds. In the highways they are left to grow to
maturity, and their feeds are difperfed in immenfe quantities in
every direCtion, and all over the country, by the wind, or by
being carried by birds. Under thefe circumftances, it is faid
to be certainly of little ufe for one, or even all the occupiers,
of ground, to clear their lands of weeds, while this plentiful
fource of them remains unmolefted. One fhould fuppofe,
the writer obferves, that the evident mifchief refulting from
this negle& would excite a general combination againtt thefe
deftruétive enemies to the interefts of agriculuure: that,
however, not being the cafe, might it not, it is afked, be
convenient to incorporate with the duty of the furveyors, or
overlookers of the roads, the bufinefs of cutting up, and
otherwife deftroying, fuch kinds of weeds within their dif-
tri€ts or boundaries? Should the faét of the thoufand-fold
increafe of fuch felf-fown feeds be doubted or difputed, let,
it is faid, any one but obferve a patch on a common, from
which the turf or {ward has been pared, how completely it
will be covered with thiftles in the following fummer ; and
the arable fields adjoining are not much better, where this
negligence prevails.
And the writer of the paper on the fubject of weeding
ftates, that there is another caufe of the increafe and propa-
gation of weeds, which may be termed a public caufe, and
which it is not in the power of any individual to prevent ;
but which a flovenly,' negleGtful, or ill-difpofed perfon may
promote and increafe, and which can only be effe€tually pre-
vented by a political regulation, and for which, it is believed,
no provifion has yet been made in our political code: thus
are the numbers of vigorous and luxuriant weeds which
are fuffered to ripen their feeds in our hedges, paftures,
woods, and other lands, and the feeds of which being pro-
vided with feathery matters, are difperfed over the whole
territory of the kingdom, and propagate themfelves far and
near, growing in whatever places they alight and fettle, and
producing a moft abundant crop: the moft common and
pernicious of which are fuppofed to be the different forts of
fow-thiftles, fow-worts, common thiftles, colt’s-foot, ground-
fels, knap-weeds, &c. For as the feeding and feattering of
the feeds of all thefe forts of plants is clearly a public nui-
fance, and as they are fubjeG to be carried to a great diftance
by the above means, and to do harm to the lands of all oc-
cupiers indifcriminately, they fhould, it is thought, be under
the controul of our political regulations. This would be
the effe€tual means of preventing much labour and expence
to the farmer and the occupier, in the weeding of different
kinds of lands and crops, and at the fame time go a great
way in rendering the territory of the country ultimately clear
of a great proportion of its moft noxious and hurtful weeds,
Befides, regulations of the above kind have been applied in
different countries and places to weed-plants, which are much
lefs injurious and hurtful than thefe. See Weep, and the
above paper in the fifth volume of Communications to the
Board of Agriculture.
In fome cafes and parts of the country, the weeds in the
lefs heavy tillage-lands are deftroyed, by an entire and per-
feét fummer-fallow every third year, which is an effectual
but expenfive method of proceeding ;. but on the {trong loams
and other heayy foils by good hoeing and hand-weeding the
drilled or fet crops of beans, peas, and fome other kinds.
On the fandy and other light loams, by well hoeing and weed-
ing by hand the crops of peas, potatoes, turnips, and fome
others. As foon as the peas or tares are off the land, the
ground is ploughed and well harrowed, and the root-weeds
picked or raked together, and burned or otherwife difpofed
of, as noticed above ; which is moftly repeated after the
crofs-ploughing and harrowing have been performed... The
ground being then in a great meafure free from root-weeds,
the turnips are fown, and the feed-weeds that may arife de-
{troyed by twice or oftener hand-hoeing and weeding. This
fort of praétice being repeated or put in execution once in
three or four years, is capable of keeping light land tolera-
bly clean and free from weeds. However, in the cafe of a
hot dry fummer, the labour and expence of raking, colle&-
ing, picking, and burning the weeds, may not unfrequently
be faved, and the roots deftroyed, by only harrowing them
to the furface after every ploughing ; and by that means
expofing them well to the heat of the fun for a fufficient
length of time to kill them, which is fometimes effectually
done in the courfe of a week. Care muft, however, always
be taken that they are fully and completely deftroyed, other-
wife much mifchief may be the confequence, as they are
extremely tenacious of life.
In all cafes, where the ftaple or vegetable mould of the
foil is of a fufficient depth to admit of trench-ploughing,
that fort of ploughing, with the affiftance of heavy rolling,
and other proper means, will in fome circumftances com-
pletely deftroy root-weeds. In fome cafes, it is even more
effe€tual for that purpofe, it is faid, than any greater num-
ber of ploughings, and is an excellent method, where it can be
accomplifhed without turning up a poor barren fubfoil. The
great utility and importance of it in cleaning garden-grounds
have been already feen, and it is fuppofed to be equally be-
neficial in deftroying weeds, and preferving the foil moift
in the moft drying weather of the fummer feafon. See
Trencu-Ploughing, and Trencuinc. Alfo Ripcinc-up.
The work of weeding in all cafes fhould be begun fuffi-
ciently early in the fpring, that the weeds may not be in
too forward a ftate, and the bufinefs, in whatever way it is
undertaken, be effectually and completely performed, with-
out any fort of omiffion or negle&. In the meadows and
pafture-lands it fhould be equally attended to as in the corn-
fields, as in all fituations weeds are a very great drawback
upon the farmer’s profit, and of vat inconvenience in many
different ways.
It is prefumed by the writer of the paper on weeding,
that if the above propofed regulations, precautions, and me-
thods of deftroying injurious plants were generally adopted
in pra¢tice, they would render the Britifh empire as free
from weeds as thofe of China and Japan.
It may be concluded that, on the whole, by great, unre-
mitted, and proper attention, with fome fuch regulations as
the above, to the extermination and deftruétion of all forts
of ufelefs and hurtful weeds in cultivated grounds, and from
meadows and paftures, the growth of injurious and worth-
lefs plants may be prevented, and the arable crops bere
ere
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dered much more abundant and produétive than they ufu-
ally are, and thofe of the grafs kind be provided with a
better and more ufeful herbage for the fupport of live-ftock
of all kinds, which would greatly contribute to the farmer’s
profit and advantage. ;
Weeprnc-Chifl, in Agriculture, an ufeful tool with a di-
vided chifel point for cutting the roots of large weeds within
the ground. See WrEp-Hook.
Weepine Dock-Spit, the tool ufed in extirpating weeds
of the dock, thiftle, and other fuch large kinds which are to
be got up by the roots. It is a fort of crow or lever, with
a claw at the bottom end of it, a little curved forward, and
divided into two fide parts, in fomewhat the manner of the
thin end of a common hammer ufed for drawing nails: it
has an arm or tread which projects at about eight or ten
inches from the lower end, for the foot to reft firmly upon
in forcing it into the ground, and ata little diftance above
it, on the back fide, a curve of iron, projecting about three
inches ; on the upper or top end, a handle is fixed, and faf-
tened as in the common fpade : in ufing it the claw feizes the
root of the plant, and, by a gentle preffure of the handle end
downwards, in the manner of the lever, eafily and readily
draws or forces it out of the ground: by means of this
fimple implement or contrivance, many hundreds of fuch
weed-plants may be eradicated or drawn out in the courfe
ofaday. It has fometimes the names of weeding-{pud or
fpade, and dock-fpit or {pud given it. See WEEDING.
WeepiNG- Forceps, or Tongs, the tool of the nipper kind,
which is made ufe of for taking up fome forts of ‘plants in
weeding corn and other crops, fuch as {mall thiftles of dif-
ferent kinds, {mall docks, and various other fuch weeds. It
‘feizes them by the mouth part, which is fixed upon them by
theans of the long handles in ufing it, and readily forces them
up. See TuistLe-Drawer.
Weepinc-Forf, a ftrong three-pronged fork of the fork
fort employed for working root-weeds in tillage-lands,
and forking out the weeds of the fame kind in garden-
grounds ; in both which cafes it is a very ufeful and effective
tool. It is fometimes made with flat prongs, and termed a
fpud in plantation-grounds. See Fork.
WeepING-Shim, an implement which is conftruéted dif-
ferently to fuit different purpofes, but that which is made
with a frame fomewhat like that of the common wheel-
barrow, is confidered the beft in the county of Kent, where
tools of this fort are much ufed in the planaton-ground
for different crops. It is a very ufeful and convenient vod
for the purpofe of tearing up weeds on fummer-fallows, and
in many other cafes. Its cheapnefs too is a great recommen-
dation of it, as it is capable of being well conftructed for.
about two pounds. See Harrow, &c.
Weepinc-Spud. See WeepinG Dock-Spit fupra.
WEEDS, in Mining, aterm ufed by our Englith diggers
to exprefs any fort of unprofitable fubftance found among
the ores of metals. They feem to have borrowed the
phrafe from the gardeners ; and as every thing with them
is a weed, except what they have planted, and expe& to
gather, fo every thing is a weed with the miners, except
the thing they are finking for. See Dicerne.
The principal. fub{tances known in our mines under the
name of weeds, are mundic or marcafite ; this is ‘of three
forts, white, yellow, and green ; daze, a kind of puone
talcky ftone, of the telaugium kind, which endures the
fire, and is of various colours and hardnefles ; iron-moulds,
or pyrite ; caul, which is brownifh and fpongy; and
glifter, which is a fort of talc. Phil. Tranf. N° 69.
Weeps alfo denote a peculiar habit, worn by the relics
of perfons deceafed, by way of mourning. See Mourninc.
WEE
. WEEK, Septimana, hebdomada, in Chronology, a divifiost
of time, comprifing feyen days.
> The origin of this divifion of weeks, or of computing
time by fevenths, is greatly controverted. Some will have
it to take its rife from the four quarters or intervals of the
moon, between her changes of phafes, which, being about
feven days diftant, gave occafion to the divifion. Be this
as it will, the divifion is certainly very ancient. The
Syrians, Egyptians, and moft of the oriental nations, ap-
pear to have ufed it from all antiquity : though it did not
get footing in the Weft till Chriftianity brought it in: the
Romans reckoned their days not by fevenths, but by ninths ;
and the ancient Greeks by decads, or tenths. r
Indeed, the Jews divided their time by weeks, but it was
upon a different principle from the other eaftern nations.
God himfelf having appointed them to work fix days, and
to reft the feventh, in order to keep up the fenfe and re-
membrance of the creation; which, being effeéted in fix
days, he refted the feventh.
Some authors will even have the ufe of weeks, among
the other eaftern nations, to have proceeded from the Jews ;
but with little appearance of probability. It is with better
reafon that others fuppofe the ufe of weeks, among the
heathens of the Eaft, to be a remain of the tradition of
the creation, which they had ftill retained with divers
others, y :
_ This is the opinion of Grotius, De Veritat. Relig. Chritt.
lib. i.,, who likewife proves, that not only throughout the
Eaft, but even among the Greeks, Italians, Celtz, Sclavi,
and even the Romans themfelves, the days were divided
into weeks; and that the feventh day was in extraordin’
veneration. This appears from Jofeph. adv. Apion. IT.
Philo. de Creatione. Clem. Alexand. Strom. lib.v. Though
Helmoldus, lib. i. cap. 84. Philoftratus, lib. iti. cap. 13.
Dion. lib. xxxviii. Tibullus, Lucian, Homer, Callima-
chus, Suetonius, Herodotus, &c. who mention the fepte-
nary divifion of days as very ancient, fuppofe it to have
been derived from the Egyptians.
The days of the week were denominated by the Jews,
from the order of their fucceffion from the fabbath. Thus,
the day next after the fabbath, they called the fir of the
fabbath ; the next, the /econd of the fabbath ; and fo of
the reft ; except the fixth, which they call parafceve, or
preparation of the fabbath.
The like method is ftill kept up by the Chriftian Arabs,
Perfians, Ethiopians, &c. The ancient heathens deno-
minated the days of the week from the feven planets ;
which names are ftill generally retained among the Chrif-
tians of the Weft. Thus the firft day was called Sun-day,
dies folis; the fecond Moon-day, dies lune, &c. a prattice
the more natural on Dion’s principle, who fays, the
Egyptians took the divifion of the week itfelf from the
feven planets.
In effet, the true reafon of thefe denominations feems
to be founded in aftrology. For the aftrologers diftri-
buting the government and dire€tion of all the hours in the
week among the feven planets, b 4% f © 2 ¥ D,
fo as that the government of the firft hour of the firft
day fell to Saturn, that of the fecond day to Jupiter, &c.
they gave each day the name of the planet, which, accord-
ing to their doétrine, prefided over the firft hour thereof ;
and that, according to the order {pecified above ; and which
is included in the follwing technical verfe.
Poff SIM SUM fequitur, pallida Luna fube/?.
Wherein, the ines letters SIM SUM, and L, are the
initial letters of the planets. So that the order of the
planets
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planets in the week, bears little relation to that in which
they follow in the heavens: the former being founded on an
imaginary power each planet has, in its turn, on the firft
hour of each day.
Dion. Caffius gives another reafon of the denomination,
fetched from the celeftial harmony. For it being obferved
that the harmony of the diateffaron, which confifts in the
ratio of 4 to 3, is of great force and effeét in mufic ; it
was judged meet to proceed direétly from Saturn to the
Sun ; becaufe, according to the old fyftem, there are three
planets between Saturn and the Sun, and four from the
Sun to the Moon.
Our anceftors the Saxons, before their converfion to the
Chriftian faith, named the feven days of the week from
the Sun and Moon and fome of their deified heroes, to
whom they were peculiarly confecrated, which names we
received and ftill retain: thus Sunday was devoted to the
Sun; Monday to the Moon; Tuefday, according to fome,
to Tuifto or Tuifco, mentioned by Tacitus; but, according
to others, to Thyfa or Dyfa, the wife of Thor, and the
goddefs of jultice ; or, according to others, to Tyr; Wed-
nefday to Woden, the god of war; Thurfday to Thor,
who prefided over the air, and was fuppofed to govern the
winds and clouds; this is the fame with Lucan’s Taranis,
fimilar to the Welfh word for thunder; Friday to Friga
or Fra, the wife of Thor, and the goddefs of peace and
plenty ; and Saturday to Seater, called alfo Orodo, to
whom they prayed for protection, freedom, and concord,
and for the fruits of the earth. The origin of the laft ap-
pellation, however, is doubtful; as fome have obferved,
that the name Seater is not mentioned by any writer before
Verftegan. See Veritegan’s Retftitution of decayed Intel-
ligence, p. 68. Junii Etym, Angl, and Mallet’s North.
Ant. vol. i. p. 91, &c.
To find the accomplifhment of Daniel’s prophecy of the
Meffiah, the deftruction, rebuilding, &c. of the temple,
chap. ix. ver. 24, &c. the critics generally agree to under-
ftand weeks of years, inftead of weeks of days.
Accordingly, Dr. Prideaux, fixing the end of thefe
weeks at the death of Chrift, in the year of the Julian
period 4746, and in the Jewifh month Nifan, dates their
commencement in the month Nifan, in the year of the
Julian period 4256, which was the very year and month
in which Ezra had his commiffion from Artaxerxes Lon-
gimanus, king of Perfia, for his return-to Jerufalem,
there to reftore the church and ftate of the Jews. And
thus he finds, that from the one period to the other, there
were exactly 70 weeks of years, or 490 years. Connect.
vol. ii. p. 381, &c.
Werks, Ember. See Ember.
Weeks, Fra/? of. See PENTECOST.
Week, Pajffion, or the Holy Week, is the laft week in
Lent, in which the church celebrates the myftery of our
Saviour’s death and paffion.
This is alfo fometimes called the great week. Its inftitution
is generally referred, both by Proteftants and Papilts, to
the times of the apoftles. All the days of that week were
held as fafts: no work was done on them ; no juftice was
diftributed ; but the prifoners were ordinarily fet at liberty,
-&c. even pleafures, otherwife allowed, were at this time
prohibited. The ofculum charitatis was now forborn ; and
divers mortifications practifed by all forts of people, and
even the emperors themfelves.
Werk, Rogation. See RoGarion.
Week, or Wick of a Candle, &c. the cotton match in a
candle or lamp. See Canpur, Lamp, &c.
Weerx-Fi/h, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome to a
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very delicate fifh, caught on the Eaft Indian fhores, and
called by the Dutch there the wit-vifch. See Wir-Fifh.
Weexty Markets and Fairs,'in Agriculture, are of cone
fiderable ufe and convenience to the farmer and land-owner,
as affording the ready means of purchafing, providing, and
furnifhing them with the different articles they are conti-
nually in need of, as well as the various forts and defcrip-
tions of cattle and -other live-ftock, which are always
wanted in fuch cafes; as they are common in moft large
towns, the former once or oftener in the courfe of the
week, and the latter in fome inftances in that time, and at
more diftant periods. They give the means, too, of readily
difpofing of all forts of produce and ftock of the farm kind,
which is often a very great accommodation and adyantage
to the farmer and ftore-matter, as is fully feen in the waekly
market of Smithfield in the metropolis, as well as in many
particular markets and fairs in the country, as at Liverpool,
Lancafter, Garftang, and many other towns in the north;
and at Uxbridge, Reading, Chelmsford, Petworth, and a
variety of other towns in the fouth. See Owen’s Book of
Fairs, &c.
WEELING, Ansewm, in Biography, born at Bois-le-
Duc in 1675, was an imitator of Godfrey Schalken and
Adrian Vanderwerf; but. particularly of the former ; and
many of his produétions have been taken for pictures by
that mafter. He died in 1749.
WEELS, in Geography, a river of Germany, which
rifes in the duchy of Oldenburg, and joining the Ochte, in
the county of Delmenhorft, falls into the Wefer, 8 miles
N.W. of Bremen.
‘WEEN. See Hwen.
WEENINX, Joun Baptist, in Biography, an excellent
artift, was born at Amfterdam in 1621, the fon of John
Weeninx, an artilt of confiderable celebrity. He loft his
fathzr when he was very young, and was placed by his
mother with a bookfeller; but his tafte for painting mani-
felting itfelf decidedly, he was allowed to indulge it, and
was placed as a difciple with John Micker, and afterwards
with Ab. Bloemart. He made a rapid progrefs, and drew
with fuperior power the principal buildings in Amfterdam
and its vicinity. Animals, birds, huntings, &c, he was
{killed in reprefenting, and he foon began to paint his
fubjeéts with fuccefs. He left Bloemart, and ftudied a
fhort time with Moojaert ; but when he was 18, he found
himfelf fufficiently eftablifhed to truft to himfelf, and his
pictures were favourably received.
A defire to improve led him to Rome, where his talents
recommended him to many of the principal perfonages ;
among others, the cardinal Pamphili gave him a penfion,
and honoured him with many commiffions: he would fain,
indeed, have retained him at Rome, but the folicitations of
his family, and his natural defire of exhibiting his power
among his countrymen, induced him to return to Holland,
after an abfence of four years. On his return, he found
abundant. admiration and employment, which, indeed, he
very well merited, as his extraordinary facility in painting
a vaft variety of fubje€ts has rarely been equalled. He
painted hiftory, portraits, land{capes, fea-ports, animals, and
dead-game ; but he particularly excelled in Italian fea-
ports, enriched with noble architecture, and decorated with
figures. There is a very beautiful {pecimen of his power
in the gallery of Cleveland-houfe, which in Britton’s Cata~
logue is numbered 243. He unfortunately died very young,
in 1660, being only 39 years old.
WEENINX, Joun, fon of Baptift, mentioned above,
was born at Amfterdam in 1644, and was inftruéted in
painting by his father until he was 16 years of age, ee
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he had the misfortune to lofe that able inftru€tor. His
talent was not of fo general a nature as that of his father ;
but in birds, flowers, animals, and fruit, he has feldom been
furpaffed for the boldnefs, animation, and correétnefs of
touch, or the brilliancy and clearnefs of colour, as well as of
chiaro-ofeuro. The ele&tor John William invited him to
his court, and many of his moft confiderable produétions
' are at the gallery of Duffeldorf. He decorated a hunting
feat of the eleGtors, the chateau of Benfberg, with a feries
of hunting of the boar and the ftag, in which he difplayed
his fcill and tafte with brilliant effe&. His {maller works are
exquifitely finifhed, yet with great breadth, and defervedly
efteemed. He died in 1719, at the age of 75.
WEEPER, in Zoology. See Sumta Capucina.
WEEPING, in Phyfiology. See Lunes and TEars.
Weepinc-Rock, in Agriculture, that fort of laminated,
or porous, open rock, through which water paffes in a flow,
radual, weeping manner. Strata of this kind are not un-
Frequently very troublefome in the praétice of draining.
See WaLt-Spring and Sprinc-Draining.
WeepinG-Spring, that fort of difcharge of water from
the internal parts of the earth which is produced in a very
flow weeping manner. The draining of fprings of this fort
is fometimes not attended with much difficulty, while in
other cafes they are often very troublefome. See Sprine
and SprinG-Draining.
WEER. See WEIR. ;
WEERAWAJU, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
on the borders of the defert of Cutch; 40 miles W. of
Buddakano.
WEERDT, or Wenrpt, a town of Germany, in the
bifhopric of Munfter, on the Old Iffel; 40 miles W. of
Muniter. N. lat. 51° 52'. E. long. 6° 33/.
WEERT, or Wert, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Meufe; 10 miles W. of Ruremond.
N. lat. 51° 17!._ E. long. 5° 43}.
Weert, Niedér, a town of France, in ‘the department
of the Lower Meufe; 10 miles S.W. of Venlo.
WEESDALE, a town of the ifland of Shetland; 6
miles N.W. of Lerwick.
WEESENSTEIN, or WeseEnsTEIN, a town of Sax-
ony, in the margraviate of Meiflen; 5 miles S.W. of
Pirna.
WEEVER. See Wever.
Weever, in Ichthyology, the Englifh name for the fifh
called by Willughby and other authors the draco-marinus,
or fea-dragon. :
Belon fays, that this name is a corruption of the French
la vive, becaufe this fith is capable of living long out of the
water.
Mr. Pennant defcribes another fpecies, under the name of
the great weever, the draco major, or araneus of Salvian,
which inhabits the fea near Scarborough. Brit. Zool. vol. iii.
. 171.
F WEEVIL, in Natural Hiftory, the name of a {mall in-
fe& which does great damage in magazines of corn, by
eating into the feveral grains, and deftroying their whole
fubftance.
This creature is fomewhat bigger than a large loufe, and
is of the fcarab or beetle kind, having two pretty, jointed,
tufted horns, and a trunk or piercer, projecting from the
fore part of its head: at the end of this trunk, which is
very long in proportion to its body, there is a fort of for-
ceps or fharp teeth, with which it gnaws its way into the
heart of the grain, either to feek its food, or to depofit its
eggs there. i
y keeping thefe creatures alive in glafs tubes, with a
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few grains of wheat, their copulation and manner of gene-
ration have been difcovered. The female perforates a
grain of wheat, and in it depofits a fingle egg, or, at the
utmolt, two eggs; and this fhe does to five or fix grains
every day, for feveral days together. Thefe eggs, which
are not larger than a grain of fand, in about a week pro-
duce as odd a fort off white maggot, which wriggles its
body very much about, but is very little able to move from
place to place: this, in about a fortnight, turns to an au-
relia, from which is produced the perfe&t weevil. This de-
ftru€tive creature is itfelf very fubje& to be deftroyed, and
when in the egg or aurelia ftate, it is very fubject to be
eaten by mites. Baker’s Microf. p. 221. Leewenhoeck,
tom. iv. ep. 76. “
It is ftated in a feries of communications which contain
different interefting particulars, inferted in the appendix to
the Corre&ted Report on the Agriculture of the County of
Middlefex, that J. L. Banger, efq. of the ifland of Ma-
deira, has found that fteaming fuch grain as is infefted with
the weevil has the effet of preferving it. In comparing
the method ufed by another perfon with his, on portions of
the fame cargo of grain, the quantity or weight was greater
in the latter; but the moft effential difference was in the
quality, which in the former was almoft unfaleable, while in
the latter, or that of fteaming, it was better and fweeter
than when firft received. The produce of grain from the
ifland of St. Michael it is found cannot be preferved fo long
a time as that which is imported from any other country,
though the manner of keeping it there, which might throw
fome light upon the fubje&, is not known: oF this the
writer has recently obtained fufficient experience, it is faid,
by having ordered a part of a cargo of grain to be placed in
a ftore which had lately been ufed with that ifland wheat ;
and from this caufe, in a very fhort time, had become badly
infected with the weevil. Another purchafer of a part of
the fame cargo, too, is, from a fimilar caufe, a fufferer.
The writer has not, however, much anxiety about it, as the
grain he purchafed and fteamed once on the firft of January,
and again on the firft of June, is now, (the time of writing, )
in perfe& prefervation, and free from the weevil. The In-
dian corn too, that was purchafed then in March laft, at
which time it was very full of the infe€t, is at prefent free
and perfeét, it is faid, without a fecond heating.” It is in-
tended pafling it again through the fteam, however, itis faid,
as foon as the apparatus is properly fixed, when no doubt is
made of its keeping through the year. In examining the
particular tendency that the grain lately arrived has to the
generation of the infe&t, the writer has imagined it in fome
meafure to proceed from the embargo laid upon American
veffels having obliged the merchants in the different fea-ports
to keep their ar fo full as to have heated the grain ;
though he has {ome reafon to think that the months of March
and September are attended with peculiar circumftances re-
f{peéting the increafe of the weevil.
It is found that by the confumption of one hundred
pounds weight of coals in a kitchen portable fteam appara-
tus, three moys, or feventy-two Englifh bufhels of grain can
be fteamed in the common hours of work of one day.
The writer had then lately fteamed a granary of fixt
moys, or one thoufand four hundred ait! forty Engli
bufhels, in about three weeks. The watfte of grain, not
badly infe&ted with the weevil, is found to be one
cent. in weight in one month, and the increafe fo rapid, that
if proper precautions be not taken, in lefs than fix it will
be rendered totally unfit for ufe ; and that in the Weft
Indies the writer is fatisfied from his own experience, that
three months will be equal, in deftruétion to the Lard to
that
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that of fix months in the temperate climate in which he
writes. Perhaps, it isfaid, no part of the globe would ex-
perience fo much benefit from the ufe of {team as a rice
country.
The writer having, by fubftituting copper tubes for thofe
of tin, which were at firft employed, but tinned to prevent
mifchief, at laft fucceeded in getting them fufficiently tight,
proceeded better in his trials: the fteamed rice remained
free from duft, and it is fuppofed that fteam may be ren-
dered very ferviceable in feparating the hufk from the grain
in that cafe, as wellas in barley, &c. ; nay, that it may be
extended to flax, and many other articles.
The attention of the writer more lately has been particu-
larly attraéted, by finding fome grain that had been fteamed
to grow, when fown, in repeated trials; and from the
very flourifhing ftate of what is come up, and his own ob-
fervations, he is led to think that the blight in wheat might
be materially prevented by having it fteamed before it is
fown. It was afterwards difcovered that the flourifhing
condition of the wheat fown after fteaming furprifed every
one who faw it ; and it is thought to be an objeét worthy of
confideration.
It was found, on taking a certain quantity of wheat that
had been fteamed, and of fuch as had not, and fending them
to the mill, that there was an increafe of nearly five per
cent. in the bread produced from the wheat that was
fteamed : but it is not certainly known if this difference
would have arifen, if the latter had been dried in the fun or
an oven, as fometimes practifed there, but which is trouble-
fome. The beft bread made there is, it is faid, from a mix-
ture of fine American flour and ifland wheat; and the
writer has no doubt, that if a baker was to make ufe of
fteam, he might, in the proportion of wheat in the quar-
tern loaf, fave from five to ten per cent.
The writer intends to try the advantages to be gained by
{teaming feeds to be fent to foreign countries. Bifcuit, he
is convinced, may be kept any length of time by it; but
from its fize, the operation of fteaming it is confiderably
more difficult than grain. Wheat provided in any way, in
general, it isfaid, gets better and more free from the weevil
by fteaming. See the Paper.
The weevil, too, is faid to be very injurious and deftru€tive
to the wheat and Indian corn in America, fo that the means
of preyenting it muft be of great utility and confequence.
WEFERLINGEN, in Geography, a town of Wett-
phalia, in the principality of Halberftadt, infulated in the
duchy of Magdeburg; 25 miles N. of Halberftadt.
WEFT, a kind of web, or thing woven; as, a weft or
trefs of hair. See Wes, Hair, Tissuz, &c. ie
Wert, or Woof, the crofs-threads of cloth. See
. WEAvine.
WEGELEBEN, in Geography, a town of Weltphalia,
. the principality of Halberitadt; 5 miles N. of Quedling-
urg. ;
WEGERSDORF, a town of Pruffia, in Oberland ; 3
miles S. of Salfeldt.
WEGG?’s Istanp, a {mall ifland in Hudfon’s Bay. N.
lat. 63° 20'. W. long. go° 25/.
Wece’s Lake, a lake of North America.
25". W. long. 92° 25).
- WEGGIS, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Lucerne, and capital of a bailiwick, fituated on the north
fide of the Lake of Lucerne ; 7 miles E. of Lucerne.
WEGSTADEL, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Leitmeritz ; 1o miles S.E. of Leitmeritz.
WEGSTAID, or VecEsrain, a town of the bifhopric
of Paffau, infulated in Auftria; 12 miles E. of Paffau.
Vor, XXXVITI.
N. lat. 50°
®
WEI
WEHAX, Litt, and Stor, two {mall iflands on the E.
fide ef the Gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 60° 45’. E. long.
21° 9. :
WEHEN, a town of the principality of Naffau Saar-
bruck Ufingen ;. romiles N.N.W. of Mentz.
WEHLEN, or Weutav, or Wehl-Stadtel, a town of
Saxony ; 5 miles S. of Pirna.
WEHMALAIS, a town of Sweden, in the government
of Abo; 20 miles N. of Abo.
WEHNER, a town of Eaft Friefland; 13 miles S. of
Emden.
* WEHRR, a river of the duchy of Baden, which runs into
the Rhine, 4 miles W. of Seckingen.
WEHRENDORYF, a town of Weltphalia, in the
county of Ravenfburg ; 5 miles W.S.W. of Vlothow.
WEHRENSEE, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 6
miles N. of Luttenberg.
WEHRHEIM, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Naffau Dillenburg ; 18 miles S.S.W. of Dillenburg.
WEIBSTADT, a town of the duchy of Baden; 2%
miles ; E.S.E. of Manheim. N. lat. 49° 17!. E. long.
8° 50/.
WEICHOLTZHAUSEN, a town of the duchy of
Wurzburg ; 6 miles N.N.E. of Schweinfurt.
WEICHSEL. See Vistura.
WEICHSELBURG, a town of Saxony, in the lord-
fhip of Schonburg ; 14 miles N.N.W. of Waldenburg.
WEICHSELBURG, or Weixelburg, atown of the duchy of
Carniola ; 28 miles W. of Landftrafs. N. lat. 46° 5’. E.
long. 14° 15!.
WEICHSELMUNDE, a fort built to defend the city
of Dantzic, on the Viftula. In 1734 it was taken by the
Ruffians ; 4 miles N. of Dantzic.
WEICHTERSBACH, or WecuTERBACH, a town of
Germany, in the county of Ifenburg, on the Kinzig; 23
miles E. of Francfort on the Maine.
WEICKERSBERG, or WeikersrERG, a town of
Auttria; 5 miles W. of Efferding.
WEICKERSHEIM, atown of Germany, in the prii-
cipality of Hohenlohe, on the Tauber; 23 miles N.N.E.
of Ohringen. N. lat. 49° 30'. E. long. 9° 58/.
WEIDA, a river of Silefia, which rifes on the confines
of Poland, and joins the Oder, near Breflau.
WEIDELBACH, a town of the principality of An-
fpach; 5 miles S.W. of Feuchtwang.
WEIDEMBERG, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach ; 7 miles E.S.E. of Bayreuth.
WEIDEN, a town of Bavaria, in the principality of
Sulfbach, on the Nab ; 17 miles N.E. of Sulfbach. N. lat.
49° 40'. E.long. 12° 3'—Alfo, a town of the bifhopric
of Bamberg; 4 miles E. of Weifmain.
WEIDENBACH, a town of Germany, in the marg-
gravate of Anfpach; 5 miles S.S.E. of Anfpach.
WEIDENBERG, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach ; 7 miles E.S.E. of Bayreuth. .N. lat.
eagle pe long. 11> 40.
WEIDERAU, a town of Saxony, in the lordfhip of
Schonburg ; 4 miles N.E. of Penig.
WEIERN, a town of Bavaria; 23 miles S.S.E. of
Munich.
WEIF. See Warr.
WEIGEL, Ernanp, in Biography, a German mathe-
matician, was born at Weida, in Nordgau, in 1625, and
educated at Wenfiedel, whither his parents were obliged to
remove, on account of perfecution, when he was three years
old ; and afterwards at the Gymnafium of Halle, where he
enjoyed the advantage of being inftruéted in mathematics by
Kk Bartho-
WEIL
Bartholomew Schimpfer, a celebrated aftronomer. The
circumftances of his parents obliging him to return to Wen-
fiedel, he there purfued his ftudies under an able tutor.
Afterwards, encouraged by Schimpfer, he fettled at Halle,
where his reputation drew to him many pupils, by whom
he was enabled to remove to Leipfic for farther improve-
ment ; fo that in 1653 he was invited to be profeffor of ma-
thematics at Jena. By favour of William, duke of Saxony,
he was appointed mathematician to the court, and chief di-
re&tor of buildings; and thus the latter years of his life
were chiefly employed in travelling. In the progrels of his
years he made many improvements in globes, and other in-
ftruments for facilitating the ftudy of altronomy. This in-
genious mathematician died in 1699. For a lift of his
works, which were many, we refer to his article in Gen.
iog. ,
WEIGELIA, in Botany, a Japanefe genus, dedicated
by Thunberg to the honour of Dr. Chriftian Ehrenfried
Weigel, profellor of Chemiftry in the univerfity of Gripf-
wald, in Upper Saxony, who publifhed at Berlin, in 1769,
when he was only 21 years of age, a Flora Pomerano-
Rugica; but whofe fame, as a deep and learned practical bo-
tamift, chiefly refts on his Ob/ervationes Botanice, publifhed
as an inaugural differtation, under his prefidency, in 1772,
in quarto, with three plates. This work, from its rarity,
is not fo well known as it deferves to be. The author cor-
refponded with Linnzus, and communicated {pecimens of
his new or doubtful plants.—Thunb. Jap. 6. Nov. Gen.
£ Schreb. Gen. 113. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.836. Mart.
il. Di&. v. 4. Jufl. 421. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 105.—
Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. un-
certain. Juffieu fufpeés it may belong to his Apocinee, the
Contorte of Linnzus ; an opinion whieh the infertion of the
ftyle at the bafe of the germen feems to favour; but the
ferrated leaves are a great, perhaps infuperable, objeCtion.
If we might fufpe& an error as sto the fituation of the ger-
men, the genus would readily range itfelf among Juffieu’s
Caprifolia ; but the fecond fpecies an more the character of
his Bignonie, and renders it probable that Thunberg is
merely miftaken in his idea of the fimple nature of the
germen.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of five awl-fhaped,
ere&t, equal leaves. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ;
tube the length of the calyx, internally hairy : limb bell-
fhaped, cloven half way down into five ovate, obtufe,
flightly fpreading fegments. Stam. Filaments five, inferted
into the tube, thread-fhaped, ere¢t, nearly as long as the co-
rolla; anthers ereé&t, linear, obtufe, cloven at the bafe.
Pift. Germen fuperior, quadrangular, abrupt, f{mooth ;
ftyle from the bafe of the germen, thread-fhaped, rather
longer than the corolla; ftigma peltate, flat. Fruit un-
known. Thunberg fufpefted there was a folitary naked
eed.
" Eff. Ch. Corolla funnel-fhaped. Style from the bafe of
the germen. Stigma peltate. Calyx fuperior, of five
leaves.
1. W. japonica. Seffile-leaved Weigelia. Willd. n. 1.
Thunb. Jap. go. t. 16. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 331.
(Nippon Utfagi; Kempf. Am. Exot. 855.)—Leaves fef-
file, ovato-lanceolate.—Native of hilly fituations in Japan,
flowering in April and May. The fem is fhrubby, with
oppofite, round, fmooth branches, flightly quadrangular
when young. Leaves oppofite, feffile, pointed, ee
ferrated, an inch, or rather more, in length, veiny, {moot
on both fides, except the veins, which are hairy ; paler be-
neath. Flower-flalks axillary, comprefled, three-flowered,
longer than the leaves, with two awl-fhaped bradéas at the
2
W EVI
bafe of each partial ftalk, and two more about half way
up. Flowers about an inch long, reddifh-purple. Thun-
berg’s defcription, in the Flora Japonica, confounds both
{pecies together, and is therefore here neceffarily corrected.
2. W. corzenfis. LLarge-flowered Weigelia. Thunb.
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 331. Willd. n. 2. (Korei Utfigi ;
Kempf. Amoen. Exot. 855. Ic. Seleét. t. 45.)— Leaves
ftalked, obovate.—Native of Corea, from whence Kemp-
fer fuppofes it was brought to Japan. He deferibes it as a
JSorub with beautiful flowers, {melling like cloves, and
changeable in colour, being fnow-white, flefh-coloured, and
red, on the fame plant. His excellent drawing, among
thofe engraved and diftributed through the muniticence of
fir Jofeph Banks, throws more light upon this {pecies, and
indeed upon its genus, than any thing elfe we have met with.
It appears to be a climbing or trailing /brub, with round
branches, and oppofite {talked /eaves, very like thofe of the
Hydrangea hortenfis in fize and figure, being thrice the length
of the firft fpecies, and obovate with a point. Flower-
Jflalks axillary and terminal, three-flowered, an inch and a
half long, with awl-fhaped bra&eas. Tube of the corolla
flender, above half an inch long, twice the length of the
calyx ; limb bell-fhaped, twice the length of its tube, di-
vided half way down into five broad, obtufe, horizontally
{preading fegments. Stamens projecting beyond the mouth.
Anthers incumbent. Stigma large, peltate, flat. Nothing
appears refpecting the germen, or its fituation. We do not
clearly underftand the feeond of Kzempfer’s feparate
figures, which is perhaps an under view of the corolla.
WEIGELSDORYF, in Geography, atown of Bohemia,
in the circle of Konigingratz ; 2 miles W. of Trautenau.
WEIGELSHAUSEN, a town of the duchy of Wurz-
burg; 5 miles W.S.W. of Schweinfurt.
WEIGENHEIM, a town of Germany, in the lordthip
of Schwarzenburg ; 10 miles S.S.W. of Schainfeld.
WEIGERSTORFF, a town of Auftria; 6 miles S,
of Wells.
WEIGH, Way, or Wey, Waga, a a of cheefe,
wool, &c. containing two hundred and. fifty-fix pounds
avoirdupois. Of corn, the weigh contains forty buthels ;
of barley or malt, fix quarters. :
In fome places, as Effex, the weigh of cheefe is three
hundred pounds. See Measure.
“© Et decimam cafei fui de Herting, preter unam peifam,
que pertinet ad ecclefiam de A. Mon. Angl.’’ where pei/a
eems to be ufed for a weigh.
Coke alfo {peaks of weighs of bay-falt.
Weicu-Beams are fteel-yards for the weighing of goods
upon wharfs, &c.
WEIGHER, an officer in divers cities, appointed to
weigh the commodities bought and fold, in a public ba-
lance, &c. Thefe weighers are generally obliged by oath
to do juftice to both parties; and to keep a regilter of the
things they weigh.
In Amfterdam there are twelve weighers, eftablifhed into
a kind of office. As it was formerly allowed them to
touch the ftrings of the balance in weighing, it was eafy
for them to favour either the buyer or filler, according as
the one gave them more money than the other. To pre-
vent ohh abufe, it was charged on them, by an ordinance
of the burgomafters in 1719, not to touch the balance in
any manner whatever.
WEIGHGATT, in Geography, a name given to the
{trait called Wayoart, (which fee,) from the wind which
blows through this {trait (<waikan, to blow,) becaufe a
ftrong S.W. wind blows out of it. It is alfo called Hin-
delopen. See Martens’s Voyage, p. 27.
WEIGHING,
WE I
WEIGHING, the a& of examining a body in the ba-
ance, to find its weight.
The diftillers in Tidhidon weigh their veffels when full ;
and for a half hogfhead, which is thirty-one gallons and a
half, allow two hundred one quarter and eleven pounds for
the cafk and liquor. For a puncheon, they allow fix hun-
dred one quarter and two pounds; for a Canary pipe, eight
hundred a half and feventeen pounds.
Weicuinc-Cage, in Agriculture, a fort of machine or
contrivance which is made in fomewhat the form or manner
of an open box or cage, by means of which any {mall ani-
mal, fuch as a pig, iheep, calf, or any other of a fimilar
kind, may be very eafily and expeditioufly weighed, and
with fufficient accuracy and correétnefs for the purpofes of
the farmer, ftore-mafter, and grazier. It is conftruéted on
the principle of the common fteel-yard. It has a itrong
wooden frame, on which there are iteel centres, in which
the pivots of the lever are hung. Upon the fhort fide of
the lever is fufpended a fort of coop, furrounded by {trong
net-work, in which the animal intended to be weighed is
put and fecured ; the point of fufpenfion is connected with
the coop by means of two curved iron-rods, which at the fame
time form the head of it. A common feale, in which the
weights are to be put, is hung on the longer fide of the lever.
See Srrey-Yard.
Weicuinc-Chair, a machine contrived by Sanétorius,
to determine the quantity of matter carried off from the
body, and that of food taken at a meal; and to warn the
feeder when he had eat his quantum.
That ingenious author, having obferved, with many others,
that a great part of our diforders arifes from the excefs in
the quantity of our foods, more than in the quality thereof ;
as allo how much a fixed portion, once well adjulted, would,
if kept to regularly, contribute to health ; bethought him-
felf of an expedient to that purpofe. The refult was the
weighing-chair: which was.a chair fixed at one arm of a
fort of balance, wherein a perfon being feated at meat, as
foon as he had ate his allowance, the increafe of weight made
his feat preponderate: fo that, defcending to the ground, he
left his table, vi€tuals, and all, out of reach.
Weicuinc-Hou/e, a building furnifhed with a dock, and
conveniences for gauging or afcertaining the tonnage of
boats that are to be uled on a canal.
Weicuinc-Machine for Turnpike Roads, in Mechanics, a
machine for weighing heavy bodies, and particularly wheel-
carriages. This is commonly done in order to afcertain if
a carriage is within the weight allowed by law to be car-
ried by {uch carriage on the turnpike-roads ; a weighing-
machine, or weigh-bridge, being fixed at every turnpike-
gate. See TuRNPIKE. }
Formerly immenfe machines were ufed for this purpole :
the machine was ereéted in an open building, beneath which
the road pafled, fo that a cart, waggon, or other carriage,
could be drawn under it; ftrong chains were then pafled
beneath the body of the carriage, to attach it to the extre-
mity of an immenfe fteel-yard. The fulcrum of the fteel-yard
avas fufpended by a lever, or by pulleys and crane-work,
from the top of the building; and when the carriage was
properly fecured, the fteel-yard was hoifted up by the crane-
work, fo as to fufpend the waggon, and it could then be
weighed by applying the fliding-weight of the fteel-yard to
different parts of the divided bar. Several curious machines
of this kind are defcribed by Leopold, in his Theatrum
Staticum, 1724.
This method was tedious and dangerous; but when
turnpike-roads became more common, a very fuperior ma-
chine was introduced, and we now find one at almoft every
WEI
turnpike-gate. It is called a weigh-bridge, becaufe the
carriage is drawn upon a wooden platform or bridge, which
is placed over a pit, made in the line of the road, to contain
the machinery. he pit is walled withinfide, and the plat-
form is exaétly fitted to the walls of the pit ; but as it
does not touch the walls, it is at liberty to move freely up
and down. The platform is fupported by levers, placed
beneath it, and is exaétly level with the furface of the
road, fo that the carriage is eafily drawn onto it. This
is done without any difficulty or lofs of time, becaufe the
platform is in the dire& line of the road, and the carriage is
only required to ftop for a minute whilft its wheels ftand
fairly upon the platform, and the horfes ftand upon the folid
ground beyond the platform. A few {mall weights put into
a {eale, like that of a common balance, determine the weight
of the carriage and its load. If the weight of the carriage
is previoufly known, the weight of the load may be found,
by deduéting the weight of the carriage from the total.
This weigh-bridge is placed at the fide of a {mall houfe,
which ufually ferves as a lodgement for the gate-keeper,
and the fcale is fituated within the houfe. ‘The platform is
fupported by two double levers contained in the pit ; the ends
of thefe levers are borne up by a long horizontal lever, which
paffes through one of the fide-walls of the pit, and enters
into the houfe: from the énd of this lever, a {mall iron rod
is carried up to one end of a common fcale-beam or balance,
from the other end of which the feale is fufpended. All
the levers are of the nature of ftcel-yards, that is, the weight
or load of the bridge is applied upon the levers which fup-
port it, at points very near to their refpeétive fulcrums, or
centres of motion; whilft the ends of thefe levers are fup-
ported, at a very confiderable diftance from their fulcrums,
by the long lever, and they bear upon this lever at a point
very near to its fulcrum; but the counterbalancing force,
that is, the effort of the weights in the fcale, is applied to
the extreme end of the long lever, very far diftant from the
fulcrum. For this reafon, a {mall weight, as one pound
for inftance, placed in the fcale, will bear up a large weight,
for inftance, 60 pounds, or one hundred weight placed
upon the platform, according as the machine is conftrudted.
This has an advantage, befides the convenience of {mall
weights, viz. that the platform with the carriage does not
fink down any perceptible quantity during the ation of
weighing ; for when the weight in the fcale is brought to
equilibrium with the load, any motion or {pace whichthefmalt
weight pafles through, when the fcale-beam vibrates, muft
be to the fpace which the platform and carriage pafs through
at the fame inftant, in the ratio of the load to the weight.
Sometimes, inftead of ufing «a feale-board and detached
weights, a long fteel-yard is employed, with a weight to
flide along upon it to different diftances from the centre,
until it will counterbalance the load on the platform; in
that cafe, the lever is graduated to fhew the weight upon
the platform.
Salmon’s Patent Weighing Machine.—This is very generally
ufed in the vicinity of London; it points out the weight
on a dial.
Plate \l., Engines, contains figures of a weighing ma-
chine of the beft kind. Fig. 1. is a horizontal re of the
levers contained in the pit, the platform being taken off to
expofe them. The under fide of the platform is fhewn at
Jig. 2, and fig. 3. is a vertical fe€tion of the whole machine.
EE ( fg. 3.) is the platform ; its upper furface is exaétly
level with the ground, and the edge of the planking of the
platform is fitted into a border or frame which furmounts
the fide walls of the pit, leaving a {mall crevice all round its
edges, fo that the platform does not touch the fixed frame,
Kk 2 although
WEIGHING-MACHINE. ’
although it is near to it. The platform is compofed of
a ftrong frame of wood (as fhewn in fig. 2.), and the upper
fide is covered with wood planking. It is likewife defended
from wear, by iron-bars and large-headed nails, which are
faftened on the upper fide. Near each of the four angles
of the platform a piece of iron is fixed, as fhewn by 4; and
it is on thefe four points that the platform is borne. When
the platform is put in its place, thefe pieces of iron apply to
the pins 64 (fg.1.), which are fixed in four ftrong iron
levers, marked AA, BB. Each of thefe levers is fup-
ported at the extreme end c, on a fulcrum or centre-pin
refting on a metal fupport, as fhewn in fig. 4, which is
borne by a piece of timber 00, worked into the walls of the
pit at the angle. At the oppofite ends the levers A A are
brought together, and B B the fame, fo that all four meet
in two points aa, and by means of links, fhewn in fg. 5,
_ ave all conneéted with a long lever CC. This refts on a fup-
port or fulcrum D, borne by a pillar erected from the bot-
tom of the pit. The end of the lever at I is received be-
tween two uprights to guide it, but do not any way confine
its motion. Inthe common machine, it is from the extreme
end of the lever C D that the iron rod before mentioned is
carried up to the fcale-beam, or fteel-yard, as before de-
fcribed ; but the patent machine in the figure is differently
conftructed in that part.
The fixed centres c, of the levers A A and BB, are at
the ends of thofe levers, and the points 4, on which the
platform bears, are very near to the centre c; but the dif-
tance of the points a from c is nine times as great as from
c to b, confequently a force of one pound applied to lift up
the levers at the point a would balance nine pounds laid upon
the platform. In like manner the diftance from the point a
to the fulcrum D is only one-feventh part of the diftance
from the fulcrum to the end of the lever C; hence, one pound
applied to lift up the end of the lever C would raife feven
pounds applied at the point a, and feven pounds applied at a
would balance fixty-three pounds placed on the platform.
To weigh with a machine of this kind, if we ufe a feale and
balance conneéted with the end of the long lever, we mult
ufe weights which are only one fixty-third part of the marks
which they bear.
Mr. Salmon’s machine operates in a much more perfeét
manner, by the help of a felf-adjufting balance-wheel, which
will weigh every different body, without employing any loofe
weights; andit fhews the weight by means of an index and
dial, like that of a clock. To effe& this, another lever or
fteel-yard F G is applied, whereof Fis the fulcrum, and f the
pe from which a link C defcends to the end of the long
ever CD. At the extreme end G, a ftrap is attached to
afcend to the balance-wheel 7.
Now, as the diftance F fis only one-tenth of the diftance
FG, one pound applied to lift up the end G would raife
ten pounds at f, or 10 x 63 = 630 pounds placed on the
platform.
To draw the end G of the lever upwards, a thin leather
ftrap g is attached to it, and the upper end of this is coiled
round a {mall roller 4, which is fixed upon an horizontal
axis, as is fhewn on a larger fcale in fig. 7, where the axis
is marked 54. This is reduced to {mall pivots at the extre-
mities, which are borne by fri€tion-wheels aa, to render
its motion as free as poffible. On the fame axis 4 is fixed a
wheel ii, (fee alfo fig. 6.), and againft the arms of this wheel a
fpiral ledge is fixed, with a fufficient projection to admit a
fine filk line to wind upon the fpiral, when the wheel is
turned round. A weight £, which is fufpended to the line,
forms the counterbalance to the load placed upon the weigh-
bridge (fee fig. 3.), and the weight of the load is determined
6
by the diftance which the roller and wheel i are turned round.
This diftance is fhewn by an index ¢ fixed on the extreme
end of the axis 4, and pointing to different divifions engraved
round a dial, as fhewh in fig. 6.
This fingle weight £ can counterbalance all the different
weights which may be placed on the platform, becaufe the
line by which the weight & is fufpended, when it winds
upon the circumference of the fpiral, continually applies
itfelf at a different diftance from the centre of the axis, fo
as to operate with greater force. Hence, when any weight
is placed upon the platform E, it preffes down the levers
A A and B B; thefe deprefs the long lever C D, and this
again aétuates the lever F G, and draws down the ftrap g,
which unwinds from the roller on the axis 44, fo as to turn
it round, together with the wheel and fpiral. The weight
£ winds upon the fpiral, but the fufpending line foon arrives
at that part of the fpiral where its radius is fufficiently
increafed, to enable the weight & to counterbalance the load
upon the platform; the balance-wheel being then come to
an equilibrium, will move no farther, and the index points
out upon the dial the weight of the load upon the platform.
The fpiral originates in the central part, at a circle which
is of the fame diameter as the roller, upon which the ftrap g,
Jig. 3. winds; and the weight 4 muft be equal to the fix-hun-
dred-and-thirtieth part of the weight of the platform and
levers A A, BB, when there is no weight upon it. When
the weight £ hangs from this commencementof the fpiral, the
index ¢ ftands at zero, as fhewn in fig.6. The fpiral is fo
made, that to turn it round fixty degrees will require one
ton weight to be laid on the platform, and every additional
ton will turn the wheel and index round another fixty
degrees, fo that the machine will bear fix tons before the
index makes a complete revolution. Each {pace of fixty
degrees is divided into twenty parts, which reprefent hun-
dred weights; and each one is fubdivided into halves or
quarters, which divifions are very apparent on a large dial.
In conftruéting a machine of this kind, every attention
mutt be paid to accuracy in the centres of motion of the
different levers ; all thefe points fhould be made of fteel,
and hardened. The form of the centres fhould be that of a
fharp edge, like a blunt knife, with the edge refting on a
furface of hard fteel, made rather concave, (fee fig. 4.)
Centres, or bearing points of this kind, made fharp, will
move with very little friction; and if the {teel is good, and
perfectly hard, the edges will not become blunt in many
years’ ufe. In all cafes, the bearing-pins with the fharp
edges mutt be fixed in the levers; becaufe if the levers were
made with plain furfaces, and to have fharp pins to bear
upon them, there would be no certainty as to the effective
lengths of the different levers, and they would vary in their
power whenever the fharp edge changed its place upon the
fupporting furface. ”
The four principal levers, A A, BB, are made double,
or with open loops at the ends, as fhewn in figs. 1 and 4;
two fteel pins are put through the double part, one of
them marked c, being made with a fharp edge at the lower
fide, but the other, 4, is fharpened on the upper fide. The
former bears upon a fixed fupport faced with hard fteel, and
the other receives the metal ftems, }, fig. 2. which are fixed to
the underfide of the platform. The two levers, A A, are
joined together at the point a; and the two levers, B B, are
alfo joined in a fimilar manner. Each pair of levers are
connected by a crofs-bar, as fhewn in fig. 1, fo as to make
two triangles.
The ends £ or s, fig. 5. of the compound levers A A or
BB, where they join together, have a {crew fitted through
them, as fhewn in fig. 5 ; the ends of thefe {crews are made
of
WEIGHING-M ACHINE.
of iteel, and fharp-pointed, im order to reft in a cup or
focket, r, of fteel, formed in the lower part of a loop or
link I. The upper end of the loop is fufpended upon a
fharp-edged pin fixed in the lever C D, fig. 1, which lever
is marked K and H in fig.5. The link belonging to the
lever A A is fufpended on one end of this pin, and the
other loop upon the other end of the fame pin. The lever
F G is made juft the fame as a common fteel-yard.
The fpiral, fg. 6, muft be made very correétly in brafs,
and the line which winds upon it fhould be very flexible,
and of equal thicknefs. After every care has been taken
to make all parts of the machine very accurately, they. muft
be put together ; and known weights being laid upon the
platform, the divifions on the dial fhould be laid down from
the pofitions of the index. If the dial is thus divided by
actual experiment, the machine will weigh very accurately ;
but its fenfibility will depend upon the fharpnefs of the cen-
tres of the levers, and the hardnefs of the fteel. When it
is in good order, the addition of a quarter of a hundred
weight to three or four tons, on the weigh-bridge, ought
to produce a motion of the index. ‘In an average ftate
of the machine, it may be depended upon to within half
a hundred weight.
Mr. Salmon had a patent for this machine in 1796, but
his invention is confined to the balance-wheel and {piral, as
fhewn in figs. 6. and 7. Thefe parts, feparated from the
great machine, make a very accurate and complete weighing
machine by themfelves, when inclofed in a box ; a common
feale, to contain the goods which are to be weighed, being
fufpended from the lower end of the ftrap which winds
round the roller.
The introduétion of thefe index weighing-machines for
turnpike-roads is of great utility, to diminifh thofe inceflant
difputes between the gate-keeper and the carriers re{pect-
ing the weight of their loads. In the common weighing-
machines, the weights, being loofe and of an arbitrary weight,
may be changed or diminifhed by the gate-keeper to make
the loads appear greater; and the carrier has no means of
deteGting this fraud, except by unloading and weighing his
cargo in {mall quantities, which is fcarcely praéticable ;
neither can he be affured of the manner of weighing, even
if the weights are juft. Another fource of uncertainty is,
whether the machine be in exact balance when there is no
load on the platform ; for as the wood imbibes wet and be-
comes dirty, it makes confiderable variations in the balance
of the machine. To put the machine in equilibrio, a heavy
weight is hung on the end of the lever C D, fig. 3, and can
be placed nearer to or farther from the centre. This fhould
always be adjufted, but is frequently neglected, and is diffi-
cult of deteétion.
With the index-machine all thefe difficulties are avoided :
it is conitruéted by a maker whofe character is at ftake,
and when once truly made will continue in the fame ttate,
for the whole is locked up, fo that the gate-keeper cannot
have accefs to the index. The only defeét arifing from age
and wear is, that the index becomes lefs fenfible, and moves
fluggifhly and by ftarts. This the carrier can try at any time
by preffing his foot upon the platform; and he can always
fee if the index returns to zero when the load is removed ;
and if it does not, he can fee how much the machine is out
of balance.
The law refpecting weighing carriages is an inducement
to fraud in the gate-keepers; a certain weight is allowed
by a& of parliament to be carried by each defcription of
carriage, which weight is regulated according to the width
of the carriage-wheels, the number of horfes, and the fea-
fon of the year, whether winter or fummer,
If the load does not exceed the allowed weight, a cers
tain toll is charged for the carriage; but for all excefs of
weight, a very heavy toll is charged on each hundred-
weight as a penalty, the amount of which is increafed in
proportion to the quantity of over-weight. (See TuRNPIKE. )
It 1s a valuable prize for a gate-keeper to find a carriage
overloaded.
Weicuine-Machines for fmall Weights. hele are of
different conftruétions, according to the ufe for which they
are intended.
_ In fome the weight of any body is determined by put-
ting loofe weights into an oppofite feale, and thefe weights
may be either equal weights to thofe which they are to
denote, as in the cafe of a balance with equal arms, or
the weights may be [maller and applied to the longer arm
of an unequal balance, as in the fteel-yard. The former is
by far the moft accurate, and from the facility of proving
its accuracy by placing the weights in either of the {cales,
it has become the legal mode of weighing. Steel-yards are
accurate if carefully ufed, but afford many opportunities of
fraud in the hands of difhoneft perfons.
_ Mr. Medhurft’s patent weighing-machine is very ufeful
in fhops and warehoufes, being more convenient than the
common balance and feales, and having the fame property
of equal arms to the lever. The {cale-boards, inftead of
ae fufpended from the arms of the balance, are fe-
curely poifed between the arms of a double balance-beam,
and are placed at fuch a height as is moft convenient to re-
ceive the goods which are to be weighed. The weights are to
be put into the oppofite feale, but can be put in either; and
the load on the oppofite one, if there is any doubt of the
accuracy of the balance.
When more confiderable weights are to be weighed, equal
weights are fo inconvenient, that {mall machines, fuch as are
ufed for carriages, are to be preferred for convenience, as
they require only {mall weights in the feale.
There is another kind of weighing-machines which requires
no loofe weights, but fhews the weight by a pointer or index
upon a divided arch, or on a dial-plate.
The index and balance-wheel of Mr. Salmon’s machine,
when detached, make a very complete weighing inftrument
of this kind, as before defcribed. .
Other index machines a& with a pendulum: thus, the
feale to receive the goods is fufpended from a lever, to which
a pendulous arm is attached with a heavy weight at the ex-
tremity to form a pendulum. The application of any weight
in the fcale tends to remove the pendulum from its vertical
pofition; and it is a property of a pendulum to increafe in its
effort to return to the perpendicular, in proportion to the
diftance which it is removed from it. The quantity of de-
viation from the perpendicular is indicated by an index or
pointer to the divifions on an arch, and thefe divifions are
numbered to denote the weight. The machine ufed for
weighing hanks of cotton is of this kind, and apothecaries
fometimes ufe a fimilar inftrument.
Many of the index machines are made with {prings, which
are bent by the application of the weight ; and the degree
of their flexure, as determined by fome indexes, is an indica-
tion of the weight applied. Several machines of this kind
are defcribed in our article DyNaNomeETER ; and although
they are rather differently conitruéted, to fit them for mea-
furing the ftrength of horfes, &c. all of them may be con-
verted to weighing-machines, by applying a proper fufpend-
ing hook, with a fcale to receive the matter to be weighed.
A curious machine of this kind was made many years
ago by M. Hanin of Paris, and prefented to the Society
of Arts. The weight is determined by the degree to which
a femi-
WEI
a femicircular fteel {pring will be bent, when the weight is
applied to force the ends of the {pring to recede from each
other. The quantity is fhewn by an index, which turns round
over a circular dial-plate, like a clock-hand. The principal
curiofity of this machine is, that the dial contains thirteen
concentric circles, each divided to fhew the weight in the de-
nominations of different countries ; viz. on the two external
circles are divifions to fhew troy and avoirdupois weight
in pounds; within this is a circle to fhew the correfponding
number of Paris livres; next Portuguefe arrobas, and Spa-
nifh arrobas ; then Dutch, Swedifh, Danifh, and German
unds; fo that the inftrument becomes an univerfal table
‘or the ratios of thefe different weights. t
Weicuinc-Machine, in Agriculture and Rural Economy,
a fort of machine or contrivance made ufe of for the pur-
pofe of weighing neat cattle and fome other kinds of animals
alive, as well as different other ufes. It is a machine which
is perfe@ly fimple and eafy in its manner of conftruétion.
It has a beam of the fteel-yard kind, at the top of which is
a pin, on which the fufpenfion of the beam is made. There
is a counterpoife which is moveable along the beam by
means of a fliding focket, on which is raifed an iron arm,
f{upporting a wooden box or fcale to receive the counterba-
lancing weights in the operation of weighing. There are
different levers, which are hung on a proje€ting pin of the
beam by one end, the other refting on an iron fupport.
There is a lid or platform, on which is placed the fubjeét to
be weighed ; to the under fide of this, at each corner, are
attached blocks, from which proceed iron pieces, fimilar in
form to the fupporting piece, but reverfed in pofition : by
means of thefe four pieces the lid or platform ftands with
its whole weight entirely on the lever 7 other pieces apply-
ing themfelves to the levers at a fmall diftance nearer to the
centre of the machine than to the fupporting piece. =~
In the operation of weighing, the fubject to be weighed
being placed on the lid or platform, preffed by the different
pieces on the levers, which by their fufpenfion on the beam
determine it from its even pofition by a quantity propor-
tioned to the weight of the fubje&, which is exprefled by
the counterbalancing weights required to be placed in the
box or fcale. See SreeL-Yard. ;
A machine of this nature is of vaft utility and import-
ance in the different fyftems of grazing, feeding, and fat-
tening various forts of live-ftock and domeftic animals, ef-
.pecially where they are carried on to any confiderable
extent, not only in afcertaining and marking the progrefs
which is made by the different animals, and in fhewing how
they pay for the ufe of any particular kind of food, or
what power and property it may have in promoting the fat-
. tening procefs, but in many other ways.
Weighing-machines, con{truéted upon the fame plan as
thofe ufed on the public roads, are applicable, too, in the
above cafes, and many others of the rural kind, being ready
and convenient for fuch ufes. ;
Weicuine of the Air. See Weicur of Air.
Weicuine Anchor, in Sea Language. See ANCHOR.
WEIGHT, in Phyjfics, a quality in bodies by which
they tend towards the centre of the earth, or in a line per-
pendicular to its furface, Or, weight may be defined, more
generally, a property inherent in all bodies, by which they
tend to fome common point, called the centre of gravity ;
and that with a velocity in proportion as they are more or
Jefs denfe, or as the medium through which they pafs is
more or lefs rare.
Weight and gravity are generally confidered as one and
the fame thing. Some philofophers, however, diftinguifh
gravity as the quality inherent ia the body, and weight as
WEI
the fame quality exerting itfelf according to its natural ten-
dency. See Gravity, GraAviTATION, and Density.
Sir Ifaac Newton demonttrates, 1ft, That the weights
of all bodies at equal diftances from the centre of the earth,
are direétly proportional to the quantity of matter that
each contains; whence it follows, that the weights of bo-
dies have no dependence on their fhapes or textures ; and
that all {paces are not equally full of matter.
2dly, On different parts of the earth’s furface, the
weight of the fame body is different, owing to the f{phe-
roidical figure of the earth, which caufes the body on the
furface to be nearer the centre in going from the equa-
tor toward the poles: and the increafe in the weight is
nearly in proportion to the verfed fine of double the
latitude ; or, which is the fame thing, to the fquare of
the right fine of the latitude; the weight at the equator
to that at the pole being as 229 to 230; or, the whole in-
creafe of weight from the equator to the pole, is the 229th
part of the former.
3dly, That the weights of the fame body at different
diftances above the earth, are inverfely as the fquares of
the diftances from the centre, fo that a body at the diftance
of the moon, which is fixty femi-diameters from the earth’s
centre, would weigh only the 36ooth part of what it weighs
at the earth’s furface.
4thly, That at different diftances within the earth or
below the furface, the weights of the fame body are di-
rectly as the diftances from the earth’s centre: fo that, at
half way toward the centre, a body would weigh but half as
much, and at the very centre it would have no weight at all.
sthly, A body immerfed in a fluid, which is {pecifically
lighter than itfelf, lofes fo much of its weight, as is equal to
the weight of a quantity of the fluid of the fame bulk with
itfelf. Hence, a body lofes more of its weight in a heavier
fluid than in a lighter one, and therefore it weighs more in a
lighter fluid than in a heavier one.
The foregoing principles laid down by Newton are uni-
verfally admitted as corre&t, with the exception of the pro-
portional weight of bodies on different parts of the earth’s
furface ; for it is important to obferve, that he founded his
calculation of the earth’s ellipticity on the hypothefis of
its being homogeneous, which is not the cafe ; and hence
he makes the equatorial diameter greater than the polar
axis, as 230 to 229. But from the numerous experiments
fince made on the pendulum in different parts of the world,
the ellipticity is found to be not fo great.
By the inveftigations on this fubje&t by the marquis de
Laplace, (Mecanique Celetfte, vol.ii.) the ellipticity is found
to be =4,3 and the calculations and experiments of other
aftronomers concur nearly in this refult, making it on
an average about 45. In our article Sranparp, we have
given tables of thofe determinations, and likewife of the
principal experiments made on the pendulum in different
latitudes ; and we fhall here add fome further inveftigations
‘and new calculations, as effentially connected with our fub-
je& Weicut, and of peculiar intereft at the prefent
time.
The chevalier Delambre, in his * Aftronomie,’’ vol. iii.
p- 585, gives the following a and elegant expofition
of the pendulum, with other ufeful formule for finding the
earth’s ellipticity, &c.
Let 4 be the height of the place of obfervation
above the level of the a R, the radius of the earth;
then the length of the pendulum is to be multiplied by
Ep = (4 ERE a ott
Let
WEIGHT.
Let L be the length of the pendulum at the equator ;
for another latitude, it will be L + a fin.? H, fo that a is
the excefs of the polar pendulum above the equatorial pendu-
lum, H being the latitude of the place.
Trek m and n be the two pendulums obferved in two very
different latitudes.
m=L + a fin.7 H,
n= L afin. Hy’,
m—n = a (fin.* H — fin.» H') =a fin. (H — H’) fin.
(H + H!): hence a= ula
fin. (H — Hi’) fin. (H + H’)
If there be a greater number of fimilar equations, put in
each the numerical value of fin.» H, and determine the two
conftant quantities, L and a, by the fum of the obfervations,
employing, if you think proper, the method of the fmaller
{quares.
Now the ellipticity is proved to be 0.00865 — <. We
L
have then a value of the ellipticity, which may be compared
with that of the degrees. It was in this manner that M.
= by the fix ac-
Mathieu found the ellipticity to be
tual meafurements of the pendulum made on the meridian
from Dunkirk to Formentera. So far Delambre.
From the above equations and formule it is manifeft, that
if L, the length of the equatorial pendulum, and a, the dif-
ference between it and the polar pendulum, be known, all
other queftions connected with the fubje& may be accurately
determined ; and hence it is, that the important problem of
meafuring the pendulum has long engaged, and {till cou.
tinues to command the attention of the firft aftronomers in
Europe.
Laplace, in the Mecanique Celefte, gives the following
values of L and a; viz. 0™.990631631 + 0™.005637
fin.* latitude, from which formula the lengths of the pen-
dulum may be computed in all latitudes; but the fame
learned author has recently publifhed another formula in the
Connoiffance des Tems (1820, page 442), which is thus
iven.
en Mathieu, by a new difcuffion of all the obfervations of
the pendulum, in ufing the refults of Borda’s experiments
reduced to the level of the fea, finds the following expreffion
of the length of the pendulum,
0™.990787 + 0”.0053982 fin.’ latitude.
“In this expreffion I have diminifhed by the two-thou-
fandth of a millimetre the refult of Borda upon this length,
for the correétion of the radius of the cylinder, which formed
the knife edge; a radius which I value at eight thoufandths
of a millimetre. ‘
«« The experiments now about to be made with particular
care, in the two hemifpheres, will fhed new light on the co-
efficient of the {quare of the fine of the latitude, or on the
variation of weight on the furface of the earth.’’.
From the aboye formula we have computed the following
table, and have found the earth’s ellipticity to be 47. By
this alfo the increafe of the weight of a body from the
equator to the poles is +3, of the whole, whereas that de-
duced from the Mecanique Celefte is +44, which propor-
tion has been adopted by Poiffon, Biot, and other writers
on the fubjeé.
TABLE fhewing the comparative Weight of Bodies on different Parts of the Earth’s Surface, with the proportional
Length of the Seconds Pendulum, and alfo its daily Number of Vibrations in each Latitude: fuppofing it corre&
at the Greenwich Obfervatory, that is vibrating 86400 Seconds in 24 Hours.
Degrees of Latitude.
Qo
Paris obfervatory
OFOCO00000000
wn
Greenwich obfervatory -
London, St. Paul’s -
WwW hd
>
oO 6
,
°
°
°
te}
°
°
°
°
fe}
fe)
°
8
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
ce]
eoo0o00o00g0c0
Weight of 100lb.
in
different Latitudes,
100.0000
100.0042
100.0165
100.0366
100.0637
100.0973
100.1362
100.1793
100.2251
100.2724
100.3088
100.3198
100.3335
100.3338
100.3656
100.4087
100.4476
100.4812
100.5083
100.5284
100.5407
LOCA ae)
Number of
Vibrations in
each Latitude.
Length of the Pendulum.
Metres. Englifh Inches.
86256.3
86258.1
86263.4
86272.0
86284.0
86298.3
86315.0
$6333-6
86353-3
86373-7
86389.4.
86394.1
86400.0
86400.2
86413.8
86432.4
86449.1
86463.5
86475.2
86483.9
86489.2
86491.0
0.990787
0.990828
01990950
O99 1145
0.991418
©-991751
0.992136
0.992563
0-0930%7
0.993486
0.993846
©:993055
0.994091
0.99400"
0994409
0.994836
0.995221
0-995554
0.995823
0.996024
0.996144
0.996185
39-0083
39-0090
39-0847
39-0226
39tC3 3"
39-0462
39.0614
39.0782
39.0961
So -taAy
39-1287
SRL BIS
39-1383
39-1385
39-1509
39-1677
39-1829
39 1960
39.2065
39-2144
39.2192
39.2208
Ta
WEIGHT.
1n computing the foregoing table we have, as on former
occafions in this work, reckoned the French metre at 39.371
Englifh inches, and the correGtnefs of this meafure is of the
ateft importance to fcience. It was that originally deter-
mined by M. Piétet,in the National Inftitute, by comparing the
platina metre with the brafs yard made by Mr. Troughton,
which was agreed upon by the Royal Society of London, as
the beft medium among our different ftandards, and the moft
accurate in its divifions. In making the neceffary deduétions
for the effects of temperature on the different metals, Borda’s
tables of expanfion were ufed; but from other tables and
ftandards different lengths of the metre have been determined ;
particularly by Dr. Mafkelyne, who made it 39.370226, and
lately by Capt. Kater, who comes ftill nearer to Pi&tet,
making it 39.37071- But unlefs fuch meafurements are
made 1 ats the fame ftandard yard, and with the fame tables of
expanfion, perfe&t agreement cannot be expected ; and then it
will be neceflary to determine the important queftion, whe-
ther fuch tables and ftandards are quite corre? In fhort,
an approximation to perfeét accuracy is as much as can be
hoped for. It is, however, fatisfaGtory to obferve, that the
difference between the determinations of M. Piétet and Capt.
Kater is fcarcely difcernible, even in the moft delicate opera-
tions of an obfervatory, as it does not amount, when applied
in meafuring the pendulum, to more than one-third of a
fecond in twenty-four hours. But for all general purpofes
the difference is wholly imperceptible.
This near agreement, therefore, confirms the propriety of
our continuing Pi&tet’s meafure, which is fanétioned by gene-
ral ufage both in England and France, and has the addi-
tional advantage of numerical fimplicity, which, for com-
mercial purpofes, is no flight recommendation.
Before we enter upon the fubje& of commercial weight,
fome general view ought to be given of the operations now
about to take place on the pendulum in the two hemi-
{pheres, as alluded to in our quotation from Laplace.
The experiments intended by the French, in a voyage of
difcovery to the fouthern hemifphere, are to be made with
pendulums of an extremely fimple conftrution, the aftrono-
mical rates of which are previoufly afcertained at the Paris
obfervatory. In thefe pendulums no maintaining power is
applied, nor any compenfation for temperature. The ther-
mometer, therefore, and the magnitude of the arc of vibra-
tion, muft be continually obferved, and the neceffary cor-
reétions applied, as in the experiment of Borda explained in
Delambre’s Aftronomie, vol. iii. p. 579. Pendulums of a
fimilar conftruétion were employed by the Frenchaftronomers,
M. Biot and M. Arago, at the royal obfervatory of Green-
wich, and in other parts of Great Britain during the laft year
(1817); but the refult of their experiments has not yet
reached us.
A very corre& and beautiful apparatus has lately been
ereted at our royal obfervatory, for the purpofe of meafur-
ing the length of the pendulum; and alfo with a view of
determining, with extreme exa¢tnefs, the difference of the
force of gravity at Greenwich and Paris, or, in other words,
the comparative weight of bodies in thefe two latitudes.
This apparatus does not very effentially differ from that
of Borda, except that a cylindrical rod of a given length is
affumed as a ftandard, and the difference between this cy-
linder and the whole vibrating fyftem is determined by a
micrometer motion given to the fteel table. In the French
apparatus the fteel table remains fixed, and the meafuring-
rod is lengthened by means of a {crew, till the lower furface
comes in contaét with the plane of the table.
We have likewife obferved, that in Mr. Pond’s appa-
ratus, the pendulum of the clock is, by an ingenious con-
trivance, brought almoft into conta& with the experimental
aap, by which the coincidences can be diftin@ly ob-
erved with a high optical power.
In the expedition which has been lately fent by the
Britifh government to explore the arétic regions, experi-
ments are to be made for fimilar purpofes, but with different
apparatus. ‘Two famous clocks, by Shelton, which were
ufed by captain Cook, are fent. Each is furnifhed with a
new brafs pendulum of an entire piece, which can only vary
in length by change of temperature, and this is to be
allowed for from conftant obfervation of the thermometer.
The rates of the clocks in London have been accurately
determined ; and if the fame can be afcertained at or near
the pole, the refult will be very important.
In concluding our view of the philofophy of weight,
its varieties on the furfaces of the planets fhould be noticed ;
which are determined on the fame principles as on the fur-
face of the earth. See PLANET, and SysTem.
The weight of bodies on the furface of the fun is com-
puted by Laplace to be about twenty-five times greater than
on that of the earth ; without, however, allowing for the
diminution of gravity by centrifugal force, which he calcu-
lates to be about 3. See CenrriruGAL Force.
WEIGHT, in Commerce, denotes the quantity of any com-
modity or fubftance, which is determined by being placed in
a fcale againft fome known ftandard or weight. ‘The art of
weighing is therefore of the utmoft importance, as it furnifhes
the beft practical means of afcertaining the quantity of mat-
ter in any given body, and thence the value of moft of the
neceffaries of life.
Weights are Fg | made of ftone, iron, lead, brafs,
or mixed metal; and they are moftly ftamped by pro-
per authorities, denoting that they have been fized or’
compared with fome known or legal ftandard. See
STANDARD, and alfo MEAsuURE.
The weights of all nations differ from each other, and fre-
quently in the fame country a great diverfity prevails. The
common denomination is the pound, of which there are
moftly two forts, one for weighing the precious metals, and
the other for common articles ; fuch are the troy and avoir-
dupois weights in England. The former is generally divided
into twelve ounces, and the latter into fixteen. But their
divifion and multiples, as well as relative proportions,
are extremely various. We fhall confider them here under
two diftin& heads, viz. Ancient Weights, and Modern
Weights.
Ancient Weights. — From the great importance of
weights and meafures, their adjuftments muft have been co-
eval with the firft regulations of civil fociety ; and hence
their origin is too remote to be traced by any authentic
hiftory. The only ancient weights that are known with
any degree of certainty are thofe of the Jews, Greeks, and
Romans.
The ancient Jews, having no ftamped coin, weighed all
their gold and filver in the following fimple manner, di-
viding their talent into 50 maneh, and their maneh into
60 thekels.
TABLE
WEIGHT.
Taste I.—Jewith Weights reduced to Englifh Troy Weight (from Arbuthnot).
Ib. oz. pwt, gr.
| Shekel - = 5 s = ‘ - = re) fe) 9 28.
| 60 | Maneh - - - - - - - 2) eae nO oe
| 3000 | 50 | Talent - = a = - - = INey fou yt) Loy
| : ,
2 Note.—In reckoning money, 50 fhekels made a maneh ; but in weight, 60 fhekels.
Tasve I1.—Grecian and Roman Weights reduced to Englifh Troy Weight (from Arbuthnot).
lb. o7. pwt. gr.
| Lentes - - 2 5 = |, Op OMnIo mata
4 | Silique - = is x = 2, Oak eiet.C laa
_Obolus < E = ay OL Om Ol eee
2 Sevineiiam . 5 =, (On umil) Oly Baas
ES a perenne rg om rege ac omigi
a 1 ee Me er eratan dees
12 6 2 11 | Sicilius = se Cee in) Anna.
Tasre IIJ.—Ancient Roman Weights reduced to Englifh Troy Weight (from Pauéton).
Engtith
Grains.
| Siliqua Keration - = = = 2 = z A E 3
3 | Simplium - - - - - - F ches - 9
Sextans of Celfus - = - 5 < 5 . - 102
Scriptulum - - : = 2 - 2 tte
3 | Denarius of Nero - - : = Say
Denarius of Papyrius - 2 2 4 S) Gna
1;| Sextula = 5 2 = Sposa
a = - - - 108
oie Duella : a ’ aerate
144 48 3 | Uncia = = - 432
1728 | 576 48 | 36 12 | Mina - : - 5184
g600 | 8400
7200 |4800 | 3600 } 1200 | 100 | Centumpondium.
Vou. XXXVIII. Ll iene
WEIGHT.
Tasre [V.—Other Divifions of the Roman Pound (from Pauéton).
- Englith
Grains.
| Uncia - - - - ~ : z 4 4 R999
2 | Sextans - - - - : : - 5 Rtg
3 Quadrans, triunx, teruncium - - - = 3 - 1296
|. ae : - - - - - . - 1728
Wu, Quincunx”- - - - - s - 2160
6 1{ | Sexunx, femis - - < 4 : - 2592
7 er a 1; | Septunx - . 2 fe - 3024
| 23a" eat , 1+ | Bes, beflis, des - < 3 - 3456
| 9 ik 1. ne 11 } Dodrans, nonuncium~- = - 3888
to | 2 re 17 ied 14 | Dextans - = - 4320
{1 ze ue It 13 i I;4y | Deunx = - 4752
12 a= a 1 rt 1 red 1z Libra, as, pondo - 5184 }
The weight of the Roman denarius, ounce, and pound,
is otherwife ftated as follows :
Englith
Grains.
By Arbuthnot, the Denarius, (7th part of thet 62
Ounce) - - - - - 04
the Ounce - - 43752
the Pound - - 5240,4
By Chriftiani, the Denarius, (8th part of ab :
Ounce) - - - - - S49
the Ounce - - 41551
the Pound - - - 4981,2
See Denarius.
Modern Weights, or rather weights ufed in modern times,
are in general very remote in their origin. We fhall begin
with Britifh weights, and follow with thofe of France,
making accurate comparifons between both; after which the
divifions of the weights of the principal trading places in
Europe, and other parts of the world, will be given; with
tables of their relative proportions, extracted, by permif-
fion, from the Univerfal Cambift.
Englifh Weights.—By the twenty-feventh chapter of
Magna Charta, the weights are to be the fame all over
England; but for different commodities there are two forts,
viz. troy weight, and avoirdupois weight.
The origin from which they are both raifed is the grain
of wheat, gathered in the middle of the ear: 32 of thefe
well dried make one penny-weight, 20 penny-weights
10%, and 1202. 1]b. troy. Stat. 51 Hen. III. 31 Edw. I.
12 Hen. VII.
By the laws of affife, from the reign of William the Con-
queror to the reign of Henry VII., the legal pound weight
contained a pound of 12 ounces, raifed from 32 grains of
wheat ; and the legal gallon meafure invariably contained 8
of thofe pounds of wheat, 8 gallons made a bufhel, and 8
boufhels a quarter.
Henry VII. altered the old Englifh weight, and intro-
duced a pound, under the name of troy, which exceeded
I
the old Saxon pound by 3 of an ounce: in proof of this it
is alleged, that Henry VIII. when he abolifhed the old
pound in the eighteenth of his reign, and eftablifhed the
troy, declares that the troy pound exceeded the old pound
by 4 of an ounce.
This troy pound now in ufe, confifting of 12 ounces, ,
contains 5760 troy grains, and the ounce therefore con-
tains 480 grains; confequently 360 grains, equal to 3 of
the ounce, deduéted from 5760, leave 5400 troy grains,
equal to the weight of the old Saxon pound which he
abolifhed. It appears, therefore, that the old Saxon pound
was £42 of the prefent troy pound; and as the avoirdupois
pound of 16 ounces contains 7000 troy grains,. the old
Saxon pound was $4 of the prefent avoirdupois pound.
Although formerly 32 grains made a penny-weight, it
has in later times been thought fufficient to divide the
penny-weights into 24 equal parts called grains, being the
leaft weights now in common ufe.
The firft ftatute that dire&ts the ufe of the avoirdupois
weight is that of 24 Henry VIJI., which plainly implies
that it was no legal weight till that ftatute gave it a legal
fanétion ; and the particular ufe to which the faid weight is
thus direéted, is fimply for weighing butcher’s meat in the ~
market. How or when it came into private ufe is not clearly
known, Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixv. parti. art. 3.
Taste V.—Of Troy Weight, as ufed by the Gold-
fmiths, &c.
Grains.
24 | Penny-weight.
480 | 20 | Ounce.
5760 | 240 12 | Pound.
The grain troy is divided into 20 mites; the mite into 24
doits,
WEIGHT.
doits, the doit into 20 periots, and the periot into 24 blanks.
Thefe divifions are imaginary, but there are real weights of
decimal divifions to the thoufandth part of a grain.
Taste VI.—Of Troy Weight, as ufed by the Apo-
- thecaries.
Grains.
20 | Scruple. 9
60 3 | Drachm. 3
480 | 24 8 | Ounce. 3
5760 | 288 96 “aa | Pound.
This weight is effentially the fame as troy weight, but
differently divided. It is chiefly ufed for medical prefcrip-
tions: but drugs are moftly bought and fold by avoirdu-
pois weight.
Tasce VII.—Diamond Weight.
Diamonds and other precious ftones are weighed by carats,
the carat being divided into 4 grains, and the grain into 16
parts. ‘The diamond carat weighs 3 grains troy: thus,
Diamond Weight. Troy Weight.
DOsPartse wet Grains 9.058 Grain.
AiGrains—\ on Caratinyi==) ote Graina.
Tasie VIII.—OF Avoirdupois Weight.
Drachms.
16 | Ounce.
256 | 16 | Pound.
7168 | 448] 28 | Quarter.
28672 | 1792. 5 112 4 | Hundred.
ae Perea ae oem Ton.
The drachm is fubdivided into three feruples, and each
{cruple into ten grains; the pound or 7680 grains avoir-
dupois = 7000 grains troy, and*hence 1 grain troy =
1097 grains avoirdupois. 2
Hence alfo -
And =
144 Ib. avoirdupois”
19202. ditto - -
175 lb. troy.
175 0z. do.
The ftone is generally 14 1b. avoirdupois weight, but for
butcher’s meat or fifh it is 8lb. . Hence the hundred equals
8 ftone of 14 lb. or 14 ftone of 8 lb.
A ftone of glafsis 5lb. A feam of glafs 24 ftone, or
120 |b.
The fother of lead is generally 19% cwt.
at Newcaftle, 21 cwt.
at Stockton, 22 cwt.
Hay and ftraw are fold by the load of 36 truffes.
The trufs of hay weighs 56 1b. and of ftraw 361b. The
trufs of new hay is 60 lb. until the 1ft of September.
A view of local varieties of Englifh weights will follow
the prefent article.
Taste IX.—Wool Weight.
Wool, like other common articles, is weighed by the
avoirdupois, but the divifions differ from the above table:
thus,
7 Pounds - - = 1 Clove
2 Cloves = - - 1 Stone
2 Stone e = - 1 Tod
63 Tods © = “s 1 Wey
2 Weys - - - 1 Sack
12 Sacks = = - 1 Latt.
The Weights of Ireland are the fame as thofe of England ;
and they are ufed for corn inftead of meafures, which feems
to be the moft correé& method of dealing.
Weights of Scotland.—By the aé of union paffed in 1707,
the weights and meafures of England were to be adopted in
Scotland, but their introduétion there is by no means
general.
The Englifh troy weight and apothecaries’ weight, ‘how-
ever, are ufed throughout Scotland, in the fame manner as in
England, with the exception that the Scotch jewellers
divide the troy ounce into 16 drops, each drop being 30
troy grains ; whereas the Englifh divide it into 20 penny-
weights, and a penny-weight into 24 grains, as before ftated.
The Englifh avoirdupois weight is ufed for the fale of lea-
ther, foap, fugar, tea, flour, candles, and other groceries ;
alfo for felling rofin, wax, pitch, wrought metals, fome
Baltic goods, and all goods brought from England.
Scotch troy weight, alfo called Am/flerdam and French
Weight, is ufed for weighing iron, hemp, flax, Baltic and
Dutch goods, meal, butcher’s meat, unwrought pewter and
lead, and likewife for fome more articles. The pound, 16
of which compofe a ftone, contains 7616 troy grains: it is
confequently nearly 9 per cent. heavier than avoirdupois, or
100 lbs. are equal to 1084 lbs. avoirdupois.
Trone Weight.—This weight was abolifhed by a in
1618. Its name is {till retained in felling butter, cheefe,
tallow, wool, lint, hemp, hay, and fome other home com-
modities; but the trone ftone and pound are generally deno-
minated by avoirdupois pounds and ounces. ‘The trone
pound always contains the fame number of ounces avoirdu-
pois, as the flone contains pounds. The weight of the
ftone, however, is variable. It appears from a recent pub-
lication (Kelly’s Metrology), that there are about thirty
different fyftems of weights and meafures in Scotland.
Weights of France.—In order fully to explain this important
part of our article, three different weights muft be noticed ;
viz. the ancient fyftem, called the ** Poids de Marc ;?? the
“ Metrical Syftem,” begun in 1795; and the * Syfteme
Ufuel,” fanétioned by an Imperial decree of 1812. -
The old French weight (poids de marc), the pound or
livre, contains 2 marcs, 16 ounces, 128 gros, 384 deniers,
and 9216 grains, and equals 7556 grains troy. The new
or metrical fyftem, alfo called the decimal fyitem, has been
already explained under our article SranpArp. The fol-
lowing are its divifions, with its proportion to the poids de
mare and Englifh troy weight. ‘The gramme is the element
of all weights, and it is multiplied and divided by tens in
the following terms :
The word Deca prefixed means - IO times.
Heéto - - - 100 times.
Kilo - - - 1000 times.
Myria - - - 10000 times.
On the contrary, for divifors,
the word Dect exprefles the toth part,
Centi - - 1ooth part, and
Mili - roooth part.
TUN 33 a
TABLE
WEIGHT.
TABLE X.
Poids de Mare. Eng, Troy Weight.
: _» livres. on. gros. grs. Ib. oz. dwt. grs.
Ae anor Worn f 2042 140 14 - 2681 3 6.2
Myriagramme 20 66 63.5 - 26915 1.46
Kilogramme* - 2 0 5 35-15 - 28 3 12.146
He&ogramme - - 32 10.715 - 3 4 8.414
Decagramme - - 2 44.2715 - 6 10.441
Gramme - - 18.82715 = 15-4441
Decigramme - - 1.882715 - 1.54441
Centigramme~ - - 0.1882715 - 0.15444
The gramme weighs 5.648 drachms avoirdupois, and
the kilogramme 35.3 0z. or 2 Ib. 3 02. 4.8 drachms avoir-
dupois. ‘The Quintal Metrique, therefore, weighs 1 cwt.
3 qrs. 24 lb. avoirdupois. ;
The pound of the Sy/leme Ufuel, is the half kilogramme ;
but the divifions are binary, according to the ancient fyftem.
Weights of Spain.—The Caftilian mark is ufed for the
precious metals. In weighing gold, it is divided into 50
caftellanos, 400 tomines, or 4800 grains ; but for filver, the
fame mark is divided into eight ounces, 64 ochavos, 128
adarmes, 384 tomines, or 4608 grains. The commercial
weight is alfo Caftilian. The pound is divided into 2
marks, 16 ounces, 128 drachms, or 9216 grains. —25
pounds = 1 arroba; 4 arrobas = I quintal.
Weights of Portugal.—Gold and filver are weighed by the
mark of § ounces; the ounce being fubdivided into 8
outavas, 24 efcrupulos, or 576 grains. The commercial
pound is divided into 2 marks or 16 ounces, the ounce into
8 outavas or 576 grains.—32 lb. = 1 arroba; 4 arrobas =
x quintal. ,
Weights of Holland.—Gold and filver are weighed by the
mark of 8 ounces. The ounce is divided into 20 engels or
cfterlins ; the engel into 32 aas. Thus the mark weighs
5120 aas. The commercial pound is 40 aas heavier than
the above pound troy. It is divided into z marks, 16
ounces, 32 loots, or 128 drachms.—8 lb. = 1 ftone ; 1 5lb.=
1 lifpond; 100 lb. =1 centner; and 300]lb,=1 fhip-
nd.
A new fyftem of monies, weights, and meafures, fimilar to
the decimal fyftem of France, has been lately decreed for
Holland, Brabant, and Flanders, by the king of the Nether-
lands.
Weights of Germany.—The weight for gold and filver is
not the fame in all parts of Germany, but the Cologne mark
is every where the ftandard weight for coins. It is divided
into 8 ounces, 16 loths, 256 pfenings, 512 hellers, 4352
efchen, or 65536 richt-pfenings. The pound or pfund
commercial weight is generally divided into 2 marks, 16
ounces, 32 loths, 128 quentins, 512 pfenings, 1024 hellers.
The larger weights are the fhippord, the ceutner or quintal,
the lifpond, and the ftein; but they do not in all places con-
tain the fame number of pounds, and their divifions as well
as relative proportions are extremely various throughout the
empire. .
Weights of Italy.—'The weights of Italy are various both
in their divifions and relative proportions. Thus, at Rome,
the pound for weighing gold and filver is divided into 12
ounces, the ounce into 12 drachms, 24 denari or {crupoli, 48
oboli, 144 filique or 576 grani. At Naples, the pound or
libra is divided into 12 ounces, the ounce into 30 trapefi, and
the trapefo into 20 acini. At Genoa, Florence, Leghorn,
and Milan, it is divided into eight ounces, the ounce into 24
denarior 576 grani. At Venice, the marc is divided into
8 oncie, 32 quarti, 192 denari, 1152 carati, or 4608 grani.
The commercial weight in moft of the above places ts the
fame for light goods as for gold and filver, and is called pefo ~
fottile; but a heavier weight is ufed for coarfe commo-
dities, and is called pefo groffo. Their cantaro or quintal
varies from 100 to z2501b., and in fome places the great can-
taro is 1000 lb.
Weights of Denmark.—The pound for gold and filver
contains 2 marks, 16 ounces, 32 lots, 128 quentins, or 512
orts or pfenings. The pound commercial weight is divided
like that for the precious metals. The fhippond contains
320 lbs. 20 lifponds, or 3+ centners.
Weights of Sweden.—The marck for the precious metals
contains 4384 aas; but for commercial purpofes there are
four other weights, viz. the vidtualie-wigt, divided into 32
lods or 128 quentins; the bergs-wigt or miner’s weight,
the landftads-wigt, and the metal-wigt. The pound of
each of the three latter is divided into 16 lods, or 64
quintals.
Weights of Ruffia.—The pound in Ruffiaufed for all
commodities is divided into 32 loths, or 96 folotnicks.
40lb. = 1 pood, and 10 poods = 1 berquet. ate
Weights of Afia—The weights of Afia are far too nu-
merous and various in their divilions for our limits; but it
miay be obferved, that decimal divifions are more general
there than in Europe.
Weights of Africa.—Upon the Barbary coaft and in Egypt,
the weights are fimilar to each other in their divifions, but very
different in their relative proportions. The principal weight
is the cantaro, divided into 100 rottoli, which is likewife ufed
in Italy, Conftantinople, and feveral places in the Levant.
Weights of America.—The weights and meafures generally
ufed in America, are thofe of the countries by which the
different fettlements were originally colonized. ‘Thus the
Spanifh weights are retained in all parts of South America
except Brazil, where thofe of Portugal are ufed. In the
United States of North America, the Englith fyftem of
weights and meafures is ftill continued, although feveral
plans have been propofed for changing them.
Comparifon of Weights.—The following Tables fhew the
relation between Englifh and foreign weights. Alfo the
proportion of the latter to each other, which is found by a
fingle {tating in the Rule of Three, as in the following ex-
amples:
Example 1.—How many marks of Berlin weight are
equal to 560 kilogrammes of France? ‘
Becaufe 159.29 marks of Berlin = 100 Ib. Englifh
Troy (per Table XI.), and 37.31 kilogrammes, by the
fame Table, = 100 1b. Englifh Troy; it follows that
37-31 kilogrammes = 159.26 marks of Berlin; therefore,
ay,
As 37-31 kilog.
2390-84 marks.
Example 2.—How many pounds commercial weight of
Amfterdam are equal to 276 pounds of Leghorn?
Here, by Table XII., 91.81 Ib. of Amifterdam =
133-56 lb. of Leghorn, both being equal to 1oolb. |
Avoirdupois; therefore,
As 133-56lb. of Leghorn : 91.81 lb. of Amfterdam ::
276 lb. of hachohs : 189.7 lb. of Amfterdam.
159.29 marks :: 560 kilog. :
Troy
WEIGHT.
Troy Weicur.
TasLe XI.—Containing a Comparifon of the Troy, or Gold and Silver Weights of different Countries
the Number of Pounds, Marks, Ounces, &c. of each Place, that are equal to 100 Pounds Englith
the Weight of a fingle Pound, Mark, Ounce, &c. in Englifh Troy Grains.
; and fhewing
Troy ; and alfo
Weight of | Weight of Weiglit of {Weight of
100 lbs. Ja fingle Ib. 100 Ibs. fa fingle Ib.
Englith Troy. | Mark, &c. Englith Troy.|Mark, &e,
E. Grains. E. Grains.
Amfterdam - Marks - - - -| 151.68 | 37974] Leghorn - - (Sce Florence.)
Antwerp Sere beanie’ —- ce Leipfic - - (See Cologne. ) é
Augfburg- - Marks - - - - 158.11 | 3643 Waibon-)9--T= Marks Se 2": 162.62 | 3542
Bafl - - - (See Cologne.) Lubec - - - (See Cologne. )
Berlin - - - Marks - - - -| 159.29 | 3616 | Madras - - Seers - - - ~| 134.17 | 4293
Bern - - - Marks - - - +={ 151.18 | 3810 Pagodas - - = |10919.40 bee
Bombay - - Tolas - - - =| 3232.32 178} . Rupees- - - - | 3217.87 179 |
Bremen - = (See Cologne.) Madrid - - (See Spain.) ;
Breflau - - -Marks - - - -| 182.39 | 3158 | Malabar - - (See Madras.)
Bruffels - - (See Am/terdam.) i Malta - - - Libre - - - -{ 117.83 | 4888 |
Cadiz - - - (See Spain.) Milan - + - Marks - - - -| 158.95 | 3629
Cairo) - = -\ Rottoli- ---'< 86.56 | 6654 Ounces- - = -| 1270 4533
Calicut - - Mifcals- - - - | 8347.82 69 | Naples- - - Libre - - - -| 116.36 4950
China - - - Tales - - - -| 993.79 579% Once =) = ee 1396.32 4124
Cologne - - Marks - - - -| 159-64 | 3608 | Nuremberg - Marks - - - -} 156.95 | 3670
Conftantinople Chekies - - -{| 117 49224 | Paris - - - (See France.)
Drams - - - =} 311700 49¢ | Pegu - - - Ticals - - - - |} 2426.82 2336 |
Cracow - - Marks - - - -| 187.68 | 3069 | Perfia - - - Mifcals- - - - | 8022.25 712 |
Damafcus - - Metecals --- - | 8347.82 69 | Poland- - - Marks - - - -| 185 3113 |
Dantzic - - Marks - - = -| 195.42 | 29473 | Portugal - - (See Lifbon.)
Denmark - - Marks - - - =| 158.89 | 3625 | Prague - - Marks - - - - 147.09 | 3916
England - - Pounds Troy - -| 100 5760 | Ratifbon - - Marks - = ~ -{ 151.68 | 37972 |
Ounces do. - - | 1200 480 | Riga - - - Marks - - - -| 178.43 | 3228 |
Florence - - Pounds- - - -| t09.90 | 5241 | Rome - - - Libre - - - -|, r10 5236 |
Oncie - - - - | 1318.83 | 4363] Ruffia - - - Pounds- - - - 91.23 | 6314 4
Frankfort - - (See Cologne.) Solotnicks - - - | 8758 653 |
France -| =" <0 Marks) = => =~ 152.44 | 3780 Sienna= 6-625 Wibre’ es “> Sens 111.22 | 5178 |
Ounces- - - - | 1219.52 472 | Spain - - - Marks - - - -| 161.87 3557 |
Kilogrammes - - 37-31 | 15444 Ounces- - - - | 1294.96 4445
Hettogrammes - | 3731.53 | 15432 Caftellanos- - - | 8093.50 ma |
Geneva - - Marks - - - -| 152.15 | 37854 Surat - - - Tolas - - - - 3066.55 187+ |
(Or like France. ) Sweden - - Marks - - - -| “177.12 | 3252 |
Genoah=. io e-so Shibre #222010 117-45 | 4904 Tripoli’ ---22 Metecals’ os “S'<2 7819 733 |
Oncie - - = - | 1409.40 | 4083 | Tunis - - - Ounces- - - - 1185.20 | 486
Hamburgh and See Col Turin - - - Marks - - - -| 151.68 37975 |
Hanover - - (See Cologne. ) Venice - - - Marks - - -| 156.44 | 3682
Holland - - (See Amferdam.) Vienna Spee Markee eee 132.88 | 43342 |
Konigfberg - Marks - - - - 190.50 | 30234} Zurich- - - Marks - - - -
159-27 | 36163 |
AVOIRDUPOIS
WEIGHT.
AvorrRpUPOIs WEIGHT.
Taste XII.—Containing a Comparifon of the Commercial Weights of different Places; and fhewing the Number of
Pounds, &c. of each Place that are equal to 100 Pounds Avoirdupois; and alfo the Weight of a fingle Pound, &c.
in Englifh Troy Grains, 7000 of which weigh one Pound Avoirdupois.
a fingle Ib.
Avoirdupois.|Mark, &c, Avoirdupois.|Mark, &c.
AixlaChapelle Pounds- - - -/| 96.76 | 7234] Calemberg - Pounds- - - -| 93.19
Aleppo - - Rottoliof 7z0drs. | 19.89 | 35190] Calicut - - Seyras - - - -| 163.05
Do. of 700 drams 20.46 | 34212 | Candia- - .- Rottoli- - - -| 85.91
Do. of 680 drams 21.06 | 33235 | Carthagena - (Sce Spain.)
Do. of 600 drams 23-87 | 29325 | Caflel - - - Pounds- - - - | 93-32
Okas of 400 drams | 35.80 | 19550 } Caftile - - - (Sce Spain.)
Alexandria - Rottoli Forfori - | 107 6542 | Chamberry - Pounds- - = -| 105.72
Zaydini - -.-| 74.90 | 9345 | China - -.-. Catties - - -,- | 75.45
Zauri - - = -| 48.32 | 14485 | Civita Vecchia Pounds- - - =| 132.90
Mine - - - +]| 59.92 | 11682 | Cologne - - Pounds- - - -| 97
Algiers - - Rottoli- - - -| 84 “| 8330 | Conftance - - Pounds. - = -| 96.09
Alicant - - Great pounds- -| 87.48 8ooz | Conftantinople Okas - - - -j| 35.55 | 19688
_ Light pounds - -| 131.20 | 5335 Lodras - - - 80.80
Altona- - - (See Hamburgh.) ; Chekies - - =| 142.22
Amfterdam - Pounds- - - -| 91.80 | 7625 | Copenhagen - Pounds- - - -]| 90.80
Ancona - - Pounds- - = =| 136.05 5145 | Corfu - - - Pounds- - - -] 111
Antwerp - - Pounds- - - -| 96.75 7235 | Corfica - - Pounds- - - -| 131.72
Apothecaries’ Weight. Cracow - - Pounds- - - -/| 112
Englifh pounds - | 121.52 5760 | Cremona - - Pounds- - - - | 138.33
Dutch pounds - | 122.89 5696 | Cyprus - - Rottoli- - - =| 19.07
German pounds - | 126.65 | 5527 | Damafcus - - Rottoli- - - -j} 25.28
_ French pounds(of?| |, 663 | Dantzic - - Pounds- - - - | 103.07
12 ounces) - 35° 5 Denmark -» - (See Copenhagen.)
Archangel - (See Rufia.) | Deventer - - Pounds- - - -| 96.43
Augfburg - - Heavy pounds -]| 92.35 7580 | Drefden - - Pounds- - - -| 97.14
Light pounds - -} 95.95 7295 | Dunkirk - - Pounds- - - -| 105.86 |
Aurich - - Heavy pounds. -} 83 8433 | Elbing- - - Pounds- - - - | 106.73
Light pounds- - | 91.10 | 7666} Embden - - Pounds- - - -]| 91.29
Bamberg - - Pounds- - - -| 93.42 | 7493 | England - - Avoirdupoispounds| 100
Barcelona - - Pounds- - « -| 112.60 | 6216] Erfurt - - - Pounds- - - | 96.08
Bafl -.- - Pounds- - - =] 92.64 | 7556] Ferrara- - Pounds- - - -| 133.67
Baffano - - Pounds- - - - | 132.82 | 5270 ]'Florence - - Pounds- - - - | 133.56
Batavia - - Catties- - - -| 76.78 g117 | Frankfort - - Pounds- - - - | 97.02
Bengal- - - Seers - - - -| 53-57 | 13066 }] France, Poids de Marc pounds - -| 92.64
Bergamo - - Light pounds- - | 139 5032 Kilogrammes - - | 45.35
Heavy pounds -| 55.64 | 12580 Heétogrammes - | 453-50
Bergen - - Pounds- - - -| 9g! 7700 | Gallipoli - - (See Naples.)
Berlin - - - Pounds- - - -j| 96.80 | 7231 | Geneva - - Heavy pounds -!| 82.35
Bern - - - Pounds- - - -| 86.85 8060 Light pounds - -| 98.82
Betelfagui-' - Maunds - - -|} 49.04 | 14273] Genoa- - - Pefo groflo Rottoli| 92.86
Bilboa - - - Light pounds- -| 92.59 | 7560 Pefo fottile pounds | 142.74
Iron weight pounds | 63.42 | 11037 | Gothenburg - (See Sweden.)
Bologna - - Pounds- - - - |} 125.31 5586 | Groningen - Pounds- - - -| 92.69
Bolfano - - Pounds- - - -| 90.61 7725 | The Hague - (See Amflerdam.)
Bourdeaux - Pounds- - - -| 91.72 | 7632 | Hamburgh - Pounds- - = -| 93.63
Bremen - - Pounds- - - -{ 90.93 7698 | Hanover - - Pounds- - - -| 93.20
Brefcia - - Pounds- - - -| 138.62 5050 | Havre-de-Grace Pounds- - - -| 85.78
Breflau - - Pounds- - - -| T11I.90 6255 | Heidelberg - Pounds- - - -| 89.89
Brunfwick - Pounds- - - -| 97-14 | 7206] Hildefheim - (See Brunfwick.)
Bruffels - - (See Antwerp.) Holland - - See Amflerdam. )
Cadiz - - - (See Spain.) Holftein - - Pounds- - - -| 93.83
Cairo - - - Rottoli- - - -| 105 6664 | Japan - - - Catties- - - -| 76.92
WEIGHT.
TasLe XII.—continued,
Weight of \Weight of
100 lbs. ja fingle lb.
Avoirdupois.|Mark, &c,
E. Grains. E. Grains
Kiel - - - Pounds- - - -| 95.18 7354 | Nice - - - Pounds- - - -{| 146.25 | 4786
Konigherg - Pounds- - - - | 119.27 5869 | Nimeguen- - Pounds- - - -| 91.65 7638
New (See Berlin.) Nordlingen - Pounds- - - -] 92.53 7565
Leghorn - - Pounds-.- - - | 133.56 5241 | Norway - - (See Bergen.)
Leipfie - - Common pounds -| 97.14 7206 | Novi - - - (See Genoa.)
Butcher’s weightlb.| go 7771 | Nuremberg - Pounds- - - -| 88.94 7870
Liebau - - Pounds- - - -| 109.84 6373 | Oldenburg - (See Hamburgh.)
Liege - - - Pounds- - - -| 95.49 7330 | Oporto = - (See Lifbon.)
Lindau - - Heavy pounds -| 78.58 8908 | Oran - - - Rottolos - - -{| 90 7775
Light pounds - -| 98.23 7126 | Ormus- - - Seyras - - = + | 149.73 4675
Lifbon- - ~ Pounds- - - -| 98.80 7085 | Ofnaburg - - Pounds - - -| 91.80 7625
Lifle - - - Pounds- - - -| 105.61 6628 | Oftend- - - (See Antwerp.)
London - - (See England.) Paderborn - - (See Munfler.)
Lubec - - - Pounds- - - -{ 93.83 7460 | Padua - - - Pefo Sottile pounds} 133.33 5250
Lucca - - - Pounds- - - =| 135.59 | 5163 Pefo Groffo,( See Venice. )
Lucers - - Pounds- - - -| 94 7447 | Palermo - - (See Sicily.)
Luneburg - - (See Hanover.) _ | Paris - - - (See France.)
Lyons - - - Poidsdetablepound| 105.87 6612 | Parma - - - Pounds- - - - | 139-33 5024
; Silk weight pound| 98.81 7084] Paffau - - - Pounds- - - -| 94-41 7414
Madeira - - Pounds- - - =| 104.10 6724] Pegu - - - Vis - - - - -| 30 23333
Madras - - Vis - - = = =| 42 21875 | Pernau- - - Pounds- - - - | 108.86 6430
Pollams - = -| 1280 547 | Perugia - - Pounds- - - =| 130 5382
Madrid - - (See Spain.) Pillaun - - - Pounds- - - -| 113.56 6164
Magdeburg’ - (See Berlin.) Pifa - - = Pounds- - - =] 139.22 5028
Majorca - - Rottolos - - -{| 107.82 6492 | Poland- - - (See Warfaw.)
Malabar - - (See Calicut.) Pondicherry - Vis - - - = -~| 30.88 | 22668
Malacca - - Catties- - - -| 74.07 9450] Portugal - - (See Lifbon.)
Malaga - - (See Spain.) ' Prague- - - Pounds- - - -| 88.16 | 7940
Malta - - - Pounds- - - -| 143.20 4888 } Prefburg - - (See Vienna.)
Manheim - - Pounds- - ~* -| 91.65 7638 | Ragufa - - Pounds- - - - | 124.84 | 5607
Mantua - - Pounds- - - - | 143.70 4871 | Ratifbon - - Pounds- - ~ -| 79.8% $771
Marfeilles - - Pounds- - - -]| 111.63 6271 | Ravenna - - Pounds- . - =| 151.42 4628
Mecca - - - Rottoli- - - -| 98 7144 | Reggio - = Pounds- - - = | 137-48 5092
Mecklenburg - Pounds- - - -]| 93.86 7458 | Revel - - - Pounds- - - - | 105.32 6646
Memel - - - Pounds- - - -| 109.82 6374 | Riga - = - Pounds- - - - | 108.46 6454
Meffina - - (See Sicily.) Rochelle - - (See France.)
Milan - - - Pefo Groffo pounds| 60.39 { 11592 | Rome - - - Pounds- - . -| 133-69 | 5236}
Pefo Sottile pounds| 140.90 4968 | Roftock - - Pounds- - - -| 88.75 7887
Minorca - - Heavy pound - -j 37-88 } 18480 | Rotterdam - Pounds- - - -]} 91.80 7625
Light pound - - | 113.63 6160 Light weight pound) 96.39 7262
Mocha - - Maunds - - -| 33.33 } 21000} Rouen - - + Poids de Vicomté Br 800
Vakias - - - - 1133335 525 Pounds - - - i T4 9
Modena - - Pounds- - - - |} 141.93 4932 | Ruffia - - - Pounds- - - -{| 110.86 | 6314
Monaco - - Pounds- - - -| 136.87 5114 | Saltzburg - - Pounds- - - -j| 81 8642
Montpellier - Com.weight pounds} 113.58 6163 | St. Gall - - Heavy pounds -| 77-58 9022
orea - - = Silk weight pounds | 113.50 6167 Light pounds -} 97-55 7176
Pounds- - - -| 90.79 7710 | St. Maloes - (See France.)
Okas - - - -| 37.83 | 18503 | St. Remo - - (See Genoa.)
Mofcow - - (See Ruffa.) St. Sebaftian - Pounds- - - -| 92.64 | 7556
Munich - - Pounds- - - -| 80.87 8656 { Sardinia - - Pounds- - - - | 114.29 6125
Munfter - - Pounds- - - -| 95.31 7344 | Sayde - - - RottoliofDamafcus| 24.35 | 28746
Nantes- - - (See France.) : Ditto of Acre- -- | 20-75 | 33740
Naples- - - Rottoli - - - 0-91 | 13750] Scotland - - Pounds Dutch -
Libre - - - - sat ee Weight - - } os aoe
Narva - - - Pounds- - - -| 096.84 7228 | Siam - - - Catties- - - -| 38.76 | 18060
Negropont - Rottoli- - - -]} 84.73 8261 } Sicily - - RottoliGroffi- - | 51.93 | 13475
t Neufchatel - Poids de Marc, (See Ditto Sottili - -| 57.14 | 12250
France. ) Libre - - » -| 142.85 4900
Poids de Fer pounds} 87.18 | 8029 | Sienna - - »- Pounds- - - -{| 101.38 | 6904
WEIGHT.
Taxscr XI1.—continued.
Weight of |Weight o'
100 lbs.
i
E. Grains
Smyrna - - Okes - - - -| 36.51 | 19172
Rottoli- - - -/| 81.13 8628
Spain - - - Cattillianweightlb.} 98:40 14
Stade - - - Pounds- - - -| 95.46 1333
Stettin- - - (See Berlin.)
Stockholm - (See Sweden.)
Stralfund - - Pounds- - - -| 93.83 7460
Strafburg - - Pounds- - - -| 96.34 | 7266
Or, tike France:
Sumatra - - Catties- - - =| 35.56 | 19683
Surat - - - Seers - - - -| 107.14 | 6533
Surinam - - (See Amflerdam.)
Sweden - - Vittualie weight
Pounds - + - i 106.67 | 6562
pile ‘ wa 120.68 5800
Landftatt weight
Marks = --irevgt] 12670 "| 5525
Stapelftatt weight
: Maks = so. | 133:33"| 5250
Tangiers - - Pounds- - - -]} 94.27 7425
Teneriffe - - Pounds- - - -{| 98.77 7087
Tetuan - - Rottoli- - - -| 63.96 | 10944
Toulon - - (See Marfeilles.)
Triefte - - (See Venice and
Vienna. )
la fingle Ib.
Avoirdupois.|Mark, Sc.
Weight of |Weight of
100 Ibs. {a fingle Ib
Avoirdupois.|Mark, &c
a f. Grains
Tripoli(in Syria)Okes - - - -]| 37-45 | 18691
Tripoli(inAfrica)Rottoli- - - -| 89.28 7840
Tunis - - - Ditto - - - -{| go.09 777°
Turin - - - Pounds- - - -| 122.93 | 5694
Ulm - - - Pounds- - - -|{ 96.77 7234
Valencia - - Heavy pounds -| 84.72 8262
Light pounds - -} 127.08 5508
Venice - - - Pelo Groffo pounds! 94.74 | 7389
Pefo Sottile pounds | 150 4667
Verona- - - PefoGroffo pounds| 91.19 | 7676
Pefo Sottile pounds | 136.35 5134
Vicenza - ~ PefoGroflopounds| 92.75 | 7547
Pefo Sottile pounds | 133.33 5250
Vienna - ~- Pounds- - - -| 81 8638
Warfaw - - Old weight pounds | 120 5832
New Polifh wt.
Pounds - ee t 112.25 | 6236
Wifmar -.- Pounds- - - -]| 93-76 7466
Wurtzburg - Pounds- - - -| 95.08 7362
Yvica - - - Pounds- - - -| 97.97 7145
Zant - - - (See Venice.) :
Zell - = ~ (See Hanover.)
Ziriczee - + Pounds- - - - | 103.94 6735
Zurich - - ~ Heavy pounds -{ 86.03 8136
Light pounds -]} 96.78 7233
Zwoll - - -: Pounds- - - -]| 94.10 | 7439
Plan for the Revifion of foreign Weights, &Fc.—'The
commercial world will learn with fatisfa€tion that a plan has
lately been commenced, under the aufpices of the Britith
overnment, for reviling the tables of comparifon between
oreign weights and meafures ; as it is well known that many
of the tables in ufe abound in contradiétory ftatements ; and
even where they agree, they are frequently found to differ
from mercantile experience.
The origin of thofe tables of comparifon cannot be traced.
It is probable that they have been gradually formed
through a long courfe of ages, from the cafual reports of
individuals in different countries. When, therefore, it is
confidered, how uncertain fuch reports muft have been, and
alfo to what changes weights and meafures are expofed from
decay, accident, or defign, it is not furprifing that fo much
confufion fhould be experienced, efpecially in tables where
no general revifion has ever taken place. .
The only comparifon of the kind upon record is that
made in 1767, by M. Tillet, at the Paris Mint, by order of the
French. government. His operations, however, were con-
fined to money weights, and thefe only of a limited number
of places. His tables, as far as they extend, have been
generally ufed, although their accuracy is, im many in-
ftances, difputed, efpecia'ly by Krufe, and other German
writers. Nelkenbrecker, in his elaborate work on monies,
weights, and meafures, publifhed at Berlin in 1810, ay a
long ftatement ( page 508.) of difcrepances between Tillet’s
reports and thofe of other affay matters.
3
But the moft numerous and important errors are
in the tables of commercial weights and meafures; and
therefore with a view of remedying an evil fo perplex-
ing to merchants, our government has recently iffued
an order to the Britifh confuls abroad, to fend home
well-attefted copies of foreign ftandard weights, that
they may be accurately compared with thofe of Eng-
land at his majefty’s mint. Corre& ftatements are likewife
required of the mathematical dimenfions of meafures of ca-
pacity, and of their comparative contents, as eftimated and
acted upon by merchants. y
We have authority further to ftate, that the plan was
examined and approved by the Board of Trade, on the
14th of January 1818 ; and, by their lordfhips’ recommend-
ation, the order to the confuls has been iffued from the
foreign-office, by Vifcount Caitlereagh.
The copies of {tandards thus tranfmitted to London are
to be weighed and compared by Robert Bingley, efq.
F.R.S., the king’s affay-malter of the Mint; and the re-
fults of thofe important comparifons are to be publifhed by
Dr. Kelly, who projeéted the plan, and who will perform the
calculations. The revifed tables are expected to be brought
out in the fecond edition of his Cambift; and fhould
they be printed before our Cyclopedia is finifhed, we
hope for the author’s permiffion to infert them in our
Addenda.
Wriceuts
.
WEIGHTS.
Werauts and Meafures, in Agriculture and Rural Eco-
nomy, are of great confequence to the land-owner and the
farmer, as being the proportions or quantities by which
various forts of produce, of the agricultural and other fuch
kinds, are difpofed of and fold. They are found to vary
very greatly in different diftricts and parts of the country,
as well as in different places and towns of the fame diftri€&
or county, and even in the markets of the fametown. Con-
fequently, the confufion, uncertainty, inconvenience, and
lots which are thus produced, are often very great and
troublefome. We have already, in the preceding article,
obferved, that the two principal weights eftablifhed in Great
Britain are the troy and avoirdupois weights, and by thefe
moft of the articles of farm produce, and thofe of many
other kinds, are fold in this country.
There are fome, however, that are difpofed of in other
ways, as will be feen below.
However, as the diverfity of weights and meafures (in
different places) creates much perplexity and uncertainty in
the purchafe as well as difpofal of different forts of produce,
it would not only be highly defirable, but convenient and
advantageous, to have one univerfal ftandard or fyftem of
weights and meafures. For an account of the attempts
that have been made to obtain fuch a ftandard, fee
STANDARD.
Different Weights and Meafures for Farm and other produce
by Troy Weight.
24. Grains make 1 Pennyweight
20 Pennyweights - 1 Ounce
12 Ounces - - 1 Pound.
By this weight are weighed gold, filver, amber, bread,
corn, and all liquors.—14 oz. 11 dwts. 154 grains, or
292 dwts. nearly, are equal to a pound avoirdupois.
By Avoirdupois Weight.
16 Drams make 1 Ounce
16 Ounces - - - 1 Pound
28 Pounds - - - 1 Quarter
4 Quarters - - - 1 Hund. weight
20 Hund. weight - - — - 1 Ton.
By this weight are weighed all the farm produce, fuch
as butter, cheefe, and many other articles; and all metals,
except thofe of the finer kinds. In other cafes,
7% Pounds make 1 Gallon of train-oil
8 Pounds - - 1 Stone of butcher’s meat
14 Pounds - - 1 Stone of horfeman’s weight
19% Hundreds - 1 Fodder of lead.
In Wool Weight.
7% Pounds make 1 Clove
2 Cloves - = - 1 Stone
2 Stone - - < 1 Todd
64 Todds - - - 1 Weigh or Wey
z Weys - - - 1 Sack
12 Sacks - = = 1 Latt.
In Hay Weight.
6 Pounds of old hay, or
be Pounds of new ditta } Broa a
36 Trufles - - Sie He 1 Load.
In Bread Weight.
Ib. oz. dr.
A peck loaf weighs =¢ Lee ON OF
A half ditto - - - - 8 11 0
A quartern ditto = - - Ayesees
Vor. XXXVIII.
By Dry Meafure.
2 Pints make 1 Quart
2 Quarts - - - - 1 Pottle
2 Pottles - - - - 1 Gallon
2 Gallons - - - =" ir Peck
4 Pecks - - - - 1 Bufhel
4 Buthels - - - - 1 Coomb
2 Coombs, or eight bufhels - £ Quarter
1 Chaldron
1 Weigh or Wey
n luatts
By this meafure are meafured corn, falt, lead, ore,
oyfters, different other fuch matters, and all dry goods.
The ftandard Winchefter bufhel is a cylinder 184 inches
diameter, and 8 inches deep.
By Long Meafure.
4 Quarters, or 32 bufhels in the
country, and 36 in Taadoath
5 Quarters - - = -
2 Weys, or ro quarters - -
3 Barleycorns make 1 Inch
12 Inches - - - - t Foot
3) Beet. Jue - - - 1 Yard
6 Feet. - - - - 1 Fathom
sh Yards - E b ft peels. or
40 Poles - - - - 1 Furlong
8 Furlongs - - - 1 Mile
3 Miles - - - - 1 League
60 Geographical, or D
694 Englifh miles i 5 x gues
The circumfe-
360 Degrees - - - - } rence of the
Globe.
This comprehends length only, as in the above cafes.
By Square Meafure.
144 Square inches make 1 Square foot
g Squarefeet - - - 1 Square yard
100 Square feet - - - 1 Sq. of flooring
272% Square feet - - - 1 Square rod
40 Square rods - - - 1 Square rood
4 Square roods - - . 1 Square acre
o Square acres - Hn Ee fs
3 q my Te land
roo Square acres - : - 1 Square hide
640 Square acres - - - 1 Square mile.
Square meafure comprehends length and breadth, and
is ufed in meafuring land, in paving, flooring, painting,
glazing, plaiftering, roofing, flating, tyling, and for feveral
other rural purpofes.
In land meafuring is ufed Gunter’s chain, which is
4 poles or 22 yards, or 66 feet long, and contains 100
links, each link being 7.92 inches long. ’
And 43560 f{quare feet or 4840 fquare yards, or 1604
{quare poles, that is, 160 poles in length and 1 pole in
breadth, or 4 {quare roods, or 10 fquare chains, that is, 10
chains in length and 1 chain in breadth, make an acre of
land.
By Cubic or Solid Meafure.
make
1728 Cubic inches 1 Cubic foot
27 Cubic feet 9-5 - = 1 Cubic yard
40 Feet of rough timber i
50 Feet of hewn ditto t Load
This comprehends length, breadth, and thicknefs.
Mm And
WEIGHTS.
And 108 folid feet, that is, 12 feet in length, 3 feet in
breadth, and 3 deep, or commonly 14 feet long, 3 feet
1 inch broad, and 3 feet 1 inch deep, are a ftack of wood.
And 128 folid feet, that is, 8 feet long, 4 feet broad,
and 4 feet deep, are a cord of wood.
In Coal Meafure. e
4 Pecks make 1 Buthel
3 Bufhels = - - - - 1 Sack
12 Sacks, or 36 bufhels_ - - 1 Chaldron
21 Chaldrons - - - - 1 Score
In Corn Meafure.
1 Load of corn makes 5 Buthels
1 Laftofditto - - - 43Do.
It is enaéted by 31 George III., that a Winchefter
bufhel of corn fhould weigh as follows :
lb. Ib.
Wheat 57 avoirdupois, Wheat meal 56) Flour, 45lb. of
Barley 49 - - Flour - 48 | which fhould be
Bigg 42 ane SS Ditto! = ee to a Win-
Oats. 38 - - - 32] chefter bufhel
Rye 4s - - - 53 J unground.
After thefe ftatements of the different weights and mea-
fures which are in common ufe for different forts of pro-
duce, it may not be improper to notice fome of the dif-
ferences of weights and meafures, as they exift in different
diftrifts, towns, and parts of the kingdom, according to
the account which has been given of them, and as they are
injurious to the farmer.
In the counties or diftri&ts near the metropolis, the
ftatute meafures are pretty commonly employed, though
there are many irregularities and deviations ; but in thofe
at fome diftance there are more frequent and remarkable
variations and differences.
In the county of Middlefex, the weights and meafures
made ufe of are moftly thofe of the ftandard legal kind, and
confequently the variations in them are but little.
Wood is fold by the ftack, as packed three feet by
three, and twelve feet long, containing in this manner 108
cubical feet.
Effex is now pretty much in the fame ftate as above,
in regard to its weights and meafures, though formerly they
varied very greatly, wheat being fold either by weight or
meafure, as agreed upon. The meafure then eight gallons
and a half the bufhel; and the weight, that ufually termed
the peck weight, or the medium # what eight and a half
of good wheat would weigh.
Then all other forts of grain were fold by meafure, but
by that which was very different in different places, and for
different forts, the bufhel of barley, malt, oats, &c. being
often nine gallons; others eight and a half, and eight and
three pints, &c. There are {till fome remains of thefe
meafures in the county. Warious articles, too, are {till
fold there by the tale, the dozen, the fcore, and the hun-
dred of fix f{core, fuch as hop-poles, faggots, &c.
The writer of the Berkthire Agricultural Report re-
marks, that, notwithftanding the fines and forfeitures at-
tached to felling corn by any other than the ftandard bufhel,
and the obvious ill confequences refulting from the practice
without one counterbalancing advantage, that county, like
moft others, has its diverfity of meafures, which only en-
courages jobbers, to the prejudice of the grower of corn ;
who, influenced by habit, does not always take into con-
fideration, that if he fhould fell nine gallons inftead of eight
12
to the bufhel, he is giving a bushel ine marter of grain
more than the ary alice, or juttice nant 3g and cise
dealer is probably making that proportion of profit, out of
his ignorance or obftinacy. ,
The owners of land cannot, therefore, more effectually
ferve their tenants, it is fwppofed, than by exerting them-
felves to introduce an uniformity of meafure in their re-
{pective neighbourhoods.
The nine-gallon buthel prevails in fome parts of the
county, but in others the ftandard. At Faringdon and
Wantage, the former is almoft exclufively ufed; but at
Abingdon both it and the ftandard bufhel are employed.
The former is the cuftom of the market, however, unlefs
the contrary be {pecified; but malt fold out of the town
is only eight gallons meafure.
Corn is commonly fold by the load of five quarters. In
building, hedging, and ditching, the perch or pole of
eighteen feet is the ufual meafure.
Wood is fold by the foot, and load-underwood by the
cord, in fome places abfurdly called a load, and by the
proper load.
Befides the ftatute acre, there are alfo common field aeres,
which are fometimes more, and fometimes lefs, than the
{tatute.
In weights the diverfity is great in moft places.
In the county of Suffex, the weights and meafures moft
commonly ufed are, the pound, ftone, acre, load, bufhel,
&c. There are feveral forts of acres, which are a great
fource of perplexity and confufion—the fhort acre, the
ftatute acre, the foreft acre, and various others: the foreft
acre is nine fcore rods; the ftatute, eight fcore; and
the fhort acre, fix fcore in fome places, in others five
{core. The ftranger, unaware of the variations that pre-
vail in the weights and meafures, is, it-is faid, liable to fall
into miftakes in every ftep he takes; and that until a
radical reform is brought to bear, the prefent confufion in
buying and felling mutt prevail, and the honeft and unfuf-
pecting will be taken in by the crafty and defigning.
In the other fouthern diftri&s or counties, the variations
in their weights and meafures are much the fame, though
lefs than in thofe of the north.
It is ftated in the Gloucefter Report on Agriculture, that
in the market of that town, the bufhel varies from nine to
ten gallons ; in the foreft diftri€& it is nearly ten gallons ;
on the Cotfwolds about nine; in the vale nine and a half ;
and in the lower vale, and at Cirencefter, nine and a quart,
of all forts of grain.
Near Briftol, potatoes, green peas, &c. are fold by the
double peck, containing two common ones {truck level
with the top; while at Gloucefter, and higher up the
vale, it is a common peck heaped up. Wool is generally
fold by the ftone weight of 124lbs., or the tod of 283lbs.
Butter often by the pound of 18 oz. ; and the quart of
about .3lbs.
In Herefordfhire the peculiar weights and meafures
which are at prefent in ufe are thefe, according to the Sur-
vey on Agriculture for that diftria.
1 Pound of frefh butter - 18 Ounces
1 Stone - - : 12 Pounds
1 Cuftomary acre - - % Of a ttatute acre
1 Hopacre - - - That {pace of ground
which contains 1000
plants; viz. about £
a ftatute acre
1 Lugg - = + 49 Square yards of cop-
pice-wood
Wood
WEIGATS.
1 Wood acre 4. Larger than a ftatute,
i. ec. as 8 are to 5
1 Day’s math - - About a ftatute acre of
meadow or grafs land,
being the quantity ufu-
ally mown by one man
in one day
1 Perch of fencing - 7 Yards
1 Perch of walling - 16% Feet
1 Perch of land - - 5% Yards (as ftatute)
1 Bubhel of grain - - 10 6Gallons
1 Bufhel of malt - - 82 Gallons.
In the Report on Agriculture for Shropfhire, it is fated,
that wheat, barley, and peas, are fold by the ftrike or
bufhel, which, in Shrewfbury market, is 38 quarts, but in
fome other markets it is 40 quarts. That the 38 quarts of
wheat fhould weigh 75lbs., the 40 quarts 8olb. In other
markets in the county, the bufhel of wheat does not weigh
more than 7olbs.: this is chiefly applicable to the eaftern
diftri& of the county. The buthel of flour is every where
s6lbs. That 38 quarts of barley weigh about 6s5lbs.
That a bufhel of oats means three half bufhels of the cuf-
tomary meafure at Shrewfbury, and fhould weigh better
than 93lbs. But that in other markets it means 24 bufhels,
fometimes heaped, fometimes ftricken, and fometimes a me-
dium between both. That a bag of wheat means three
bufhels cuftomary meafure. The quarter buthel is called
a hoop or peck ; and the fourth of that is called a quarter.
Butter, when frefh, weighs 170z. to the pound; when
falted, 16 oz. The laft is reckoned by the gawn, which fig-
nifies 12lbs. of 16 oz. in Shrewfbury, and 16lbs. of 16 oz.
at Bridgnorth. Cheefe is fold by the cwt., which, at Shrewf-
bury, means railbs., and 113lbs at Bridgnorth. Coals are
fold by the ton, which is 20 cwt. of r112lbs. at fome pits,
and 12olbs. at others: the ftack is now rarely ufed ; it was
a meafure of four feet f{quare, and would fometimes weigh
25 cwt. Hay is fold by the ton, of 20 cwt. of 112]bs.
Home-made linen cloth is fold by the ell, which meafures
a yard and a half; and it is added, that the acre is the
ftatute acre. That the workman’s rood in digging is eight
yards fquare ; but in hedging eight yards in length.
It is fuggefted, too, that there is an error in the ftandard
meafure, that in the Exchequer not agreeing with the
requifitions of the 13 Will. II. c.5. By which ftatute,
the bufhel is ordered to be 184 inches round, and 8 deep ;
it would confequently contain
Cubic inches - - - Se 2150
That in the Exchequer contains - - 2124,
Eight of the flandard gallons - - 2168
Thirty-two ditto quarts - - - 2240
Sixty-four ditto pints =) le - 2027
That the difference between the bufhel and 32 of the
quarts is, therefore, 116 cubic inches, or nearly three pints
and a half.
It is ftated, too, that in the northern part of the North
Riding of Yorkfhire, the cuftomary bufhel exceeds that of
the Winchefter, by full two quarts; but nearer to the
fouthern extremity, feldom by more than one: the bufhel
of fome individuals in the Riding is ftill larger, meafuring
about 10 per cent. more than the ftatute requires.
And further, that a ftone of wool in York market is
fixteen pounds, and four ounces in each {tone are allowed
for draught ; that is, for the draught of each fleece, the
wool-buyers being empowered by aét of parliament to weigh
each fleece /eparately, if they like. That at Ripon market,
a ftone of wool is 16 pounds 12 ounces. And a ftone of
wool in the Weftern Moorlands is 174 pounds; the half
pound, the writer apprehends, is for draught, as in York
market. i
But that at Darlington, where the wool grown about
Richmond in that diftri@ is chiefly fold, the ftone is 18
pounds. And that in the Eaftern Moorlands, the weights
ufed by individuals vary up to 19 pounds to the ftone.
That the pound of butter in the Riding varies from
16 to 24 ounces. But that a ftone of all other commodities
throughout the whole of it is 14 pounds.
In Chefhire, though the variety in the weights and mea-
{ures is very confiderable, it is lefs on the whole than in
fome other parts of. the country.
The weights in this diftriét are ufually the avoirdupois
112lbs. to the hundred weight. Some articles are fold by
what is called the long hundred of r2olbs. Cheefe is one
of thefe. Hay, too, is generally there fold by the cwt.
of 12olbs.
Butter, in moft parts of the county, is difpofed of by
the pound weighing 18 ounces. In fome places it is fold
in lumps, made. up in moulds of different forms, called
difhes, or half difhes. Thefe weigh 24 or 12 ounces each.
Potatoes are ufually difpofed of by the bufhel weighing
go pounds.
Wheat by the bufhel weighing either 70 or 75 pounds.
Oats by the buthel weighing from 45 to 50 pounds, as
the price and bargain may be.
Oatmeal by the load weighing 240 pounds.
Barley is fometimes fold by the bufhel of 60 pounds,
and fometimes by the meafure of 38 quarts.
Malt by the meafure of 32 or 36 quarts.
Land was formerly very generally meafured there by
what is called the Chefhire acre, containing 10,240 fquare
yards; and this meafure {till continues to be ufed to a
certain extent, particularly in the northern part of the
county. The ftatute acre is now, however, it is faid, in
much more general ufe.
A rood of land is 64 yards. A rood of hedging, ditch-
ing, and other fuch operations, eight yards in length. And
a rood of marl is 62 cubic yards.
In the Lancafhire Report on Agriculture, it is obferved,
that the rod is of no lefs than fix different lengths in dif-
ferent parts of the county; namely, the ftatute, or 55
yards, 6, 65, 7, 74, and 8 yards, to the rod, pole, or perch :
and that the meafures are equally variable. At Lan-
cafter a load of wheat, beans, and peas, is four and a half
bufhels (Winchefter); barley, fix Winchetter bufhels ;
oats, feven and a half Winchefter bushels : they have alfo
a meafure called a windle, which is equal to three Win-
chefter bufhels. But that wheat has been fold lately by
the weight of 28olbs,
That at Ulverftone, a load of wheat is four and a half
Winchefter bufhels; oats, fix Winchefter bufhels. And
that at Manchefter, a load of wheat is fixteen {core ; a load
of oats, nine Winchefter bufhels ; a load of beans, five Win-
chefter bufhels ; a load of potatoes, twelve fcore and twelve
pounds, wafhed; unwafhed, thirteen fcore. That Liverpool
town’s bufhel is 34% quarts for oats, barley, and beans,
making exaétly 36 quarts Winchefter, or one-eighth more
than a Winchefter bufhel, and by the cuftom of trade, one
given in at every fcore, or twenty-one bufhels; of late,
wheat, barley, and oats, have been fold by weight, but
never yet beans; wheat, 7olbs. to the bufhel; barley, 6olbs. ;
and oats, 45lbs.: and probably this mode by weight is the
faireft for both a buyer and feller ; for, befides the difficulty
of getting a true ftandard bufhel or meafure, the dexterity
Mm 2 of
WEIGHTS.
of corn-meters is fuch, that it is afferted they can gain
either to the buyer or feller from 10 to 20 per cent. in dif-
ferent modes of meafurement ; that 5 per cent. can be ob-
tained by this practice, by even bunglers in the bufinefs :
this is an enormous profit, and the unfairnefs of fuch prac-
tices merits the fevereft reprehenfion. ,
That at Prefton the windle of wheat, beans, and barley,
4s three and a half Winchefter bufhels; but of late 22olbs.
have been reckoned a windle of wheat: they have alfo a
meafure there called a peck, which is twenty-eight quarts,
four of which are called a windle.
In refpeé&t to weights, there are three different ones ex-
prefled under the general term hundred weight; namely,
1oolbs., 112lbs., and 120lbs. The ftone, too, varies. In
Liverpool, 2olbs. are the weight allowed for the feveral
articles under that denomination, as beef, hay, ftraw, &c. ;
and probably all the articles produced from land. And
butter is required to weigh 18 ounces avoirdupois, or it
may be feized by the magiftrates.
At Lancafter, and the neighbourhood, they have feveral
different weights, as the Lancafter peck, of twenty-four
quarts ; the common peck, of fixteen quarts ; the half Win-
chefter ; the windle, of three and a half bufhels; the met,
of fifty-fix quarts ; the ackendale, or ackentyde, the eighth
part of the above, or feven quarts, and the mealure of four
quarts. ‘The load of malt is fix buthels.
Butter eighteen ounces to the pound; other articles
fixteen.
There are alfo different local variations in many articles.
In Weftmoreland, the pound confifts of twelve, fixteen,
eighteen, or twenty-one ounces; and the ftone of fourteen,
fixteen, or twenty pounds. There is alfo a Winchefter
bufhel, a cuftomary bufhel equal to three of thefe, a bufhel
of two bufhels for the fale of potatoes near Appleby, and
one of two and a half for that of barley. Rye is fold by
the boll of two bufhels, and potatoes by the load of four
buthels and a half heaped ; or more generally a bag, which
holds feven and a half bufhels, is filled and fold for a load
of potatoes.
There is the ftatute acre, too, of 4840 fquare yards, the
cuflomary acre of 6760 raifed from the perch of fix and
a’ half yards, and a third acre on the borders of Lancafhire,
raifed from the perch of feven yards, containing 7840,
being the fame as the Irifh plantation acre.
It is remarked, likewife, in the Cumberland Report on
Agriculture, that the fame confufion in weights and mea-
fures prevails there, as in many other parts of the kingdom.
That a Winchefter buthel is thirty-two quarts ; a Car-
lifle bufhel, ninety-fix quarts; and a Penrith bufhel, fixty-
four quarts, for wheat and rye; and eighty quarts, for
barley, oats, and potatoes.
That a ftone of tallow, wool, yarn, or hay, is 16lbs. 5
and a ftone of butcher’s meat 14lbs., but in many places
16lbs.
That the pound is fixteen ounces, by which butter and
various other articles are weighed.
The writers of the Account of Agriculture for Nor-
thumberland, ftate that their weights and mea{ures are in a
fad ftate of confufion ; a pound, a ftone, a bufhel, and a
boll, are rarely the fame in different markets, and frequently
vary in the fame market for different articles.
At Newcafile.
4 Beatments make 1 Peck
2 Pecks - - - - 1 Kenning
2 Kennings - - - 1 Bubhel, Winchefter
2 Bubhels - - - - 1. Boll.
At Hexham, with Rye and Poas.
4 Quarts make 1 Forpit
As ROLES =e meee wey. =. Eee
4 ReCks, 4= - - - 1 Buthel
2 Bubhels - - - - 1 Boll = 4 Winchef-
ter bufhels.
For Oats and Barley.
4 Quarts make 1 Forpit
Sy Rorpitejapy ree shqude ly ¥ Peck
4 Pecks - - - - 1 Bufhel
2 Bubhels san seyyees, amBollit= pee bpfhels
Winchetter.
At Alnwick.
3 Quarts make 1 Forpit
4 Forpits. - - - - 1 Peck
3 Pecks - - - - 1 Bufhel, Winchefter
z Buthels - - - - 1 Boll of wheat
6 Bufhels - - - - 1 Boll of barley or
oats.
At Wooler.
4 Quarts make 1 Forpit
3 Forpits - - - - 1 Peck
3-Pecks - - - - 1 Bufhel
6 Bufhels - - . - 1 Boll.
That a ftone of wool in fome parts is 24lbs. ; in others,
18lbs. ; and a ftone of every other article is r4lbs.
As the weights and meafures made ufe of in Scotland
differ very materially from thofe employed in England, it
may, of courfe, not be ufelefs to give a curfory view of them
under the prefent head. It has been obferved by Mr.
Somerville, in his Account of the Agriculture’ of Eatft
Lothian, that land is meafured by the Scotch acre, which
is to the Englifh acre very nearly in the proportion of five
to four.
That the boll is the denomination of corn meafure always
ufed, but the contents vary according to the fpecies of
grain meafured. But that there are uniformly four firlots
in the boll of all grain; but the firlot differs in fize in the
proportion of 21, 25, to 31. Wheat, rye, beans, and
peas, are fold by the {mall firlot; malt, barley, and oats,
are fold by the large one. our {mall firlots are 4.087276
Winchefter bufhels ; four large ones are 5.96263 buthels
Wincheiter. The boll of wheat then is a {mall fraction
more than half a quarter; and the boll of barley, a fraétion
lefs than three-fourths of a quarter. But this calculation
applies, it muft be remembered, to the Linlithgow boll,
which is accounted the ftandard meafure of Scotland: the
meafure a@tually ufed in Eaft Lothian is fomewhat larger.
In the Mid-Lothian Report on Agriculture, it is ftated,
that flour, pot-barley, groceries, iron, and ropes, are bought
and fold there, by what is termed Englifh weight, being
16 oz. to the pound, and r6lbs. to the ftone. But that
butcher’s meat, oatmeal, and flax, are bought and fold by
what is called Dutch weight, of which the proportion to
the Englifh is as 174 to 16.
That wool, hay, and butter, are bought and fold by
trone weight, of which the proportion is to the Englifh, as
22 to 16. That other articles are bought and fold by
either of thefe weights, as it may happen.
But that in long meafure the inch is the root, of which
12 go to the foot, and 37 to the Scotch yard.
And that land is meafured by a chain 24 yards in
length, or 74 feet, divided into 100 links, of 8.888 inches
can in length ; 10 fquare chains make an acre, or 57
{qugre vat Scotch, equal to 6084.444 Englifh ; and as
the
WEIGHTS.
the Englith acre confifis of 4840 fquare yards, hence the
proportion that the Scotch acre bears to the Englifh is,
with a {mall fraction more, as 5 to 4, as feen above.
That in liquid meafure the pint is the root, containing
103-404 cubic inches ; the half and quarter in proportion.
That the Linlithgow wheat firlot, the only ftandard
meafure for that grain in Scotland, contains 214 pints ;
hence in cubic inches 2197.34. The Winchefter bufhel,
in like manner the Englifh ftandard, contains 2150.42
cubic inches ; hence the Scotch wheat firlot is about 24
per cent. greater than the Englifh bufhel.
And the Linlithgow barley meafure, which is likewife the
ftandard, contains 31 pints, or 3205.54 cubic inches ; hence
533 bufhels are very nearly equal to the Scotch boll of
4 firlots.
That ftraw is fold by tale, 40 windlens to a kemple,
generally from 14 to 16 {tone trone weight.
It is noticed, that in Eaft Lothian, meal is fold by the
peck of eight pounds Amfterdam weight; and that the
boll of meal contains fixteen pecks or eight {tones. '
It is ftated in the Clydefdale Report on Agriculture,
that in the dry meafure, ufed in the fale of grain of all
kinds, a boll contains four firlots, a firlot four pecks, and
a peck four forpits or lippies; 16 bolls make a chalder.
The firlot ufed to meafure barley and oats, is almoft one-
half larger than the firlot for meafuring wheat, beans, peas,
&c. That both thefe meafures are about one-fixteenth
larger than the Linlithgow ftandards of the fame denomi-
nations. But for more than thirty years paft, wheat has
been bought and fold by the Linlithgow ftandard, which is
now attempted to be introduced for other grains.
That in the lower parts of the county potatoes have
been meafured, for thefe forty years, with a difh of the
fhape of a cafk, the peck meafure holding fifteen Scotch
pints ; its weight, full of potatoes recently dug, is 43lbs.
avoirdupois. In the higher parts of the county potatoes
are fold by the barley meafure.
That the peck, or /leek, for meafuring pears and apples,
holds about eighteen pints. The confufion occafioned by
the irregularity of weights and meafures, is too obvious,
the writer fays, to require any comment.
In the Argylefhire Agricultural Report, it is faid that
at Inverary the boll of meal is eight ftone Scotch troy, or
Dutch 172lbs. avoirdupois to the ftone. At Campbelton
it is ten ftone, of the fame weight; or fixteen pecks of
rolbs. Scotch troy, or rolbs. 15 oz, avoirdupois each.
That in fome parts of the Knapdale and Lorn, the boll
is nine ftone. That in the firft of the above places, oats,
barley, and malt, are meafured by a firlot of 3438.183
cubic inches ; equal to one firlot, two pints, one mutchkin,
Scotch ftandard meafure, which makes the boll (of four
firlots) 7.258 per cené. better than the Scotch ftandard
meafure, and equal to fix bufhels, one peck, nine pints,
10.2 cubic inches, Englifh ftandard meafure.
And that in Kintyre, oats, barley, or bear and malt,
were, for time immemorial, fold by a heaped peck, of
which the ftandard lay with the dean of Guildin Campbelton.
Gf this meafure, feventeen pecks made, and {till make, the
Kintyre boll from Auguft to Patrickmas, and only fixteen
from that date to the new crop; and the divifions of the
boll are regulated by the fame proportions. But from the
inconvenience of meafuring by the heaped peck, it has been
converted into the ftriked one containing the fame quantity ;
and this new ftriked peck committed to the dean of Guild,
has been fince the ftandard of the diltri@. The dimen-
fions of it are twelve Englifh inches diameter, equally wide
throughout, and ten and a tenth Englifh inches deep. The
contents of it in cubic inches are 1142.28576, equal to
eleven Scotch pints, and a very little more than two-thirds
of a gill, which makes the Kintyre boll 19418.85792
cubic inches, before Patrickmas, and 18276.57216 after it.
A lippie more, or ;';th of a boll, for town dues, is given
with every boll delivered in Campbelton. The firft is equal
to nine Winchefter bufhels, and 65.03112 cubic inches,
(about ,', of a bufhel) and equal to oné boll eight pecks,
1.61788 lippie, Linlithgow ftandard meafure. The latter
is equal to eight and a half Winchefter bufhels, excepting
2.0394 cubic inches, and to one boll fix pecks, 3,4, lip-
pies Linlithgow. The Winchefter bufhel contains 2150.42
cubic inches. The Linlithgow boll ftandard meafure
12822.096.
_ That at Inverary, the peck of potatoes contains fourteen
pints and one mutchkin, ale meafure. At Campbelton, it
contains about nine Englifh wine gallons, and is given
heaped ; and generally weighs about 56lbs. avoirdupois.
But that beans and peas are fold in Kintyre by the
old peck ftriked, or by a meafure one-third lefs than that
for oats and bear. Lineal and liquid meafures are the fame
with the Scotch ftandards. Butter, cheefe, tallow, hay,
wool, and lint, are fold by the ftone of 24lbs. avoirdupois.
Butcher’s meat by the pound of twenty-four ounces avoir-
dupois at Inverary, and of fixteen ounces at Campbelton.
The herring-barrel contains thirty-two Englifh gallons of
wine meafure, or 67.28 cultomary ale pints of 109.866
cubic inches each.
Thefe facts and ftatements fufficiently fhew the neceflity
of fome regulation being fpeedily adopted of adjufting
weights and meafures to nee fimple ftandard, both in this
and the northern parts of the kingdom.
The table of weights conftruéted by lord Somerville,
and introduced below, may be ufeful to the ftock-farmer
and grazier in moft fituations.
Tas efor the Equalization of different Weights.
Scones Stones, at | Stones, at |Scotch Stones} Hundred,
14lbs. 8lbs. 16lbs. 11 2lbs,
St. Ibs.| St. Ibs. }| St. dbs. | Cwt. qrs. Ibs.}
2ovequal 28) Sill bo. Oo lwi25) soy Was 8
25 — 25) OM OZ Ay | ais 2 LOMB:
SO Sete ich | Ne) MONE PES: 57 oh t2
SS wien 59 eink 8h Adee’ 0 d 6. 3 0
40 — Bi] Za elOO. (Q)i| 50) 50 7. O16
45 — Ga" Ag EZ) A | OM 2 8S Ola
50 — 71s uOuel 2h. VOnl 02) 04. So 320
Slee 78 - Si 13%. 44.68 6 | 9.358
60 — Sy eLOu Ih Qin | Tse sO) evo uguzs:
65 — ZOOL EO2 6 AN MOK 62) aie liana m2
70 — KOC (Ome 5 5) (Ol O7) navel etzeu2inaG
15° — LOZ ule lo ACOs) Or | ay ea
80 — 114 4) 200 0 | Ico Oo TA aE ud:
WEIGHTS.
TABLE oF PRICEs.
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WEI
Weicur, Pondus, in Mechanics, is any thing to be raifed,
fuftained, or moved by a machine ; or any thing that in
any manner refifts the motion to be produced. See Mo-
TION, &c.
In all machines, there is a natural ratio between the
weight and the moving power. If the weight be increafed,
the power muft be fo too; that is, the wheels, &c. are to
be multiplied, and fo the time increafed, or the velocity
diminifhed.
“ The centre of gravity F, ( Plate XL. Mechanics, fig. 6.)
of a body I H, together with the weight of the body, being
given ; to determine the point M, in which, lying on a ho-
rizontal plane, a given weight G, hung in L, cannot re-
move the body I H out of its horizontal fituation.”’
Conceive a weight hung in the centre of gravity F, equal °
to the weight of the whole body I H, and find the common
centre of gravity M, of that and the given weight G. If
the point M be laid on the horizontal plane, the weight G
will not be able to move the body H I out of its place.
“‘ The centre of gravity C (jig. 7.) of a body A B, to-
gether with its weight G, being given; to determine the
points L and M, wherein props M N and L O are to be
placed, that each may bear any given proportion of the
weight.”’
ra the horizontal line A B, paffing through the centre of
gravity C, affume the right lines MC and C L in the given
ratio. Props, then, MN, LO, placed in thefe points,
will be preffed in the given ratio.
Hence, if in the points M, L, in lieu of props, you
place the fhoulders or arms of porters, &c. they will be able
to bear the burden alike ; if their fhares be proportioned to
their ftrengths. Thus we have a way of diftributing a bur-
den in any given ratio, =|
Weieuts, Grofi, Neat, Penny, Affay of, Ancel. See the
feveral articles.
Weicut of the Aimofphere. See ATMOSPHERE.
Weicut of the dir, is equal to the elafticity thereof.
To find the Weight of a Cubic Inch of Air.—Weigh a round
glafs veffel full of common air, very accurately ; then ex-
hauft the air out of it; weigh the exhaufted veffel, and fub-
tract the latter weight from the former, the remainder is the
weight of the air exhautted.
Find, then, the content of the veffel by the laws of mea-
furing ; and the ratio of the remaining air to the primitive
air. This done, the bulk of the remaining air is found by
the rule of three ; which being fubtraGted from the capacity
of the veffel, the remainder will be the bulk of air extraéted.
Or, if the air-pump be very tight, and the exhauftion con-
tinued as long as any air is got out, the remaining air will
be fo fmall, that it may be very fafely negleéted, and the
content of the veffel taken for the bulk of the exhautted
air.
Having, therefore, the weight and bulk of the whole ex-
haufted air, the weight of one cubic inch is eafily had by the
rule of three.
This method was firft ufed by Otto Guericke, and after-
wards by Burcher de Volder, who gives us the following
particulars in his experiment. 1. That the weight of the
glafs f{pherical veffel he made ufe of, full of common air,
was 7 lbs. 10z. 2 drs. 48 grs.; when exhautted of air, 7 lbs.
1oz. 1 dr. 31 grs.; and when full of water, 16 lbs. 12 02.
7 drs. 14 grs. The weight of the air, therefore, was 1 dr.
17 grs. or 77 grs.; the weight of the water glbs. r10z. 5 drs.
43 grs. or 74743 grs- Confequently, the ratio of the {pe-
cific gravity between water and air is 74743 :'77 :: 97033-: 1.
Now, De Volder having found a cubic foot of water to
weigh 64 lbs., by inferring, as 970 1s to 1, fo is 64 Ibs. toa
WEI
fourth proportional, deduced by the rule of three, the
weight of a cubic foot of air, viz. 1 0z. 27 grs. or 507 grs.
nearly. Wolfii Elem. tom. ii. p. 291.
From other later experiments accurately made with the
hydroftatical balance, a cubic inch of air appears to be
equal to two-fevenths of a grain, and therefore a cubic foot
equal to 4934 troy grains. There are various ways of efti-
mating the-weight of the air; for which, fee Arr, ATMo-
SPHERE, BARoMETER, Specific Gravity, &c.
It may be eafily determined by fitting a brafs cap, with a
valve tied over it, to the mouth of a thin bottle or Florence
flafk, whofe contents are exaGtly known, and {crewing the
neck of this cap into the hole of the plate of the air-pump ;
then, having exhaufted the flafk of its air and taken it off
from the pump, fufpend it at one end of a balance, and
nicely counterpoife it by weights in the feale at the other
end: when this is done, raife up the valve with a pin, and
the air will rufh into the flafk, and caufe it to defcend.
When it is full of air, put grains into the fcale at the other
end to reftore the equilibrium ; and if the flafk holds exadtly
a quart, it will be found, that 17 grs. will be fufficient for
this purpofe, when the quickfilver ftands at 294 inches in
the barometer; and this fhews, that when the air is at a
mean ratio of denfity, a quart of it weighs 17 grs.; and
confequently a gallon weighs 68 grs.: i. e. 231 cubic inches
of air are equal in weight to 68 grs., and 1728 cubic inches,
or a cubic foot of air, weighs 509174 grs.; and as a cubic
foot of water weighs about 437702 troy grains, the {pecific
gravity of water will appear to be more than 850 times that
of air. See Air.
The weight of /ea-qwater is different in different climates.
Mr. Boyle having furnifhed a learned phyfician, going on a
voyage to America, with an hydroftatical balance, and: re-
commended him to obferve, from time to time, the difference
of weight he might meet withal ; this account was returned
him: that the fea-water increafed in weight, the nearer he
came to the line, till he arrived at a certain degree of lati-
tude, as he remembers, about the 30th; beyond which, it
retained the fame fpecific weight, till he came to Barbadoes.
Philof. Tranf. N° 18.
The weight of a cubical inch of good brandy, rum, or
other proof fpirits, is 235.7 grs.; therefore, if a true inch
cube of any metal weighs 235.7 grs. lefs in {pirits than in
air, it fhews the fpirits are proof; if it lofes lefs of its
aerial weight in fpirits, they are above proof; if it lofes
more, they are under: for the better the fpirits are, they
are the lighter ; and the worfe, the heavier.
As all bodies expand with heat and contraét with cold, in
different degrees, the fpecific gravities of bodies are not
precifely the fame in fummer as in winter. It has been
found, that a cubic inch of good brandy is 10 grs. heavier
in winter than in fummer ; as much fpirit of nitre, 20 grs. 5
vinegar, 6 grs.; and {pring-water, 3 grs. Hence it is moft
profitable to buy fpirits in winter, and fell them in fummer,
fince they are always bought and fold by meafure. It has
been found, that 32 gallons of fpirits in winter will make
33 infummer. Fergufon’s Leé. p. 98. 4to. See Specific
Gravity, and HyprometerR.
WeicuT of the Human Body. It is to be obferved, that
the heat and drynefs of the air both leffen the weight of the
body, and the cold and moifture of the air both increafe
this weight. See Moisture.
Much fleep, much food, and little exercife, are the prin-
cipal things which increafe the weight of the body, and
make animals grow fat. Confequently, if the weight of the
body be too great for good and uninterrupted health, it
may be leffened by diminifhing fleep and food, and by in-
creafing
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creafing exercife. On the contrary, if the weight of the
body be too little for good health, it may be increafed by
adding to food and fleep, and by leffening exercife ; and the
food mutt be increafed chiefly by increafing drink and liquid
nourifhment. For the difcharges are commonly lefs from
drink and liquid nourifhment, than from dry and folid food.
There is but one weight under which a body can enjoy
the beft and uninterrupted health, and that weight mult be
fuch, that perfpiration and urine may be nearly equal at all
feafons of the year; for by this means the body will be uni-
formly drained of its moifture: the inward parts by urine,
and the more fuperficial parts by perfpiration, without any
irregular and unnatural difcharges, and its moving weight
will continue nearly the fame at all feafons of the year.
Dr. Bryan Robinfon thinks this weight may be fettled by
his obfervations in his Treatife on Food and Difcharges of
Human Bodies.
A quick increafe of weight in human bodies often pro-
duces diftempers; the beft way to prevent this increafe is
either by fafting or exercife. But amidft a variety of dif-
turbing caufes, nothing fo effectually prevents fuch an in-
creafe of weight as a very exa and regular diet, which
may prevent the difcharges from running into irregularities
and difproportions to one another. See Dr. Bryan Robin-
ri of the Food and Difcharges of Human Bodies, p. 82.
eq. t
Men, and other animals of extraordinary weight, are
often recorded in the writings of the learned. See Phil.
Tranf. N° 479, p- 102-
Weicut, Athletic, in the Animal Economy, that weight
of the body under which an animal has the greateft ftrength
and aétivity. Dr. Robinfon thinks this happens when the
weight of the heart, and the proportion of the weight of
chetbedit to the weight of the body, are greateft. For the
ftrength of an animal is meafured by the ftrength of its
mufcles, and the ftrength of the mufcles is meafured by the
ftrength of the heart. Alfo the activity of an animal is
meafured by the weight of the heart, in proportion to the
weight of the body.
If the weight of the body of an animal be greater than
its athletic weight, it may be reduced to that weight by
evacuations, dry food, and exercife. Thefe leffen the weight
of the body by wafting its fat, and leffening its liver, and
they increafe the pes of the heart, by increafing the
quantity and motion of the blood; fo that by leflening the
weight of the body, and by increafing that of the heart,
they will foon reduce the animal to its athletic weight. Thus
a game cock, in ten days, is reduced to its athletic weight,
and prepared for fighting. If the food which, with the
evacuations and exercife, reduced the cock to its athletic
weight in ten days, be continued any longer, the cock will
lofe his ftrength and aétivity.
It is known by experience, that a cock cannot ftand
above twenty-four hours at his athletic weight, and that he
has even changed for the worfe in twelve hours. When he
is in the beft condition, his head is of a glowing red colour,
his neck thick, and his thigh thick and firm; the day after,
his complexion is lefs glowing, his neck thinner, and his
thigh fofter ; and the third day his thigh will be very foft
and flaccid. Four game cocks, reduced to their athletic
weight, were killed, and found to be very full of blood,
with large hearts, large mufcles, and no fat.
It is to be obferved, that the athletic weight of an animal
is a very dangerous weight, Fevers and apoplexies are the
diforders which commonly happen to animals under or near
the athletic weights. Hence, horfes fed upon dry food are circumftance which charafterizes a good
10
WEI
much more fubje& to fevers and apopfexies than horfes fed
upon grafs. Robinfon’s ee i Ty &ce
Weicnts, Seffons for. See Sessions.
Weicut, Live and Dead, of Animals, in Agriculture and
Rural Economy, the differences between their living and
dead weights as affeGting their goodnefs and value for the
purpofe of the breeder and feeder or fattener. But few
corre trials have yet been made in the view of determining
this very important point or particular. It would feem,
however, from the little that has been done on the fubjeé,
that thofe forts of live-ftock that have the beft forms, and
the leaft weight in the different offal parts, are the moft
valuable and beneficial to the ftock mafter and farmer.
In neat cattle ftock the difference or lofs in this way is
fomewhere about 2 fourth, but the moft in thofe breeds
which are the leaft correé&t in their forms or fhapes. In
fome unimproved breeds it has been found a good deal
more, while in thofe which have been greatly improved
rather lefs, In calves it will moitly be from a third to a
fourth.
In the good Herefords, and fome of the beft long horn or
Lancathire forts, thefe proportions have been found on trial
to be very nearly correét, both in the grown beafts and the
calves.
In fheep ftock, too, the fame principle, for the moft part,
holds good, thofe having the leaft difference or lofs in this
way that are the beft in their forms.
_ In trials with the South Down breed of fheep, as ftated
in the Correéted Report on the Agriculture of the County
ge Suites the proportions of the live and dead weight are
thele:
Ibs.
Live weight of the fheep =r en 192
Dead weight next day of carcafe. - 125
Weight of Offal.
Ibs. oz.
Blood - - - - - 6 0
Entrails - - = - =" "TES
Caul - - - - SOT ae
Guti fats see art ah
Head and pluck - - - 8 12
Pelt - - - - ote ae ie
In an average {pecimen of a wether of the fame breed :
Ibs.
Live weight of the thee - - I
Dead mr the day aire - - ae
Weight of Offal.
Ibs.
Blood - - - = 4
Tallow < 5 = - oa 10
Entrails ° ° = = . 14
Skin and feet - - - - 16
Head and pluck - - - - 9
In one of general Murray’s breed of the fame kind:
Ibs.
Live weight . - . - 25
Dead weight - = = se 62
Weight of Offal.
Ibs.
Tallow ss - - . “ 6
It is remarked that the lightnefs of the offal, fuch as the
head, horns, feet, entrails, pluck, blood, pelt, &c. is the
fheep 5 and it is
faid,
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faid, that Difhley wethers well fattened are in the propor-
tion of one ounce of bone to a pound of flefh.
That the offal, in the fat wether of the South Down
breed firft ftated, was but a fifth part and a fraétion of the
live weight, as below :
Ibs. oz.
Live weight - - - - 192 0
Offal - - - - - 42 0
Carcafe - - - - 125 0
Fat - - - - - Zi A
Loft by killing - - - Bulz
192 0
Some ufeful information, which has a tendency to eluci-
date the point concerning the proportion between the live
and dead weight of fome different breeds of fheep, has been
given under the head fheep. See Sueer, Pevr, and
Tatow.
In good pig ftock the difference in the proportion be-
tween the live and dead weight of the animals, or the lofs
of weight that is fuftained by the farmer, will be found
probably to be rather lefs than a fourth in the better breeds,
and rather more than that in thofe which are inferior in their
qualities. The beft breeds of pigs have by much the leaft
lofs in this way, and they have advantages in other refpects.
See SwInE.
Thefe fa&ts and ftatements tend to fhew the advantages
which the farmer has in keeping good live-ftock of all
kinds.
WEIGHTON, Market, in Geography, a {mall market-
town in the Holme-beacon divifion of Harthill wapentake,
Eaft Riding of the county of York, England, is fituated
on a little river called Foulnefs, in the high road between
York and Hull, at the diftance of 19 miles E.S.E. from
York, and 192 miles N. by W. from London. Some an-
tiquaries confidered this place the Roman ftation, Dolgovi-
tia, till Drake, with great appearance of probability, afligned
that ftation to the village of Londefburgh, nearly three
miles north of Weighton. This town confilts of one
long ftreet, interfeted by a few {maller: till within the lait
thirty years, the houfes were in general low and mean, and
covered with thatch; but fince that period, a number of
refpetable buildings have been erected, and confiderable
improvements have been made. A weekly market is held
on Wednefdays, when a great quantity of corn is often fold,
though but little is expofed, being chiefly difpofed of by
fample. Two fairs are held annually for horfes, cattle, and
particularly for fheep, and cheefe. The trade of the town
has been confiderably increafed by means of a canal from
the Humber; whereby coals and other articles are brought
hither, and the barges return laden with grain. By the po-
pulation return of the year 1811, the inhabitants of this
town are enumerated at 1508 ; the number of houfes as 239.
The church is an ancient maffive edifice ; it formerly had a
wooden fpire, which has been recently taken down, and a
confiderable addition made to the height of the tower; the
interior of the church has alfo been greatly improved, and
furnifhed with an additional gallery. A meeting-houfe for
Methodifts has lately been ere€ted. There is no endowed
{chool in the parifh. About two miles eaft of Weighton is
the brow of the Yorkfhire wolds, whence very extenfive
views are obtained.—Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. xvi. Yorkfhire, by J. Bigland, 1812. Drake’s Ebora-
cum, or the Hiftory and Antiquities of York, fol. 1736.
Vou. XXXVIII.
WEI
WEIGSDORF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Boleflaw ; 8 miles N.N.E. of Krottau,
WEIGSTOTTEN, a town of Auftria; 6 miles N.W.
of Steyr.
WEIKENDORFF, a town of Autftria; 8 miles S. of
Zifter{dorf.
WEIKERSTORYF, a town of Auftria; 4 miles S.W.
of Sonneberg.
WEIKERTSCHLAG, a town of Auttria; 8 miles
W. of Drofendorf.
WEIL, a town of Wurtemberg, on the Wirm. This
was an imperial town, till in 1802 it was given to the duke
of Wurtemberg, by whofe dominions it was furrounded ;
10 miles W.S.W. of Stuttgart. N. lat. 48° 48’. E. long.
8° 50).
WEILACH, a river of Bavaria, which runs into the
Par, near Schrobenhaufen. 4
WEILBACH, a river of Germany, which runs into
the Lahn, 2 miles S. of Weilburg.
WEILBURG, a town of Germany, which gives name
to a county belonging to the houfe of Naflau, hence called
Naffau Weilburg, fituated on an eminence on the Lahn,
over which it has a bridge of ftone. The prince’s palace
here’ contains fome very elegant apartments; with a fine
garden belonging to it, and a chapel anfwerable to the
whole. All the roads near the town lie in a direét line, and
are planted on each fide with a row of trees. In the neigh-
bourhood is a large menagerie ; g miles W. of Wetzlar, N.
lat. 50°26’. E. long. 8° 18/.
WEILE, or Wepet, a fea-port town of Denmark, in
North Jutland, fituated on a bay in the Little Belt; 38
miles N.E. of Ripen. N. lat. 55° 45!. E. long. 9° 30!.
WEILHAIM, or Weiruerm, a town of Bavaria; 26
miles S.W. of Munich. N. lat. 47° 44'. E.long. 11° q!.
WEILHEIM, a town of Wurtemberg, on the Lauter ;
20 miles N.E. of Ulm. N. lat. 48° 33'. E. long. 9° 35!.
WEILKO Srrzicze. See SrRELITzZ.
WEILMUNSTER, a town of the principality of Naf-
fau Weilburg; 5 miles S. of Weilburg.
WEILNAU, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Naffau Weilburg ; 13 miles S. of Weilburg.
WEILTINGEN, a town of Wurtemberg, on the War-
nitz; 40 miles S.W. of Nuremberg. N. lat. 49° 3', E.
long. 10° 30!.
WEIMAR, a principality and duchy of Saxony, fitu-
ated in Thuringia, on the fides of the Ilm; about 24 miles
in length, and 20 in breadth, but confiderable traéts are de-
tached from the main body.—Alfo, a town of Saxony, and
capital of a duchy of the fame name, witha palace of the
prince, in which the duke has a valuable library, a cabi-
net of medals, a mufeum, and a gallery of paintings; and
where are kept the archives of the Erneftine line of the
dukes of Saxony ; 94 miles W. of Drefden. N. lat. 51°2',
E. long. 11° 22!.
WEINBERG, a town of Auftria; 4 miles S.E. of
Freyftadt, —Alfo, a town of the principality of Anfpach;
3 miles N.N.E. of Feuchtwang.
WEINFELDEN, a town of Switzerland, in the can-
ton of Zurich, and principal place of a bailiwick, in the
Thurgau; 4 miles S.W. of Conftance.
WEINGARTEN, a town of the duchy of Baden; 43
miles S.S.E. of Spire. N. lat. 49°3!. E. long. 8° 30/.
WEINGE, a town of Sweden, in the province of Hal-
land; 12-miles S.E. of Halmftadt.
WEINHAUSEN, a town of Weftphalia, in the prin-
cipality of Luneburg Zell; 6 miles from Zell.
Nn WEIN-
WEI
WEINHEIM, town of the duchy of Baden, fituated
in the Bergftrafle, and famous for its wine. The Roman
Catholics, the Lutherans, and the Calvinifts, have each a
church ; 9 miles N. of Heidelberg.
WEINITZ, or Viniza, a town of the duchy of Car-
niola, on the Kulp; 10 miles E.N.E. of Gotfchee.
WEINMANNIA, in Botany, a name which feems to
have originated with Dr. Patrick Browne, who, without
due attention, called it Windmannia. The perfon whom he
defigned to commemorate was John William Weinmann, an
apothecary of Ratifbon, author of a huge botanical German
work, entitled Phytanthozaiconographia, confifting of fourthick
folios, with 1025 large coloured engravings of plants. The
firft volume appeared in 1737, the laft in 1745, after the au-
thor’s deceafe. There is a preface to the latter by Haller.
Dieterich and Bieler contributed part of the text, and there
are ample indexes, in various languages. The plates are
rude, and gloomily coloured. Trew, whofe candour never-
thelefs is allowed by Haller, fays, “‘ varieties are not diftin-
uifhed,”’ in this work, “ from {pecies, the ftructure of the
Ravers is {carcely expreffed, nor was the author competent
to refer his plants to their true genera.””_ Burmann began a
Dutch edition, with fome additions, in 1736. The book is
neceflarily expenfive, on account of its bulk, and is rare in
England. We have feldom had occafion to confult it, nor
have we ever done fo without difappointment.—Linn. Gen.
195- Schreb. 263. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 436. Mart. Mill.
Did. v.4. Juff. 309. Poiret in Lamarck Di&. v. 7. 578.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 313. (Windmannia; Browne Jam. 212.)
—Clafs and order, Oéandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. akin to
WEIL
each articulation, between the leaflets, winged with a leafy
rhomboid expanfion, tapering moft down » and hairy at
each end. Cluflers oppofite, at the end of each branch, on
hairy axillary ftalks, denfe, about an inch long when io
flower ; twice as long, and much more lax, when in fruit.
Flowers very {mall, white, on fafciculated, fhort, thick,
hairy partial ftalks. Cap/fules about half the fize of hemp-
feed, brown; their /falks elongated; their valves obtufe,
tipped with the /fyles, and, as they ripen, turning their pale
narrow edges, which had formed the partitions, outwards.
Permanent /fyles moftly recurved, rather fhorter than the
valves. We have not feen the feeds.
2. W. tinGoria. Red-tan Weinmannia. (Weinmannia ;
Lamarck t. 313. f.1. Tan-rouge; Commerfon MSS. )—
Leaves pinnate ; leaflets elliptical, crenate, {mooth on both
fides. Capfule ovato-lanceolate, taper-pointed. Seeds hairy.
—Gathered by Commerfon in the ifle of Bourbon, where it
is known by the name of Tan-rouge, becaufe the bark ferves
to dye leather of a red colour. The flowers are fuppofed
to furnifh the bees with much of their honey. French bo-
tanifts appear to have confounded this plant with the pre-
ceding. It is certainly what Lamarck has figured, and
what Poiret has quoted, for W. glabra, the latter having
taken Tan-rouge from hence, for his French generic name of
the whole genus, though without adverting to its ufe in the
ifle of Bourbon, or its being a native of that country. The
leaves are full twice the fize of W. glabra, with elliptical,
not obovate, leaflets: wings of their foot/la/ks fimilar to the
laft. eae of flowers much more lax, and lefs hairy,
three or four inches long ; the flowers twice as large. Cap-
Saxifrage, Jufl.; or rather, we fhould think, as he himfelf */ules of a very different fhape, and paler redder hue, taper-
hints, to his Rhododendra.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of four ovate, fpreading,
permanent leaves. Cor. Petals four, equal, undivided, larger
than the calyx. Neétary glandular, furrounding the bafe
of the germen. Stam. Filaments eight, ereét, thread-fhaped,
longer than the petals ; anthers roundifh, of two cells. Pi/?.
Germen fuperior, ovate, acute; ftyles two, fomewhat {pread-
ing, the length of the ftamens, permanent; ftigmas obtufe.
Peric. Capfule elliptic-oblong, with two points, two cells,
and two valves, whofe inflexed margins form the double par-
titions. Seeds about eight in each cell, roundifh. ’
Eff. Ch. Calyx of four leaves. Petals four. Capfule
fuperior, with two beaks, two cells, and two valves with
inflexed margins. Seeds feveral.
A very handfome genus of extra~European fhrubs, with
oppofite, compound or fimple leaves, accompanied by inter-
foliaceous deciduous ftipulas. The flowers are fmall, copi-
ous, racemofe, rarely panicled. Cap/ules permanent long
after the feeds are fhed. Cunonta, (fee that article,) ap-
pears to differ from this genus, merely by rages one-fifth
to the parts of fruétification, which in this cafe is of no
avail whatever.
Se&. 1. Leaves compound.
1. W. glabra. Smooth Pinnate Weinmannia. Linn.
Suppl. 228. Willd. n.1. Swartz Obf. 151. (W. pin-
nata; Linn. Sp. Pl. 515, excluding the reference to Browne. )
—Leaves pinnate ; leaflets obovate, crenate, fmooth on both
fides. Capfule roundifh-elliptical, bluntifh.—Native of the
Weft Indies. The flem, ufually fhrubby, fometimes be-
comes a free, forty feet high, with round, rugged branches ;
when young angular, and coarfely downy. Leaves of fix
pair, more or lefs, with an odd one, of obovate, abrupt
leaflets, half an inch at moft in length, all nearly equal, fur-
nifhed with one rib and feveral tranfverfe veins; entire and
wedge-fhaped towards the bafe. Common footfalk jointed,
ing into the ftraight erect //y/es, which are not a quarter fo
long as the valves, nor are the edges of the latter ever
turned outward, or flattened. The cluflers of ripe capfules
are cylindrical, denfe, four or five inches in length. Seeds
clothed with a few long prominent hairs.
3. W. hirta. Hairy-leaved Weinmannia, or Baftard Bra-
filetto. Swartz Ind. Occ. 691. Willd. n. 2. Poiret in
Lam. n. 3.—Leaves pinnate ; leaflets elliptic-ovate, crenate,
hairy at the back. Capfules oblong.—Native of lofty moun-
tains in the fouth part of Jamaica, in St. Andrew’s parifh,
near Coldfpring, the refidence of Matthew Wallen, efq.
(See Wattenia.) This, according to Dr. Swartz, from
whom we have a fpecimen, is a very rare f{pecies. It is
either a fhrub, or a handfome tree, from forty to fifty feet
high, crowned at the very top of its {mooth fruné with lax,
hairy, or fomewhat downy, rufty-coloured branches.. The
leaves moft refemble the laft in fhape, but are clothed be-
neath, fometimes on both fides, with coarfe, fcattered, pro-
minent hairs. The leafy borders of each joint of the com-
mon footfalk are narrower, and lefs angular, than thofe of
our firft or fecond fpecies, and their midrib is very hairy
beneath. Cluffers alfo very hairy, an inch or two in length,
in pairs at the fummits of the branches. J /owers the fize
of the lait, white. Capfule, according to Swartz, {mall,
oblong, rather pointed, with feveral {mall roundifh /eeds.
This tree flowers in September and O&ober. Some {peci-
mens, in the herbarium of the younger Linneus, excite a
doubt whether the hairinefs of the rela e may invariably be
relied on. Still we have no doubt of the ditinetnets of
thefe three {pecies. The third is perhaps moft allied to the
fecond, which appears to be what Dr. Swartz faw marked
W. arborea, and which Commerfon was faid to have gathered
in the ifle of Mauritius. We do not at all’ comprehend how
the joints of the common foot/a/k can be termed “ fomewhat
heart-fhaped,”’ in W. hirta; they are rather more truly oboe
11 ; vate
WEI
vate than in either of the foregoing, being lefs angular, or
deltoid. ; ; :
4. W. trichofperma._ Hairy-feeded Weinmannia. Cavan.
Ic. v. 6. 45. t. 567. Poiret n. 2,—Leaves pinnate ; leaflets
elliptic-oblong, ferrated, fmooth on both fides. Capfule
roundifh-elliptical. Seeds denfely hairy.— Gathered by
Louis Née, at San Carlos, in Chili, bearing ripe capfules
in February. Cavanilles. By the plate above quoted, this
bears moft refemblance to the firft {pecies, efpecially in the
acute angles of the deltoid articulations of the foot/alks,
which in all the other fpecies are rounded. But the /eaflets
are longer and more elliptical, ferrated rather than crenate ;
the capfules broadly elliptical, not obtufe, their inflexed
edges, if the figure be accurate, much broader, and con-
tinuing inflexed. The feeds are roundifh-kidneythaped,
clothed with long, copious, projecting hairs, of which no
mention is made by any botanift who has defcribed the /eeds
of W. glabra or W. hirta, and therefore we muft prefume
they do not exift in thofe fpecies. We find fuch hairs, very
{paringly, on the globular /eeds of W. tindoria, but the cap-
fules of that fpecies are abundantly different from the
refent.
; 5- W. tomentofa. Woolly Weinmannia. Linn. Suppl.
227. Willd. n. 3. Poiret n. 4.—Leaves pinnate ; leaflets
elliptical, revolute, entire, woolly beneath.—Gathered in
New Granada, by Mutis. A very diftin& and remarkable
fpecies. The branches are woody, round, denfely leafly,
rough, fomewhat warty, of a dark brown; hoary and
downy when young. Leaves hardly an inch and a half long ;
leaflets about five pair, with an odd one, each one-third of
an inch in length, convex, flightly hairy, fingle-ribbed ; the
under fide clothed with copious, loofe, hoary, woolly hairs.
The joints of the common foof/falk are rather fhorter than
the leaflets, obovate, not angular ; their edges revolute, and
the under fide woolly. Svipulas large, ovate, reflexed, co-
loured, hairy externally, deciduous. Flowers in very denfe
clufters, rather above an inch long, on thick, fhort, woolly,
axillary ftalks. Calyx hairy. Capfules wanting in our
f{pecimens. ‘
6. W. trifoliata. Three-leaved Weinmannia. Linn. Suppl.
227. Thunb. Prodr.77. Willd. n.4. Poiretn.5. La-
marck f. 2.—Leaves ternate ; leaflets obovate, crenate,
fmooth.—Gathered by Thunberg, at the Cape of Good
Hope. The whole /hrué is faid to be very {mooth. Leaf-
Jets equal, about an inch long, being about two-thirds the
length of their common foot/talk, which is fimple and naked.
Clufters cylindrical, denfe, two or three inches long, on
axillary ftalks about half their own length. The germen in
Lamarck’s figure is roundifh and hairy. We have feen no
{pecimen, nor is there any account of the capfule or feeds.
Se&. 2. Leaves fimple.
7. W. racemofa. Smooth-cluftered Simple-leaved Wein-
mannia. Linn. Suppl. 227. Willd. n. 5. Forft. Prodr. 27.
Poiret n. 580.—Leaves fimple, ftalked, ovate, with tooth-
like ferratures. Clufters axillary, folitary, nearly {mooth.—
Gathered by Forfter, as well as by Menzies, in New Zea-
land. The branches are ftout, woody, repeatedly branched
in an oppofite manner, round and rough. Foot/lalks ftout,
fmooth, half an inch long, articulated at the fummit with
the leaf, which is two, or two and a half, inches long, and
one broad, pointed, coriaceous, quite fmooth, ftrongly
veined, befet with blunt, inflexed, wavy teeth, or ferratures 5
paler beneath. Clu/lers about the tops of the branches,
though axillary, italked, longer than the leaves, cylindrical,
continuous; their general and partial fa/és either flightly
downy, or quite {mooth. Cap/ules obovate, pointed, fome-
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what downy ; the inflexed edges of their valves finally ex-
panded. We cannot find a feed in any of our f{pecimens.
8. W. parviflora. Small-flowered Weinmannia. Forft.
Prodr. 29. Willd. n. 6. Poiret n. 7.—* Leaves fimple,
nearly feffile, ovate, pointed, with tooth-like ferratures.
Clutters terminal, aggregate, hairy.””—Native of Otaheite.
Forfter. Willdenow, who had feen a dried {pecimen, de-
{cribes the branches as hairy when young. Leaves on {hort
ftalks, oblong, {mooth on bothi fides. Clu/lers downy, from
three to fix at the top of each branch, forming a fort of
panicle. /owers but a quarter the fize of the preceding.
g-. W. ovata. Ovate-Crenate Weinmannia. Cavan. Ic.
v. 6. 45. t. 566. Poiret n. 9.—Leaves fimple, elliptical,
crenate, acute at each end, on fhort ftalks. Clufters axil-
lary, folitary, oppofite, fomewhat downy.—Native of Peru,
in a large alluvial excavation, near the town of St. Buena-
ventura, flowering in June and July. This is a tree eighteen
feet high, with furrowed, rather knotty branches, thickened
at the infertion of the eaves, which feem very like thofe of
W. racemofa in fhape, fize, veins, and f{moothnefs, but are
more truly crenate, and ftand on fhorter footfalks. Cluffers
oppolite, at the tops of the branches, though axillary and
folitary, each two or three inches long ; their partial ftalks
aggregate, and fomewhat villous. Nothing is known of the
capfule or feeds. We could with for better materials than
Cavanilles affords us, for diftinguifhing this {pecies from the
racemofa, n. 7.
10. W. paniculata. Panicled Weinmannia. Cavan. Ic.
v. 6. 44. t. 565. Poiret n. 8.—Leaves fimple, elliptic-
lanceolate, fharply ferrated. Panicles axillary, compound.
—Gathered by Louis Née, at the fea-fhore near Talca-
huano, in Chili, flowering in February. A ¢ree about the
ftature of the laft, but the Jeaves are longer, more lanceo-
late, with parallel veins, and copious fharp ferratures,
which give them fome refemblance to the f{weet-chefnut
leaf. They are fmooth, and ftand on ftout downy foot/alks.
The panicled inflorefcence is fingular among all the known
{pecies. Flowers yellowifh-red. Cap/ules elliptical, acute,
downy, beaked with the ftraight /lyles, which are as long as
the valves. Seeds obovate, {mooth, on flender ftalks, pen-
dulous. We have a fpecimen from the late abbé Cavanilles.
WEINSBERG, in Geography, a town of Wurtemburg ;
a part of which is built on a round hill, on which alfo ftands
a ruined caftle: the other part lies in a valley. Initisa
{pecial fuperintendency. The valley in which it lies is famous
for wine ; 5 miles N-E. of Heilbronn.
WEINSTEIG, a town of Auttria; 8 miles N. of Korn
Neuburg.
WEINZIERL, a town of Auftria; 8 miles S.E. of
Ips.
WEIPERSHOFEN, a town of the principality of
Anfpach ; 5 miles S.E. of Creilfheim.
WEIPERT, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Saatz ; 14 miles W. of Commotau.
WEIR, one of the fmaller Orkney iflands, containing
about 65 inhabitants. It had formerly a church, which is
now in ruins; 2 miles S. of Roufa.
WEIR, or Wear, in Rural Economy, a fort of dam,
bulwark, or ftrong ere¢tion, formed acrofs a brook, rivulet,
ftream, river, main, or other fuch water-courfe, for the
purpofe of diverting or turning the water, in watering
land. Itis occafionally made in different ways, as of tim-
ber alone, fometimes of bricks, or ftones, and timber, and
of different other materials, as will be feen below, having
from two to eight or ten thoroughs or openings for letting
the water pafs through, according as the breadth of the
Nn 2 ftream
WEIR.
ftream and other circumftances may be. The height of it is
always equal to the depth of the ftream compared with the
adjacent land.
The water of a very {mall and gentle ftream may often be
. diverted for this ufe, by means of a few fods firmly put
down, with fome ftones above them: but for lands of any
confiderable extent, the kinds direéted below are neceflary,
according as the ftrength of the refpective ftreams may hap-
pen to be.
Strong wooden beams or balks thrown acrofs the ftream,
and made clofe by means of boards well fecured, are, in
many cafes, fufficiently ftrong, commodious, and conve-
nient, in flow moving waters, of no great power or
force.
A few cart-loads of {tones thrown properly in acrofs the
ftream, forms alfo a bulwark, wide at the bafe, and narrow-
ing towards the top, the whole being puddled with clay or
gravelly earth, which fometimes anfwers well. Over the
top of this bulwark, the fuperfluous waters pafs in a free
manner, falling down the gentle flope, to which, if well con-
ftru&ted, they do no fort of injury.
A weir fuitable for a fmall river may confift too of feveral
rows of ftakes, firmly driven down and interlaced with the
branches of fir-trees, the intervals of the rows being filled
with ftones. The fand and mud that come down with the
floods fill up this fort of weir, and render it fit for effecting
its purpofe. In heavy rains the fuperfluous water paffes en-
tirely over.
But for more powerful rivers, the weirs may be con-
ftru&ted of {trong frame-works of wood, firmly and ftrongly
joined together, and the different compartments all paved
with large ftones: the weir rifing very gradually againft the
ftream, and being made to flope gradually away before it,
as it flows over it. In this way the largeft and moft power-
ful rivers may moftly be managed, if the weirs be well
fuited to them ; fo that it is but in few cafes advifeable to
attempt the watering lands from rivers that cannot be di-
verted by one or other of thefe forts of weirs, as the ex-
pence and hazard taken together may greatly exceed the ad-
vantage to be derived. It may, however, in fome cafes of
large rivers, be neceflary and proper to have recourfe to
more expenfive weirs, fuch as that defcribed below.
In this weir, which was formed on alarge, rapid, and
ftrong river, under the direGion of the Rev. W. H. Co-
ham, in Devonfhire, after the ftream had been temporarily
diverted, and every thing removed for a proper foundation,
a double row of pits was dug into a rocky fubftratum, di-
reétly acrofs the bottom, or bed of the river, at about five
feet afunder lengthways, by four feet in breadth, and about
two feet in depth; and into thefe pits oak pofts of about
fix or feven inches fquare were fixed. ‘The mafon then raifed
a perpendicular wall, without any cement, about five feet
and a half thick, entirely enclofing the pofts, the labourers
being employed in the mean time in backing up the wall on the
higher fide with fome of the /ifé/ clay to be had. This
was, however, afterwards found to be wrong; it fhould
have been done in the puddle manner, by means of mould and
gravelly earth.
When the wall was raifed to fuch a height as was deemed
neceflary, in relation to the level required, and the preferva-
tion of the lands adjacent, the upper parts of the oak potts
were fawn off, in order to receive crofs-pieces and joilts, the
front pofts being then left ‘to ftand about fix inches higher
than the hinder ones; and on thefe joifts oak planks were
pinned, about fix feet and a half bog by three inches
thick. Thefe planks were brought forward to project about
one foot and a half ever the perpendicular of the wall, on the
lower fide, forming a fort at lip, as it has been termed ; the
clay, together with thefe planks, conftituting an inclined
plane, and terminating at the diftance of about fifteen feet
up the itream, on the common bed of the river.
The entrance for the /eat was cut at about thirty feet
above the /ip of the weir, where, to regulate the quantity
of water to be admitted, three ftrong flood-hatches, to be
lifted or let down by a lever and windlafs, were placed ;
and through which a column of water, of about eight feet
in width by four feet in depth, may be introduced at any
time. Between the leat and the river a ftone wall, ftrongly
cemented, is ere€ted, which is about eight feet in height,
and carried from the head of the leat to about thirty feet
below the weir, in a parallel line with the river, and at the
end of which wall another flood-hatch is fixed on a level with
the bed of the river. This latter hatch will always be of
great advantage when any reparations may be wanting on the
weir ; as on drawing it up when the water is low, the weir
in afew hours will be left perfeétly dry, and the workmen,
with the greateft convenience, may proceed in their opera-
tions. From the top of the fide wall, above the weir, the
ground is made floping to the river, and below it is covered
with turf, and levelled as a foot-path.
Immediately below the weir, in this cafe, there is an out-
let regulated by another flood-hatch, and conduéted through
a /hoot formed of oak plank, from the leat, and contrived for
the admiffion of falmon, which are there fometimes taken ;
and below the lower flood-hatch, a trap, or willey, as it is
there termed, is made for the catching of {maller fifth: this
part of the work does not, however, properly belong to this
kind of weir, therefore it need not be more noticed.
The height of the weir is about four feet above the level
of the river where it is fixed; and its length, from bank to
bank, dire@tly acrofs, or at right angles with the ftream, is
about forty-eight feet ; forty feet of which is carried at a
perfect level, and over which the water falls precifely at the
fame depth, forming a beautiful cafcade. ‘The remaining
portions of the length of che weir, namely, four feet on ©
each fide, are raiféd, gradually afcending to the banks for
the purpofe of warding off the torrent from them in time of
floods, when the river, in this cafe, is very tumultuous.
The lip part of the weir is found to anfwer perfe&ly ; as
in proportion to the force of the water behind, fo is the dif-
tance which it is thrown over the weir from the foundation of
the perpendicular wall.
If the writer had not been foiled, and had part of the
work to perform over again, in confequence of the ufe ot
clay, as already noticed, being under the neceflity of driving
on the weir in a dire& line with the former work, into the
fide of the oppofite bank, as before ; and after removing as
much of the clay as could be got at, which will not. unite
completely with the foil, but become liable to be under-
mined by the water, by making a puddle, as ufed in canals of
mould and gravel, in its ftead, which fucceeded in a com-
plete manner ; the whole coft of the weir would not have
exceeded 75/.
This weir or wear, from its prefent appearances, may
now, it is faid, feem to bid defiance to time ; and be fafely
recommended as a pattern to thofe who may have occafion to
con{truét any thing of a fimilar kind, either for watering
land, for machinery, or other ufes. See Warrrine
Land.
In the weirs or wears which are thrown over large rivers
for the purpofe of raifing the water for the ufe of mills, and
in many other ee and which are moftly conftruéted
of
WET
of ftone, with ftrong framed wood-work, in fomewhat the
above manner, there are many different contrivances calcu-
Jated for different ufes, fuch as locks for fecuring large fith,
places for taking and preferving thofe of the {maller forts,
and different others. See Dr. Anderfon’s Treatife on the
Ereétion of Weirs, &c. where a full explanation of the
principles and manner of conftruéting them will be found.
WEIS Sex, in Geography, a lake of the duchy of Carin-
thia; tomiles N.W. of Velach.
WEISA, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg ;
3 miles S.S.W. of Wolkenftein.
WEISBRON. See Vesprin.
WEISCHE Oppa, ariver of Silefia, which runs N.E.
into the Schwartze Oppa.
WEISCHENFELD,a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Bamberg ; 18 miles E.S.E. of Bamberg. N. lat. 49°
fe LO seyret un Go}
WEISDORF, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Culmbach ; 3 miles E. of Munchberg. "
WEISEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Ober-
land ; 10 miles W.S.W. of Leibftadt.
WEISENBAD, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgebirg ; 3 miles S.S.E. of Wolkenitein.
WEISENBERG, a townfhip of Pennfylvania ; 60 miles
N. of Philadelphia.
WEISENBERG, or Wosssrrk, a town of Lufatia ;
8 miles E. of Budifflen. N. lat. 51° 12!. E. long.
14° 40!.
WEISENBRUN, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Bamberg ; 24 miles S. of Cronach.
WEISENBURG, a town of Auttria ; 12 miles S.S.W.
of St. Polten.
WeEIseNzuRG. See WEISSEMBURG.
WEISENHORN, a town of the duchy of Baden,
fituated in a county to which it gives name, on the Roth ;
11 miles S.E. of Ulm. N. lat. 48°17!. E. long. 10° 8'.
WEISENKIRCHEN, a town of Auftria; 11 miles
S.W. of Tulln.
WEISFURYT, a river of Silefia, which runs into the
Oder, 3 miles below Beuthen.
WEISKIRCH, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Boleflaw ; 3 miles S.S.E. of Krottau.
WEISKIRCHEN, or Hranirze, a town of Moravia,
in the circle of Prerau; 15 miles E.N.E. of Prerau. N.
lat. 49° 30'. E. long. 17° 43!.
WEISMAYN, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of
Bamberg ; 20 miles N.E. of Bamberg. N. lat. 50° 6/.
E. long. 11° 18’.
WEISSE, Curisrian-Fexix, in Biography, a German
poet, was born in 1726, at Annaberg, in Saxony, and
educated, firft at the Gymnafium of Altenburg, and after-
wards at Leipfic. The objects to which his tafte moft
owerfully inclined him were poetry and the drama; and
he and his friend Leffing concurred in tranflating for the
ftage from French and Englifh works, and afterwards in
furnifhing original compofitions. He alfo contended with
his friend in lyric poetry. After completing his courfe of
education, he became private tutor in a family of diftin@tion
at Leipfic, purfuing his dramatic and poetical career, and
gaining a great degree of popularity. He alfo edited the
Bibliotheque of Belles Lettres, when Nicholai furrendered
it. Although, in 1761, he obtained a place in the revenue
at Leipfic, he profecuted his employment as a writer for
the ftage; and when he became the father of a family, he
direGted his attention to education, and publifhed ‘feveral
pieces in this department: particularly, in 1772, a collec-
tion of fhort tales and moral maxims, which had a confider-
WEI
able circulation ; and in 1775 he revived a weekly publica-
tion, which Adelung had difcontinued, under the title of
the “ Children’s Friend.”? This work became afterwards
a quarterly publication, and between the years 1775 and
1782, pafled through five editions. From this popular
work Berquin derived the idea of his Ami des Enfans,”’
and he was indebted to it for many of his materials. As
Weifle’s children grew to maturity and fettled in the world,
he altered the plan of his work, and continued it under the
form of Letters; and ‘Berquin alfo followed him in his
** Ami des Adolefcentes.”? In 1790 the beautiful eftate of
Stotteritz near’Leipfic, which Weiffe inherited, placed his
family in affluent circumftances, and furnifhed him with a
pleafant refidence. Towards the latter part of his life he
contributed fhort fables and poetical tales to journals and
periodical publications, which were well received, and at
length clofed his life with reputation, in December 1804.
His dramatic works, which were continued to five volumes,
are faid to have formed an epoch in the hiftory of the Ger-
man ftage, and both his tranflations and original compofitions
were well received. Gen. Biog.
WeEIssE, in Geography, a river of Pruffia, which runs
into the Rufs, 20 miles N.W. of Tilfit.
WEISSEBERG, a mountain of Bohemia, celebrated
for the defeat of the eletor-palatine, about 3 miles from
Prague.
WEISSELBURG, a town of Pruffia, in the province
of Oberland ; 5 miles S. of Marienwerder.
WEISSELMUNDA. See WeicuseLMUNDE.
WEISSEMBURG, or Korn Wetssempure, or Wiffem-
burg, a town of France, and principal place of a diftrié in the
department of the Lower Rhine, fituated on the Lauter,
at the foot of the Vofges. This town was formerly impe-
rial, and was ceded to France by the peace of Ryfwick.
The fortifications were deftroyed by Louis XIV.; but
{trong lines of defence are fixed from this town to the
Rhine, a little to the eaft of Lauterburg, on the S. fide
of the Lauter; 27 miles N. of Strafburg. N. lat. 49° 3/.
E. long. 8°.
WEISSEMBURG, a town of Bavaria, called Weiflemburg near
the Nordgau. It contains two churches and a medicinal
{pring Weiflemburg was an imperial town, till in 1802 it
was given to the elector of Bavaria ; 28 miles S.S.W. of
Nuremberg. N. lat. 48° 58’. E. long. 10°55/.
WEIssEmBuRG, or Alba Julia, or Carlfburg, or Fejervar,
a town of ‘Tranfylvania, capital of acounty, and fee of the
bifhop of Tranfylvania, beautifully fituated on the Maros.
It was a long time the metropolis of Dacia, and the feat of
its monarchs, who had a palace here. It was likewife the
feat of a Roman legion. The name Alba Juliait owes to
Julia Augufta, mother of Marcus Aurelius. Charles VI.
named it Carlfburg ; go miles N.E. of Temefvar. N. lat.
46° 16’. E. long. 24° 10!.
WEISSEN Sex, a lake of Pruffia; 12 miles W. of
Lick.—Alfo, a lake of Bavaria, in the territory of Augf-
burg; 2 miles S.W. of Fueflen.—Alfo, a lake of Carin-
thia; 6 miles S. of Saxenburg.
WEISSENAU, a princely abbey of Germany, in the
circle of Swabia. In 1802 it was given to the elector of
Bavaria ; 2 miles S. of Ravenfburg.
WEISSENBACH, a town of the principality of
Culmbach ; 5 miles E. of Kirch Lamitz.—Alfo, a town of
Autftria ; 12 miles N. of Grein.—Alfo, a town of Auttria ;
g miles W. of Freyttatt.
WEISSENBERG, atownfhip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Northampton, containing 1046 inhabitants.
WEISSEN-
WEI
WEISSENBORN, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgebirg ; 3 miles S.S.E. of Freyberg.
EISSENBURG, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgebirg ; 5 miles S.S.W. of Zwickau.—Allfo, a village
of Switzerland, in the canton of Berne, celebrated for its
medicinal baths; 18 miles S. of Berne.
WEISSENDORF, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Bamberg ; 9 miles S.W. of Forcheim.
WEISSENFELS, a town of the duchy of Carniola ;
28 miles W.N.W. of Crainburg.—Alfo, a town of Thu-
ringia, on the Saal. It gives title toa branch of the houfe
of Saxony, called Saxe Weiflenfels, who ordinarily refide
in a citadel above the town, called Auguftufberg ; 18 miles
W.S.W. of Leipfic. N. lat. 51° 14’. E. long. 11° 59).
WEISSENHORN, a town and citadel of Bavaria,
which gives name to a county belonging to the lords of
Fugger ; 8 miles S.E. of Ulm.
WEISSENKIRCH, a town of Bavaria, in the princi-
pality of Aichftatt ; 3 miles S.S.E. of Aichftatt.
WEISSENPACH, atownof Auttria; 4 miles N.W.
of Bohmifch Waidhoven.
WEISSENSEE, a town of Thuringia, near what for-
merly conftituted an inland lake, which was divided into the
Great and Lefs, or into the Upper and Lower, between
both which it lay ; but the former being drained in the year
1705, and converted into arable and meadow grounds, a
{mall part of it only being then left ; and this alfo has been
fince dried up; 14 miles N. of Erfurt. N. lat. 51° 1o!.
E. long. 11° 6!.
WEISSENSTADT, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Bayreuth, on the Egra, where it forms a large
pond or lake, abounding in fifh; 6 miles N.N.W. of
Wonfiedel.
WEISSENTHURN, a town of Sclavonia; 18 miles
N.N.W.. of Verovitza.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of
Stiria; 3 miles E.S.E. of Judenburg.
WEISSESTEIN, a town and caftle of Bavaria; 10
miles N.N.E. of Deckendorf.
WEISSIA, in Botany, an Hedwigian genus of Moffes,
is now, by nearly univerfal confent, united to GRiMMIA, for
reafons given under that article. There is indeed no differ-
ence of habit, nor any certain chara¢ter, however minute and
obfcure, between them. This is the more to be regretted, as
we have few more meritorious claimants for diftinétion in
cryptogamic botany than Mr. Frederic William Weis, au-
thor of the Plante Cryptogamice Flore rds an o€tavo
volume, printed at Gottingen, in 1770. No ftudent in that
department of the {cience can difpenfe with this little book,
in which the fynonyms of the defcriptions are treated with
equal practical fkill. Fungi, and neceflarily Sea-weeds, are
excluded from this Flora. We truft fome refponfible au-
thor will reftore a Weifia, worthy of bearing the name.
The double /s is a blunder which requires correction,
WEISSLAREUT, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the principality of Culmbach; 4 miles S. of Hof.
WEISSNITZ, or Weisserirz, a river of Saxony,
which rifes in two branches, the Wilde and Rothe, which
unite two miles E. of Tharand, and afterwards run into the
Elbe, near Drefden.
WEISTHURN, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 6 miles W. of Schlan.
WEISTRA, a town of Auftria; 5 miles E. of Steyr.
WEISTRITZ, a town of Silefia, in the principality of
Schweidnitz, on a river of the fame name. Gold is found
in the environs ; 2 miles S. of Schweidnitz.
Weisrritz, a river of Silefia, which runs into the Oder,
near Schweidnitz,
WEL
WEISWASSER, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
Boleflaw ; 6 miles N.W. of Jung Buntzel.—Alfo, a nih
of Silefia, in the principality of Neifle; 4 miles $.W. of
Patfchkau.
WEISZBACH, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgebirg 5 5 miles N.N.W. of Wolkenitein. peer
~ WEITENFELDS, a town of the duch inthia ;
2 miles W.S.W. of Gurck: aig) ot axe CE
WEITENHAGEN, a to f Anteri ia;
4 uh EW. UE GahaMe Po tees
WEITENSTEIN, a town of the duchy of Stiria;
8 miles $.E. of Windifch Gratz. ed su
WEITRA, or Werrracu, a town of Auttria; 36 mil
N.W. of Crems. N. lat. 48° 41', E. long. ane -
Hee ee a town of Auftria; 2 miles S. of
ar Coe.
WEITTENEG, a town of Auftria, on the Danube ;
t8 miles above Crems. ’
WEITZ, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 11 miles N.E.
of Gratz.
WEITZSBERG, a mountain of Stiria; 10 miles N.E.
of Gratz.
WEIXEN, a river of Auftria, which runs into the Da-
nube, 3 miles below Grein.
WEIZLPACH, a town of Auftria; 12 miles W.S.W.
of St. Polten. i
WEKLSDORF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 7 miles N.W. of Branau.
WELACH. See Vetacu.
WELANG, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea.
S. lat. 1° 25/. E. long. 130° 3o!.
WELAU, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Sam-
land; 28 miles E.S.E. of Konigfberg. N. lat. 54° 36’.
E. long. 21° 23).
WELCH Movnrains, mountains of Pennfylvania ;
30 miles W. of Philadelphia. :
WELCHEIM, a town of Bavaria; 7 miles N.W. of
Neuburg. :
WELCKERSHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the
county of Henneberg ; 3 miles N. of Meinungen.
WELCOME Bay, a bay on the weft end of the ifland
of Java. S. lat. 6°35'. E. long. 105° 30!.
WELD, or Woxp, refeda Juteola of Linnzus, a plant
ufed by the dyers to give a yellow colour; and for this
reafon called, in Latin, /ufeola, of luteus, yellow. For the
chara@ters, fee ResEpA.
When the plants are pulled, they may be fet up in {mall
handfuls to dry in the field, and when dry enough, tied up
in bundles and houfed dry ; care being taken to eer them
loofely, that the air may pafs between them to prevent their
fermenting. That which is left for feeds fhould be pulled
as foon as the feeds are ripe, and fet up to dry, and then
beat out for ufe; for if the plants are left too long, the
feeds will fcatter. Mortimer and Miller,
Weld is much cultivated in Kent, for the ufe of the
London dyers.
Mr. Hellot obferves, in his Art de Teindre, that for
dyeing with weld, the beft proportions of alum and tartar
for the preparatory liquor are four parts of alum, and one
of tartar, to fixteen of the wool; the quantity of the tartar
being determined by the greater or lefs brightnefs of colour
propofed ; and that the wool, thus prepared, is to be boiled
again With three or four parts of weld to one of wool, but
often much lefs: that for light fhades, it is cuftomary to
diminifh the alum, and omit the tartar; and that, in this
cafe,
WELD.
cafe, the colour is more flowly imbibed, and proves lefs
durable.
With a view to economy, the weaker fhades of colour
are dyed in the fame bath, after the ftronger are finifhed.
A. golden yellow, more or lefs orange, is given by a weak
madder bath, after the welding.
Silk is dyed of a golden-yellow, generally with weld
alone, according to the following procefs: the ftuff is firft
boiled in foap-water, alumed and wafhed, then pafled twice
through a weld bath, in which, the fecond time, fome alkali
is diffolved, which gives a rich golden hue to the natural
yellow of the weld. The colour is further deepened by a
little annotto. The folutions ‘of lime with weld give to filk
a bright clear yellow. In order to dye cotton yellow,
Berthollet direéts firft to cleanfe it with wood afhes and
water, to rinfe, alum, and dry without further rinfing, and
then to pafs it through a yellow bath, in which the weld is
fomewhat more than the weight of the cotton. When the
colour has fufficiently taken, the cotton is thrown into a
bath of fulphate of copper and water, and kept there for an
hour ; after which it is boiled with white foap-water, and,
laftly, wafhed and dried. In order to obtain a deeper
jonquil-yellow, the aluming is omitted, and, inftead of this
operation, a little verdigrife is added to the weld bath, and
the cotton finifhed with foda.
Weld is particularly preferred to all other fubftances in
giving the lively green lemon-yellow. It is, however, ex-
penfive ; and it is alfo found to degrade and interfere with
madder colours more than other yellows. We may here
add, that the fine delicate yellow, obtained from weld, is
much ufed by the London paper-ftainers, and fold in the
form of hard lumps, confilting chiefly of chalk faturated with
the colouring matter. Meflrs. Collard and Frafer have
given the following improved procefs :—Diffufe any quan-
tity of fine whiting in boiling water ; add to it one ounce of
alum for every pound of whiting, which will occafion a
brifk effervefcence, and ftir thefe materials well together till
the gas is wholly difengaged. On the other hand, boil in a
feparate veflel fome weld with water juft fufficient to cover
it, for fifteen minutes, filter the yellow decoétion, and then
mix it with the whiting and alumine in fuch proportions,
that the earths may appear to be faturated with the colour-
ing matter. Then let the mixture remain a day at reft, and
at the bottom will be the precipitated earth firmly united
with the colour, and of a fine yellow tinge, which may be
conveniently dried on chalk-ftones.
The weld yellow is a water colour, and is never mixed
with oil.
WELD, in Agriculture, is a plant which is not unfre-
quently cultivated in the field by the farmer as a crop, for
the purpofe of giving and affording a bright yellow and
lemon colour to woollens, filks, cotton, and thread, as well
as for its ufe in the manufaéture of check and fuftian, and
in fome other intentions. It is for the flower-ftems that
it is principally grown, as being ufeful in the procefs of
dyeing thefe feveral articles. It is often known by the
names of qwoold and dyer’s weed.
It may be noticed, that in the growth and culture of this
plant, the foils moft fuitable are thofe of the fertile mellow
kinds, whether of the loamy, fandy, or gravelly forts; but
it may be grown with fuccefs on fuch as are of a poorer
quality ; but in the former, the plants will rife to a much
greater height, and produce much larger leaves and ftems,
than in the latter defcription of lands.
It has, however, been itated, that the foil moft fuitable
to it, in Effex, is the ftrong {tiff loam moderately moitt,
but not wet. A foil rather moift, but mellow, feems the
moft fuitable and proper for it.
It is neceflary, in the preparation of the ground, that
there fhould be a tolerable degree of finenefs produced in
the mould of the foil, which may be effeéted by repeated
ploughings given in the more early {pring months, and fuit-
able harrowings. The furface of the land in the feed furrow
fhould be left as level as poffible, that the feed may be dif-
perfed more evenly over it, and with greater regularity and
exactnefs.
In this, as in many or indeed moft other cafes, the feed
fhould be colle&ted from the beft plants, and thofe which
have remained upon the ftems till rendered perfe€tly ripe ;
as fuch only vegetates perfeétly, and the plants in fuch cafes
fhould not be left ftand too long, as the feed is liable to fhed.
It fhould be perfeétly frefh when ufed, as old feed never
comes up well, or-in fo regular a manner.
In regard to the proportion of feed which is neceflary, it
is commonly from about two quarts to a gallon the acre,
according to circumftances, when fown alone: but when
mixed with other crops, a little more may be required,
which fhould be blended with a little fand, or fome other
fuch material, at the time of fowing it on the land, as ren-
dering it capable of being fown more evenly.
It may be obferved in refpe& to the time of fowing, that
this fort of crop may be put into the ground either in the
{pring, as about the latter end of April or beginning of
May ; or in the latter end of fummer, as the beginning of
Auguft ; being moftly fown in conjuné&tion with other crops
in the firft period ; but when fown alone at the latter feafon,
the produce is in general the beft and moft full. Some of
the writers in the Effex Report on Agriculture {peak of the
culture of this fort of crop as fimply that of tranfplanting
from the feed-beds about Midfummer. The feed, in thefe
cafes, is fown in the beds in the early {pring, for raifing
the plants. In the county of Norfolk, it is faid, that they
fow it in the month of April with barley, in the proportion
of from a quarter to half a peck to the acre, in the manner
of clover, and frequently with clover at the fame time, to
be mown or fed in the following year, after the weld is
pulled.
It is moftly fown broad-caft, whether grown in mixture
with other plants or alone; and as the feeds are of a very
{mall fize, it requires an expert feed{man to perform the
bufinefs with regularity and exaétnefs, which is a matter of
much importance to the fuccefs of the crop, as, where the
plants itand too clofely together, much unneceffary trouble
and expence mutt be incurred in the thinning them out by
the hoe afterwards ; and where they ftand too thinly upon
the ground, there muit be a great lofs from the deficiency
of plants. That the fowing may be-executed with more
regularity, it is the cuftom with fome to blend other fub-
ftances, iuch as the above, with the feed that has nearly the
fame weight, as by this means they fuppofe it may be
effeGted with greater exaCtnefs, facility, and readinefs.
It is ftated that weld, when grown with other forts of
crops, fuch as barley, buck-wheat, beans, peas, clover, or
grafs-feeds, is ufually put in after them; in fome cafes im=
mediately, but in others not till fome time has elapfed.
With the firft and fecond forts, when fown fo late as the
beginning of May, it is moftly the practice to fow it direGly
afterwards, giving the land a flight harrowing with a very
light clofe-tined harrow to cover it in.» The barley being
fown under furrow, the weld-feed with fome is immediately
fown over the furface, and lightly harrowed in, and then
rolled. Where the barley feeding is performed fo early as
March,
WELD.
March, or the beginning of April, the fowing of the weld-
feed is beft deferred tal May, when*it may be difperfed
over the land, and left in that manner to be wafhed in by the
rains. With bean and pea crops, it is often fown before the
laft breaking or hoeing of the crops in the latter end of
June, or beginning of eae In cultivating it with clover
and grafs-feeds, it is often fown at the fame time with them ;
but a better prattice is, perhaps, to delay it till fome time
afterwards, as both thefe crops require to be fown at too
early a period for this plant to rife fafely. But in cafes
where no other fort of crop is grown with weld, which is
probably the beft method, it is ufually fown evenly over the
furface of the land, and covered in by harrowing with a light
bath harrow, having afterwards recourfe to the roller in light
forts of land. i
Though it is common in cultivating crops of this fort,
not to pay any attention to them after being fown; yet as
the plants are of flow growth, and liable to be greatly in-
jured in their progrefs by the rifing of weeds, it mutt be of
much benefit not only to keep them perfeétly clean, but alfo
to have the mould ftirred about their roots. In about a
month from the time of fowing, the plants are moftly in a
ftate to be eafily diftinguifhed; a hoeing fhould be then
given when the weather is dry, which may be performed in
the fame manner as for turnips only, ufing fomewhat {maller
“hoes for the purpofe. Some direét that the plants in this
operation fhould be fet out to the diftance of three or four
inches; but it is better to let them have more room, as fix,
feven, or eight inches ; which not only leffens the expence
of the bufinefs, but contributes to the advantage of the
crop. In the fpring, a fecond flight hoeing may be prac-
tifed about March, in a dry time; and if any weeds rife
afterwards, a third may be given in May. Where the land
has been well prepared, one cae in autumn and another
in the {pring may be fully fufficient. Hand-weeding,
though praétifed by fome, is in general too expenfive in
thefe cafes. -
It may be obferved, that the proper period for pulling
this fort of crop is when the bloom has been produced the
whole length of the tems, and the plants are juft beginning
to turn of a light or yellowifh colour, as in the beginning or
middle of July in the fecond year. The plants are ufually
from one to two feet and a half in height. It is thought by
fome advantageous to pull it rather early, without waiting
for the ripening of the feeds, as by this means there will not
only be the greateft proportion of dye, but the land will be
left at liberty for the reception of a crop of wheat or tur-
nips; but in this cafe, a {mall part mutt be left folely for
the purpofe of providing feed. In the execution of the
work, the plants are drawn up by the roots in {mall handfuls,
and fet up to dry, after each handful has been tied up by
one of the ftalks, inthe number of four together ina fort of
ereét pofition againft each other, as is done in fome other
kinds of crops.
It is remarked, that fometimes they, however, become
{ufficiently dry by turning, without being fet up. After
they have remained till fully dry, which is moftly effected
in the courfe of a week or two, they are bound up into
larger bundles, that contain each fixty handfuls, and which
are of the weight of fifty-fix pounds each; fixty of thefe
bundles conitituting a load. ‘Thefe laft are tied up by a
{tring made for the purpofe, and fold under the ttle of
woold cord, in many places where this kind of crop is much
grown and provided for the dyer and calico-printer.
On account of the weld plant being extremely uncertain
in its growth, and the whole crop feldom becoming ina fate
to be pulled at the fame time, it is proper to have an ex-
perienced labourer to dire& the bufinefs of pulling, in order
that the pullers may not proceed at random, but take the
different parts as the plants become ready, or in danger from
the blight. In which laft cafe, the greateft poffible difpatch”
fhould be made, as the lofs of weight in the produce will
daily increafe, and the grower be of courfe greatly injured in
the quantity of it.
After the weld is become fufficiently dried, which is
known by the crifpnefs of the leaves, and the ftems turning
of a light colour, and when the plants are ripe, the feeds
fhelling out ; according to fome, it fhould be ftacked up
lightly in the barn, in order to prevent its taking on too
much heat ; while others advife, that it fhould be ftacked
up clofely in the manner of wheat, being left to {weat in the
fame way as hay, as the more this takes place, the better ;
the quality of the weld being thereby increafed, if there be
no mouldinefs. When the crop has ftood till fully ripened,
the feed may be taken before it is put into the barn, which
may be eafily procured by rubbing, or flightly beating each
of the little handfuls againft each other over a cloth, tub,
or any other convenient receptacle, as, by threfhing, the
quantity of the weld would be much reduced in weight.
The price of this fort of feed is moftly about ten or twelve
fhillings the bufhel, which may be fold to the feedfmen in a
ready manner. .
It may be obferved, that in crops of this kind the pro-
duce is in fome degree uncertain, depending much upon the
nature of the feafon ; but from half a load to a load and a half
is the quantity moft commonly afforded, which is ufually
fold to the dyers at from five or fix to ten or twelve pounds
the load, and fometimes confiderably more.
This is a fort of crop which is moftly difpofed of to the
dyers and calico-printers, as well as other manufacturers.
The demand for it, however, is fometimes very little ; while
at other times it is fo great, as to raife the price to a very
high degree.
Weld is a crop which is particularly liable to be injured
by the blight, which probably has induced the growers of
it to raife it with thofe of other kinds, efpecially #, the grafs
fort ; becaufe, where the weld crop does not fucceed, a
portion of fheep feed may be afforded by the others, for
winter and {pring ufe. It is noticed, that the blight fre-
quently comes on fo fuddenly, that crops which appeared
healthy, and ina vigorous itate of growth, during the whole
of the winter and {pring, promifing a large produce, are
about the month of May attacked by this vegetable difeafe,
fo as to be nearly deftroyed. It is known to be prefent by
the plants, efpecially about the lower parts of the items of
them, turning of a yellowifh or pale reddifh colour, while
the upper parts remain green, and feem healthy. When it
appears early in the month of May, there is always danger
of the crop being deftroyed ; but when it comes on at a later
period, or where the plants from other caufes, as the dry-
nefs of the feafon, begin to change colour in the fhanks, the
only chance is that of having them pulled as expeditioully
as the bufinefs can be performed, and in the readieft manner
poffible.
It may be remarked, that it would feem better and more
convenient to cultivate this crop alone, or without any mix-
ture of other plants ; as, in the former way, it muft be much
injured and confined in its growth, on account of the clofe-
nefs and fhade produced by the plants of the other crops
that furround it. It is the cuftom, too, when grown with
other crops, efpecially thofe of the grafs kinds, to very
commonly feed them down in the winter and {pring nin
wit
WEL
with fheep, or fome other light fort of live-ftock, under the
notion that they will not touch the weld plants; but this is
by no means the cafe, as they are found to feed upon them
without any nicety, and mutt, of courfe, do very great in-
jury to their growth and flowering. In cafes where weld is
fown among clover, as is not unfrequently the cafe, the beft
method is probably to pull it out when it has got to matu-
rity, before the clover is cut. Where fown on fummer
fallowed land with rape and grafs-feeds, towards the latter
end of that feafon, in which cafe it often does extremely
well, the crops are moftly fed by lambs in the courfe of a
month or fix weeks after the fowing, when little or no in-
jury can be fuftained by the crepping of the weld plants.
Weld, on account of the great confumption of vegetable
food which it caufes, without contributing any thing to the
amelioration of the land, can only be introduced with pro-
priety, probably, in fituations where manure or fubftances
of that kind can be eafily obtained. However, in cafes
where the crops of this kind are cultivated with fufficient
tillage, care, and attention, they may be a good preparation
for wheat or turnips, in fome inftances.
It may fometimes, too, be grown with advantage in the
neighbourhoods of large dyeing, printing, and other fuch
manufaétories, where the confumption, and confequently
the demand for it, are very great. If this fort of produce
cannot be difpofed of foon after it is pulled and tied up, it
may be preferved perfeétly found for feveral years, by being
ftacked either in the barn or on ftands in the open air,
taking care to prevent the attacks and ravages of rats, or
other vermin.
We tp, or Weald, in a Chorographical Senfe.
WEALD.
WELDEREN, or Martensurc, in Geography, a
town of Germany, in the bifhopric of Munfter; 3 miles
N.E. of Dulman.
WELDING, in the Manufadures, denotes the forging
of iron, when intenfely heated ; or, more generally, the in-
timate union which fubfifts between the two furfaces of two
pieces of malleable metal, when heated almoft to fufion, and
hammered. This union is fo ftrong, that when two bars of
metal are properly welded, the place of junétion is as {trong
relatively to its thicknefs as any other part of the bar.
Welding heat is the heat neceffary for producing this effect.
Bar-iron cannot be welded to another piece of iron, unlefs
both be heated to nearly 60° of Wedgwood’s pyrometer,
which is equal to 8.877 of Fahrenheit’s f{cale, and is called
the welding heat ; but if caft-tteel be heated to this point,
it would be fufed, and run from under the hammer; and,
therefore, it was for a long time thought to be impoffible to
ufe it in conjunétion with iron, in the fame manner as the
other kinds of fteel are employed. But fir Thomas Frank-
land at length difcovered, that if the caft-fteel be made only
of a white heat, and the iron of a welding heat, the fteel
will then be foft enough to unite with the iron, and yet the
former will not become fluid by the operation. It will,
however, be proper to give the neceflary temperatures to
the two metals feparately, and then to unite them at one
fingle heat. (Phil. Tranf. for 1795, p. 296.) Mr. Parkes
obferves, that fome nicety is required’in the procefs of
welding iron, fo that the outfide of the weld does not oxi-
dize too much and fly off in fcales, before the infide is
brought up to a welding heat. When, therefore, a fkilful
workman is about to weld two pieces of iron, he carefully
obferves the progrefs of the heat; and if one becomes too
hot, he rolls it in fand to preferve it from the aétion of the
atmofphere ; and when ome piece acquires the neceflary
temperature before the other, he covers that with fand,
Vor. XXXVIII.
See
WEL
whilft he is bringing the correfponding piece up to a fuffi-
cient heat for its uniting properly with the former. Silex,
when mixed with the oxyd of iron, forms a very fufible
compound, which covers the work under operation, and
prevents a further oxidation of the metal. Iron and platina
are capable of a firm union by welding. See fir John Hall’s
Experiments, in vol. vi. of Edinb. Phil. Tranf. p. 71.
Parkes’s Effays, vol. iv.
WELDING, the proper heat fmiths give their iron in the
forge, in order to double up the fame, when wanted to
weld a work in the doublings, fo as to be in one piece thick
enough for the purpofe it is wanted for.
WetpinG-Heat 1s the itrong heat, when the iron is pro-
pereft to bind.
WELDON, Great, in Geography, a {mall market-
town in the hundred of Corby, and county of Northampton,
England, is fituated in Rockingham foreft, 4 miles E.S.E.
from the town of Rockingham, and 84 miles N.N.W. from
London. A weekly market is held on Wednefdays, but ona
{mall feale ; and here are four annual fairs. The market-
houfe, over which are the feflions-chambers, fupported by
columns, was built by lord vifcount Hatton. The parifh
is famous for its quarries of rag-ftone, which takes a high
polifh, and is in great efteem for chimney-pieces, flabs, &c.
In the vicinity of this place were difcovered, in the year
1738, fome fragments of Roman teffelated pavements, one
of which was ninety-fix feet long, and ten broad. Con-
neéted with this were the floors of feven rooms; the centre
one, .being the largeft, was terminated at one end with five
fides of an o€tangular projeGtion. Among the ruins were
found feveral Roman coins of the lower empire. A wall
has been built round the Roman pavement, and a wooden
roof placed over it. Near Great Weldon, and forming
part of the parifh, is Little Weldon, a village fo called in
reference to the town, though exceeding it in population.
The whole parifh, according to the return to parliament in
the year 1811, contained 166 houfes, and 815 inhabitants.—
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xi. Northamptonfhire,
by Rev. J. Evans, and J. Britton, F.S.A., 1810.
WELDS, a river of America, which runs into the Con-
necticut, in the ftate of Vermont.
WELEDIA, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the
Nile; 5 miles N. of Siut.
WELFORD, a town of England, in Northampton-
fhire, with 931 inhabitants, including 683 employed in
manufaétures ; 15 miles N.W. of Northampton.
WELHARTITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Prachatitz; 8 miles N.W. of Schuttenhofen.
WELIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chrudim ;
12 miles N.E. of Chrudim.
WELITZEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Natangen ; 5 miles S.S.E. of Marggrabown.
WELK, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Kaurzim ;
7 miles N.E. of Prague.
WELL, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour; 12 miles
E.S.E. of Raibaug.—Alfo, a town on the north coaft of
the ifland of Sumatra. N. lat. 4° 40!. E. long. 97° 201.
WELL, a hole dug under ground, below the level or
furface of the water colleted in the ftrata,
It is ufually of acylindrical figure, and commonly walled
with ftone, and lined with mortar.
In finking wells, it is a confideration of fome importance,
that they fhould be lined with free-ftone, and not, as is
ufually the cafe, with bricks; becaufe moft of the bricks
which are made in this country, have the property of
eae the water ; but the ftone does not produce this
effea.
Oo M. Blondel
WELL.
M. Blondel informs the Royal Academy of Sciences of
a device they ufe, in the Lower Auttria, which is encom:
pafled with the mountains of Stiria, to fill their wells with
“water; viz. that they dig in the earth, to the depth of
twenty or twenty-five feet, till they come to a clammy
earth, which they bore into, continuing the operation
till the water breaks forcibly out ; which water, in all
probability, comes from the neighbouring mountains, in
fubterraneous channels. Caffini obferves, that in many
places of Modena and Bologna, they make themfelves
wells by the fame artifice. Dr. Derham adds, that the
like has been fometimes found in England, particularly
in Effex.
In the Philofophica Tranfaétions we are informed, by
Mr. Norwood, that, in Bermudas, wells of frefh water
are dug within twenty yards of the fea, and even lefs,
which rife and fall with the tides, as’ the fea itfelf does.
He adds, that, in digging wells in that ifland, they dig
till they come almoft to a level with the furface of the fea ;
and then they certainly find either frefh water, or falt : if it
prove frefh, yet, by digging two or three feet deeper, they
always come at falt water. If it be fandy ground, they
ufually find frefh water ; but if hard lime-ftone rock, the
water is commonly falt, or brackifh. x
Lay-well, near Torbay, ebbs and flows very often. every
hour ; though fomewhat oftener in winter than in fummer.
Dr. Oliver obferves, its flux and reflux fometimes return
every minute ; though, at other times, not above twenty-
fix or twenty-eight times in an hour. Philof. Tranf.
No. 104.
In Scotland they have a well, which Sibbald has men-
tioned as foretelling ftorms. It is a deep and large well
near Edinburgh, and from the noifes heard in it at cer-
tain times is called by the people the routing well. They
go to this to liften after the prefages of weather, and it is
faid that ftorms are particularly foretold by it; and that
noifes are not only heard in it before ftorms happen, but
that they are always heard determinately and diftinétly on
that fide whence the ftorm will come.
In the Philofophical Tranfactions we have an account of
a boiling-well, &c. See SprinG.
We LL, in Rural Economy, a deep circular opening, pit,
or fort of fhaft, funk by digging down through the differ-
ent ftrata or beds of earthy and other materials of the foil,
fo as to form an excavation for the purpofe of containing
the water of fome {pring or internal refervoir by which it
may be fupplied, for domeftic or other ufes of different
kinds.
It is ufual to have wells bricked round from the bottom
to the top, and frequently to have pumps fixed in them.
The width is moftly from three to four feet, which, where
the {prings are ftrong, may afford and contain a fufficient
quantity of water.
As wells are fupplied from {prings, and thefe are formed
in the bowels of the earth, by water percolating through the
upper ftrata, and defcending downwards until it meets with a
ftratum of clay or other impervious material that intercepts
it in its courfe, it may naturally be concluded, that an
abundant {pring for this ufe need never be expected in any
diftri& or place that is covered to a great depth with fand,
without any ftratum of clay to: force it upwards, as is the
cafe in tht fandy deferts of Arabia, and the immeaturable
plains of Lybia. Neither are we to expeét abundant fprings
for wells in any foil that confifts of arf uniform bed of clay
from the furface to a great depth; for it muft always be in
fome porous ftratum that the water flows in abundance, and
it can be made to flow horizontally in that only, when it is
4
fupported by a ftratum of clay, or other fubftance that to
equally impermeable by water. By this means 1s ex-
plained the rationale of that rule fo univerfally eftablifhed in *
digging for wells, that if begun with fand, gravel, or other
fuch matters, it need feldom be hoped to find water until
clay is come to; and that if clay be begun with, none can
be hoped for in abundance till fand, gravel, or porous rock
is met with.
Hence, as the doétrine of wells is fo much and fo inti-
mately conneéted with the nature of the ftrata and the
{prings afforded by them, it may not be unneceflary to ob-
ferve, that in cafes where differently formed {trata of fand,
to a confiderable depth, reft upon beds of clay, and have a
free iffue at the lowelt ends of them, if wells were funk into
the fand-beds higher up no water could be there perma-
nently found until they penetrated quite through the ftrata
of fand, and went to fome depth into the beds of clay that
lie below them. In fuch cafes, the water could never rife
in the wells much higher than a certain point ; becaufe,
whenever it rofe as high as the porous fand, it would flow
along through it until it made its efeape below ; and if the
beds of clay fhould extend backwards under the ground a
great way, and at a great depth below the furface, fo as to
form an abundant and never-ceafing ftream under the beds
of fand, it muft neceflarily follow, that the wells will con-
tinue conftantly at the fame height, exa&tly as in the cafe of
a ftrong bafon at a fountain, into which a pipe of water
conttantly flows, fo as to keep it running over.
If, however, the ftreams that run below the beds of fand
be fmall, and the draught of water from the wells, at par-
ticular times, be uncommonly large, the furface of the water
in the wells will of courfe be made to fink : they may be,
indeed, quite drained of water at times, fo as to require to
be left for a while till they fhall fill again. ‘This may be
occafionally a very ferious inconvenience, and ought to be
guarded againft by enlarging the refervoir, which may be
effected either by widening the diameter of the wells, or b
finking them to a greater depth in the clay, or by bot
thefe means. Hence it appears, it is faid, that in cafes of
this fort, very wide wells ought always to be made.
Other cafes, however, will come to be noticed in the courfe
of this article, in which the ftraiteft well that can be
made, would fupply a quantity of water as abundant as
thofe that are wider. In thefe cafes, pipes as above will be
found very ufeful.
Nor would the phenomena here defcribed, it is faid, be
in the leaft varied if the wells, inltead of being dug in the
fand immediately below the vegetable mould, fhould be firft
funk through a confiderable thicknefs of fome other ftrata.
The depth of the well only would be greater, and all other
circumitances the fame.
It may be here noticed, that quickfand, when it comes in
the way of well-digging, affords impediments which can only
be furmounted with great labour and difficulty. The beft
and moft obvious remedy in fuch cafes when they occur, is
probably to endeavour to find the means of opening an outlet
by which the water may be fuffered to run off or difcharge
itfelf. This, where the quickfand is fituated above the level
of the fea, or fome adjoining plain, may in many cafes be effect-
ed at very little expence, if due attention be beftowed upon the
pofition and natural dip of the ftrata, which may be dif-
covered by various means befides boring. But there are
cafes, particularly where the quickfand is produced by a
cavity like a bafon {cooped out of the entire bottom, fo as
to contain water toa confiderable depth, which in fome par-
ticular fituations may be deemed incurable.
It deferves alfo to be remarked, as a circumftance ne-
ceflarily
WELL.
eeflarily accompanying fprings of this kind, that the dig-
ging wells in a higher pofition, will not fenfibly diminifh
_ the quantity of water that flows over the lower furface of
the clay ; for, as the well, as foon as it is filled, muft over-
flow, that will not intercept one drop more water than what
is drawn up out of it. Were it even poffible to pump the
water from the well as faft as it falls into it, fo as never to
allow one drop to run over, the cafe would not be much al-
tered, becaufe no more water could be thus intercepted than
that which would have flowed into the mouth of the well in
its defcent ; fo that every drop that would pafs the mouth
of the well, on either fide, would flow forward to the lower
fituation, as if no well had ever been made. Hence we fee
that {prings of this fort can never be intercepted by wells,
or fenfibly affeéted by other wells placed either higher or
lower than them. Wherever this caufe exifts, water will be
found nearly in equal abundance, whatever the relative fitua-
tion of the well may be in refpe& to others: nothing but
an uninterrupted trench, of a fize fufficient to intercept all
the water as it flowed, and to carry it off, could dry up the
f{prings or wells below it.
It may alfo be obferved, that if the bed of fand be of
great extent, if it be at laft fupported by a bed of clay or
other impervious matter, water will undoubtedly be there
found, whatever may be the depth of the bed of fand above
it, if a well be dug through it ; for, as the water that falls
in fhowers upon the earth’s furface neceflarily finks through
that pervious ftratum, it is foon beyond the reach of the fun,
fo as not to be evaporated, and muft fink downwards till it
meets with an impervious ftratum, fo that there can be no
doubt but that under the immeafurable deferts of Lybia,
there muft be water in abundance to fupply any number of
perfons, were wells there funk to the requifite depth ; nor is
that depth, perhaps, in many cafes, nearly fo great as has
been in general apprehended.
There are many other cafes of ftrata and {prings, as con-
cerned in the opening and forming of wells, that conftitute
different claffes of fprings for this ufe, as thofe where the
swater is confined and pent up in retentive beds, fo as to be
capable of fupplying wells by fimply boring down into
them, or making flight openings in other ways, by which
the water may flow up. Some inftances of thefe and other
forts will be noticed and confidered below.
In the execution of the work of digging wells, there is
no great difficulty, the perfon employed in the bufinefs
chiefly working down by means of a {mall fhort-handled
fpade and a {mall implement of the pick-axe kind; the
earthy materials being drawn up in buckets by the hand or
a windlafs fixed over the opening for the purpofe. Where
perfons converfant with this fort of bufinefs are employed,
they ufually managethe whole of the work, bricking round
the fides with great facility and readinefs; but in other
cafes, it will be neceflary to have a bricklayer to execute
this part of the bufinefs. As the expence and trouble of
digging and getting up the materials in thefe cafes are con-
fiderable, other means have been had recourfe to, in order to
Jeffen or prevent them. The moft ingenious of thefe is that
propofed by a French philofopher, who has advifed that the
ground fhould be perforated to a fufficient depth by means
of an auger, or borer: a cylindrical wooden pipe being then
placed in the hole and driven downward with a mallet, and
the boring continued, that the pipe may be forced down to a
greater depth, fo as to reach the water or fpring. In pro-
portion as the borer becomes filled with earth, it fhould be
drawn up and cleared, when by adding frefh portions of
pipe, the boring may be carried to much extent under
ground, fo that water may in moft cafes be thus reached and
obtained. It is ftated that wells made in this manner are
fuperior to thofe conftru€ted in the common method, not
only in point of cheapnefs, but alfo by affording a more cer-
tain and abundant fupply of water, while no accident can
poflibly happen to the workmen employed. In cafe the
water near the {urface fhould not be of a good quality, the
perforation may be continued to a ftill greater depth, till a
purer fluid can be procured; and where wells have become
injured or tainted from any circumftance or accident, when
previoufly emptied, and the bottom perforated in a fimilar
manner, fo as to reach the lower fheet of water, it will rife
in the cylindrical tube in a pure ftate into the body of the
pump fixed for the purpofe of bringing it up.
This is certainly an ingenious, ready, and fafe method of
forming wells ; but it requires a large expenfive boring
auger, and which, if carried to any great depth, would
{tand in need of an apparatus for being wrought by means
of horfe-power. Befides, other parts would be neceflary,
fuch as punches, chifels, and other fuch mouth-pieces, for
being fixed on occafionally, in order to work through hard
ftrata of many different kinds; and, in fome inftances, it
would be liable to be wholly impeded by the nature of the
fubftances through which it had to get in its paflage to the
water or {fpring. In fome cafes, it may, however, anfwer in
a ready and perfect manner, and be of great ufe and conve-
nience. There would be much difficulty, too, in driving
down the wooden pipes in many cafes, efpecially if to any
confiderable depth, and great nicety be required in making
them fo as pretty exaétly to fit the aperture formed by the
boring auger. And, befides, from their {mallnefs, except
they were made from calt-iron, or fome other proper metal,
they would not by any means be durable, but {peedily be-
come leaky and out of order. The beft mode would
therefore probably be that of having metallic-pipes caft for
the purpofe, and fo formed as to fit exa@ly upon each
other, to any depth that might be neceffary in finking
wells.
In fome cafes and kinds of ftrata, wells formed in this
manner could not, however, anfwer perfe€tly, as they re-
quire much width or {pace at the bottom parts, and fome-
times to be dug confiderably into the impervious bed or
matter, as feen above.
It may be neceflary and ufeful to fhew the nature of the
different beds or layers of materials which are dug or funk
through in forming the openings for wells in different cafes,
as well as the manner and heights to which the water or
{prings rife in them under various circumftances. Some
cafes of wells are ftated in the Correéted Report on Agri-
culture, for the diftri€t about the metropolis, that explain
thefe points in a pretty clear manner.
It is noted, that in the year 1791, the prefent vicar of
Northall, then Mr. archdeacon Eaton, agreed with Mr.
White, of Putney, to fink a well in the court adjoining to
the vicarage. The workmen firft dug through a bed of
folid blue clay 60 feet in depth, under which was a ftratum
of rough porous ftone about a foot thick. To this fuc-
ceeded a fecond ftratum of clay, differing a little from the
former in colour, 29 feet in depth; then a ftratum of fipe
grey fand, intermixed with extraneous foffils, as oy {ter-
fhells, bivalves, &c. This ftratum continued for twenty-
three feet, and was fucceeded by another of clay, of a red
or ferruginous colour, lefs firm in its confiftence than that
which occurred before, and intermixed now and then with
gravel and ftones of a confiderable fize. After digging
through this ftratum for fifty-one feet, at the depth of one
hundred and fixty-four feet from the furface, water was
found, which, on the removal cf the ftone which lay imme-
Oo2 diately
WELL.
diately over, the {pring burft up with fuch force, and in
fuch abundance, that the workmen immediately made the
fignal to be drawn up. Within the firft four hours after its
difcovery, the water rofe to the height of eighty feet, in the
next twenty-four hours about forty feet more ; after which
it continued to rife gradually for the next fortnight, till it
reached its prefent level, which is only four feet from the
furface of the earth, the depth of the water being now only
one hundred and fixty feet.
Depths of {trata pafled through :
Feet.
1 Clay - - - - 60
2 Stone - - - - I
3 Clay - - - - 29
4 Sand - - - + 23
5 Clay ee ta 2
164
At Mr. Munday’s brewery at Chelfea, a well was dug
about the year 1793, to the depth of three hundred and
ninety-four feet, within twenty or thirty feet of the edge of
the river, moftly through a blue clay or marl. At the
depth of near fifty feet, a quantity of loofe coal, twelve
inches in thicknefs, was difcovered; and a little fand and
gravel were found about the fame depth. The well-digger
ufually bored about ten, fifteen, or twenty feet at a time
lower than his work, as he went on; and on the laft boring,
when the rod was about fifteen feet below the bottom of the
well, the man felt, as the firft fignal of water, a rolling
motion, fomething like the gentle motion of a coach pafling
over pavement. Upon his continuing to bore, the water
refently pufhed its way by the fide of the auger with great
re, fcarcely allowing him time to withdraw the borer,
put that and his other tools into the bucket, and be drawn
up to the top of the well. The water foon rofe to the
height of two hundred feet. [
In 1794, a well was funk at Norland-houfe, for Mr.
Vuliamy, a little on the road towards the town of Ux-
bridge, to the depth of two hundred and thirty-fix feet,
and then a hole of five inches anda quarter was bored down,
and a copper pipe of the fame diameter as the borer, was
driven down to the additional depth of twenty-four feet
into a ftratum of fand filled with water ; when a mixture of
fand and water inftantly rufhed upwards through the
aperture of the pipe in fuch abundance, as to rife one
hundred and twenty-four feet, that is, one hundred feet in
the well part, and twenty-four in the pipe, in the courfe of
eleven minutes, and one hundred and nineteen feet more in
one hour and nine minutes; or on the whole it rofe two
hundred and forty-three feet in one hour and twenty
minutes. A found line was then let down, which difco-
vered that fand had rofe in fuch quantity as to fill the well
to the height of ninety-fix feet. This was under the ne-
ceflity of being repeatedly dug out, by which the fand was
ultimately reduced fo confiderably as to permit the water to
rife through it more and more freely, until it flowed over
the top of the well at the rate of forty-fix gallons in the
minute. There is ftill, however, a great body of fand in
the well, through which the water filters by afcent, which
is excellently taletilised for freeing it from every fort of im-
purity. Ifa greater fupply of water at this well were ne-
ceffary for the valuable purpofe of turning machinery of
any fort, or for any other fuch ufe, it might certainly, it is
faid, be obtained after the rate of feveral hundred gallons in
the minute, by continuing to clear out the fand until the
obftrudtion it affords fhould become of little confequence ;
but, in this cafe, the quality of its water is of more im-
portance than the quantity. The water, in this inftance, is
now had in a very high {tate of purity, as the originally ex-
cellent water, rendered fo by flowing in a ftratum or bod
of clear fand, is further purified and improved by filtrating
by afcent through many feet in thicknefs of the fame
material. -
Other circumftances have occurred in digging and form-
ing wells in different fituations. It is ftated in the Rural
Effays, that in finking a well at Sheernefs, near the mouth
of the river Thames, fometime fince, fome extraordinary
phenomena or appearances occurred, many of which were
deemed, by different perfons, rather of a wonderful kind.
They were thefe: that fort is placed upon a neck of land,
very little elevated above the furface of the fea. In dig-
ging the well, they paffed firft through a bed that con-
fitted wholly of fand to the depth of thirty feet, the whole
of the water found in which was of a falt tafte, when at that
depth they difcovered a {pring of /a/t-water, which, not bein
irrefiftibly abundant, they found themfelves enabled to w
out ; which being accomplifhed, they then funk further,
through a bed of clay for fome fathoms more. They here
found another {pring of falt-water; as before ; which having
walled out in a fimilar manner, they continued to dig
through the fame bed of clay, for three hundred feet more ;
at the bottom of which they found a bed of gravel, from
which ifiued a copious ftream of frefh water, which foon .
filled the well within five feet of the top; at which height
nearly it has ever fince remained. ’
Extraordinary as thefe cireumftances may appear, they
are perfe@tly explicable on the principles and appearances
which take place in boring and tapping fprings. ‘The freth
water, in this cafe, being confined and pent up at a very
great depth in the earth, by impervious beds of materials,
when the gravel or porous {tratum that contained the water
was funk down into it, was forced up and rofe, of courfe, to
the height of the internal fource or refervoir from which the
water originally came in the diftant high ground. If the
{pring in this inftance fhould afford more water than is taken
from the well, it will continue always about the above
height ; fo that the water can only fink in the top of the
well, when more is drawn from it than the {pring can fup-
ply in a given time. See Tappine Springs.
The f{prings of {alt-water in this cafe are capable of being
explained on the fuppofition of fiffures or openings having
been formed by the working of fome fort of animal, or other
unknown caufe, fo as to have penetrated the bed of clay,
from the edge next the fea to fome diftance, as far inward,
at leaft, as the opening of the well; through which, of ne-
ceffity, falt-water would flow into the well as foon as it was
opened. See Philofophical 'Tranfaétions, vol. 74.
Another inftance of a fomewhat fimilar kind, though lefs
complicated, as being divefted of the circumftance of the
falt-water, is mentioned to have taken place at Derby,
under the direétion of a late eminent phyfician and philofo-
pher. A well was funk in that place, which lies in a
bottom, furrounded by many different hills ; in which, after
digging through a bed of clay for fome confiderable depth,
an abundant {pring of frefh water was found, which, as in
moft cafes of this nature, rufhed up with great impetuofity,
and foon filled the well to the top, where it flowed over in a
pretty full ftream. This was inftantly feen, and conceiving
that it probably defcended through fome narrow fubter-
raneous paflage, from a height greater than that of the
houfes oft the town, readily imagined that if the fides of the
well could be railed to a fufficient height, making them at
the
WEL
the fame time ftrong enough to bear the preffure of the
water within, it might be conveyed by this means to the
higheft floors of the houfes ; “which was actually effedted to
the great convenience and advantage of the family.
The fame circumftances might be taken advantage of in
many other fituations and cafes, with equal benefit and con-
venience in this way, and itill more in many others, efpe-
cially in the turning of machinery.
Even the fituation of the metropolis itfelf is faid to afford
a ftrong example in elucidation of the fame general princi-
ple. It is well known that this is every where built upon a
folid bed of clay, that extends to a great depth, and which
lies above a large bafon of water there confined and pent in,
that can in no way be let off or difcharged ; in confequence
of which, it is with certainty known, that water may be
found by finking a well in any place ; and that the well-
diggers are become fo expert, that they can with little dif-
ficulty tell, until within a few feet of the depth to which
the well muft be funk before water be found. They know,
too, that when the water is found, it always rifes in the well
until it reaches a certain height, where it remains ftationary
ever after, never rifing or falling fearcely more than an inch
from its level under any diverfity of feafon: and if the
workmen be permitted to take their levels from a known
point, they can tell, before they begin to dig, the precife
length of pump that will be required to raife the water to
the furface.
Thus, if a well be funk in one of the loweft fituations in
the city, as about Fleet-market, and it fhould be found that
it there requires to be dug forty feet before water is met
with, and that the well makes a fort of drawing or tapping,
the water will rife in the well to the height of a certain level,
where it will, of neceffity, become ftationary, which is at
the height of about ten feet from the furface of the ground.
If in St. Paul’s church-yard, which by a careful level has
been found to rife fifty feet above the former fituation ; the
well in this place will require to be funk about ninety feet
before it reaches the water, and that the water will rife to
the certain level, and no higher; fo that there the water
will require to be lifted fifty feet to reach the furface of the
ground. If in a lower part of the town, as about Aldgate
and Fenchurch-ftreet, the water there is found at fixty Fae
and will rife to within thirty feet of the top. Ifabout Thames-
ftreet, and its continuations near the river, the depths to
which the wells muft be dug, and the diftance from the fur-
face of the ground to the water will be rather various : in
fome cafes, the water would rife within three or four feet of
the furface, and in low places, run over the top. The depth
of digging will be moftly much lefs than in the laft cafe
before the water is reached.
A cafe, which is ftrikingly illuftrative of wells where
they flow over the tops, ts recorded by the above writer, as
having alfo lately occurred in the vicinity of the metropolis.
A gentleman bought a houfe and farm a little beyond Ken-
fington gravel-pits, on the right-hand fide of the road, nearly
oppofite to Holland-houfe. The premifes were entirely
deftitute of water, which appeared to the occupier to be fo
great an inconvenience, that he determined to try if he
could find any there by finking a well, and refolved, rather
than not fucceed, to go to a very great depth. He began
digging, and went down very far without difcovering any
fymptoms of water; but not difcouraged by this circum-
ftance, he {till proceeded. At length, when he had gone
very deep, he found water, and was infinitely more fortunate
than he expeéted; for he feared that after he had found
water, it would be neceffary to raife it by artificial means
from fo great a depth, as muft greatly enhance the price of
WEL
it. The water, however, rofe in the well very quickly till
it reached the top, and there it ran over ina very copious
itream, overflowing the field around it, till it found out a
level for itfelf, forming a living rill, that continues to flow
at all times of the year. The owner of the ground, after
having made of it a fine piece of water for his pleafure, and
fupplied all his building with it abundantly, made that part
of it iffue through a pipe into a ftone bafon by the road fide,
for the accommodation of paffengers of every fort ; where
it {till continues to flow, running from thence along the
ditch to the bottom of the eminence on which it {tands ; the
furplus water from the pond being conveyed off by another
channel.
Thefe cafes of wells are ftill further illuftrated and ex-
plained by the nature of what happens in finking deep pits
and fhafts in many places for different purpofes, and from
the large burits of internal waters which take place in many
inftances and fituations. See QuaARRIES, &c. Draining of,
and SprinG-Draining.
On the whole, the faéts and ftatements which have been
given above, may fufficiently explain and elucidate the man-
ner in which water is fupplied and obtained in the digging
and forming of wells, as well as the nature and diftribution
of the ftrata by which it is conduéted, contained, and forced
up into them. However, in moft cafes, before the finkin
of wells is undertaken or begun upon, the nature of the ita
‘ferent circumftances of the particular cafes fhould be well
and fully inquired into and confidered, and the probability
of fuccels coolly and maturely weighed from a nice examin-
ation of the different fprings and wells in the immediate
neighbourhood ; as where this is not the cafe, much labour,
trouble, and money, may often be expended to little or no
purpofe, and great difappointment be fuftained.
We t-Digging, the art of finking wells, and lining them
with {tone or brick, that they may preferve their figure ; as
this operation is neceffary for wells in all foils except rock.
There are two methods of building the ftone or brick
within the well, which is called the ftening. In one of
thefe a circular ring is formed, of the fame diameter as the
intended well; and the timber of which it is compofed is of
the fize of the brick-courfes, with which the well is to be
lined. The lower edge of this circle is made fharp, and
fhod with iron, fo that it has a tendency to cut. into the
ground ; this circular kirb is placed flat upon the ground,
and the bricks are built upon it to a confiderable height, like
acircular wall. The well-digger gets within this circle,
and digs away the earth at the bottom; the weight of the
wall then forces the kirb, and the brick-work with which
it is loaded, to defcend in the earth, and as faft as the earth
is removed it finks deeper, and the circular brick-wall is
increafed or raifed at top as faft as it finks down ; but when
it gets very deep, it will fink no longer, particularly if it
pafles through foft ftrata: in this cafe, a fecond kirb of a
{maller fize is fometimes began within the firft.
When a kirb would not fink from the foftnefs of the
ftrata, or when it is required to ftop out water, the bricks
or {tones mutt be laid one by one at the bottom of the work,
taking care that the work is not left unfupported in fuch
a manner as to let the bricks fall as they are laid: this is
called under-pruning.
Well-diggers experience fometimes great difficulty from a
noxious air which fills the well, and fuffocates them if they
breathe it. ,
The ufual mode of clearing wells of noxious air, is by
means of a large pair of bellows and a long leathern pipe,
which is hung down into the well to the bottom, and frefh
air is forced down to the bottom by working the bellows.
This
WEL
This is intended to difplace the damp air or gas, but is not
very efficacious, becaufe the damp air is of a greater {pe-
cific gravity than pure air; fo that ten gallons of frefh air
is perhaps blown into the well, before two gallons of
noxious air is difplaced: and this probably happens be-
caufe the nites air is {pecifically lighter than the
noxious air, and afcends through the latter to the top of the
well, difplacing but a {mall quantity of it. Such bel-
lows, &c. are feldom to be procured on the {pot when
wanted, and are too weighty and cumberfome to carry about.
If water is thrown downin a fhower, it will fometimes clear
the air ; but this is laborious, in a deep well, to draw it up
again.
eT he following appatatus may be ufed with great fuccefs
in fuch cafes; and as with 4fty}feet of pipe its weight
amounts only to thirty pounds, it may eafily be carried to
any diftance.. Tubes of every kind being perpendicularly
fituated, and having their internal air rarefied, caufe a cur-
rent or ftream of air to afcend through them. Suppofe fix
lengths of metal pipe, each eight feet long, and two inches
diameter, all made of tin plate, except the upper one, which
is of copper, the better to bear the heat; let a cylindrical
veflel be alfo made of copper, holding about two gallons,
fixed faft to the upper pipe, and having through the fides of
it a number of holes to admit air for the fupport of the fire,
which is kindled within it. The veffel muft be fo fixed as
to have at leaft five feet of pipe above its top.
The method of placing it in the well is, firft, to lower
down the bottom length, into the upper end of which, the
lower end of the fecond length is joined, pafling a wire
through both to prevent their drawing apart again in holes
made for that purpofe; then fill the joint round with oil-
putty, fo as to render it air-tight. The upper end of each
length of tube is wired, to prevent bending ; which wiring
alfo forms a receptacle for the putty. Then proceed in the
fame manner, with the-remainder of the pipes, until the
bottom one nearly reaches the furface of the water, but not
quite. The fire-pan is to be fupported on two timbers,
placed for that purpofe acrofs the top of the wall, and a
conical cover may be fitted over it to prevent the heat from
pafling away too rapidly, and to confine it to the fides of
the pipe. The apparatus being thus fixed, it foon be-
comes filled with air of the fame quality as that in the well ;
and as their power of gravity is the fame, both the external
and internal air become ftationary, from which there can be
no good effect. ‘To put the experiment into execution, fill
the fire-pan with lighted charcoal or wood, &c. the copper-
pipe which is furrounded by the fire, being by this means
heated, a rarefa¢tion of the internal air takes place, which
air by this means is lightened, and the external denfe air,
continuing to prefs with the fame weight as firft into the
bottom of the tube, the equilibrium is deftroyed, and a fuc-
ceffion of noxious air pafles up through the pipe, as through
the funnel of a chimney, till the whole quantity is carried
off ; after which the pure air, which has in the meantime
introduced itfelf into the well, begins to pafs off by the fame
paflage fo long as the fire is continued, though the ftream of
air pafling out of the top of the vertical-pipe feems f{mall, yet
the cffeét is great, becaufe that ftream confifts entirely of
noxious air that is required to be removed. The effeét will
be greater when the fire-pan is placed lower on the pipe, as
by that means more external air becomes rarefied ; but if the
fire-pan is placed too low down in the well, the charcoal fire
produces carbonic acid gas in great quantities, and renders
the air in the well unfit for refpiration.
WeLL, in Agriculture, a term fometimes applied to a
fort of pipe-chimney or vent-hole left in a ftack, rick, or
WEL
mow of hay, or other fimilar materials, in order to pre-
vent its being overheated. Such vent-holes fhould be
avoided as much as poffible in all cafes, as injuring and
deftroying much hay about them, and being hurtful in
other ways. See Sracxine Hay.
We tts, Kbbing and Flowing, in Rural Economy, fuch
as have their waters rifing and falling in an almoft mo-
mentary alternate manner. See Sprinc, and WELL.
We tts, Farm or Field, in Agriculture, fuch as are dug
in thefe fituations for the ufe of live-ftock.
Wells of this fort are of much ufe and convenience, as
they prevent the trouble and difadvantage of driving cattle
to diftances for the purpofe of getting water. See Ponp.
WELL, in the Military Art, denotes a depth which the
miner finks into the ground, from which he runs out
branches or galleries, either to prepare a mine, or find
out, and difappoint, the enemy’s mine.
WELL, in a Ship, an apartment formed in the middle of
a fhip’s hold to inclofe the pumps, from the bottom to the
lower deck. It is ufed as a barrier to preferve thofe ma-
chines from being damaged by the friction or compreffion
of the materials*contained in the hold, and particularly
to prevent the entrance of ballaft, &c. by which the tubes
would prefently be choaked, and the pumps rendered in-
capable of fervice. By means of this enclofure, the artifi-
cers may likewife more readily defcend into the hold, in
order to examine the ftate of the pumps, and repair them as
occafion requires. Falconer.
We tt of a Fifhing Vefel, an apartment in the middle of
the hold, which is entirely detached from the reft, being
lined with lead on every fide, and having its bottom pierced
with a fufficient number of {mall holes, paffing alfo through
the fhip’s floor, fo that the falt-water running into the well
is always kept as frefh as that in the fea, and yet prevented
from communicating itfelf to the other parts of the hold.
Falconer.
WELL alfo implies in the fame range, or even with a fur-
face.
Weut-Drain, in Agriculture, that fort of vent or dif-
charge for the wetnefs of land, which is conftruéted in fome-
what the well or pit manner. See WeEtL-Draining, and
SprinG-Draining.
Wett-Draining, that means of clearing lands from wet-
nefs which, in certain flat fituations, is accomplifhed by mak-
ing large deep pits or wells, and the conftant or occafional
ufe of fuitable machinery. In the execution of the bufinefs
‘of forming a draining well in loofe ground, a {trong wooden
frame is neceflary to be funk, as the work of digging the
well or pit proceeds; the fides of which being made, fo as
in the end to be fufficiently open or permeable, to admit
the water to enter freely within it, and clofe enough to pre-
vent grofler matters from interrupting the machinery ; efpe-
cially when of the mill kind. The fize of the frame for
this purpofe mutt, confequently, be adapted and fuited to
the nature of the engine which is employed. The laves of
a mill, it has been obferved, would require a length of
frame, which mutt neceffarily be proportionally ftrong ; but,
that for a pump, a frame of inconfiderable expence would
be fufficient ; whether of wood or uncemented brick-work.
In this fort of draining, which is applicable in many cafes
of cold wet flat lands lying in the valley-tra&ts in moft parts
of the country, the wetnefs is drawn off by thefe forts of
powerful machinery, working in the {pring time, after wet
feafons, or at other periods when neceflary or wanted. See
SprinG-Draining.
WELL-Grown, in Ship-Building, implies, that the grain of
the wood follows the fhape required, as in knee-timbers, &c.
WELL-
WEL
Wett-Hole, in Building, is the hole left in a floor, for
the ftairs to come up through. See Srairs. |
We .-Room, of a Boat, denotes the place in the bottom
where the water lies, between the cieling and the-platform
of the ftern-fheets, from whence it is thrown out into the
fea with a fcoop. Falconer.
WE L-Water. See WATER.
WELLAND, in Geography, a river of England, which
paffes by Stamford, Market Deeping, Spalding, &c. and
empties itfelf into the German fea, in what is called «* The
Wath,” between the counties of Lincoln and Norfolk.—
Alfo, a river of Canada, which runs into the Niagara, be-
tween lake Erie and lake Ontario.
WELLE Coronpg, Sandy Cinnamon, a name given by
the Ceylonefe to a f{pecies of cinnamon, which feels hard
and gritty between the teeth, as if it were full of particles
of fand, though in reality there is no fand among it. _
The bark of this tree comes off very eafily : but it is not
fo fit to roll up into quills as the right cinnamon, for it is
more rigid and ftubborn, and apt to burft open. It is of a
fharp but bitterifh tafte. The roots of all the cinnamon
trees yield more or lefs camphor, but this as fmall a quan-
tity as any of them. Phil. T'ranf. N° 409.
WELLES, in Geography. See WELLS. I
WELLESCHIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Bechin ; 10 miles S. of Budweifs.
WELLESMITZA, a town of Servia, on the Danube;
10 miles S.E. of Orfova. é
WELLFLEET, a townfhip of Maflachufetts, in the
county of Barnftaple, containing 1402 inhabitants, with a
large harbour near Cape Cod. The inhabitants own 25
veffels, from 30 to 100 tons, employed in the whale, cod,
mackarel, and oyfter fifhing ; 60 miles by water S.E. of
Bolton.
Wettrurer Bay, a bay of the ftate of Maffachufetts,
on the E. fide of Cape Cod Bay.
WELLIA Tacera, H. M. in Botany, a filiquous plant
of Malabar, with a pentapetalous flower, and long flat pods,
with tranfverfe partitions between the contained feeds. It
grows to the ordinary height of a man, with a ftem as big as
a man’s arm, and is tranfplanted into gardens only on account
of its beauty. It is an evergreen.
All the parts of this plant, the root excepted, are exhi-
bited, with an addition of cummin, white fugar, and milk,
againft a virulent gonorrhea. The leaves boiled in cow’s
milk, or ufed in baths, expel the gout. The bark, tritu-
rated with fugar and water, is proper for the diabetes. The
bark of the root, and green faffron mixed with milk, give
relief under the nodous gout, called by the Malabarians /o-
nida badda. Rati Hitt. Plant.
' WELLIBALDSBURG,Sr., in Geography, a town and
citadel of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Aichftat, near Aich-
ftat. acy ; ‘
WELLIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konig-
ingratz ; 16 miles S.W. of Biezow. ;
WELLINGBOROUGH, a market-town in the hun-
dred of Hamfordthoe, and county of Northampton, England,
is principally fituated on a red fand-{tone rock, of which
material the houfes are generally built. The town is dif-
pofed along the flope of a hill, nearly a mile to the north of
the river Nen, 11 miles N.E. by E. from the county-town,
and 68 miles N.N.W. from London. It appears to have
been of fome note in the Saxon times, when a great part
of it was deftroyed by the Danes. After the Norman Con-
ueft, it occurs among the numerous poffeflions annexed to
the abbey of Croyland, in Lincolnfhire ; and at the fuit of
the monks of that houfe, was conftituted a market-town, by
WEL
a charter from king John. In July 1738, it is ftated, that
about eight hundred dwelling-houfes, befides outhoufes, &c.
were confumed by fire. A new town has been raifed, and
now affumes a much more refpeétable appearance than be-
fore the conflagration. The church is a fpacious edifice,
having at its weft end a tower, furmounted by a {pire: the
roofs of the aifles, chancel, and chantry chapel, are decorated
with various carved work ; and on each fide of the chancel are
three ftalls fimilar to thofe in cathedral choirs: the eaftern
window is richly ornamented with tracery, and fculpture in
ttone. This church had a guild to the honour of the Blefled
Virgin ; the revenues of which fraternity were, in the fecond
year of Edward VI., appropriated to the ereétion and en-
dowment of a free grammar-{fchool. Here are alfo a large
charity-{chool, and two meeting-houfes for the public wor-
fhip of Independent Diffenters. A weekly market is held
on Wednefdays ; and three fairs annually. The chief fource
of traffic is corn, the market for which is greatly improved
by the decay of that of Higham-Ferrers, at four miles dif-
tance. Here is alfo a confiderable manufaéture of lace 3 as
alfo of tammies, harrateens, and other worfted ftuffs. In
the population return of the year 1811, the inhabitants of
this parifh are enumerated as 3999, occupying 749 houfes.
About half a mile north-weft of the town, 1n an open field, is
a chalybeate fpring, called Red-well, formerly much cele-
brated for its medicinal virtues: in the year 1626, kin
Charles and his queen refided here a whole feafon, for the be.
nefit of drinking the water, pure from the fource.— Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. xi. Northamptonfhire ; by the
Rev. J. Evans, and J. Britton, F.S.A. Bridges’s Hiftory
of Northamptonfhire, 2 vols. fol. 1791.
WELLINGTON, a large market-town in the hundred
of Kingfbury Weft, and county of Somerfet, England, is
fituated on the borders of Devonfhire, at the diltance of 20
miles W.S.W. from Somerton, and 149 miles in the fame
bearing from London. The earlieft hiftorical account of it
commences with the reign of Alfred, who beftowed the ma-
nor on Affer, who had been tutor to feveral of his children,
and was afterwards advaneed to the fee of Sherborne, and
died poffeffed of that dignity, in the year 883. After his
death, the king granted the manor to the firtt bifhop of
Wells, for the {upport of the epifcopal honours of himfelf
and his fucceffors. It continued annexed to that fee, till
the reign of Edward VI., when it became the property of
the duke of Somerfet by purchafe from bifhop Barlow.
The town confifts 6f four ftreets, the principal of which,
called the High-ftreet, is very wide and fpacious; the
houfes are in general well built and commodious, It
is a place of confiderable trade : the chief articles manufac-
tured here are, ferges, druggets, and pottery. A weekly
market, on Thurfdays, is well fupplied with all kinds of pro-
vifions ; and two fairs are annually held. According to the
population return of the year 1811, the parifh contained
755 houfes, and 3874 inhabitants, of whom 565 families
were ftated to be employed in trade and manufacture. The
church is a {pacious ftru@ure, confifting of a nave, chancel,
two aifles, and two {mall chapels. At the weft end is a
fine embattled tower, a hundred feet in height, decorated
with twelve pinnacles of excellent workmanfhip. In the
fouth chapel is a magnificent tomb in honour of fir-John
Popham, lord chief juitice of England, in the reign of queen
Elizabeth. On the table of this monument are the effigies
of fir John and his lady, under an arched canopy, ‘richly
ornamented with the family arms, rofes, paintings, and obe-
lifks. The whole is fupported by eight columns of black
marble, five feet high, with Corinthian capitals, green and
gilt. Sir John was a munificent patron to Wellington :
among
4
WEL
among other benefactions, he ereéted an hofpital for fix men
and fix women, being old and infirm ; two children were
alfo to be educated here. This edifice is ftill ftanding : fir
John endowed it with an eftate in land, which is vetted in
governors, and properly applied.— Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. xiii. Somerfetthire. Collinfon’s Hiftory of So-
merfetfhire, 3 vols. 4to. 1791.
WELLINGTON, a fmall market-town in the Wellington
divifion of the hundred of Bradford, and county of Salop,
England, is fituated near the Wrekin-hill, at the diftance of
12 miles E. by S. from Shrewfbury, and 151 miles N.W.
from London. It is neatly built, and contains many good
houfes. The market, which is held on Thurfdays, is well
fupplied, and much frequented ; and here are three annual
fairs. The church, which has been lately rebuilt, is fup-
ported on cait-iron pillars, and the window-frames are of
the fame material, which gives a lightnefs to the edifice :
one of the frames is fifteen feet in height. Near the church
is a very refpectable charity-fchool. In this town and its
vicinity, at the commencement of the civil war, king Charles,
then on his march to Shrewfbury, muttered his forces, and
after iffluing orders for the obfervance of ftri@ difcipline,
made a folemn proteftation that he would defend the efta-
blifhed religion, govern by law, and preferve the liberty of
the fubjeé&t ; and that if he conquered he would uphold the
privileges of parliament. The parifh of Wellington includes,
befides the town, fix townfhips. The return of the year 1811
ftates the population to be 8213; the number of houfes
1724. The chief employment of the inhabitants is in the
coal-works ; here are alfo fome mines of iron-ore. About
two miles fouthward from the town is the Wrekin, a ftu-
pendous mountain 1100 feet in height. Through the ad-
0 country runs the Roman road called the Watling-
reet.
Beneath the Wrekin, and adjoining the road leading to
Shrewfbury, is Orleton, the feat of William Cludde, efq. of
an ancient family in this county. The manfion at prefent
has a modern appearance, but is of very great antiquity, and
till of late was enclofed with walls and a gate-houfe, and was
furrounded by a moat.—Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. xiii. Salop ; by J. Nightingale, and R. Rylance, i811.
WELLINKOVEN, a town of Germany, in the county
of Mark ; 6 miles W. of Schwiert.
WELLOE, (Tue,) a rock in the Englifh channel, near
the coait of Cornwall ; 9 miles S.E. of Penzance. N. lat.
W. long. 5° 14!. .
_ WELLS, Wiriiam Cuartes, F.R.S., I. and E.,
licentiate of the Royal College of Phyficians, London, and
one of the phyficians to St. Thomas’s Hofpital, in Biography,
was the fon of parents who left Scotland and fettled in
Carolina, in 1753, and born in Charleftown, South Carolina,
in May 1757. Few lives have been more diverfified by inci-
dent and more feduloufly devoted to literary and fcientific
purfuits, and therefore more entitled to notice in our bio-
he oe fketches than the fubjeét of this article. Before
e had attained the age of feven years, he was fent to a con-
fiderable grammar-fchool at Dumfries, where he remained
nearly two years and a half ; and in the autumn of the year
1770 he removed to Edinburgh, and attended feveral of the
lower clafles of the univerfity. At this early age he had the
good fortune to become‘acquainted with Mr. David Hume
and fir William Miller, now known by the title of lord Glen-
lee, whofe friendfhip he afterwards cultivated and valued,
and whofe kind offices he gratefully acknowledged. In 1771
he returned to Charleftown, and was apprenticed, in the
medical profeffion, to Dr. Alexander Garden, whofe name
is well known among naturalifts ; and during three years of the
9
WEL
time he was with this gentleman, he purfued his ftudies with
fuch diligence, that he acquired perhaps more knowledge
than in any three fubfequent years of his life. Soon after
the commencement of the American war, in 1775, he came
to London. The occafion of his removal was his refufal,
from confcientious motives, to fign a paper denominated
“ The Affociation,’? which was drawn up in order to unite
the people in a refiftance to the claims of the Britifh govern-
ment. At the commencement of the winter of that year he
went to Edinburgh, and entered upon his medical ftudies,
with the view of taking a degree. Towhis former two
friends, with whom he had kept up a regular correfpondence,
he had now the happinefs of adding a third, no lefs intimate
and conftant than the others, the prefent Dr. Robertfon
Barclay. Having purfued his ftudies for three winters, and
paffed his preparatory trials in the fummer of 1778, he left
Edinburgh without graduating, and returned,to London,
where he attended a courfe of Dr. William Hunter’s lec-
tures, and became a furgeon’s pupil at Bartholomew’s hof-
pital. In 1779 he weft to Holland as furgeon to a Scotch
regiment, in the fervice of the United Provinces; but re-
ceiving offenfive treatment from the commanding officer, he
refigned his commiffion, and challenged the aggreffor, under
the unjuft charge of military infubordination, for which an
attempt was made to punifh him; but without receiving the
fatisfation which he demanded, he went to Leyden in the
beginning of the year 1780, and there prepared an inaugural
thefis on the fubjeét of “ Cold,’ which was publifhed at
Edinburgh in the clofe of that year, on occafion of his
taking the degree of doétor in medicine. At this time he
commenced his acquaintance with Dr. Lifter, a gentleman
no‘lefs diftinguifhed for his integrity and liberality than for
his fkill in his profeflion ; and it redounds in no {mall de-
gree to the honour of Dr. Wells, that their friendfhip con-
tinued without interruption till his death. Nor was it lefs
honourable to both thefe gentlemen, that they were intro-
duced to an acquaintance with each other by their common
friend Dr. James Currie, the author of ** Medical Reports,’?
and the biographer of Burns ; whofe premature death was
lamented by all who knew him, and were duly apprized
of the eminent rank which he occupied in the medical pro-
feffion. In the beginning of the year 1782 Dr. Wells vilited
Carolina, then in the pofleflion of the king’s troops, for the
purpofe of arranging the affairs of his aie? and whilft
he was there, he fuftained a variety of offices, feemingly very
incompatible with each other, and which no perfon deftitute
of his verfatile talents and peculiar aétivity could have fatif-
factorily performed. He was an officer in a corps of volun-
teers, a printer, a bookfeller, and a merchant, a truftee for
the management of the affairs of fome of his father’s friends
in England, and on one oceafion a judge-advocate. In De-
cember 1782, when the king’s troops were obliged to eva-
cuate Charleftown, he removed to St. Auguftine, in Eaift
Florida, and there edited the firft weekly newfpaper that had
been publifhed in that country, having brought with him a
printing-prefs, which had been taken to pieces for the con-
venience of carriage, and which he contrived, with the afliftance
only of a negro-carpenter, to refit for ufe. During his refi-
dence in Florida, he became captain of a corps of volunteers,
and manager of a company of officers, who had agreed to
a& plays for the relief of the pooreft of the loyal refugees
from Carolina and Georgia, and occafionally an actor him-
felf. In 1784 he removed from St. Auguftine to London,
and becoming acquainted with Dr. Baillie, commenced an
intimate, fteady, and affectionate friendthip, the benefits of
which he experienced till his death. Having {pent three
months at Paris in the year 1785, he returned to London a
the
WELLS.
the autumn of that year, and fettled as a phyfician in this
city. His father had refided in London from the com-
mencement of the American war, and had amafled a fortune
of 20,000/. ; but by misfortunes in trade his circumftances
were now embarrafled, fo that Dr. Wells, at the outfet of his
profeflion, was obliged to raife money by loans, amounting
to 6oo/. For the firft few years after fettlng in London he
{carcely took a fee, and after having been engaged forten years
in the exercife of his profeffion, his receipts from every fource
did not amount to 250/. per annum. However in the next
five years he was able to pay part of his debt, and before his
death he had the fatisfaGtion of having paid the whole of it,
both principal and intereft ; and it fhould be mentioned to
his honour, that when his income was very limited, he al-
lowed an annuity of 20/. to a poor relation.
In 1788 he was admitted a licentiate of the Royal College
of Phyficians in London; and he took part with thofe who
afferted their eligibility and right of admiffion to the clafs of
fellows. After the decifion of this claim in the court of
king’s bench, he applied in 1797 for examination, fo that if
he were found to be fit, he might be returned a fellow. But
this application was unavailing ; and yet about four years
before his death the prefident of the college fent him a mef-
fage, exprefling a wifh to know if he had any defire to be-
come a fellow; to which he replied in the negative. In
1790 he was appointed a phyfician to the Finfbury Difpen-
fary, in which conneétion he remained till the year 1798.
In 1793 he was chofen a fellow of the Royal Society ; and
in 1800 he became phyfician of St. Thomas’s hofpital,
having been affiftant phyfician from the year 1798. In the
year 1800 he was feized with a flight fit of apoplexy ; but
by adopting a very abftemious mode of living, he efcaped
any fubfequent attack. From this time, however, his health
declined.
In 1812 he commenced fome experiments on dew, and
after he had an opportunity of purfuing them, he wrote
an *¢ Effay’’ on the fubje&, which was publifhed in Auguft
1814, the year in which he was admitted into the Royal So-
ciety of Edinburgh; and in 1816 the Royal Society of
London adjudged to him the honour of the gold and filver
medals of count Rumford’s donation for this eflay. <Al-
though from the year 1814 to the commencement of his laft
illnefs his health was in fome refpeéts improved, he was af-
Aliéted with painful and threatening fymptoms. Thefe fymp-
toms became gradually more alarming ; and though in his laft
illnefs fome hopes were entertained by his medical friends,
Dr. Baillie and Dr. Lifter, of his recovery, yet on the 8th
of Augult he was fuddenly feized, while he was fitting up,
with the fenfation of a tremulous motion in the cheft, which
he referred to the heat, from which time his illnefs inter-
mitted. ‘ After this,’ fays his biographer, ‘ an expeéta-
tion was entertained of his recovery. His life was continued
until the evening of the 18th of September 1817 ; and until
the near approach of its termination, his mind was clear and
ative, and his fpirits calm and cheerful.”
Our limits will merely allow our enumerating his principal
publications. Of his political papers we fhall only mention
one, which was written in 1781, by the defire of the com-
mandant of the garrifon of Charleftown, general Nefbit Bal-
four. The objeé of this paper was to fhew, by military
ufage, and the nature of the cafe, that perfons in the Ame-
rican fervice who, after having been taken prifoners and
fent to their homes under their military paroles, and who
appeared again in arms againft the Britifh government, fub-
jected themfelves to the punifhment of death. This paper
was frequently publifhed in the newfpapers, and it is pro«
Vou. XXXVIII.
bable that it was owing to this publication that general Bal-
four and lord Moira thought themfelves juttified in putting to
death a colonel Haynes, the propriety of which a@ was
afterwards a fubjeét of debate in the Britifh parliament.
The philofophical pieces of Dr. Wells were the following :
viz. * An Effay upon fingle Vifion with Two Eyes,” 1792,
(fee Visron, in the Addenda) ; ** Two Letters, in reply to
Dr. Darwin’s Remarks in his Zoonomia upon what Dr.
Wells had written in his Effay upon Vifion, on the apparent
Rotation of Bodies which takes place during the Giddinefs
occafioned by turning ourfelves quickly and frequently
round,” 1794, contained in the Gentleman’s Magazine for
September and Oftober; “* A Paper upon the Influence
which incites the Mufcles to contraét in Mr. Galvani’s Ex-
periments,” 1795; ‘“‘ Experiments upon the Colour of the
Blood,” 1797; ‘* Some Experiments and Obfervations on
Vifion,” 1811; all publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfac-
tions. “ An Effay upon Dew,” 1811. In this eflay the au-
thor has introduced new faéts and ingenious obfervations, of
which we fhall give fome account in our additions to the
article Dew. ‘* An Anfwer to Remarks in the Quarterly
Review upon the Effay on Dew,”’ and “ An Anfwer to Mr.
Prevoft’s Queries refpeéting the Explanation of Mr. B. Pre-
voit’s Experiments on Dew,” 1815; “ A Letter to Lord
Kenyon relative to the Condu& of the Royal College of
Phyficians of London, pofterior to the Decifion of the
Court of King’s Bench, in the Cafe of Dr. Stanger 5”? «A
fhort Letter on the Condenfation of Water upon Glafs,??
1816; which three laft appeared in Dr. Thomfon’s Annals
of Philofophy. ‘ Some Biographical Sketches by Dr.
Wells” appeared in the Gentleman’s Magazine.
Almott all his writings upon medical fubje&ts are con-
tained in the fecond and third volumes of the Tranfa@tions
of a Society for the Promotion of medical and chirurgical
Knowledge: and their fubjeéts are,—eryfipelas ; the entire .
want of hair in the human body ; the dropfy, which fuc-
ceeds fearlet fever; aneurifm of the aorta attended with
ulceration of the celophagus and wind-pipe ; epilepfy and
hemiplegia, apparently produced by a fharp projection from
the inner table of the fkull; tetanus; aneurifm of the aorta,
communicating with the pulmonary artery ; enlargement of
the cecum and colon; gangrene of the cellular membrane
between the mufcles and {kin of the neck and cheft ; rheu-
matifm of the heart ; red matter and ferum of the blood in
the urine of dropfy, which has not originated in fearlet
fever ; and obfervations on pulmonary confumption and in-
termittent fever, chiefly as difeafes oppofed to each other,
&c.; to which may be added, a cafe of aphonia fpafmodica,
in the fecond volume of Medical Communications. His
manufcript papers were dire¢ted to be deftroyed, with the
exception of one, relating to the difference of colour and
form between the white and negro races of men, which will
be publifhed.
The literary produétions of Dr. Wells have fufficiently
eftablifhed his reputation as a learned and fkilful phyfician,
as an acute and inventive philofopher, and as a perfpicuous,
vigorous, and elegant writer ; and it is faid, that thofe who
knew him perfonally eftimated him much more highly than
perfons who were acquainted only with his writings. His
mental powers were ftrong, acute, comprehenfive, and ver-
fatile ; and he was capable of the moft clofe and long-con-
tinued attention, and of direGting this attention at pleafure.
Although he was not eminently diftinguifhed as a claffical
{cholar, or as a deep mathematician, he had read fome of the
Greek and moft of the Latin claflics with great attention $
wrote Latin with facility and correétnefs ; and made himfelf
Pp mafter
WEL
mafter of the elementary books of the inferior branches of
the mathematics. He was well acquainted with natural
philofophy, and particularly optics, and alfo with the facts
of modern chemiitry ; he was an acute metaphyfician, and
intimately verfed in the theories of morals and politics, in
ancient and modern hiftory, commerce, and political econo-
my ; he had fuccefsfully ftudied belles lettres, and was fa-
miliar with the beft writers in the Englifh ita ; and his
own ftyle was pure, perfpicuous, and occafionally forcible
and elegant. In converfation he was initructive and inte-
refting ; and in ative life prompt and decifive, and at the
{ame time prudent and cautious. In his habits and manners,
he was indefatigable in his application ; frugal, and yet as
far as his circumftances would allow liberal ; high-minded,
but fenfible of obligation and grateful for kindnefs ; refentful,
yet placable ; irafcible even on trivial occafions, but exercif-
ing felf-command under great provocations when the im-
portance of circumftances and propriety required it ; indig-
nant at infolence and oppreffion, and regardlefs of all per-
fonal confequences in expreffing his refentment, but fubmiffive
to the appointments of heaven, and calm and cheerful under
the fufferings which flowed from them. A fenfe of duty,”
fays his biographer, ‘‘ was the paramount feeling of his mind, to
whichother paffions gave way, and which danger and difficulty
ferved only to make more ative and vigorous.”” Such is
the tribute which has been evidently dictated by a friend ;
and yet we have reafon for being affured that it is, upon the
whole, fuch as the merit of Dr. Wells juftly claimed. Gent.
Mag. for November 1817.
WELLs, in Geography, a city of Somerfetthire, England,
is fituated in the hundred of Wells-forum, at the diftance of
18 miles from Bath, 21 miles from Briftol, and 121 miles
W. by S. from London. It is faid to owe its origin to a
remarkable {pring called St. Andrew’s well, the waters of
which were fuppofed to poffefs extraordinary medicinal pro-
perties. Thefe are recorded to have been higly beneficial to
Ina, king of the Weft Saxons, whofe religious zeal there-
fore prompted him to found a collegiate church here in the’
year 704, and which he dedicated to the above faint. This
church was converted into a cathedral in the year go5, when
three new bifhoprics were conftituted by order of king Ed-
warg the elder, and Wells was then made an epifcopal fee.
This was afterwards transferred to Bath by bifhop Villala,
about the end of the eleventh century, who built a palace
there, and aflumed the title of bifhop of Bath. Great con-
tentions foon arofe between the two chapters of Bath and
Wells, refpeGting the right of eleGtion to the epifcopal office.
The matter being referred to the arbitration of the bifhop
himfelf, it was determined that his fucceffors fhould take
their title from both churches; that an equal number of
delegates from both chapters fhould enjoy the privilege of
voting, and that the inftallation fhould take place in both
cathedrals. This regulation, which was made by bifhop
Robert, about the year 1135, continued until the reign of
Henry VIII., when an a& of parliament was pafled for
velting the power of eleétion folely in the dean and chapter
of Wells. Henceforward the cathedral and epifcopal feat
have been fixed at Wells, but the title of the bifhop is of
« Bath and Wells.’’? To the pious zeal of its bifhops, the
city is indebted for that truly interefting ftruéture, its cathe-
dral church. The building of king Ina having, in the courfe
of four centuries, fallen into a dilapidated ftate, was about the
year 1150 rebuilt on a much larger fcale by its bifhop.
In 1239 it received confiderable additions by bifhop Joce-
line, who altered, or fitted up the choir, and made other
improvements ; the fouth-weft tower was added by bithop
WEL
Harewell, and other contributors, in 1366; in 1415 the nortli+
weit tower was raifed by bifhop Bubwith; and finally, the
chapel of the Virgin Mary was added by bifhop Beckington,
about the year 1445. Other parts of this interefting fabric
were erected and adorned by other prelates, but the precife
time of thefe alterations is not recorded. The cathedral, as it
now appears, confifts of a nave, with two aifles, a tranfept,
and choir, alfo with fide-aifles; at the eaftern extremity
of the choir is a fmaller tranfept, and the chapel of the Vir-
gin ; on the north fide is a porch, alfo a covered paflage to the
chapter-houfe and deanery. Over the interfeétion of the
nave and tranfept is a large quadrangular tower, 160 feet
in height, refting on four broad arches, and at the weft end
are two other towers. The length of the nave is 190 feet ;
of the choir to the altar, 108 ; andof the chapel of the Virgin,
52 feet. The whole fabric exhibits {pecimens of the differ.
ent ftyles of architeGture which prevailed between the twelfth
and fifteenth centuries ; but the moft interefting part is the
weft front, certainly one of the moft impofing examples of
archite€tural and fculptural workmanfhip in the kingdom.
It is adorned with a great number of niches and canopies,
with ftatues of the apoftles, popes, princes, bifhops, &c.
It is divided into five portions in height by bold buttreffes,
and four decided compartments, horizontally. In the centre
is a large entrance door-way to the nave, over which are three
tall lancet-fhaped windows; above thefe is a pyramidal
facade to the gable of the roof, crowned with pinnacles, and
adorned with numerous niches, ftatues, &c. The buttrefles
are likewife covered with panelling, tabernacles, and ftatues.
The interior of the church is full of intereft and beauty. Its
nave confifts of nine cluftered columns on each fide, fupport-
ing pointed arches, over which is a triforium, or open gal-
lery. A third ftory above this difplays a feries of windows,
which, with the other arches, are moftly of the lancet-fhape.
The columns, crofs-fpringers under the roof, and the whole
archite€ture of this part of the church, difplay the ityle of
the early part of the thirteenth century. In the nave are
two elegant monumental chapels, or oratories, to the refpec-
tive memories of bifhops Bubwith and Knight. Adjoining
the latter is a curious ftone pulpit. At the interfeétion of
the nave with the tranfepts is a large central tower, which
refts on four folid piers, or cluftered columns, futtaining
four arches, and over which are inverted arches. The choir
is richly ornamented, and oie by fix highly pointed
windows on each fide, and a large eaftern window over the
communion-table. Behind the latter are three open arches
to the lady chapel, which is mA in form, decoration,
and charaéter. Immediately behind the altar is a circular
arrangement of columns, ea{t of which is an abfis, forming
a half oGtagon. The whole is furrounded by large win-
dows, with painted glafs, In this part of the churchare feveral
curious and intereiting monuments. North of the great
tranfept is the chapter-houfe, an o&tangular apartment, in the
centre of which is a lofty cluftered column, from which
diverge feveral ribs.
Southward from the cathedral is the epifcopal palace,
which has more the appearance of a fortified caitle than of
the refidence of a bifhop. It is furrounded by a wet moat,
an embattled wall, flanked with femicircular turrets, with a
venerable gate-houfe on the north fide. The deanery-houfe
is a fpacious quadrangular building ; and here are good
houfes for the prebendaries. The eftablifhment of the ca-
thedral confifts of a bifhop, a dean, twenty-feven preben-
daries, nineteen minor canons, a precentor, treafurer, chan-
cellor, and three archdeacons; a number which few other
cathedrals have.
The
WEL
The city of Wells is feated in a valley, furrounded by
lofty hills, and has fome fpacious ftreets. It was firit made
a free borough in the reign of Henry II., by the intereft
of Joceline, its bifhop. It afterwards received a char-
ter from king John, by which it was provided with a weekly
market ; by queen Elizabeth’s charter, the corporation con-
fitts of a mayor, recorder, feven matters, and fixteen common-
council men. Wells has fent two members to parliament
from the earlieft period: the right of ele€tion is in the
mayor, ma(ters, burgeffes, and freemen. The voters are
about five hundred ; the mayor is the returning officer. By
the return to the population aét of the year 1811, the number
of houfes is {tated to be 930; of inhabitants 5156. Six an-
nual fairs are held here ; and markets on Wednefdays and
Saturdays. The corporation have a {pacious town-hall for
the difpatch of their bufinefs ; where alfo the aflizes are held.
Under this hall is an hofpital, founded by bifhop Bubwith,
for the maintenance of thirty poor men and women. Here
are feveral other alms-houfes, particularly thofe endowed by
Nathaniel Steel and fon, for thirty-two men and women, who
are allowed three fhillings each fer week, with a great-coat
for the men, and a gown for the women, once in two years.
A charity-{chool was alfo ereéted here for twenty boys and
twenty girls, inthe year 1714.
Near the village of Wookey, which is fituated about two
miles north-weft from Wells, is a remarkable cavern, called
Wookey Hole. In its front is an aflemblage of vaft rocks,
which rife to the height of at leaft two hundred feet, almoft
covered with trees and plants fpringing out of the fiffures.
On the left fide of a deep ravine is a natural terrace, which
leads to the mouth of the cavern, and through the middle of
it runs aclear rapid rivulet, that rufhes out of an arch thirty
feet in height, and forty in breadth, impetuoufly making its
way over an irregular bed of rocks. Hence, an opening
not more than fix feet high, conduéts into a {pacious vault,
eighty feet in height, entirely covered with ftalaétites. Near
this is a fimilar, though fmaller vault ; and beyond them, a
low paffage leads to a {pace nearly circular, and about one
hundred and twenty feet in diameter, with a vaulted roof
forty feet in height. Near this area is what the vulgar call
the Witch’s Brewhoufe, where a great number of fingular
configurations of ftalactite are obfervable, to which corre-
{pondent appellations have been given, fuch as the boiler,
furnace, &c. ‘To the left is what is called the hall, which is
very lofty, the centre of the roof being at leaft one hundred
feet above the ground. The whole length of the cavern is
f{uppofed to be fix hundred feet.—Collinfon’s Hiftory of
Somerfetfhire, 3 vols. 4to. _Maton’s Obfervations on the
Weftern Counties, 1797. Davis’s Concife Hiftory of the
Cathedral Church of Wells, 1809.
WELLS, a townfhip of New York, in Montgomery
county, ereéted in 1805 from the N. part of Northampton
and Mayfield, bounded N. by Franklin county, E. by
Effex, Wafhington, and a {mall part of Saratega county,
S. by Northampton and Mayfield, and W. by Johnftown,
about fifty-five miles long and eight miles wide. The
country is rough and mountainous, and the foil light, fandy,
and barren. It has numerous lakes and ponds, which
abound with trout and other cold-blooded fifh, affording
good food as well as fport for the angler. Pezeeke lake
bears the name of an Indian, and lake Pleafant is a pleafant
lake, with a fine beach of white fand.
We ts, a fea-port town of England, in the county of
Norfolk, with a harbour at the mouth of a fmall river, of
difficult accefs, on account of the fhifting fands at the en-
trance. The chief trade is in corn, malt, and coals ; and of
late an oyfter-fifhery has been eftablifhed : it has no market.
WEL
The population in 1811 was 2683. Near onthe W. of
Wells is Holkham-hall, the magnificent feat of T. W. Coke,
efq. M.P. Wellslies 118 miles N.E. from London.—Alfo,
a town of Weft Florida, fituated on the W. fide of St. An-
drew’s bay. N, lat. 30°25’. W-.long. 85° 50. Allfo, a
town of America, in the diftrié&t of Maine, and county of
York, at the bottom of a bay to which it gives name,
between Capes Porpoife and Neddik, containing 4489 inha-
bitants ; 20 miles S.W. of Portland. N. lat. 43° 20'. W.
long. 70° 32!.—Alfo, a town of Vermont, in the county of
Rutland, containing 1040 inhabitants; 10 miles S.W. of
Rutland.
WELLS, a river of Vermont, which runs into the Con-
neéticut.
We LLs’s Creek, a river of Kentucky, which runs into the
Ohio, N. lat. 38° 47!. W. long. 84° 27'.
Wetts’s Falls, a cataraét in the river Delaware; 1 3
miles N.W. of Trenton.
WeELts’s Paffage, an inlet on the weft coaft of North
ences branching off from Broughten’s Archipe-
ago.
WELMICH, or Wetmenacy, a town of Germany, in
the circle of the Lower Rhine, on the right bank of the
Rhine ; 1 mile from St. Goar.
WELMINA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Leit-
meritz ; 5 miles W. of Leitmeritz.
WELOVAR, a town of Croatia; 16 miles S.E. of
Creutz.
WELLP, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konig-
ingratz ; 3 miles S.E. of Toplitz.
WELPSHOLTZ, a town of Germany, in the county
of Mansfield, memorable on account of a viétory which
Lothario, duke of Saxony, obtained over Henry V. in the
year 1115.
WELS, a town of Auttria, on the river Traun. This
is {uppofed to have been an ancient town of the Norici, and
by the Romans called Ovilara, or Ovilaba. Others fay it
was built by the emperor Valerian after his expedition
againft the Scythians in Pannonia. The emperor Maximi-
lian I. died here; 11 miles S.S.W. of Lintz. N. lat.
48° 10!. E. long. 14°.
WELSBACH, a river of Thuringia, which runs into
the Unftrutt, near Thomafbruck.
WELSCHBILLIG, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Sarre; 18 miles N.N.E. of Luxemburg.
WELSCHBIRKEN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Prachatitz ; 6 miles N.N.W. of Prachatitz. ;
WELSE, a river of Brandenburg, which runs into the
Oder, near Vierraden.
WELSH Grarve, or Bit, in Military Antiquities, a
kind of bill, fometimes reckoned among the pole-axes,
which was formerly much in ufe.
WELSHPOOL, anciently TRatiwne, a large and po-
pulous market-town, partly in the hundred of Pool and
partly in that of Cawrfe, in the county of Montgomery,
North Wales, is fituated on the bank of the river Severn,
8 miles N. from the county-town, and 169 miles N.W. by
W. from London. It confifts of one long and fpacious ftreet,
with another f{maller, crofling it at right angles, and feveral
other collateral branches of leffer dimenfions; and is the
largeft and beft-built town in the county. From the
manners and language of the inhabitants, it has every ap-
pearance of an Englith town; the Welfh being fpoken here
by few perfons. An air of urbanity and opulence pervades
the place, chiefly owing to the intercommunication with the
more polifhed parts of the kingdom, and to the extenfive
trade in flannels; great quantities of which are manufa@ured
Pp2 here,
WEL
here, and ftill greater brought from the hill countries. This
being the principal mart for that article, a market is held
on every alternate Monday for the fole purpofe of expofing
it to fale. A weekly market is alfo held on Mondays for
provifions ; and here are fix annual fairs for horfes, fheep,
and cattle. Tbe Severn becomes navigable at a fmall dif-
tance below the town, at a place called the Pool-ftake ; and
a branch of the Ellefmere canal running near, tends to faci-
litate carriage by water conveyance. Among the recent
improvements made in the town, is the county-hall, ereéted
at the expence of a few private gentlemen. This ftruéture,
with a colonnade and pilaiters of {tone in front, confilts of
upper apartments for the adminiftration of juftice, and of
lower ones for the accommodation of trade. Beneath is a
{pacious place, appropriated as a corn-market ; a feparate
{pace for the fale of mifcellaneous articles ; and an ample
court for holding the affizes or great feflions. On the fe-
cond floor is the county-hall room; and a handfome room
adjoining is fitted up for the ufe of the grand jury. The
church, though in the pointed ftyle, is apparently of no very
remote antiquity. It ftands fingularly at the bottom of a
hill, and is fo low, that the ground of the cemetery almoft
equals the height of the building. Among the facramental
utenfils is a chalice of pure gold, brought from Guinea on
the coalt of Africa, containing a wine quart: it bears a
Latin infcription, ftating that its intrinfic value was 168/.,
and that it was prefented to the church in the year 1562 by
Thomas Davies, fome time governor-general of the Englifh
colonies on the weftern coa{t of Africa. Welfh-Pool has a
very ancient corporation: its original charter was granted
by one of the princes of Powys Land, about the end of the
eleventh century ; the prefent was a grant from Charles II.,
by yirtue of which the town is governed by two bailiffs, a
high fteward, recorder, and town-clerk ; under whom are
two ferjeants at mace. The population of the parifh, which
includes nine adjoining townfhips, was in the year 1811 re-
turned to parliament as 2779 ; the number of houfes as 578.
Formerly the town contributed with the borough of Mont-
sear in fending a member to parliament ; but was dif-
chifed of this privilege in the year 1728. There are
fome encampments in this parifh, one of which is faid to
have been the Britifh camp of CaraGtacus, on the fummit
of the Bryddin-hill, where the laft remains of ancient Bri-
tifh liberty were loft by the furrender of that brave fove-
reign: on the centre of this mountain a column was erected,
to perpetuate the memory of admiral Rodney’s celebrated
victory over the French fleet in the Weft Indies, April 12.
1782.
Naboo a mile to the fouthward of Welfh-Pool, is Powys
Caftle, formerly the chief manfion of the Convinian Welfh
princes of Powys, atid siow the refidence of the earl of
Powys. ‘This venerable pile, fituated in a weli wooded
park, is built in the ancient ftyle of domeftic architecture,
participating of the caftle and manfion. The entrance is
by a gateway between two mafly circular towers, into the
area or court, round which the apartments range. Several
other towers are ftill ftanding, flanked with femicircular
baftions. In front, two immenfe terraces, nifing one above
another, form the afcent, by means of a vait flight of
fteps. Theinterior exhibits little worthy of notice, excepting
the principal gallery, meafuring 117 feet in length, which
was originally much longer; but in the modernizing plan a
large room has been taken from it. The park is formed of
fpacious lawns, and {welling hills; the oak, beech, and
chefnut, diverfify the views in rich variety; and highly
_ contribute to render the place interefting to the lovers of
foreft fcenery. It is, however, to be regretted, that this
12
WEM
venerable caitle is verging to decay: the buildings are in
a ftate of dilapidation; the gardens and grounds are neg-
le&ted ; and the pride and ornament of the park removing,
for the fake of the timber: fo that at no very diftant pe-
riod, the beauty and magnificence of Powys may be no
more.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvii. North
Wales. By Rev. J. Evans, 1812. .
WELSTEIN, a town of France, in the department of
Mont Tonnerre ; 7 miles E.S.E. of Creutznach.
WELSUN, a town of the duchy of Guelderland; 6
miles W. of Hattem.
WELT-Roor, in Agriculture, a term that fignifies the
dying away or falling off of wheat-crops, in fome cafes, in
the winter or early {pring feafons. It has been fuppofed
to occur the moft frequently where the wheat-crops have
been put in on clover leys. Some incline to think that it
depends upon the want of a fufficient degree of clofenefs
and firmnefs in the foils on the beds of mould into
which the crops have been put ; as where they lie too open
and in too porous a ftate, due nourifhment and fupport is
not fupplied to the young wheat plants from below, that,
of courfe, they do not form their roots in a proper manner.
See TREADING.
The term is alfo applied to an operation in the harvefting
of grain. See Roor-Welt.
WELTENBURG, in Geography, a town of Bavaria,
on the right fide of the Danube; 20 miles E.N.E. of In-
goldftadt.
‘WELTERSBURG, a town of Germany, in the county
of Leiningen; 1 mile S. of Weiterburg.
WELTZENEN, a town of the duchy of Weftphalia ;
5 miles N. of Werl.
WELWARN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Schlan; 8 miles N.E. of Schlan. N. lat. 50° 18’. E.
long. 14° 24/.
WELWIN, a village of England, in the county of
Herts, where the general maflacre of the Danes is faid to
have begun in 1012. In this place, Dr. Young, who was
the reétor, wrote his celebrated Night Thoughts. Here is
a chalybeate {pring ; 25 miles N. of London.
WELZHEIM, or Wetzen, a town of Wurtemburg,
and capital of a lordfhip to which it gives name, on the
Lein ; 20 miles E. of Stuttgart.
WEM, a market-town of Whitchurch divifion of the
north part of the hundred of Bradford, in the county of
Salop, England, is fituated near the fource of the river Ro-
den, at the diftance of 7 miles S. from the town of Whit-
church, 10 miles N.E. from Shrewfbury, and 172 miles
N.W. from London. From its fituation Horfley infers,
that it is the {cite of the ancient Rutunium. The manor was
formerly in the poffeffion of the earls of Arundel, but on the
attainder of earl Philip, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, it fell
to ihe crown; and James II. conferred it on the lord chan-
cellor Jefferies, of infamous memory, who had the eftate, and
was created baron of Wem. On his death, the title defcended
to his fon ; but on his deceafe, which occurred fhortly after,
it became extinét. The town of Wem confitts of one large
ftreet, with a few fmaller ones. By the population return
of the year 1811, the number of houfes was {tated to be
297, and the inhabitants 1395. A weekly market is held
on Thurfdays, and three fairs annually. The church, a
rectory of the real value of about sool. per annum, is a
handfome edifice, with a lofty tower, and a fine chancel. A
free-{chool was founded and liberally endowed by fir Tho-
mas Adams, who was born in this town in the year 1586,
and was eleéted lord mayor of London in 1645. He was
an inflexible adherent to king Charles I. in his troubles, and
continued
WEN
eontinued his attachment to Charles II. while in exile, to
whom he is faid to have made a remittance of 10,0007. On
the eve of the Reftoration he was deputed by the corpora-
tion of London to go with general Monk to Breda, to con-
du& the king to England. The munificence and charities
of fir Thomas were exemplary : among other memorials, is
an Arabic profefforfhip founded by him in the univerfity of
Cambridge. He died February 24. 1667, in the 81{t year
ofhisage. Near this town, in 1640, was born William Wy-
cherley, a celebrated dramatic writer, who died January 1.
1715. In the fame houfe which gave him birth, was alfo
born John Ireland, author of the * Illuftrations of Ho-
arth,’’ and otherwife well known in the literary world.—
eauties of England and Wales, vol. xiii. Shropfhire. By
Rylance, and J. Nightingale, 1811.
WEMBDINGEN, a town of Bavaria; 10 miles E. of
Nordlingen. N. lat. 48° 51’. E. long. 10° 40’.
WEMBERG, a town of Bavaria, in the landgraviate
of Lenchtenberg; 6 miles S.W. of Leuchtenberg.
WEMDALEN, a town of Sweden, in Hardjeadalen ;
107 miles W.N.W. of Sundfwall.
WEMISTITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
Znaym ; 4. miles S.W. of Krumau.
WEMMERBY, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland; 50 miles N. of Calmar.
WEMO, a town of Sweden, in the government of Abo ;
22 miles N.W. of Abo.
WEMYSS, a fea-port town of Scotland, in the county
of Fife, on the N. fide of the Frith of Forth; a burgh of
barony governed by bailies and a council: it has a good
harbour, and feveral veflels belong to it, chiefly employed in
the carrying trade. Coals and falt are the only exports ;
4 miles N.E. of Kirkcaldy. N. lat. 56° 9'. W. long.
o,f!
ay Sieh Eafler, a town of Scotland, in the county
of Fife, on the coaft, but without a fafe harbour: here are
the ruins of a caitle ufually called Macduff’s Cattle, faid to
have been built by Macduff, who was created earl of Fife,
in 1057, by Malcolm Canmure; 5 miles N.E. of Kirk-
caldy.
WEN, in Surgery, an encyfted {welling, the particular
nature of which is defcribed in the article Tumours. See
alfo ArHrroma, Me iceris, and Steatoma, which are
technical names applied to the three principal varieties of
encyfted tumours. Scarpo’s obfervations on encytted {well-
ings of the eye-lids, will be found in another place. See
EYE-LID.
Wen, in Animals, a flefhy fubftance growing out of any
part of an animal’s body, and which not unfrequently
proceeds from blows, bruifes, ftrains, and other flight
accidents of the fame nature, moft commonly beginning
or taking its origin in the fkin of fome part, and gradually
enlarging by a continual accumulation in the difeafed part,
until by time it becomes of a very confiderable fize in fome
cafes.
Enlargements of this nature are feldom painful, and in
many inftances they are of feveral years duration before
they ever reach any great magnitude ; becoming quite in-
dolent and fomewhat like the natural flefh, having rarely
any other fenfible effe@& than that of caufing a deformity
and weight in the parts where they happen to be fituated.
The fubftance of them is, for the moft part, of a fort of
flefhy and often f{pongy nature, though, in fome cafes, there
is a kind of fponginefs mixed with a degree of hardnefs,
and occafionally a fcirrhous or cancerous difpofition ac-
companies them, efpecially when they take place in the
WEN
neighbourhood of parts which are of the more glandulous
kind.
In moft real cafes of this nature, the wen is contained in
a fort of cyft or bag, which arifes from the injured veffels
of the part, and is formed as it flowly advances; and which
inclofes the whole fubflance, augmenting in thicknefs as well
as fize as it increafes.
In the removal and cure of cafes of this fort when they
make their appearance on any part of an animal’s body,
trials fhould firft be made to diffolve and difperfe them by
proper means, fuch as camphorated fpirituous and mercu-
rial applications: and where this cannot be accomplifhed,
as is often the cafe, the ufe of the knife or cauftic muft be
had recourfe to for the purpofe of taking them off or de-
{troying them. In circumftances where the wens are of the
pendulous fort, and hang only by a {mall neck root, they
may frequently be eafily and conveniently removed by the
ufe of a ligature of the fame kind as is employed in taking
up large blood-veffels, applying it fo as that it may be capa-
ble of being gradually made tighter as there may be occafion,
until the fubftance drops off; the part being afterwards
dreffed and healed by the common digeftive ointment or
cerate. Bathing and wafhing the part trequently with the
tinéture for wounds is alfo, in fome cafes, of great utility.
See Tumour, and Wounp, in Animals.
However, in cafes where wens have large broad-bottom
root parts which are of a knotty ftringy nature, the cure,
if practicable, is to be attempted by extirpation, or the
ufe of rather mild cauftics, dreffing the parts as in the cafe
of wounds. It is fometimes the beft and fafeft praétice,
pati A to meddle as little as poffible with wens of this
ort.
When enlargements of the wenny kind take place on the
legs and heels of animals, as is often the cafe in the horfe,
in the more fimple kinds of them, the cure may be fome-
times effected by the ufe of applications fuch as hot vine-
gar and alum; but in cafe bloody matter be extravafated,
{uppuration fhould be promoted by the ufe of ftimulant
ointments and wafhes, and the parts be opened when proper
by means of a lancet in a fuitable depending fituation, the
openings being dreffed by the wound ointment and tinc-
ture.
In thefe wenny enlargements, the contents are of differ-
ent kinds, fometimes watery, and at others of a fuety or
thick pafty nature; which, if care be not taken to digeft
well out, together with the cyft, will not unfrequently col-
leét and fill again. In fome inftances, the fhorteft method
would be to extirpate them by means of the knife, which,
when well performed, and the fkin properly preferved,
would leave little deformity. However, fome of thefe
forts of enlargements are beft let alone, as thofe of the
watery kind in particular, which will wear away infenfibly
in many inftances, without any application except a little
camphorated mercurial ointment.
Wens of Pearl. See Praru.
WENBACH,, in Geography, a river of France, which
runs into the Rhine, 3 miles above Drufenheim.
WENCESLAUS, or Winczstaus, in Biography, the
fon and fucceffor of Charles IV., whom he fucceeded as
emperor of Germany and king of Bohemia, in his 17th year.
In the progrefs of his life, he became notorious both for
cruelty and debauchery, and for the moft extravagant pro-
fufion, for the means of which he had recourfe to the moit
flagitious condud.
His extravagance, however, became at length fo in-
tolerable, that the-Bohemians, in 1396, with the advice ip
8
WEN
his brother Sigifmund, king of Bohemia, put him into con-
finement ; from which he contrived to efcape, and again to
afflume the royal authority. But as he purfued the fame
condu@, his brother Sigifmund, at the requeft of the people,
depofed him, and he was declared regent. Wenceflaus,
after having been confined fucceflively in various prifons,
made his fips from one of the towers of Vienna, and re-
turning to Prague, recovered his kingdom. After a fecond
marriage, his extravagance involved him in new difficulties,
fo that, in order to his difembarraffment, he was under a ne-
ceffity of felling his imperial rights to John Galeazo, who
had f{eized the fovereignty of Milan, and other cities of
Lombardy dependant on the empire. The princes of the
empire became indignant, and aflembled a diet in 1400, in
which they formally depofed him. Profefling himfelf happy
at this event, which would afford him leifure to pay atten-
tion to the government of his kingdom, he held the crown
of Bohemia for 19 years longer, more tolerable in his vices,
though ftill unreclaimed from them. The difturbances of
Bohemia, occafioned by the preaching of John Hufs, oc-
curred in his time, and he took pains to compofe them.
At length, whilft he was fitting at dinner, he received in-
telligence of a fudden tumult at Prague, which occafioned
a paroxy{m of rage, that was followed by an apoplexy,
which terminated his life in 1419, at the age of 58. Mod.
Un. Hift. Moreri.
WENDEL, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Upland;
!15 miles N. of Upfal.
WENDELEN, a town of Sweden, in Harjeadalen ;
'38 miles S.E. of Langafchants.
WENDELL, a townhip of Maffachufetts ; 90 miles
N.W. of Bofton.—Alfo, a townfhip of New Hamphhire,
in the county of Chehhire, containing 447 inhabitants; 30
miles N.W. of Concord.
' WENDELSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Anfpach; 8 miles S. of Nuremberg. N. lat.
"48° 18'. E. long. 11° 4'.—Alfo, a town and ruined citadel
of Thuringia; 6 miles S.W. of Querfurt.
WENDEN, a town of the duchy of Weitphalia ;
4 miles S. of Olpe.—Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in the pro-
pvince of Bartenland ; 6 miles N. of Raftenburg.
WENDIA, in Botany, anew umbelliferous genus, thus
‘named by profeffor Hoffmann, in honour of Dr. Wendt,
profeffor of Phyfic at Erlang, counfellor to the Elector
Palatine, and fucceffor to the great Schreber in the diftin-
guifhed fituation of Prefident of the Imperial Academy Na-
ture Curioforum. He is celebrated for the numerous obferva-
tions which he has publifhed, refpefting medicinal plants, and
for his zeal in the promotion of botanical ftudies in general.
—Hoffm. Gen. Plant. Umbellif. v. 1. 136. t. 1. B. f. 8,4,
é.—Clafs and order, Pentandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Um-
bellate, Linn. Umbellifere, Jufl.
Gen. Ch. Cal. General involucrum none ; partial of a few
fhort, unequal, lanceolate or linear, deciduous leaves. Pe-
rianth of five unequal teeth, two of them, in the radiant flo-
rets, twice as large as the reft, ovate, acute. Cor. Univerfal
irregular ; flowers of the radius perfect, fertile, except a few
males which are interfperfed : partial of five petals, with
long claws ; the outer ones in the radius very large, the mid-
dle one divided almoft half way down into two divaricated,
linear-oblong, obtufe, flightly falcate, equal lobes; lateral
ones rather faaller, unequally cloven, falcate, one lobe three
or four times the Jength of the other ; inner ones much the
f{malleft, about nih to the petals of the difk, two-lobed
from their incurvation, their point ovato-lanceolate, acute,
channelled. Stam. Filaments five, fimple, equal, fpreading,
3
WEN
the length of the fmaller petals longer than the petals in the
flowers of the difk ; anthers nearly ovate, two-lobed. Pift.
Germen oval, comprefled, itriated, hairy ; ftyles two, erect,
at length widely fpreading, tapering, their bafe conical,
winged with a membranous crifped border running down
from each ftyle ; ftigmas capitate, obtufe, at length fome-
what globular. Peric. Fruit almoft perfe€tly {mooth, obo-
vate, nearly orbicular, compreffed, bordered, ftriated and
ftriped, entire at the edges. Seeds two, uniform, emarginate,
crowned, in the terminal notch, with the conical, winged,
feffile bafe of the two deflexed permanent ftyles: dorfal ribs
three, flender, flightly elevated, converging at each end ;
marginal ones two, parallel: ftripes four, defcending from
the top of the feed between the ribs, obtufe, club-fhaped,
brownifh, not half the length of the feed: border convex,
terminating in a thin, flat, fharp edge, which is channelled
externally, emarginate atthe bottom.
Eff. Ch. General involucrum none; partial obfolete.
Flowers radiant. Calyx unequally toothed. Fruit nearly
orbicular, compreffed, notched, with three ribs, and four
fhort intermediate ftripes ; crowned with the ftyles, whofe
bafe is winged.
Obf. The want of a general involucrum, and the flight-
nefs of the partial one, added to the more orbicular form of
the feeds, and their fmoothnefs, appear to afford the chief
marks of diftin@tion between this genus and Heracizum,
(fee that article,) from which we fhould be rather unwilling
to feparate it, any more than Sphondylium.
The only {pecies mentioned by the author is,
1. W. Chorodanum. Long-leaved Wendia. Hoffm.
n. 1. (Heracleum longifolium ; Marfch. 4 Bieberft. Taur.
Caucaf. v. 1. 223, excluding all the fynonyms. )—Native of
the grafly declivities, furrounding the Caucafian mineral
waters of Nartfana, flowering in July. The root is bien-
nial. Leaflets two pair with an odd one. General and par-
tial involucrum {carcely difcernible. Flowers {now-white ;
thofe of the radius remarkably unequal. Seeds when bruifed
agreeably fragrant. The author of the Flora Taurico-
Caucafica fays, he thinks this more akin to Heracleum Sphon-
dylium, with which Crantz and Lamarck unite it, than to
the anguflifolium of Jacquin, to which it is referred by Will-
denow. The latter, however, proves to be a different
plant, and it is probable that Willdenow had no knowledge
of Hoffmann’s Wendia, any more than Jacquin, Crantz,
or Lamarck, all their obfervations referring to the real H.
longifolium of Fl. Auftriac. t. 174.—The fpecific name,
xeganeren, is an old fynonym of the Sphondylium, or Cow-
arfnep.
WENDING, at Sea, a term for bringing a fhip’s head
about, and feems only to be a corruption from winding.
They fay, How qwends the fbip ?
WENDLANDIA, in Botany, owes its name, though
not its diftin€tion as a genus to the late profeflor Willde-
now, who dedicated it to the author of that diftin@tion, Mr.
John Chriftopher Wendland, curator of the royal garden at
Herrenhaufen, ‘a moft acute botanift, and highly merito-
rious writer.”? His name appears in the Sertum Hannovera-
num of the very eminent profeffor Schrader, as the deli-
neator and engraver of the plates of that work. Thefe dif-
play great botanical fkill and attention.—Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 2. 275. Purfh 252. (‘ Androphylax ; Wendland
Obf. 37.’?)—Clafs and order, Hexandria Hexagynia.
Nat. Ord. Meni/perma, Juff.
Eff. Ch. Calyx of fix leaves. Petals fix, fuceulent. Styles
resemiag: Capfules fix, of one cell. Seeds folitary.
1. W. populifolia. Poplar-leaved Wendlandia. Willd.
mn. Is
WEN
tr. Purfhn. 1. (Menifpermum caroknum; Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1468. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 825. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5.
404. M. folio hederaceo; Dill. Elth. 223. t.178. An-
drophylax fcandens; ‘ Wendl. Obf. 38. Hort. 3. t. 16.”
Cocculus carolinus ; De Cand. Syft. v. 1. 524.)—Found
in hedges and woods, from Carolina to Florida, flowering
in June and July. Stem fhrubby. Flowers very {mall,
greenifh-white. Berries red. Purfh. Hardy in the gar-
dens of Europe, where M. De Candolle fays it is very fre-
quent, flowering in Auguft. Stem twining, with round
branches, ftriated and downy when young. Leaves alter-
nate, heart-fhaped, or broadly ovate, entire, tipped with a
fmall point, rarely three-lobed ; an inch and a half or two
inches long, with three or five radiating ribs; downy be-
neath. ootffalks round, downy, about an inch in length.
Flower-ftalks axillary ; thofe of the male flowers, (which
are generally, not always, diftinێ from the female, ) race-
mofe, fimple ; thofe of the female three-cleft.
Profeflor De Candolle has referred this plant to his genus
Cocculus, feparated from MenisperMuM, (fee that article, )
on account of the flowers being three-cleft, not four-cleft, to
ufe the Linnzan language ; and the ftamens only fix, inftead
of from fixteen to twenty. We cannot but hefitate to
adopt a genus fo circumftanced, and therefore hall fay little
concerning the name, which its antiquity can hardly autho-
rize. We regret to perceive that our learned friend feems
inclined to make antiquity paramount to every other confi-
deration in nomenclature ; thus afluming a principle fub-
verfive of all his own authority, which otherwife might be of
fufficient weight to render the moft important fervice to this
branch of botany. We hope he will foon perceive, that
fenfe and learning are as applicable to it as to any other
part of the {cience, and full as neceflary to preferve the
whole from ruin.
If the name of Cocculus fhould be difcarded, though the
genus be retained, {till that of Wendlandia can {carcely take
its place ; there being feveral others, good or bad, certain
or uncertain, which have a prior claim on the {core of anti-
quity. With thefe we will not here encumber our paper.
‘The reader may find them in De Candolle.
WENDLING, in Geography, a town of Auttria; 3
miles W. of Tauffkirchen.
WENDLINGEN, a town of Wurtemberg, on the river
Lauter, near the Neckar; 12 miles S.E. of Stuttgart. N.
lat. 48° 38’. E. long. 9° 27/.
WENDOVER, an ancient borough and market-town in
the hundred of Aylefbury, and county of Buckingham,
England, is fituated in Aylefbury Vale at the diftance of
24 miles S.E. by S. from the county-town, and 35 miles
N.W. by W. from London. It confifts principally of
brick houfes: the inhabitants derive their chief fupport
from lace-making ; but as a branch of the Grand Junétion
Canal has been recently conveyed to the town, it will pro-
bably advance in importance. The earlieft charter for a
market at this placeis datedin 1403. A fubfequent charter
of the year 1464 confirms the market, and grants two fairs,
which are ftill held. This borough fent members to parlia-
ment in the 28th of Edward I., and again in the 1ft and 2d
of Edward II. ; after which the privilege was difcontinued
for above three hundred years: when in the 21ft of James I.
Mr. Hakeville, a barrifter of Lincoln’s-Inn, difcovered, by a
fearch among the parliament writs in the tower, that mem-
bers had been formerly fent. A petition was accordingly
preferred for the reftoration of the ancient franchife ; and
though ftrenuoufly oppofed by the court, the commons
decided in favour of the borough. The right of eleétion is
wefted in all the houfekeepers not receiving alms. The
WEN
voters are not however more than 130, moft of whom
occupy the burgage houfes rent free. -The celebrated
John Hampden reprefented this borough in five parliaments.
In the population return of the year 1811, Wendover is
ftated to contain 283 houfes, and 1481 inhabitants. The
parifh-church ftands a quarter of a mile from the town, but
contains nothing worthy of particular notice. Near the
town is a large refervoir of water, which covers about feventy
acres: it was made for the fupply of the canal.—Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. i. Buckinghamfhire ; by
J. Britton, and E. W. Brayley, 1801. Lyfons’s Magna
Britannia, vol. i. Buckinghamfhire, 1806.
WENFORD, a town of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia; 25
miles N.W. of Umea.
WENG, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 10 miles N.N.E.
of Rottenmann.
WENGIA, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland; 32
miles E.N.E. of Gothenburg.
WENHAM, a townfhip of Maffachufetts, in the county
of Effex, containing 554 inhabitants; 21 miles E.N.E. of
Botton.
WENHOFDORYF, a town of Auftria; 5 miles N.W.
of Schwannattatt.
WENJAN, a town of Sweden, in Dalecarlia; 44 miles
W.N.W. of Fahlun.
WENIGZELL, atown of the duchy of Stiria; 11 miles
W.S.W. of Fridberg.
WENINGS, a town of Germany, in the county of Ifen-
burg; 4 miles N.W. of Birftein.
WENLOCK, Greaz, or Mucn, a borough and mar-
ket-town in the hundred of Wenlock, and county of Salop,
England, is fituated 14 miles S.E. from Shrewfbury, and
147 miles N.W. from London. It is but poorly built, and
conlilts of only two ftreets, but contains an ancient corpora-
tion, and is faid to have fent members to parliament, by a
writ from Edward IV. in 1478, when it fent one member ;
but now, jointly with Brofeley and Little Wenlock, it re-
turns two. The free burgefles, who are the eledtors,
amount to one hundred and ten. By a charter from
Charles I., the corporation confifts of a bailiff, recorder, two
juftices of the peace, and twelve capital burgeffes. The
whole number of the inhabitants, by the population return of
the year 1811, is enumerated as 2079, occupying 494 houfes.
Four annual fairs are held here; and a weekly market
on Mondays. In the reign of Richard II., Wenlock was as
famous for copper-mines, as it is now for quarries of lime-
ftone. The parifh-church bears fome marks of Norman
architeGture. A large round arch feparates the nave from
the chancel: at the weft end is a {quare tower, with cir-
cular headed windows, from which rifes a flender {pire of
woad, covered withlead. The interior is well fitted up: on
the right of the altar are fome niches ; but there is no monu-
ment of fufficient antiquity or feulpture to attra& the notice
of the antiquary. Wenlock owes its celebrity principally
to the remains of an ancient abbey, which was fubfequently
converted to a priory for Clugniac monks. This houfe was
founded about the year 680, by St. Milburga, daughter of
Merward, and niece of Wulphere, king of Mercia: fhe pre-
fided as abbefs, and died about the year 716. The Danith
ravagers are faid to have reduced this nunnery to a ftate of
utter defolation, in which it lay until Leofric was ap-
pointed to the earldom of Mercia. Soon after the year
1017, that earl, at the inftance of his pious confort the
lady Godiva, reftored it; but with fo litle fuccefs, that,
according to Malmfbury, it was found an heap of ruins, by
Roger de Montgomerie, the firft Norman earl of Shrewfbury,
who rebuilt it in 1080, and filled it with monks from cnEe
t
WEN
It is certain that none of the exifting remains are older than
his time ; and thefe are confined to the chapter-houfe ; for
not a veftige is now to be traced of the pillars of the choir,
which are known to have been circular, maffive, and Nor-
man. The parifh-church was indeed rebuilding at, or jut
before the time when Malmfbury wrote (about 1127); for
it was on the occafion of commencing the building of the
new church, that the difcovery was made of the body of
St. Milburga, whofe facred relics are faid to have effected
many miraculous cures. The parifh-church {till retains
evident marks of having been ereéted at a period confiftent
with this narrative: but no part of the priory, except what
has been already mentioned, can lay claim to any fuch anti-
quity. The remains of the patron faint appear to have
been transferred from the church of the parifh to that of the
priory, and perhaps fome new works ereéted with the trea-
{ures which poured in from their fortunate difcovery ; for
when Gervafe Paganel refolved to build a priory at Dudley,
which he appears to have done early in the reign of king
Stephen, “ he placed his deed of gift with his own hand
upon the altar of St. Milburga of Wenlock, in prefence of
all the convent, to whofe proteétion he committed his new
foundation.” Indeed the priory of St. Milburga was in
fuch high repute for fanétity of life and ftrictnefs of difci-
pline during this century, that in 1164 it furnifhed a colony
of monks for the abbey of Paifley in Clydefdale. The
number of monks maintained within the priory was forty,
and the fame appears to have been about the original number
of ftalls in the chapter-houfe : though in 1374, when an
inquiry was inftituted into the fate of the alien priories, it
was found to contain only feventeen monks. The priory
was furrendered January 31. 1539-40, when a penfion of
8ol. per annum was fettled upon the prior, John Creflage,
and the manor-houfe of Madeley was afligned for his refi-
dence. The revenues of the monaftery, according to Dug-
dale, amounted, at the time of the diffolution, to 401/. os. 73d.
The fcite was granted by Henry VIII. to one Auguitino
de Auguttinis, who fold it, in 1545, to Thomas Lawley, efq.,
who made it his refidence, and in whofe defcendants it
continued, till Robert Bertie, efq., fon of his great-grand-
daughter Urfula Lawley, by fir Robert Bertie, K.B., fold
it to the family of Gage. Lord vifcount Gage alienated it
to fir John Wynn, bart., who devifed this with his other
great eftates, to his kinfman fir Watkin Williams, bart.,
who thereupon aflumed the name of the teftator: he was
andfather of fir Watkin Williams Wynn, bart., the pre-
ent proprietor of thefe venerable ruins.
Few of our Englifh monaftic remains, perhaps, are capa-
ble of affording more inftru€tion and amufement to the
lovers of ecclefiaftical archite@ture, than thofe of Wenlock.
The ruins are feated in a low marfhy bottom, fouthward of
the ancient borough, and adjoining the eaft end of the parifh
church-yard. The chief entrance to the monaitery, from
the town, was by a gate on the north fide of the precinét,
which appears to have been flanked with two plain {quare
towers, one of which is ftanding. The molt prominent
features of the prefent buildings, are the lofty and extenfive
remains of the priory church, which have happily efcaped
the ravages of time. From thefe it is apparent that this
facred ediGae partook of the mixed characters of the round
and the pointed arch. Its se ange fully correfponded
with the opulence of the foundation, and was not furpaffed
by many of the ftately churches of the mitred abbeys. The
plan of the church was cruciform, with a central tower,
but probably without towers at the weit end. The ex-
treme length was 401 feet; that of the tranfept 166; the
nave 156; the {pace under the fteeple 39; the choir 156;
WEN
and the chapel of the Virgin Mary 48. A fragment of
the fouth angle of the weft front is ornamented with three
tiers of {mall arches: a window below is finifhed with a
plain round arch, The great weft window is now no more,
but from the remains of one of its impofts, which is a taper-
cluftered pilafter, bound midway with rings, its form may
be conjetured to have confifted of three lofty lancet arches.
Three pointed arches on the fouth fide of the nave are per-
feé, and reft on ftrong o€tagonal pillars with plain capitals.
Over thefe commences a fecond divifion, feparated by an
horizontal ftring-courfe ; this comprifes a beautiful trifo-
rium, or open gallery, formed by lancet arches in couplets.
Above thefe is a third compartment, from which rifes a
feries of pointed clereftory windows, now mutilated, but
evidently in the fame ftyle with the arches of the gallery
beneath. A confiderable fragment of the north, and the
whole of the fouth wing of the tranfept are ftanding, both
in a ftyle coeval with the nave. The latter, a very beautiful
ruin, is compofed of three pointed arches on each fide, reft-
ing on cluitered columns, with plain but well-executed
capitals. The bafes of the four grand piers, which fup-
ported the fteeple over the interfeétion of the nave, tranfept,
and choir, may be traced nearly buried in rubbifh; and
evident veftiges of cluftered fhafts indicate that they fuf-
tained pointed arches. Of the choir, fearcely a wreck re-
mains, yet within thefe few years, the lower members of
fix pillars, of plain and mafly Norman archite&ture, might
be difcerned. Further eaftward appears the foundation of
the Virgin Mary’s chapel, confifting of excellent mafonry,
with feveral deep bafement mouldings. On the eaftern fide
of the quadrangle was the chapter-houfe, a parallelogram
of fixty feet by thirty, of which a very large portion is
ftanding ; and a more rare difplay of Norman architecture
of the eleventh century can hardly be produced. The
north fide is almoit entire. A few paces fouth-ealtward of
the chapter-houfe are the remains of a fecond quadrangle,
the buildings of which, on two fides, are nearly entire.
Thofe on the eaftern fide, it is prefumed, belonged to the
lodge of the prior, and, at the diffolution, were preferved
for a manfion-houfe by the firft lay pofleffors of the monaf-
tery. This confilts of a long range of two ftories, not very
lofty, with a highly pitched and tiled roof. Along the
whole front runs an elegant cloifter, 100 feet in extent,
compofed of a feries of narrow arches in couplets, with
trefoil heads, and ftrengthened at frequent intervals with
flender fhelving buttrefles. The eaftern front of the houfe
is adorned with ranges of rather fingular windows, which
have acute triangular heads, and are arranged in couplets
united by very flender buttrefles.— Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. xiii. Shropfhire; by R. Rylance, 1811. Ar-
chite&tural Antiquities of Great Britain, vol. iy. ; by
J. Britton, F.S.A. 1814.
Wen tock, or Winlock, a town of Vermont; go miles
N. of Windfor.
Wen tock, Little, a town of England, in Shropfhire ;
8 miles N. of Much Wenlock.
WENMAN, one of the Gallipago iflands, in the Paci-
fic Ocean. .
WENNE, a river of Weftphalia, which runs into the
Roer, 3 miles below Everfberg.
WENNEL, a river of North Wales, which runs into
the Conway, near Llanrwit.
WENNER Lakg, the largeft lake of Sweden, in Welt
Gothland ; nearly 90 miles long, and 40 wide. This lake
is ftored with great plenty of fith. Twenty-four rivers
empty themfelves into the Wenner lake, yet none flows put
of it but the large river called Gotha Elbe, by which 4
et
WEN
let it difcharges itfelf into the fea. There are feveral iflands
in this lake. In the year 1744, the diet refolved to make
the paflage from the Wenner lake and the Gotha Elbe to
Gotheborg, and from thence to Orebro, navigable. See
Canat of Trolhatta.
WENNERSBORG, a town of Sweden, in Weft
Gothland, at the fouth-weft extremity of Wenner lake.
This town was once a fortrefs, but at prefent an open
town. It is the ftaple for all the iron fent from the province
of Warmeland to Gotheborg ; 15 miles E. of Uddevalla.
N. lat. 58° 26'. E. long. 12° o!.
WENOOA-ETTE. See Orakoorata.
WENSBECK, a river of England, which rifes in
Northumberland, paffes by Morpeth, and runs into the
German fea, N. lat. 55° 13!.
WENSYSSEL, a town of North Jutland, anciently
the fee of a bifhop, removed to Aalborg ; 18 miles N.W.
of Aalborg.
WENT, a river of England, in the county of York,
which runs into the Don.
WENTHUSEN, a town of Weftphalia, in the bifhop-
ric of Hildefheim ; 5 miles E. of Hildefheim.
WENTSCHEN, a river of Pruffia, which forms a
communication between lake Spirding and lake Wentfchen.
—Alfo, a lake of Pruffia; 20 miles S.E. of Bartenftein.
WENTSUM, ariver of Norfolk, which runs into the
Yare, below Norwich.
WENTWORTH, Tuomas, in Biography, Earl of
Strafford, was born at London in 1593, and having finifhed
his education at St. John’s college, Cambridge, travelled
abroad, and continued more than a year in France. Soon
after his return he was knighted, and married the eldeft daugh-
ter of Francis Clifford, earl of Cumberland. By the death
of his father in 1614, he became poffeffed of a patrimony
of 6o00o/. a year, which was confiderably incumbered by a
provifion for feven brothers and four fifters, with the title of
a baronet. Upon his entrance into public life he was nomi-
nated Cuftos Rotulorum of the Weit Riding of Yorkshire.
In 1621 he was returned as a member of parliament
for the county of York, and during two feffions con-
duéted himfelf with circumfpeétion and moderation. In op-
pofition to the king’s aflumption of unwarrantable authori-
ty, and of his affertion that the privileges of the commons
were enjoyed merely by his permiffion, Wentworth urged
the houfe explicitly to declare that thefe privileges were their
right by inheritance. In 1622 he loft his wife, and in 1625
contraéted a fecond marriage with a daughter of Holles,
eatl of Clare, a young lady diftinguifhed for beauty and ac-
complifhments ; and in this year he was returned for his
county to the firft parliament of CharlesI. At this time
he was a zealous oppofer of the arbitrary meafures that
marked the commencement of this unfortunate reign ; but
as he was deemed a perfon of confiderable importance and in-
fluence, the minifter thought proper to make efforts for con-
ciliating his attachment and fupport. As he was prevented
from obtaining a feat in the new parliament which was con-
voked, by being nominated fheriff in his county, he filently
fubmitted to this arbitrary aét, and took no part in the con-
tention that fubfifted between the court and the houfe of
commons. Buckingham, the tenure of whofe power was
becoming precarious, made overtures to Wentworth, and
though they parted upon the beft terms after a conference, he
received a mandate for refigning the office of Cuftos Rotu-
lorum to fir John Savile, whom he had fucceeded on his dif-
miffion. This condu& on the part of the favourite was at-
tended with fome aggravating circumftances, and very much
incenfed him; but he ftill exprefled fentiments of un-
Vor. XX XVIII.
WEN
changed loyalty. Neverthelefs he refufed to pay his con-
tribution to the forced loan impofed without the interven-
tion of parliament, and for his oppofition to the meafure
he was firft imprifoned in the Marfhalfea, and afterwards
confined to a range of two miles round the town of Dart-
ford. When a new parliament was fummoned, in 1628,
this reftri€tion terminated, and he took his feat for York-
fhire. In this feafon of competition between the advocates
of an arbitrary and thofe of a limited monarchy, Wentworth
took a decided and confpicuous part with perfons of the
latter defcription, and was one of the moft active promoters
of the famous Petition of Right. By the meafures which
he then adopted and purfued, he fhewed that he was worthy
the purchafe of the crown, nor had he virtue fufficient to
withftand the temptations by which he was affailed.
Thefe were a peerage, and future promotion to the office
of prefident of the council of York, or court of the north.
He agreed to the propofed terms; and in July 1628 was
created baron Wentworth, Newmarfh, and Overfley, by a
patent gratifying his vanity by recognizing his claim to an
alliance with the blood-royal, through Margaret, grand-
mother of Henry VII. Soon after he was advanced to the
dignity of a vifcount, admitted to the privy-council, and on
the refignation of lord Scrope nominated lord-prefident of
the north, with enlarged jurifdiGtion and powers, the exer-
cife of which afterwards exceeded or direétly violated the
common law, and overwhelmed the country with oppreffion
and arbitrary dominion. From this time Wentworth may
be regarded as a minifter and ftatefman, whofe influence at
court was ina little while freed from controul by the affaffin-
ation of Buckingham, and in a popular affembly by the dif-
folution of parliament. Devoted to the faithful and diligent
fervice of the crown, he obtained the confidence and fup-
port of government; and thus elevated, he manifefted a
haughtinefs and imperioufnefs of temper which augmented
the unpopularity refulting from a defertion of his former
principles and party. Having cultivated an intimate
friendfhip with archbifhop Laud, who had fucceeded Buck-
ingham in his influence over the king’s mind, he was re-
commended by this prelate for the direétion of affairs in Ire-
land ; the peculiar circumftances of which were thought to
require the vigour and decifion of Wentworth’s character.
Accordingly his commiffion as lord-deputy of Ireland was
dated in 1632, though he did not remove to that country
till July in the following year. The objeéts which he pro-
pofed in the adminiftration of that kingdom were to render
the royal authority uncontrollable, to improve the revenues,
fo as to render them adequate to its own expenditure, and to
afford a furplus for the Englifh treafury, and upon the
whole, to derive from it every poffible advantage to the mo-
narchy. He ftipulated alfo for the uncontrolled exercife of
his own authority. Of the various meafures which he pur-
fued in his government of Ireland, our limits will not allow
us to give a minute and correé detail ; but for an account of
thefe we muft refer to the hiftory of that period. His talents
and induftry were unqueftionable, and he certainly improved
the ftate of the country ina variety of refpeéts ; but in ac-
complifhing fome beneficial purpofes he was arbitrary and
tyrannical, and chargeable with fevere and vindictive pro-
ceedings, which made him unpopular both there and in Eng-
land; and which probably induced the king to mortify him
by refufing his requeft of an earldom. In 1636 he vifited the
Englifh court, and made a fpeech before the king and the
committee for Irifh affairs, in which he gave a minute detail
of his various meafures by which he had promoted the
good of that kingdom and the intereft of his majeity,
artfully apologizing at the fame time for the infirmities of
0 q his
WEN
his temper. As a farther evidence of his merits with the
court, he took notice of his zeal in fupporting the impofi-
tion of fhip-money in the exercife of his office as prefident
of the council of York; and thus he prepared the way for
renewing his petition for an earldom, which, notwithitand-
ing his earneftnefs to obtain it, was again refufed. Thus
mortified, he refumed his government with ample powers,
and purfued meafures fimilar to thofe which had given fo
great offence. His indefatigable application to bufinefs, and
the irritation occafioned by the complaints and clamours of
thofe who had reafon to be diffatisfied with his condu&, fub-
jected him to fome fevere paroxyfms of the gout. In 1637
he advifed the king not to engage in a war with Spain, and
he thus incurred the lafting enmity of the queen, who wifhed
for it, as favourable to the intereft of France. In the
court conteft between England and Scotland, Wentworth
was both an advifer and ator. After the failure of the
king’s firft expedition againft Scotland, he fent for the lord-
deputy of Ireland, who arrived in November 1639. He
advifed the immediate renewal of hoftilities, and the fum-
moning of a parliament to provide fupplies ; and in order to
fecure his continued attachment and affiftance, he obtained
the earldom which he had once and again fought in vain.
In January 1640 he was created earl of Strafford, decorated
with the garter, and his ftyle of lord-deputy of Ireland was
changed into that of lord-lieutenant, which had been dor-
mant from the time of the earl of Effex. Upon his return
to Ireland he obtained four fubfidies, and levied 8000 men
for reinforcing the royal army. Afterwards the office of
commander-in-chief devolved upon him; but though the
Scots prevailed, and the northern counties were furrendered
to the enemy, Strafford {till recommended ftrong and arbi-
meafures. His credit at court, however, was now
declining, and the king was obliged by his neceflities to call
a parliament, which proved eventually to be the “ long par-
liament.”’ Strafford, perceiving his own perilous fituation,
requefted leave to retire to his government; but the king
refufed to comply, and encouraged him by a folemn pro-
mife that “not a hair of his head fhould be touched by the
parliament.”? The fequel fhewed that Strafford’s appre-
henfions were well-founded ; for on November the 18th,
1640, Pym, in the name of the commons of England, ap-
peared with the charge of high treafon at the bar of the
houfe of lords ; and Strafford was fequeftered from parlia-
ment and imprifoned. The fallen minifter was now become
the objeét of accufation in the three kingdoms ; but the de-
fertion and hatred of Ireland moft deeply affe&ted him. The
articles of accufation again{t him were at firft nine, but in
the courfe of three months they were multiplied into twenty-
eight. The principal obje& of his accufer was to fix upon
him the charge of ‘ having attempted to fubvert the funda-
mental laws of the country.”? Againft this charge he de-
fended himfelf with wonderful felf-poffeffion and powers of
reafoning. It became neceflary, therefore, to change the
original impeachment into the arbitrary mode of proceed-
ing by a bill of attainder, in purfuing which procefs it was
only neceflary to pafs an enaétment of his having been
ilty of ae treafon, and having incurred its punifhment.
Phe bill pafled the houfe with no more than fifty-nine diflen-
tient voices ; but among thefe were thofe of fome of the
firmeft friends of the legal liberty of their country, who
thought the principles of juftice fhamefully violated ; and in
the houfe of lords the bill was carried more by intimidation
than conviétion. Hopes were {till entertained from the
king’s promife, and his attachment to a faithful fervant.
But firmnefs was not one of the king’s diftinguifhing virtues.
His interference to ftop the progrefs of the bill in the houfe
WEO
of lords had failed ; and he even recurred to the plea of con-
{cientious {cruples. But his counfellors urged the danger of
refifting the torrent of popular fury; the prelates, Juxon
excepted, ated the part of cafuifts; and Strafford himfelf
terminated the ftruggle by a letter, in which he perfuaded
the king for his own fafety to ratify the bill, thus concluding
it, “ my confent fhall more acquit you to God than all the
world can do befides. To a willing man there is no in-
jury-”? Love of life, however, feems to have induced him
to have placed confidence in the king’s promifes: for when
fecretary Carleton informed him of his majefty’s final com-
pliance with his folicitations, he lifted up his eyes to heaven,
and with his hand on his heart, exclaimed, ‘* Put not your
truft in princes, nor in the fons of men: for in them there
is no falvation!’? Strafford, between his condemnation and
execution, employed himfelf in adminiftering confolation
and advice to his diftreffed family, and making intereft for
their protection. On the final day, as he was quitting the
tower, he looked up to the windows of Laud’s apartment,
and obtaining a view of him, received his fervent blefling,
which he returned with ‘ farewell my lord! God protect
your innocence !’? At the fcaffold he made an addrefs to
the people, exprefling entire refignation to his fate, and
aflerting the good intention of his aétions, however they
might have been mifreprefented ; and then, taking leave of
his accompanying friends, with a pathetic recolletion of his
widowed wife and orphan children, he calmly laid his head
on the block, and giving a fignal, received the fingle ftroke
that deprived him of life. He fell in the forty-ninth year of
his age, lamented by fome, admired perhaps by more, and
leaving a memorable, though not a fpotlefs name. The
parliament, not long after his death, mitigated the fentence
as far as it affeGted his children; and in the fucceeding
reign his attainder was reverfed, and his heir was rettored to,
his eftate and honours.’’ ‘Lord Strafford was thrice mar-
ried, and left an only fon and feveral daughters. Biog.
Brit. Whitelock’s Mem. ‘The Hiftories of the Period.
WentTwortH, in Geography, a townfhip of England,
in the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, with about 1000 in-
habitants ; near it is Wentworth-Houfe, a feat of earl Fitz-
william ; 5 miles N.W. of Rotheram.—Alfo, a townfhip
of New Hamphhire, in the county of Grafton, containing
645 inhabitants; 3 miles S.E. of Oxford.
WENTZBURG, a town of the duchy of Warlaw;
40 miles E. of Gnefna.
WEOBLEY, an ancient borough and market-town
in the hundred of Stretford, and county of Hereford,
England, is fituated 11 miles N.W. by N. from the city
of Hereford, and 141 miles N.W. by W. from Lon-
don. Anciently it formed part of the barony of the
Lacies, from whom, by a female, it was conveyed in mar-
riage to the Verdons, who, by that alliance, were for fome
time hereditary conitables of Ireland. It afterwards pafled
through various families to the Devereux, earls of Effex,
and formed their principal lordfhip. On the fouth fide of
the town ftood an old cattle, which was taken from the
emprefs Maud by king Stephen. Leland mentions it as
“a goodly and fine building, but fomewhat in decay.’’
Weobly fent members to all the feven parliaments of Ed-
ward I.; the privilege was afterwards difcontinued till the
year 1640, when it was reftored by order of the houfe of
commons. The right of voting is poflefled by the owners
of the ancient burgage houfes, refident at the time of elec-
tion, or by the inhabitants of fuch houfes who have been
refident forty days. The number of voters is about forty-
five: the returning officers are the conftables, in whom the
government of the town is vefted. The church is fpgcious,
and
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and contains fome ancient monumental chapels, in which
fome of the Verdon family appear to have been interred.
The population of the parifh, as returned under the aét of
1811, amounted to 626; the number of houfes to 160.
A {mall weekly market is held on Thurfdays; and here are
two annual fairs.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vi.
Herefordthire, by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley, 1805.
WEPFER, Joun-James, in Biography, an eminent
phyfician, was born in 1620 at Schaffhaufen, educated at
Strafburg and Bafil, and after vifits to feveral univerfities
in Italy, took the degree of doétor at Bafil, and fettled in
his native place. His reputation was extenfive in Switzer-
land and Germany, and he attained, by his diffeGtions and
experiments, a high rank among thofe who have contributed
to improve medical fcience. In 1658 he publifhed a cele-
brated work, entitled ‘‘ Obfervationes Anatomice ex Cada-
veribus eorum quos fuftulit Apoplexia, cum Exercitatione
de,ejus loco affeéto,’’ 8vo., often reprinted, and in fome
editions with the title ** Hiftoria Apople&ticarum.”’ In his
“¢ De dubiis Anatomicis Epiftola,’’ 1664, 8vo., he afferts
the entire glandular ftru€ture of the liver, prior to Malpighi.
Another valuable work is entitled “‘ Cicute Aquatice Hif-
toria et Noxe,’” 1679, 4to.
His conftitution was injured by attendance at an advanced
age on the duke of Wurtemburg, and the Imperial army
under his command ; and he was carried off by a dropfy in
1695. His papers were publifhed by two of his grandfons,
in a work entitled ‘* Obfervationes Medico-Pra&tice de
affeGtibus Capitis internis et externis,” 1727, 4to. To the
Ephemerides Nature Curioforum, of which fociety he was a
member, he communicated feveral valuable papers. Haller.
lovee
WEPOLON, in Zoology, the Ceylonefe name of an Eaft
Indian ferpent, of a very long and flender body, and in fome
degree refembling a piece of cane.
WERAY, in Geography, a river of Wales, which runs
into the Irifh fea, 7 miles S. of Aberyftwith.
WERBEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the Old Mark,
at the conflux of the Havel and the Elbe. This town was
built by Henry the Fowler, on the ruins of the ancient Caf-
tellum Vari; 33 miles N.N.W. of Brandenburg. N. lat.
52° 53!. E. long. 29° 44’.—Alfo, a town of Pomerania ;
g miles 8.S.W. of Stargard.
WERBERG, a town of Weftphalia, in the bifhopric
of Fulda; 12 miles §.S.E. of Fulda.
WERBKA, a town of Ruffian Poland, in the palatinate
of Braclaw ; 36 miles S. of Braclaw.
WERD, a town of Carinthia, on a lake to which it
gives name; 8 miles W. of Clagenfurt.
WERDA, a town of Saxony, in the Vogtland ; 6 miles
N.E, of Oelnitz.
WERDAU, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzge-
birg ; 6 miles W. of Zwickau.
WERDEL, Sr., a town of France, in the department
of the Sorre; 40 miles S.E. of Treves. N. lat. 49° 301.
E. long. 7° 11/.
WERDEN, a town of Germany, in the county of
Mark, onthe Roer; 11 miles N.E. of Duffeldorp. N. lat.
51°18! E. long. 6°55!
WERDENA, atown of Pruffian Lithuania; 18 miles
N.N.W. of Tilfit.
WERDENBERG, a town of Switzerland, and capital
of a bailiwick, in the canton of Glarus, which was formerly
governed by counts of its own, who were at one time very
powerful. In the year 1485, it was purchafed by the can-
WER
ton.of Lucerne; and, after changing owners, in the years
1493 and 1498, was purchafed by the canton of Glarus, in
the year 1519, and has remained ever fince annexed to that
canton, though the inhabitants have feveral times been mu-
tinous and revolted. The town is fortified ; 11 miles S.S.E.
of Appenzell.
WERDENFELS, a town and caftle of Bavaria, which
gives name to a county in the bifhopric of Freyfing ; 20
miles S. of Weilhaim.
WERDER, a town of Brandenburg, in the Middle
Mark, on an ifland formed by the Havel; 4 miles W. of
Potzdam.—Alfo, a diftri& of Pomerania, between the two
branches of the Viftula, about 20 miles long, and 12 in its
mean breadth,
WERDING, a town of Auftria; 4 miles N.N.W. of
Schwannaftadt.
WERDT, or Wert. See WeERT.
WERE, or Wear, ariver of England, which rifes in
Northumberland, croffes the county of Durham, and runs
into the fea at Sunderland ; anciently called ‘* Vedra.”
Were, a river of England, which rifes near Warminfter,
in Wiltfhire, and runs into the Avon, near Trowbridge.
Were. See Weir.
Were, Wera, in our old Law-Books, fignifies as much
as effimatio capitis, or pretium hominis; that 1s, fo much as
was anciently paid for killing a man.
When fuch crimes were punifhed with pecuniary mulés,
not death, the price was fet on every man’s head, according
to his condition and quality. Were uum, id eft, pretium
Jue redemptionis, his ranfom.
WERELADA, among our Saxon anceftors, the deny-
ing of a homicide on oath, in order to be quit of the fine,
or forfeiture, called were.
Where a man was flain, the price at which he was valued
was to be paid to the king, and his relations: for, in the
time of the Saxons, the killing of a man was not punifhed
by death, but by a pecuniary mul, called wera.
If the party denied the fact, he was to purge himfelf, by
the oaths of feveral perfons, according to his degree and
quality. If the guilt amounted to four pounds, he was to
have eighteen jurors on his father’s fide, and four on his
mother’s: if to twenty-four pounds, he was to have fixty
jurors; and this was called werelada. Homicidium wera
folvatur, aut werelada negetur.
WEREGILD, Wenrece xp, in our Ancient Cuffoms, the
price of a man’s head: pretium feu valor hominis occifi, homi-
cidii pretium ; which was paid partly to the king for the lofs
of his fubje@, partly to the lord whofe vaffal he was, and
partly to the next of kin.
This was a cuftom derived to us, in common with other
northern nations, from our anceftors, the ancient Germans ;
among whom, according to Tacitus (De Mor, Germ.
Cap. 21.), Juitur homicidium certo armentorum ae pecorum
numero ; recipitque Satisfazionem univerfa domus.
In the fame manner, by the Irifh brehon law, in cafe of
murder, the brehon, or judge, compounded between the
murderer and the friends of the deceafed, who profecuted
him, by caufing the malefa€tor to give unto them, or to the
child or wife of him that was flain, a recompence, which
they called eriach. And thus we find in our Saxon laws,
particularly thofe of king Athelftan, the feveral weregilds
for homicide, eftablifhed in progreffive order, from the
death of the ceorl, or peafant, up to that of the king him-
felf. And in the laws of king Henry I. we have an account
what other offences were then redeemable by weregild, and
what were not fo. The procefs called appeal had probably
Qq2 its
WER
its rife in the times when weregild was in ufe. Blacktt.
Comm. vol. iv.
The weregild of an archbifhop, and of an earl, was
15,000 thrifmas ; that of a bifhop, or alderman, 8000; that
of a general, or governor, 4000; that of a prieft, or thane,
2000; that of a king, 30,000: half was to be paid to his
kindred, and the other half to the public. The weregild
of a ceorl was 266 thrifmas.
WEREMOUTH, Bisuopr’s, in Geography, a parith of
England, in the county of Durham, on the river Were, with
7060 inhzbitants; 12 miles N.N.E. of Durham. This
parifh is now incorporated in the town of Sunderland. See
SUNDERLAND.
Wenremoutu, Monk’s, a parifh of England, in the county
of Durham, at the mouth of the river Were, oppofite Sunder-
land, with 5355 inhabitants.
WEREN, 2 river of Wurzburg, which runs into the
Maine, 6 miles below Carolftadt.
WERFEN, a town and fortrefs of the archbifhopric of
Salzburg, on the Salza, with a caftle, memorable for hav-
ing heen the retreat of the archbifhop of Salzburg, whom
the duke of Bavaria had driven from his capital for having
married ; 15 miles N.W. of Radftadt.
WERGELA, or Gurrceta, a town of Africa, in
Biledulgerid ; 300 miles S. of Algiers. N. lat. 31° 45.
E. long. 4° 10’.
WERINAMA, a town on the fouth coaft of the ifland
ef Ceram. S. lat. 3° 15’. E. long. 130° 18!.
WERING, or Wortncen, a town of France, in the
department of the Roer; 2 miles S. of Zons.
WERK. See Wark.
WERL, a town of the duchy of Weftphalia; 13 miles
W.S.W. of Lippftadt. N. lat. 51° 33'. E. long. 7° 58/.
WERM, or Worm, ariver of France, which runs into
the Roer, near Waflemberg.
WERMSDORF, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Leipfic; 36 miles N.W. of Drefden.—Alfo, a town of
Bavaria, in the principality of Aichitatt; 4 miles N. of
Aichftatt.
WERNBERG, a town of Bavaria; 3 miles N. of
Pfreimbt.
WERNBURG, a town of Saxony, in the. circle of
Neuftadt ; 3 miles N.E. of Rahnis.
WERNE, a town of Germany, in the bifhopric of
Munfter; 19 miles S. of Muniter. N. lat. 51° 38’. E.
long. 7° 48’.
WERNECK, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg, on
the Weren; 5 miles S.W. of Schweinfurt.
WERNER, Asrauam Gorttos, in Biography, a cele-
brated mineralogift, and profeffor of mineralogy at Freyburg,
in Saxony, was born on the 25th of September1750. His
father was infpeétor of an iron-work in Upper Lufatia,
and at an early period intended to educate his fon for the
fame employment. The firft fcanty rudiments of his edu-
cation were received at a fchool at Bunfleur. He was after-
wards fent to the Mineralogical Academy at Freyburg, and
from thence to the univerfity of Leipfic, where he applied
himfelf to the ftudy of natural hiftory and jurifprudence ;
but the former he found more attractive, and it was here
that he employed himfelf in defining the external characters
of minerals, for which he was endowed by nature with a
fingular quicknefs of perception. At this place, he pub-
lifhed, in 1774, his work on the external chara¢ters of mine-
rals, which was confidered as the bafis of his ory&ognottic
or mineralogical fyftem, (See Systems of Mineralogy.)
It has been tranflated into various languages, but Werner
WER
could never be perfuaded to publifh a new and enlarged edi-
tion. * In this work,” fays profeflor Jamefon, ‘* he gave the
firft example of the true method of defcribing mineral fpe-
cies. In thefe defcriptions, all the charaéters prefented by
the /pecies fuite are detailed with a certain degree of mi-
nutenefs, and in a determinate order ; fo that we have a com-
plete pi€ture of it, and are furnifhed with characters that
diftinguifh it from all known fpecies, and from every mine-
ral that may hereafter be difcovered.’? It cannot be denied,
that previous to this time, the defcriptive language of mine-
ralogifts had been much too indefinite to convey accurate
information, or to enable mineralogifts in diftant countries
to underitand each other. Soon after this publication, Wer-
ner was invited to have the care of the cabinet of natural
hiftory at Freyburg, and to read lectures on mineralogy.
This fituation, fo well fuited to the peculiar fiudies in
which he wa$ engaged, offered abundant materials for the
exercife of his talent for obfervation and claflification. In
1780 he publifhed the firft part of a tranflation of Cron-
ftedt’s Mineralogy. In his annotations on this work, he
gave the firft fketch of his mineralogical fyftem, and pub-
hifhed many defcriptions in conformity with the methods
propofed in his treatife on external charaéters. In this fyf{-
tem, we find earthy minerals divided into four genera, filice-
ous, argillaceous, taleaceous, and calcareous ; and thefe fub-
divided into fpecies, fub-{pecies, and kinds.
In 1791 he publifhed a catalogue of the great mineral
colle&tion of Pabft Von Obaine, captain-general of the
Saxon mines. In this work, he gave a sae view of the
whole mineralogical fyftem, in which the arrangement of
genus, {pecies, Jorge and kinds, is continued ; feveral
additions are made to the external characters,,and the ar-
rangement of the fpecies is in fome inftances changed,
owing to more extended obfervations. Werner, befides his
leG&tures on mineralogy, alfo delivered le&tures on the art of
mining, which he is faid to have rendered extremely intelli-
gible by his fimplification of the machinery, and by draw-
ings and figures. His fyftem of geognoly, or geology,
was delivered in his leGtures, but never publifhed by himfelf.
(For fome account of this fyitem, fee GroLocy, and Sys-
TEMS of Geology.) ‘ In le&turing,”’ fays a writer in the Lite-
rary Gazette of Leipfic, “ he ufed to abandon himfelf (as he
was accuftomed to fay) to his mineralogical name, and
when his fpirit hovered over the waters and the ftrata, he
often became animated with lofty enthufiafm.’? He caufed
his lectures to be written out by his approved fcholars, and
by revifing them himfelf made them his own in manufcript.
Many parts of thefe le€tures have been publifhed in differ-
ent countries by his pupils. Werner alfo publifhed fome
mineralogical papers in the Miner’s Journal ; and in 1791
appeared his new theory of the formation of metallic veins.
This work was tranflated into French by Daubuiffon, and
into Englifh in 1809.
Werner was appointed counfellor of the mines in Saxony
in 1792, and had a great fhare in the diretion of the Mi-
neralogical Academy, and in the adminiftration for public
works.
The cabinet of minerals collected by Werner was un-
rivalled for its completenefs and arrangement, confifting of
100,000 fpecimens. This he fold for 40,000 crowns, 0 i
ing the intereit of 33,000 as an annuity to himfelf and his
fitter, who had no children ; and at her death, to be paid an-
nually to the Mineralogical Academy of Freyburg.
This illuftrious mineralogilt died Auguft 1817, greatl
regretted by all thofe who were Bin A acquainted with
him, to whom he was endeared by the fimplicity of his
manners,
WERNER.
manners, the cheerfulnefs and benevolence of his difpofition,
his integrity and difinterefted devotion to fcience. Werner
‘was never married. His favourite purfuit next to mineralogy
appears to have been the ftudy of antiquities, one branch
of it, the numifmatology of the ancients, had, during the lait
eight years of his life, engaged much of his attention ; and
he had formed a colleétion of 6000 Greek and Roman
coins, which enabled him to make refearches into the differ-
ent mixtures of the metals and the arts of adulteration ; and
to make the fubje&t more clear, he arranged entire feries of
falfe coins. He was alfo attached to the ftudy of medicine,
and had made a humorous table of difeafes from infancy to
old age; and among his peculiarities may be mentioned his
defire of offering medical advice to his friends, and his habit
of judging of his own fituation, which he often thought
precarious. He was greatly averfe to the ufe of vinegar
and milk, but a determined beef-eater: in other refpeéts he
lived temperately, drank but little wine, and was anxioufly
careful about warm-clothing and rooms, a caution not well
fuited to the habits of a geologift. Werner had travelled
little from his own country ; his vifit to Paris appears to
have been the only diftant excurfion he ever made from
Saxony.
Werner may juitly be faid to have contributed more to
extend and improve the praétical knowledge of mineralogy,
than any one who had preceded him. His method of ob-
ferving and defcribing the external appearances of minerals,
has been introduced by his pupils, with {ome modifications,
into various parts of the world, and has given a new and
more definite form to the fcience. It has indeed been ob-
jected to the method of Werner, that confifting principally
in the claffification of minerals according to their external
charaéters ; and in the defcription and arrangement of thefe
charaéters, it may be regarded rather as an empiric art, than
a fcience. But in the mineral kingdom thofe definite
chara€ters are wanting, which ferve to diftinguifh the genera
and {pecies in the other departments of natural hiftory ; and
he who can but relieve this difficulty, and enable the ftudent
molt eafily to gain a knowledge of minerals under all thefe
varying forms, is entitled to the higheft praife. This palm
may be pre-eminently given to Werner; and whoever has
juftly appreciated his labours will never ftop to inquire,
whether his method fhould rank among the fciences or the
arts. Mr. Kirwan was the firft who introduced a know-
ledge of the Wernerian mineralogy into this country; but
tor a more complete knowledge of it, we are indebted to
profeffor Jamefon, in his Syitem of Mineralogy, firft pub-
lifhed in 1804, and in the fecond edition of 1817.
As a geologift, we cannot allow to Werner the fame de-
gree of unmixed praife. His fyftem of geognofie was formed
on obfervations made on a very limited portion of the
earth’s furface in his own vicinity ; and he has laid down a
fucceffion of rock-formations as univerfally fpread over the
globe, becaufe thefe rocks occurred in this order in a par-
ticular part of Saxony. Subfequent obfervations have,
however, demonftrated, that even at a little diftance from
Freyburg, many of the fuppofed univerfal rock-formations,
are not to be found, and that other rocks fupply their
place. The reader may confult a defcription of the Saxon
Erzgebirge by M. Bonnard, in the Journal des Mines for
1815, to convince himfelf of this. It is, we confider, for-
tunate for Mr. Werner’s fame as a geologift, that no work
of his on the fubje€t has appeared, except the ‘‘ New
Theory of Veins.’’ This for fome time enjoyed a certain de-
gree of celebrity from the name of the author ; but the new
information which it contains is very feanty, and the theory
which it {upports fo inadequate to explain the phenomena,
9
and fo much at variance with facts, that it was in a great
part abandoned by many of the warm admirers of Werner,
even fome years before his death. It will now fcarcely
meet with a fupporter among thofe who have any praétical
knowledge of mineral-veins. Mr. Werner contended for
the aqueous formation of almoft every kind of rock, even
pumice-ftone and obfidian he maintained were the produéts
of water; and when he was repeatedly invited to vifit the vol-
canic diftriéts of Italy, and the ancient volcanoes of France,
he declined an examination which might have greatly en-
dangered his own theory. The followers of Werner as a
geologift reft his fame not on his local obfervations, but on
his attempt to generalize his obfervations, in order to form
a theory which fhould explain the {truéture of the earth and
the mode of its formation. Indeed fuch was their admira-
tion, that they would not admit his fyftem to be a theory,
but confidered it as an expofition of demonftrated faGts.
“ This great geognoft,” fays Mr. Jamefon, “ after many
years of the moft arduous inveltigations, conduéted with an
accuracy and acutenefs of which we have few examples,
difcovered the manner in which the cruft of the earth is
conftruéted. Having made this great difcovery he, after
deep refle€&tion, and in conformity with the ftri@ rules of
induction, drew moft interefting conclufions as to the
manner in which the folid mafs of the earth may have been
formed. It is a f{plendid fpecimen of inveftigation, the
moft perfect in its kind ever prefented to the world.
(Jamefon’s Mineralogy, firft edition, vol. i. p. 22.) We
believe there are few perfons who will not now admit that
the admiration and praife here beftowed were difpropor-
tioned to the objeét, whether we regard the merit of Mr.
Werner’s obfervations for accuracy as a geologift, or the
conformity of his theory with exifting appearances.
The method of inveltigation purfued by Werner in at-
tempting to trace the rocks in a diftri€ in fucceffion, from
the loweft or fundamental rock to the uppermoft ftratum,
and marking the limits of each rock where it terminates on
the furface, was confidered by his followers as entirely his
own, and was called by them the method of the Wernerian
geognofie. But this method had been known and praétifed
in England long before we were acquainted with the name
of Werner ; indeed it is the only one which preceding geo-
logifts could practically adopt in furveying a country. On
a {maller feale, it had been praétifed by all intelligent coal-
viewers ; and it had been exhibited on a larger fcale by Mr.
Whitehurft, in the deferiptions and plates which he has
given in his ** Theory of the Earth.’? Sauffure followed
no fyftem ; yet wherever the order of fucceffion was appa-
rent, he has not failed to inform us. But the country
which he inveftigated, (Switzerland,) prefents enormous
mafles, frequently in much apparent confufion, the order of
fucceffion being hid by debris or by glaciers. In other in-
ftances, whole mountains compofed of different rocks ap-
pear to have been formed cotemporaneoufly. Sauffure, who
had no theory of any regular order of fucceffion to fup-
port, has fimply defcribed faéts as they exift. Our own
countryman, William Smith, had been long employed in
tracing the limits and order of fucceffion of the ftrata in
the midland and eaftern counties of England, before the
Wernerian geognofie was known either in England or
Scotland.
The originality of the Wernerian geognofie confifted
more in the invention of a new language adapted to fupport
a theory, than in the difeovery of a new and practical me-
thod of inveftigation. The language is highly objeétion-
able in many refpects, as the terms are founded on the prema-
ture aflumption of the relative ages and modes of formation
of
WER
of different rocks ; — faéts which are far from being yet
clearly afcertained.
Whatever may be the defeéts of the Wernerian fyftem
as given us by his {cholars, and however premature many
of the generalizations may have been, it was of ufe
by direéting the attention of obfervers in various parts to
an examination of its accordance with fa&ts. Though the
different rocks which Mr. Werner has defcribed as univer-
fal formations neither occur invariably in the order of fuc-
ceffion which he has defcribed, nor are univerfally {pread
over the earth’s furface ; yet there is a certain fimilarity be-
tween the geological arrangement of diftant countries when
viewed on a large feale, which indicates that fimilar pro-
ceffes of formation had taken place, and nearly in the fame
order in remote parts of the globe; but we are far from
knowing whether thefe proceffes were univerfal and fimul-
taneous, or local and fucceffive.
In the above obfervations, which it is our impartial duty
as biographers to ftate, we have not the remoteft wifh to
undervalue the real merits of this eminent mineralogitt.
His theoretical errors arofe naturally from the infant ftate
of geology when he commenced his labours; and his over-
weaning attachment to opinions too hattily formed, was an
infirmity which he fhared in common with many eminent
philofophers. His errors will pafs away with time, but
his more ufeful labours will remain a durable monument of
his talents and perfevering refearch.
WERNERITE, in Mineralogy, a mineral regarded by
Werner as a fubfpecies of feapolite, but which has been
claffed by other mineralogifts as a diftin@ fpecies, to which
they have given this name, in honour of the profeffor at
Freyburg. The name has been applied to foliated fcapo-
lite, compa fcapolite, and to a mineral which is called
Bergmannite by Stevens and Jamefon. (See ScaPoLireE. )
Wernerite occurs maffive and cryftallized in otohedral
prifms, with four-fided pyramidal terminations. The ftruc-
ture is imperfeGtly lamellar, with joints on two dire€tions,
at right angles to each other. The colour is greenifh-grey,
with a pearly or refinous luftre, more or lefs fhining ; it is
tranflucent. Wernerite is fofter than felfpar, yielding to
the knife ; its fpecific gravity is 3.6. It melts with intu-
mefcence into a white enamel.
This mineral is rare: it has been found at Arendal, in
Norway ; in the mines of Northbo and Ultrica, in Sweden ;
and at Campo-Longo, in Switzerland. The conftituent
parts are,
Silex - - 2 = 4 40
Alumine - - . . = 34
Lime - - - - = 16
Oxyd of iron - “ 2 = 8
Oxyd of manganefe - - - 1.5
WERNERSDORF, in Geography, a town of Pome-
relia, on the Nogat ; 7 miles S.W. of Marienburg.
WERNEUCHEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the
Middle Mark ; 6 miles E.S.E. of Bernau.
WERNFELS, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of
Aichftadt ; 4 miles N.W. of Spalt.
WERNHAUSEN, atown of the county of Henne-
berg ; 4 miles N. of Wafungen.
WERNIGERODE, a county of Upper Saxony,
bounded on the north by the principality of Halberftadt,
on the eaft and fouth by the principality of Blankenburg,
and on the weft by the Harz foreft ; about twelve miles in
length, and eight in breadth. One part is mountainous,
and the other level. Amongft the mountains, the moft dif-
tinguifhed of all is the Great Brocken, or Blockfberg,
WER
which is one of the higheft ; or, according to fome, the very
higheft mountain in all Germany. On its fummit fearce
any {mall fhrubs grow, much lefs trees; and the {now re-
mains frequently there till midfummer, and in fome of the
northern parts even yet longer. The levels are very fertile
in all kinds of grain, pulfe, turnips, flax, culinary herbs,
and other vegetables and fruits. ‘The mountains afford very
valuable plants, with berries of various kinds, particularly
crown berries, of which great quantities are preferved ;
game and wild fowl are plentiful. In 1807, it was annexed
to the new kingdom of Weftphalia. The inhabitants are
Lutherans.
WERNIGERODE, a town of Weltphalia, and capital of a
county of the fame name, fituated on a {mall river, and con-
fifting of three parts: “ The Old Town,”’ containing two
churches, and about 430 houfes, with a houfe belonging to
the county ; “The New Town,” containing one church,
and about 200 houfes ; and the fuburbs, called ** Nofchen-
rode,” which contain one church, and 150 houfes. Ona
high mountain, dire&tly above the town, is the caftle, in
which the counts’ family archives are kept. The principal
bufinefs of the town confifts in agriculture, brewing, diftil-
ling, and manufaétures of cloth and ftuffs; 12 miles S.W.
of Halberftadt. N. lat. 51°53'. E. long. 10° 52!.
WERNITZ, a river of Germany, which rifes about
5 miles S. from Rotenburg, pafles by Dinkelfbuhl, Wafler-
trudingen, Oettingen, &c. and runs into-the Danube, near
Donauwert.
WERNSDORF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Saetz ; 3 miles N.W. of Kadan. ‘
WERNSTADT, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Leitmeritz ; 10 miles W. of Leypa.
WERO, an’ifland near the coaft of Norway. N. lat.
67° 43. E. long. 9° 10’.
WERPE, a river of Germany, which joins the Sieg,
near its fource.
_WERRA, a river of Germany, which rifes in the prin-
cipality of Coburg, pafles by Eisfeld, Hildburghaufen,
Meinungen, Saltzungen, Vach, Bercka, Gerftungen,
Creutzberg, Trefurt, Wanfried, Allendorf, &c. and jom-
ing the Fulda at Munden, forms the Wefer.
Wenrra, a department of the kingdom of Weftphalia,
eompofed of Upper Heffe, with the principality of Herf-
feld ; ie a population of 254,000 fouls. Marburg is the
capital. 2
WERREAR, acircar or diftri& of Hindooftan, lying
on the right bank of the Puddar, which feparates it from
Guzerat, eaft of Cutch.
WERSALA, a {mall ifland near the coaft of Finland,
at the entrance into the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 60° 46'.
E. long. 31° 6.
WERSEN, a town of Germany, in the county of Teck-
lenburg ; 8 miles N.E. of Tecklenburg.
WERSHOCK, in Menfuration, a long meafure in
Ruffia; 16 werfhocks being equal to an arfheen, or 28 Eng-
lith inches ; fo that 9 arfheens are = 7 Englifh yards, and
4 werfhocks = 7 Englith inches.
WERST, or Wurst. See Verst.
WERT, in Geography. See WEERT.
WERTACH, ariver of Bavaria, which runs into the
Lech, a little below Augfburg.
WERTENSTEIN, a town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Lucerne; 6 miles W. of Lucerne.
WERTER Ser, a lake of the duchy of Carinthia;
2 miles W. of Clagenfurt.
WERTH, a town of the bifhopric of Ratifbon ; 11 miles
N.W. of Straubing.
WERTHA,
WES
WERTHA, a river of Bavaria, which runs into the
Lech, near Aug{burg.
WERTHEIM, a county of Germany, fituated between
the eleGtorate of Mentz, and the bifhopric of Wurzburg,
watered by the Maine, which here receives the Tauber.
The ancient counts became extin& in the year 1556.
It was afterwards divided among feveral princes, befides
feveral fiefs of the empire, Bohemia, Wurzburg, and
Fulda.—Alfo, a town of Germany, and capital of a
county to which it gives name, at the conflux of the Maine
and Tauber. The magiftrates are principally Calvinifts,
but the Roman Catholics and Lutherans have a church in
common ; 42 miles E.N.E. of Manheim. N. lat. 49° 40’.
E. long. 9° 35'.—Alfo, a town of Germany; 22 miles E.
of Frankfort on the Maine.
WERTHER, a town of Weltphalia, in the county of
Ravenfberg ; 5 miles N.N.W. of Bielefeld.
WERTINGEN, a town of Bavaria; 14 miles N.N.W.
of Augfburg.
WERVICK, or Warwick, or Verwick, a town of
France, in the department of the Lys, on the Lys; 3 miles
S.W. of Menin.
WESCHNITZ, a river of France, which runs into the
Rhine, oppofite Worms. :
WESCHOLOUEN, a town of Pruffia, in Natangen ;
12 miles W. of Marggrabowa.
WESE, a river of France, which runs into the Ourt, a
little above Chiny.
WESEL, a town of France, in the department of the
Roer; transferred in January, 1808, from the duchy of
Cleves, on the Rhine. This town was formerly imperial,
and governed by its own laws, under the protetion of the
eleétor of Brandenburg ; 17 miles E.S.E. of Cleves. N.
lat. 51° 38/. E. long. 6° 38/.
WESEL, or Ober Wefel, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Rhine and Mofelle ; 20 miles S. of Coblentz.
WeseEt Bay, a bay on the fouth coaft of the ifland of
Java. S. lat. 8° 21'. E. long. 113° 42).
WESELICH, or Werstrnc, a town of France, in the
department of the Roer; 7 miles S.S.E. of Cologn.
WESEN, a town of Switzerland, in the county of
Gafter ; 7 miles S. of Utznach.—Alfo, a town of Holland,
im the department of Guelderland ; 4 miles S. of Hattem.
WESENBERG, a town of the duchy of Mecklenburg ;
42 miles N. of Spandau.
WESENSTEIN, a town of Saxony; 8 miles S.S.E.
of Drefden.
WESEP, atown of Holland, on the Vecht ; well for-
tified towards theeaft. The great bufinefs of the inhabitants is
' to carry frefh water from hence out of the Vecht to Amtter-
dam, for brewing and other ufes, for which traffic they have
a particular kind of barges; 4 miles S.E. of Amifterdam.
WESER, ariver of Germany, formed by the union of
the Werra and Fulda, which pafles by Hameln, Rinteln,
Minden, Nienburg, Hoya, Bremen, &c. and runs into the
German fea, about N. lat. 53° 48’. E. long. 8°.
WeseEr, a department of the new kingdom of Weltphalia,
compofed of the bifhopric of Ofnaburg, and part of the
county of Schauenburg; the number of inhabitants is
33,400. Ofnaburg is the capital.
WESLEY, Joun, in Biography, one of the principal
founders of Methodifm, was the fon of a clergyman, who,
educated under a father who was ejected for nonconformity,
became a zealous high-churchman, and compofed the fpeech
delivered by Sacheverel before the houfe of lords. John
was born at Epworth, in Lincolnfhire, of which his father
was rector, in June 1703. Educated under pious parents,
II
WES
he was eee | difpofed from his youth. From the
Charter-houfe, where he received his fchool-education, he
was removed to Chrift-church college, Oxford; and after
taking his firft degree, was eleéted, in 1724, fellow of
Lincoln college, and, in 1726, proceeded to the degree of
M.A. At this time he was reputed as a good claffical
{cholar, and particularly converfant with diale&tics. He
was alfo a poet of no mean talents. Soon after his eleGtion
toa fellowfhip, he became Greek leGturer and moderator of
the claffes, and undertook the inftruétion of pupils. In
1725 he was ordained by bifhop Potter. During fome
years of his refidence at Oxford, he was much efteemed on
account of his own chara&ter and condu@, and for his atten-
tion to difcipline and good morals. Upon the perufal of
fome devotional books, and more efpecially Law’s “ Serious
Call,”” he became diffident as to his own religious ftate, and
determined to pay ftrifter regard to what he conceived to be
the effentials of a holy life. In 1729 he affociated with a
feleé&t number of collegians, who met and read together,
firft the claflics on week-days, and on Sundays only divi-
nity; but afterwards their meetings became exclufively
religious. They vifited the prifoners and fick poor, con-
verfed together on the ftate of their minds, obferved the
ancient faits of the church, and communicated every week,
This fociety, which confifted of fifteen members, attra&ted
notice on account of the ftriétnefs of their manners and de-
portment ; and became the objects of ridicule to fome young
men in the univerfity, who denominated them Sacramen-
tarians, the Godly club, and Merrnopisrs. (See the
article.) Some of the feniors of the colleges were alarmed
by an introduétion of fanaticifm; and others encouraged
them to proceed, and they received the approbation of the
bifhop of Oxford. Wefley, after his ordination, fettled as
afliftant to his father at Epworth, who being defirous of
retaining this church preferment in his family, wifhed him
to feek intereft for obtaining it; but his attachment to Ox-
ford, and to the fociety which had been there formed, pre-
vailed over every other confideration. In procefs of time
he formed a purpofe of going to Georgia, as a miflionary ;
and accordingly he embarked for this province in the year
1735. The profpe& of fuccefs in this miffion feemed at
firft to be favourable; but feveral circumftances occurred
which changed his views, and induced him to leave Georgia,
after a refidence of one year and nine months. Thefe cir-
cumftances, as fome perfons have related them, refle@ no
great honour on Wefley’s difpofition and character. It ap-
pears, however, upon the whole, more efpecially when we
confider Whitefield’s fuccefs in the fame part of the world,
that he was lefs qualified for a miffionary than his fellow-
labourer. After his return to England, he felt diffatisfied
about his own ftate, and entertained fufpicions of the reality
of his own converfion, though he had undertaken to convert
others. Prepared for a fudden converfion, it aCtually
happened at a place and time, and ina manner, which he has
recorded. According to his own account, this memorable
event is referred to the 24th day of May, in the year 1738,
at a quarter before nine in the evening, when fome perfon at
a fociety in Alderfgate-ftreet was reading Luther’s preface
to the epiftle to the Romans. ‘ He felt his heart ftrangely
warmed. He felt that he trufted in Chrift alone for falva-
tion; and an aflurance was given to him, that Chrift had
taken away his fins, and faved him from the law of fin and
death.”” Thefe feelings of affurance, however, were blended
with occafional mifgivings ; and it feems that, in his cafe,
euthufiafm could not inftantaneoufly overpower his philo-
fophical reafonings. His cafe is far from being fingular in
the hiftory of perfons of the fame defcription. About this
time
. WESLEY.
time he took a journey to Germany, in order to derive a
further confirmation of his faith from intercourfe wita con-
genial fpirits at the head-quarters of the Moravians, at Hern-
huth. (See Unrras Frafrum.) After his return to England,
in September 1738, he entered on his courfe of labours ;
and preached or exhorted, frequently three or four times a
day, in prifons and other places of the metropolis, as well as
in various parts of the country, where the fervour of his zeal
bore proportion to the degree of obloquy which he incurred.
His difcourfes produced wonderful effects, and occafioned
in the hearers {fwoonings, exclamations, convulfions, &c.
which have been often the accompaniments of violent emo-
tions. At Briftol, where he had been preceded by Whit-
field, he colle&ted large crowds of attendants in the open
air. But it was now defirable that a building fhould be
ereG&ted for the accommodation of the followers of thefe
popular preachers. In May 1739, the firit ftone of fuch
an edifice was laid at Briftol; and with this building com-
menced the abfolute and unlimited power which Wefley ex-
ercifed over his followers: ‘* The direétion of the work
was firft committed to eleven feoffees of his nomination ;
put as it became neceflary for him to engage for the pay-
ment of the workmen, and to colle& money for this pur-
pofe, he vifited London, and upon confulting Whitfield
and others, he was told, that they would do nothing in the
matter, unlefs he would difcharge the feoffees, and take the
whole bufinefs into his own hands. They gave various rea-
fons for this determination ; but one,’’ fays Wefley, ‘* was
enough, viz. that fuch feoffees would always have it in their
power to controul me ; and if I preached not as they liked,
turn me out of the room that I had built.”’? He, therefore,
aflembled the feoffees, and with their confent cancelled the
inftruments made before, and took the whole management
into his own hands; and this precedent he ever after fol-
lowed, fo that all the numerous meetings of his clafs of
Methodifts were either vefted in him, or in truftees who
were bound to give admiffion into the pulpit either to him,
or to fuch preachers as he fhall appoint. Unable to aflociate
clergymen in the profecution of his plan, which feems to
have been his firft defign, he determined to employ lay-
preachers as itinerants to the different focieties ; and of their
talents he formed fome judgment by their performances at
the meetings for prayer and mere private exhortation.
Referving to himfelf the nomination of his preachers, his
authority was extended as his focieties were multiplied.
For the ufe of thefe focieties, he and his brother Charles
drew up a fet of rules for the direétion of their moral and
religious conduét, which are faid to have been formed upon
the pureft model of primitive Chriftianity. A circumftance
occurred which threatened injury to the caufe of Methodifm ;
but it eventually contributed to its extenfion, and to the
eftablifhment of Wefley without a rival at the head of his
own body. Whitfield had imbibed a predileétion for the
doétrines of the Puritan divines, which were in general Cal-
viniftic. Wefley’s opinions were Arminian ; fo that it was
impoffible for thefe two leaders of feparate tenets to unite.
“ The differences between them turned upon the three
points, unconditional election, irrefiftible grace, and final
perfeverance, concerning which topics their notions varied
fo much, that Whitfield plainly told his brother reformer,
that they preached two different gofpels, and that he would
not only refufe to give him the right hand of fellowfhip, but
awas def olved publicly to preach againft him and his brother
wherefoever he preached at all.” Although they after-
wards {poke of each other with efteem, yet their feparation
was entire and lafting.
The fy {tem of difcipline formed by Wefley was admirably
contrived both for gaining profelytes, and for extending
and making permanent his own influence. As he did not
profefs to eftablifh a new or diftiné& fe&, he did not interfere
with the regular worfhip either of the eftablifhment or of
Diffenters, c that he and his preachers robbed no other
minifters of their hearers; and they availed themfelves of
thofe feafons, which gave perfons that were defirous of at-
tending leifure for this purpofe. That he might not be
charged with drawing people away from the eftablifheu
church, or other focieties of Chriftians, he did not ad-
minifter the facrament of the Lord’s Supper in his own
chapels, but recommended attendance for this purpofe in
the eftablifhed church. (See Meruopists.) The plan of
itinerancy was a political meafure in the fyftem of Mr.
Welley, as variety ferves to excite curiofity, and to increafe
the number of his followers. It feems alfo to relieve
preachers and hearers, when the ftock of the former is
{mall ; and it alfo prevents thefe miffionaries, if they may be
fo called, from forming permanent connections in any place
whither they are fent, and of acquiring an influence, which
would be inconfiftent with the fupremacy of the chief. In
order to maintain an union between the mémbers of this
body, and to exercife a degree of vigilant infpection with
regard to their conduct, Wefley has divided each fociety
into companies of ten or fifteen, called claffes, to each of
which belongs a leader, whofe bufinefs it was every week to
fee every perfon of his clafs, and to inquire into his religious
ftate. Many of thefe companies were divided into f{maller
parties, called bands, in which the married and fingle men,
and the married and fingle women, were ranged apart, and
they were directed to maintain a confidential intercourfe
with regard to their charaéter and ftate with each other.
From thefe bands again were formed feleét bands, confifting
of thofe who had attained to perfection. Of his love-
feafts, &c. we have given an account under Mernopists.
Stewards were appointed to receive contributions, which
the loweft members were expected to pay, however {mall
the f{ums, and to fuperintend the temporal concerns of the
focieties. In order to preferve a connéétion between the
preachers, as well as to maintain their ultimate fubordina-
tion to him, Wefley found it ufeful to fummon annually a
confiderable body of them, in order to take counfel with
him, and with one another, concerning the general affairs
of the focieties. Thefe aflemblies were called ‘“ Con-
ferences ;”? and the great number of them at which Wefley
had to prefide was a principal means of confolidating the
whole frame of the fociety, and maintaining his permanent
authority over every part. Wefley and his firft followers
had many difficulties with which to contend ; but their con-
ftancy and fortitude, and the apparently beneficial effeéts of
their endeavours in reforming fome of the moft abandoned
members of the community, enabled them ultimately to
triumph over all oppofition, and to purfue their labours
without moleftation. On account of his fanaticifm and en-
thufiafm he has fuffered ridicule and reproach; and fome
have even fufpected his fincerity in the details which he has
given of the extraordinary manifeftations of light that have
been communicated to him, and the no lefs extraordinary
interpofitions of Providence in his favour ; alle ‘ing that he
poffeffed a degree of underftanding which could not be de-
luded, and, therefore, charging him with a defign of delud-
ing others, in order to fervye his own purpofes. But thefe
are harfh reflections, the juftice of which we cannot be in-
duced eafily toallow. About the year 1759, Wefley, who
had long been the eulogift of a fingle life, thought proper
to marry a rich widow, whofe fortune he fettled wholly
upon herfelf ; but this conneétion proved an occafion of in-
felicity,
WES
felicity, and therefore they feparated. She died in 1781.
Wefley feems to have adopted his father’s high-church
principles, and he perfevered in avowing his conne¢tion with
the eftablifhed church, and in preventing, as far as poffible,
a feparation between his followers and the profeffors of the
eftablifhed religion. During the American war he was a
zealous advocate for the meafures of government, and he
inculcated the duty of fubmiffion to the tranf-Atlantic
Methodifts. With this view he publifhed a pamphlet, en-
titled “ A Calm Addrefs to the American Colonies,’’
which was widely difleminated; and though fome of his
followers were difpleafed, others were fupporters of the
authority of Great Britain; whilft, on the other hand, the
Methodifts in the conneétion of Mr. Whitefield were gene-
rally on the fide of American independence. When the
conteft terminated, it became a matter of fome importance
to determine what kind of conneétion fhould fubfift between
the American Methodifts and their Britifh brethren. Mr.
Wefley was induced for this purpofe to take a ftep, which
appeared to be a renunciation of the principle of an epif-
copal church. By his own authority he ordained, with im-
pofition of hands, feveral preachers who were embarking for
America, and confecrated a bifhop for the Methodift epif-
copal church in that country, who, on his arrival, confe-
crated another, and ordained feveral as prefbyters. He
alfo aflumed the fame authority with refpe& to Scotland ;
“ Setting apart,’ as he fays, ‘three preachers in 1785 to
adminifter in that country the facraments of baptifm and
the Lord’s fupper.”’ In felf-defence he alleged, that he
had been for feveral years convinced by lord King’s account
of the primitive church, that bifhops and prefbyters are the
fame order, and have the fame right to ordain ; but that he
declined exercifing this right in ordaining his travelling
preachers, becaufe he did not wifh to violate the eftablifhed
order of the national church to which he belonged. By
thefe meafures he offended many in his own conne¢tion, and
particularly his brother Charles ; and it is faid, that before
his death he repented of his proceedings, and ufed all his
endeavours to counteraét the tendency which he then per-
ceived to a final {eparation from the church.
In a very advanced age, Wefley retained his ability of
bearing the fatigue which attended his numerous and ex-
tenfive labours; and thefe were continued till within a week
of his death, which happened on March 2d, 1791, in the
88th year of his age.
In Wefley’s countenance mildnefs and cheerfulnefs were
blended with gravity, and in old age it was fingularly vene-
rable. ‘In his manners,” fays one of his biographers,
“ he was focial, polite, converfible, and pleafant, without any
of the gloom and aufterity common in the leader of a fect.
In the pulpit he was ufually fhort and clear, argumentative
and fedate, often entertaining, but never attempting the
eloquence of the paffions. His ftyle in writing was of a
fimilar cait ; he expreffed himfelf with facility and precifion,
and even in controverfy feldom elevated his tone beyond a
temperate medium. He was placable towards his enemies,
charitable, and in pecuniary matters extremely difinterefted.
His greateft failing was a love of power, which rendered
him impatient of contradi€tion with regard to every thing
that concerned his adminiftration as head of his fociety ; yet
it is certain that he could not have brought his plans to
effe&, without a confiderable fhare of abfolute authority.
It muft alfo be admitted, that he had much of the politician
in his chara¢ter, and could employ artifice when ufeful for
his purpofes. That he was thoroughly perfuaded of the
truth of the fyftem he taught, and had at heart the betft in-
terefts of ate
Vou. XXXVIII.
ind, it would be uncandid and unwarrantable ,
WES
to queftion ; and he will be a memorable perfon as long as
the fabric which he fo much contributed to raife fhall en-
dure.”” Lives of J. Wefley, by Hampfon, Coke, and
Whitehead. Gen. Biog. See Meruopists.
WESLINGBUHREN, in Geography, a town and
duchy of Holftein, fituated near the coatt of the North fea;
53 miles N.W. of Hamburg.
WESOWKA, a town of Poland, in Volhynia ; 60 miles
N.N.E. of Zytomiers.
WESSEL, Joun, in Biography, an eminent philofopher
and divine, was born at Groningen about the year 1409, or
1419; and purfued his ftudies with incredible ardour both
at Zwoll and at Cologne. At the latter place his ortho-
doxy was fufpected, as he propofed difficulties which his
mafters could not folve. He taught philofophy for fome
time at Heidelberg, and after vifiting feveral univerfities,
went to Paris, where the difputes ran high between the
Realifts, Formalifts, and Nominalifts. He flu€tuated be-
tween the opinions of thefe different feéts. He prediéed
the decline of the do&rines of Thomas Aquinas, Bonaven-
ture, and other difputants of that clafs; and intimated his
apprehenfion that they would be exploded by all true Chrif-
tian divines, and that the irrefragable do¢tors themfelves
would be little regarded. His reputation procured for him
the efteem of Francis delle Rovere, general of the Friars
Minors, whom he accompanied to the court of Bafil, and
with whom he returned to Paris, where he refided many
years. When his patron was made pope, under the name of
Sixtus IV., he paid him a vifit at Rome, and being told
that his holinefs would grant him whatfoever he afked, he
limited his requeft to a Hebrew and a Greek bible from the
Vatican. ‘* You hall have them,” faid the pontiff; “ but,
fimple man that you are! why did not you afk a bifhopric ?””
** Becaufe (anfwered Weffel) I do not want one ;” a reply
on which Dr. Jortin has beftowed juft applaufe.
This worthy perfon died at Groningen in 1489. On his
death-bed he lamented to a friend that he had been diftrefled
with doubts concerning the truth of the Chriftian religion ;
but at his friend’s fecond vifit, he told him with great fatif..
faction that his doubts were all diflipated. So extraordinary
was his learning, that he was diftinguifhed by the appellation
of the “ Light of the World; and fuch was his {pirit of
free enquiry, that his name is enrolled in the Proteftant Ca-
talogue of Witneffes of the Truth. Of his liberal opinions
fome were, “ that the pope might err—that erring he ought
to be refifted—that his commands are obligatory only as far
as they are conformable to the word of God—and that his
excommunications are lefs to be feared than the difapproba-
tion of the loweft worthy and learned man.?? We need not
wonder then that the monks fhould have committed all the
manufcripts found in his ftudy to the flames. Such as
efcaped conflagration were printed colledtively at Groningen
in 1614, and at Amfterdam in 1617. Part of them had
been previoufly printed at Leipfic in 1522, under the title
of “ Farrago Rerum Theologicarum,” with a preface by
Martin Luther. Bayle. Motheim. Brucker by Enfield.
_ WESSELY, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in the
circle of Hradifch; 5 miles N.N.E. of Strafnitz.—Alfo,
a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bechin; 5 miles S. of
“Sobieflaw.—Alfo, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
Brunn ; 36 miles N.W. of Brunn.
WESSEM, or Wessum, a town of France, in the de-
barenent of the Lower Meufe; 4 miles S.S.W. of Rure-
mond,
WESSEN, a town of Auftria; 9 miles N.W. of
Efferding.
WESSNITZ. See WetsseniTz.
Rr WEST,
WES
WEST, Gixsert, in Biography, the fon of the Rev.
Dr. Weft, prebendary of Winchefter, and of a fifter of fir
Richard Temple, afterwards lord Cobham, was born in 1706,
and educated for the church at Eton and Chriftchurch, in
Oxford ; but preferring a military life, he ferved in the
army till he received an appointment in the office of lord
Townthend, fecretary of ftate, with whom he accompanied
king George I. to Hanover. In early life he entertained
doubts concerning the Chriftian ree which were in-
filled into him and his coufin Lyttelton by lord Cobham.
In 172g he was appointed a clerk-extraordinary of the privy
council; and foon after, being married, he fettled at Wick-
ham in Kent. His income was not large, but it was fuf-
ficient to entertain his friends Pitt and Lyttelton, who often
vifited him for literary recreation at Wickham. Asa poet,
he was known in 1742 by a piece on a dramatic plan, in-
titled « The Inftitution of the Order of the Garter,”’ diftin-
ifhed by pure and elevated morality, and containing paf-
ee of elegant fancy and fplendid diétion. Weit’s ** Ob-
fervations on the Refurreétion of Chrift,”? publifhed in 1747,
engaged the particular attention of the public, and even in-
duced the univerfity of Oxford to confer upon the author
the degree of do¢tor of laws. This work was fo well exe-
cuted, that we may well regret his not aly lived to have
completed his defign by another work on the evidence of
the truth of the New Teftament. In 1752 the circum-
{tances of our author were improved by fucceeding, when
Mr. Pitt became paymatter-general, to one of the lucrative
clerkfhips of the privy council, and his obtaining the
place of treafurer to Chelfea hofpital. In 1755 he loft an
only fon, and in the following year his life was terminated
by a paralytic ftroke, March 1756, at the age of fifty.
«© Mr. Weft was a gentleman in manners, agreeable in con-
verfation, and lively though ferious. He was regular in the
performance of family devotion and in attendance on public
worfhip, and was particularly attached to Dr. Clarke as a
preacher.”
The other works of Mr. Weft were, “ Tranflations of
the Odes of Pindar, with a Differtation on the Olympic
Games ;’’ “ Tranflations from the Argonautics of Apollo-
nius Rhodius, and the Tragopodagra of Lucian ;” “ The
Abufe of Travelling ;” and “* Education :”” poems in the imi-
tation of the ftanza and manner of Spenfer ; * Iphigenia in
Tauris,” from Euripides ;”’ and “* Original Poems on Various
Occafions.”? Several of thefe pieces were printed in the col-
leGtions of Dodfley and Pearch, and alfo in three diftinét vo-
lumes, 12mo. 1766; and entitle the author, fays his biogra-
pher, to a refpeétable rank among the minor poets. John-
fon’s Lives. Nichols’s Lit. Anecd. Gen. Biog.
West, Occidens, Occafus, in Cofmography, one of the car-
dinal points of the horizon ; diametrically oppofite to the
eatt.
Weft is ftriGly defined, the interfe€tion of the prime
vertical with the horizon, on that fide in which the fun fets.
To draw a true weft line, fee MERIDIAN.
West, in Aflronomy, is chiefly ufed for the place, in or
towards which the fun and ftars fink under the horizon.
Thus we fay, the Sun, Mars, &c. are in the weft.
The point in which the fun fets when in the equator, is
particularly called the equinoéiial weft, or point of true we/l.
West, and Weflern, in Ceograpiy are applied to certain
countries, &c. fituated towards the point of fun-fetting with
ref{peét to certain others.
Thus, the empire of Rome, anciently, and of Germany,
at prefent, is called the empire of the Weft, or weflern empire,
in oppofition to that of Conftantinople, which is called the
empire of the Eaft.
WES
The Latin or Roman church is called the :
in oppofition to the Greek church. ster vee
The French, Spaniards, Italians, &c. are ealled qweflern
nations, in refpect to the Afiatics ; and America, the Weff
Ines in tee. of the Eaft Indies.
EsT-Afbton Water, is a chalybeate wat fe i
that of Holt. See Phil. Tranf. N° 461. fe. 20. rane
West Wind is alfo called Zephyrus, and Favonius. See
WIinp.
West Saxonlage, or the law of the Weft Saxons. See
AW.
West India Companies. See ComPANY ;
West Dial. See Dist. oe
West, Mooring for. See Moorine.
West, in Geography, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Huntingdon, with 1698 inhabitants.
West Bay, a bay of the South Pacific ocean, in Cook’s
Straits, between the two iflands of New Zealand.
West Bay, a bay of the Englifh Channel, on the coaft
of the counties of Dorfet and Devon, of vat extent. It
begins weit of Portland, and ends at Berry Point near Tor-
bay, according to fome ; according to others, from Portland
to Lyme or Exmouth. The tide is current here nine hours;
high water at ten o’clock at new and full moon; an E.S.E.
moon makes fullfea. The fea off the coaft is reckoned the
moit dangerous part of the Channel, efpecially on the weft,
where fhips, not aware of the currents, are embayed and
driven afhore on the beach. When fhips are fo deeply em-
bayed, that there is no poffibility of getting off, efpecially
at the beginning of the ebb, they may run boldly on the
beach, and the mariners are to remain aboard for five or fix
feas, but may then ftep on fhore with fafety ; but if they
leave the fhip inftantly it is dangerous and fatal ; light-
houfes have been ferviceable for preventing thefe accidents.
Where fhips that come from the weft negle& to keep a
good offing, or are taken fhort by contrary winds, and can-
not weather the highland at Portland, but are driven be-
tween the ifland and the main-land, they perifh without
remedy ; and it has been obferved, that more Dutch veflels
are loit here than any other, almoft every year, efpecially in
winter, which is thought to be owing to an obftinate ad-
herence to old charts, and not allowing for the true variation
of the compafs. When the variation is W. the true channel
courfe is W. by S. from Dungenefs to the Cafkets ; Port-
land Bill and the Cafkets are 15 leagues afunder nearly in a
meridian. Dr. Halley obferves, that the navigation up and
down the Channel is an E. variation: W.S.W. is the true
courfe. The Channel between Portland and the Cafkets is
40 fathoms deep, and in fair weather one may fee in that
depth the land on both fides: the nearer England the
fhoalier, the nearer the Cafkets the deeper.
West Bay, a bay at the weftern extremity of lake Su-
perior. N. lat. 46°45’. W. long. 91° 45'.—Alfo, a bay
on the N.W. coaft of Virgin-Gorda, in the Weft Indies.
N. lat. 18° 23'.. W. long. 62° 48!.
West Bethlehem, a townthip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Wafhington, containing 1849 inhabitants.
West Boylffon, a town of Maflachufetts, in the county
of Worcelter, containing 632 inhabitants.
West Bradford, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Chelter, with 1219 inhabitants,
Wesr Buffaloe, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the county
of 2 daa aa containing 2523 inhabitants.
gst Caln, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the co
of Chefter, with 1003 snflieeaties: y Fa Saar
West Cambridge, a town of Maffachufetts, in the county
of Middlefex, containing 971 inhabitants.
West
WES
West Cape, a cape on the W. coaft of Tavai-poe-nam-
moo, the fouthernmoft ifland of New Zealand. S. lat. 45°
54’. W. long. 193° 17/.
West Cappel, a town of Holland, in the ifland of Wal-
cheren ; 6 miles N.W. of Middleburg.
WES
by a peninfula, called Portland Ridge. N. lat. 17°48! W
long. 77°. q
West Indies, in Geography and Commerce, comprehends
all the iflands that lie in the Caribbzean fea, between North
and South America; and alfo a few of the neighbouring
West Chefler, a county of New York, containing 30,272» fettlements on the continent. (See Wef Inpigs.) The
inhabitants.
The following ftatiftical table is founded upon the cenfus
of 1810.
Towns. Population. Sen. Eleétors,
Bedford - = = - 2,374 241
Cortlandt - - - 3,054 182
Eatft-Chefter - - - 1,039 96
Greenfburgh - - - 1,862 137
Harrifon - - - 1,119 66
Mamaroneek - - - 496 28
Mount-Pleafant - - - 3,119 218
New-Caitle - - - 1,291 72
New-Rochelle - - - 996 78
North-Caftle - - - 1,366 119
North-Salem - - - 1,204 102
Pelham - - - - 267 19
Poundridge - - - 1,249 124
Rye - 2 . - 1,278 85
Scarfdale - - - =e 250 15
Somers - - - - 1,782 142
South-Salem - - - 1,566 186
Wett-Chefter - - - 1,969 105
White Plains - - = 098 68
Yonkers - - - - 1,365 93
York-town - - - 1,924 142
30,272 2,318
It fends three members to the houfe of aflembly. It is
fituated on the E. fide of the Hudfon, N. of New York
county ; bounded N. by Dutchefs county, E. by the ftate
of Conneéticut, S. by Long ifland found and Eatft river,
W. by Haerlem river and the Hudfon; or by New York
county, the flate of New Jerfey, and the county of Rock-
land. Its area is about 480 fquare miles, or 307,200 acres,
fituated between 40° 47! and 41° 22! N. lat.; 3° and 32!
E. long. from New York.
West Cheffer, a poft-townfhip of New York, at the
5.W. extremity of Weft Chefter county, on Eaft river; 12
miles from New York. Its medial extent from N. to S.
may be 4 miles, and from E. to W. about 5, with an area
of 20 fquare miles. It is a valuable traét of land, fome-
what ftony, with a large proportion of clayey loam, which,
with good hufbandry, may be rendered produdtive. Weft
Chefter village, fituated at the head of the navigation on Weft
Chefter creek, contains about 25 dwellings, an epifcopal
church, a Friends’ meeting-houfe, a fchool-houfe, a grift-
mill, and about 200 inhabitants. Adjoining to it are a bed
of marble and an extenfive common. In the townfhip are
feveral manufa¢tories, grift-mills, three houfes for worfhip,
one for Friends, one for Epifcopalians, and one for Dutch
Lutherans, and fix {chool-houfes, and many elegant coun-
try-feats. For its population, &c. fee the preceding article.
Wesr Chefler Borough, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in
the county of Chefter, containing 471 inhabitants.
West Creek, a river of New Jerfey, which runs into the
Delaware bay, N. lat. 39° 14/. W. long. 74° 57’,
West Fallowfield, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Chefter, containing 1157 inhabitants.
West Gothland, or Weftrogothia. See GoTHLAND.
West Harbour, a bay on the S. coaft of Jamaica, formed
larger iflands, or greater Antilles, are, Jamaica, belonging to
the Englifh, Cuba (Spanifh), Porto Rico (Spanifh), and
St. Domingo (French and Spanifh). The {maller iflands
or leffer Antilles, called alfo the Caribbee iflands, are di
vided into /eeward and windward iflands. The former are
Tortola, the Saints, Barbuda, Antigua, St. Kitt’s, Nevis,
Montferrat, and Dominica (Englifh), Guadaloupe and
Marigalante (French), St. Euftatia and Martin (Dutch),
St. Thomas, Santa Cruz, and St. John (Danifh), and St.
Bartholomew (Swedifh). The latter are, Barbadoes, St.
Vincent, Grenada, and Tobago (Englifh), Martinico and
St. Lucia (French). The iflands on the coaft of Terra
Firma are, Trinidad and Margarita (Spanifh), Curaffoa and
Bonaire (Dutch). The fettlements on the continent of
South America are, Demerara, Berbice, Effequibo, and Suri-
nam (Dutch). In fpecifying the monies, coins, currencies,
and exchanges of the Weft Indies, we fhall avail ourfelves of
the arrangement of Dr. Kelly in his valuable work, and
clafs the iflands under the five general heads of Englith,
French, Danifh, Dutch, and Spanifh; premifing, that though
the feveral iflands and fettlements, which we have already
enumerated, are fubje€t to various political changes, they
neverthelefs, for the moft part, retain the weights, meafures,
and denominations of money belonging to the European
nations by which they have been colonized.
_ In the Engli/b iflands, accounts are kept in pounds, fhil-
lings, and pence currency ; the Weft India currency being
an imaginary money, which varies confiderably in its propor-
tion to fterling, fo that it is in fome places reckoned at 140,
and in others 200, for roo/. Englifh, more or lefs. The
principal coin circulating in the Weft Indies is the Spanifh
dollar, and this feems to be the ftahdard by which the value
of all other monies is regulated ; and with regard to the pro-
portion between fterling and currency, it fhould be obferved,
that although it has been declared by different authorities,
yet it is chiefly regulated by the courfe of exchange with
London. Of the Englifh iflands, the firft we fhall take
notice of is Jamaica. ‘The currency of this ifland is 140/.,
and its proportion to fterling is as 7 to 5; fo that 1/. fter-
ling is = 28s. currency, and 1/. currency = 145. 33d. fter~
ling. The price of the dollar is 6s. 8d. currency.
The gold coins current in this ifland, with their value in
currency, appear in the following Table.
Jamaica
Currency.
dwt. gr.) 2. 5. d.
Spanifh Doubloon - =e Doel e Can Onno
Two pittole piece - 8 16| 210 0
Piltole - - - ZA Nr ee)
Half piftole - - 2) A Oni) 36
Portuguefe Johanes (called joe) 1SI2eeETON
Half joe - - 0) 16 ez) nso
Quarter joe - = AOL Lex. cea on
Moidore - - 6) 22) 2-0) ©
Half moidore - - So | Tonle
Englith Guinea -— - - Seon ennr2) 6
Half guinea - - 216)0%6 3
* ~Seven-fhilling piece - 1 19 | 0 10 10
er2 The
WEST INDIES.
The deduGion for every grain of deficiency of weight is
3d. currency. ’ { y
The filver coins of Jamaica are dollars, with their halves,
quarters, eighths, and fixteenths, pafling for 6s. 84., 3s. 4d.,
Is. 8d., 10d., and 5d. currency. Befides, here are dits or
bitts, being Spanifh reals, and pafling for 75d. currency ; fo
that 10 bits and sd. currency make a dollar, and 1 bit is
worth 5,5,d. fterling. Piflercens, or two-bit pieces, which are
Spanifh pecetas, pafs for 15. 3d. currency, and are worth
roid. fterling. Englifh fhillings and fixpences occafionally
pafs as piftereens and bits. From the above ftatement it
appears, that the intrinfic par of the currency of Jamaica
with refpeét to fterling is as follows ; the calculations being
made according to the mint price of gold and filver in
England :
dat sate
bo Englifh gold coins, 100/. fterling = 154 15 0 s
3 2 )Spanifh ditto - - . - 15613 2(6
S = )Portuguefe ditto - - - 155 OOf&
a Dollar - 5 2) ot 7 4 gL
By a law of the Jamaica aflembly, the exchange with
England was fixed at 40 per cent. ; but it has confiderably
varied : bills being fometimes at a premium of 20 per cent.
above the legal exchange, and feldom under 10: dollars oc-
cafionally bear a premium of 3 or 4 per cent.
The currency of Barbadoes is fometimes reckoned at 135,
and fometimes at 140, for 1oc/. fterling ; but it has never
been fettled by legal authority. The value of the coins has
been eftablifhed by proclamation, and according to thefe
values the par is above 140. - _ :
The gold coins current here, with their legal value, are
fhewn in the following Table.
ee Eee
Barbadoes
Currency.
Half guinea -
Seven-fhilling piece
dwt. gr.}| 1. s. ad.
Spanifh = Doubloon - - ‘faz 8} 4 100
Two-piftole piece - ShrGp2-15- 16
Piftole - - - ig! Shwe 246
Half piftole - - ae Werwne gs
Portuguefe Johanes (called joe) - | 18 10} 5 © 0
Half joe - . 9 5|210 0
Quarter joe - - 414) 50
Moidore - - Guar) wap 6
Half moidore - 310/018 9g
Englifh Guinea - - - ig 28s} DLO" se
- 2 O15 0
- I © 10 0
N.B.—The deduétion for light coin is 23d. currency for
every grain of deficiency. '
The current filver coins are dollars, with halves, quarters,
eighths, and fixteenths, lay c:) for 65. 3d., 3s. 1gds, Is. 63d,
gid., and 43d. currency. Alfo bits, which are Spanifh reals,
and which pafs for 74d. currency ; thus, 10 bits make 1 dol-
lar, and 1 bit is worth 534d. fterling. Piftereens, or two-bit
pieces, which are Spanifh pecetas, pafs for 15. 3d. currency.
There are alfo French bits, called crimbal, or ifle du vent bits,
which pafs for 74d. currency. f Pe
The Barbadoes currency compared with fterling is,
ie Saar Os
bo Englith coins, 100/. fterlin Ts Ts Gy Te Pa
3 2 ) Spanith ditto . - are 75 ey) a
SS ) Portuguefe ditto - . - 14013 7({ &
a “{Dollarditto - - - - 14419 6)5
In the Englifh leeward iflands the dollar is reckoned at
gs.» and this rate is generally called the leeward currency.
A {mall circular piece cut out of the centre of the dollar,
about one-twelfth of its value, in order to prevent its ex-
portation, is allowed to pafs for one-eighth, and is ftamped
by authority with the initials of the ifland.
The dollar, thus cut, paffes for 8s. 3d. currency ; it is
called the ** cut dollar,”? by way of diftinGtion from the whole
or “round dollar.”” The piece taken out is fometimes called
the ‘ bit,’? and fometimes the ‘* moco,”? which moco is, in
fome places, one-fourth of the dollar, and in others one-
eighth. In thefe iflands there are {mall copper coins, called
ftampes, dogs, and half dogs, valued as in the following
Table.
Leeward Currency.
lon d
2 Half dogs - make 1 Dog - =o ore
14 Dog - - - 1Stampe - = © o ot
6 Dogs or 4 ftlampes - 1 Bit- - = 0 0 g
13 Bit <0 tet Moco. + = soir tat
1 Bits - - - rCutdollar = 0 8 3
12 Bits or 8 mocos - 1 Rounddolla= 0 g o
5 Round dollars - - 1 Guinea - = 2 § ©
8 Cut dollars =). = oD Juekegls =) = Siete.
16 Round dollars - - 1Doublon = 7 4 0
For a deficiency of weight, an allowance is made of 43d.
currency for Englifh grain. The exchange with London is
generally about 200 per cent.
In the Englith windward iflands the currencies are nearly
the fame as the former, allowing for fome local regulations
and cuitoms.
In the French iflands accounts are kept by the French
fettlers in livres, fols, and deniers ; and by the Englifh (par-
ticularly in exchanges) in pounds, fhillings, and pence cur-
rency ; the livre and fhilling being of the fame value.
The currency is the fame as that of the Englifh lee-
ward and windward iflands: but the names of the coins are
different ; the dog being called the noir, the ftampe the
tempé, the bit the efcalin, and the dollar the gourde.
The value of the coins appears in the following Table.
Leeward
Currency.
liv. fol.den.| 1s. de
The noir, or dog’ - S . o 26l00 4
The tempé, or foae - - ° 39/00 at
The trois tempés Pon O11 3\00 6%
The efcalin, or bit - - - O15 0l00 9g
The trois petites pieces - - 1 2 6)\o ©, az
The piece de trente fols, or piftereen| 1 10 olor 6
The moco ales se. Suinte™ 2, 5/0 1o 2.05
The gourde or dollar - - 9 00/09 0
The ecu of fix livres - - - 9 17 6/0 9 103
The Louis d’or - - - | 40 100/20 6
Guinea - - - - - 1.45. 0012.5 0
Napoleon of 40 francs - - | 6613 4/36 8
Doubloon = = Jos he age so019 ho
The following gold coins are taken by weight.
Portugal pieces, at - - - - 22 livres per gros
Counterfeit ditto, coined in America, at 20 ditto per gros
French and Spanifh coins deficient in 1
weight, at - - - - { ROW A SH. Pee BOR
Englith ditto at 8 livres, 8 fols per dwt., that is, 7 fols per
Englith grain.
In
WEST INDIES.
In the French part of St. Domingo, or Hayti, accounts
are moftly kept in dollars and cents, as in the United States.
‘The monies in circulation here are nearly the fame as in the
leeward iflands. Dollars are valued at 4s. 6d. fterling,
with halves and quarters in proportion: 11 efcalins pafs for
1 dollar, and 1 efcalin is reckoned at g cents. Doubloons
pafs for 16 dollars; joes for 8 ditto; French crowns for
1 dollar g cents, and the half-crowns in proportion; French
pieces of 5 francs pafs for g efcalins, or 81 cents.
In the Dutch colonies of St. Euftatia, St. Martin, Cura-
goa, accounts are kept in pieces of eight; that is, piaftres
current of 8 reals or {chillings, each real being fubdivided
into 6 ftivers.
The piaftre gourde or Spanifh dollar paffes for 11 reals or
bits ; and thus the current piaftre is worth 3s. 5d. fterling,
reckoning the dollar at 45. 8d. fterling.
The joe paffes here for 11 piaftres current; the Spanifh
fingle piftole for 44 piaftres, more or lefs ; the other Spanifh
and Portuguefe gold coins in proportion.
In the fettlements of Surinam, Berbice, Demerary, and
Effequibo, accounts are kept in guilders of 20 ftivers; the
ftiver being divided by fome' into 8 duits, and by others into
12 pennings.
All the coins of Holland circulate here, and are moitly
reckoned at 20 fer cent. above their value in Dutch currency.
The following is their general rate, as well as that of
other monies.
gdrs. ftiv. gdrs. ftiv.
10 Dubbelties = 1 0 Spanifh dollar = 3 0
Dae bith s- Sly Sd) Wueatoon =~ =i 33
Seftehalf - =o 52 Gold ducat = 6 6
Schilling’ - = 0 6 Guinea - = 14 10
Guilder - =1 4 Ryder ==) 16 16
Dalder ee so) Jaeie) | a0 ee fazio
Rixdollar - = 3 0 Doubloon - = 42 to 44
The chief circulating medium here is paper, iflued by
government.
In 1809 a new filver coinage was minted at the Tower of
London for thefe colonies, confitting of pieces of 3, 2, 1, 4,
and 4 guilders. The larger piece weighs 15 dwt.; and is
10z. 6 dwt. worfe than Englifh ftandard. Its value there-
fore is, 3s. 5d. fterling, or computing it as the dollar is now
rated in the Welt Indies (i. ¢. at 4s. 8d.), its value is 3s. 85d.,
and the {maller pieces in proportion. They are marked on
the reverfe, COLONIES OF ESSEQUIBO AND DEMERARY TOKEN ;
and the king’s head is on the obverfe.
The exchange with London fhould be about 12 guilders
for 14. fterling, but it varies confiderably above this, even to
20 guilders and upwards.
In the Danifh iflands accounts are kept in piaftres or rix-
dollars current (called alfo pieces of eight), fubdivided into
8 {chillings or bits, and each bit into 6 ftivers: accounts are
alfo kept in dollars of 100 cents, as in America. The filver
coins ftruck for the Danifh iflands are quadruple, double,
and fingle bits, and pieces of 1 and 3 ftivers. The Spanifh
dollar paffes for 124 bits, and each bit for 6% ftivers. The
leeward currency is ufed in the Danih iflands in the purchafe
or negociation of billson England: gold is valued at 1 dol-
lar per dwt. or 43d. currency per Englifh grain.
The monies, coins, weights, and meafures of the Spanifh
iflands are the fame as thofe in Spanifh America, or Mexico ;
accounts being kept in pefos or dollars of 8 reals, fubdivided
into 16 parts, and alfo into 34 maravedis de Plata Mexicanos,
The gold coins are doubloons of 8 ef{cudos d’oro, worth 15
pefos; halves and quarters in proportion. The filver coins
are, pefos Mexicanos or dollars, with halves and quarters,
6
called pecetas Mexicanas; alfo eighths and reals, and fix-
teenths, in due proportion.
Trinidad, having been for many years in the poffeffion
of the Englifh, has adopted the denominations of money of
the Englith iflands. Accounts therefore are here kept in
pounds, fhillings, and pence leeward currency ; and alfo in
dollars and bits, the bit being the oth part of a dollar.
There are here filver pieces of half bits and quarter bits.
The Spanifh, Portuguefe, and Englifh gold coins pafs as
follows in, Trinidad.
Leeward
Cwrrency.
dwt. gr. |dol.bits.| 4 5. d. |
Doubloon 4h 7 Bo page 8 4 O
Half ditto - 8 16 7 82.1. 3 52.00
Pifoles n.,.-. |. 4. Seth@itiches uG op
Half ditto - 2 4 20 o 18 o
Joe - - - 7 12 6 8 BB 1G
Guinea - 5.8 4 8 2 4.0
Half ditto - 2 16 a4 i aie
One-third ditto I 19 LT 52 |. (ora
Gold here is valued at 8s. 3d. currency per dwt. or 41d,
per grain.
The weights and meafures here are the fame as in Eng-
land, except that the cwt. is reckoned only 100 lbs. avoir-
dupois.
The monies and currency of St. Bartholomew ifland are
the fame with thofe of the other leeward iflands.
The regulations to which the Weft India exchanges are
fubje& are as follow. When bills drawn in the Weft In-
dies on London are not duly honoured, they are returned to
the drawer, with the following charges.
Damages. es P* |'Time how charged.
nnum.
Jamaica 8 per cent.| 6 per cent. Hon ate oF
fromthe time
Barbadoes 10 ditto 6 ditto ae eae
protett.
Grenada _| roditto | 6 ditto Teese ha
St. Vincent | 10 ditto 8 ditto .| ditto.
Tobago 10 ditto | 8 ditto ditto.
Trinidad | ro ditto | 6ditto | 4m ant. |
Dominica Io ditto 6 ditto ditto. |
Nevis - 10 ditto 8 ditto ditto.
Montferrat 10 ditto 8 ditto ditto.
Antigua - | 10 ditto 8 ditto ditto.
St. Kitt’s 10 ditto 8 ditto ditto.
Tortola - 10 ditto 8 ditto ditto.
Demerara ‘ ;
Effequibo : 5 rom date o
Berbice 25 ditto 6 ditto prefentation.
Surinam
St. Thomas fi Sao
St. John 10 ditto 10 ditto oa ae f
Santa Cruz tps, BEATA
There are occafionally other charges befides the above,
fuch
WES
fuch as poftage, notarial expences, and difference of ex-
change.
If a bill, drawn in the Weft Indies on any part of Great
Britain, be noted for non-acceptance, the holder may oblige
the drawer, by legal procefs, to give fecurity in the ifland
for the amount, without waiting fin the bill being protefted
for non-payment. See Kelly’s Cambift, vol. i.
West J/land, in Geography, one of the fmaller Philippine
iflands, near the fouth coaft of Mindoro. N. lat. 12° 18'.
E. long. 121° 12'.—Alfo, a {mall ifland at the eaft entrance
of the ftraits of Sunda. S, lat. 5° 27'. E. long. 106°
20'.—Alfo, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the
fouth coaft of Cumbava. S. lat. 8° 49'. E. long. 119° 2!.
West Kirk, a town of the ifland of Weftra, in a bay on
the fouth coaft. N. lat. 59° 8/. W. long. 2° 51!.
West Houghton, a townfhip in the parifh of Dean, and
county of Lancafter, England, contained, in 1811, 663
houfes and 3810 inhabitants.
West Penn, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the county
of Northampton, containing 947 inhabitants.
West Point, a town oF Virginia, on the York river;
35 miles E. of Richmond. W. long.
76° 56.
West Point, a town of New York, on the right bank of
the Hudfon river, in the county of Orange. This was a
poft of great confequence, efpecially with refpe& to the
communication between the northern and the middle colo-
nies, and the pofleflion very defirable to the Britifh general,
who entered into a treaty with general Arnold the com-
mander to betray it. The adjutant-general of the Britifh
army, major André, was employed by fir Henry Clinton as
the agent on this bufinefs, and being difcovered, he was
executed as a fpy; 42 miles N. of New York. N. lat.
41° 23'. W. long. 74°.
West Point, a cape at the weftern extremity of the
ifland of Anticofti. N. lat. 49° so’. W. long. 64° 30!.
Wesr River, a river of Virginia, which runs into Black
bay, N. lat. 36° 30!, W. long. 76° 17'.—Alfo, a river
of Maryland, which runs into the Chefapeak, N. lat. 38°
4. W. long. 76° 42'.—Alfo, a river of the province of
aine, which runs into Machias bay, N. lat. 44° 45).
W. long. 67° 19).
Wesr River, or Wantaflic, a river of Vermont, which
runs into the Conneéticut, N. lat. 42° so’. W. long.
73° 31".
3 Wer River Mountain, a mountain of New Hamphhire,
near Weft river.
West Town, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the county
of Chefter, with 790 inhabitants.
Wesr Wain, the weft fhore of Hudfon’s bay.
WESTBROUGH, a town of Maffachufetts, incor-
porated in 1717, in the county of Worcetfter, containing
1048 inhabitants; 33 miles W. of Bofton.
WESTBURY, a market-town and borough in the
hundred of the fame name, and county of Wilts, England,
is fituated at the diftance of 24 miles N.W. by W. from
Salifbury, and 97 miles W. by S. from London. Nothing
is known with certainty of its hiftory, till the reign of
Edward I., when it was conttituted a corporate town by
charter, under the jurifdiétion of a mayor, recorder, and
twelve capital burgefles.- Weftbury fends two members to
parliament, and has done fo regularly fince the 27th year of
Henry VI., who renewed its charter of incorporation, and
beftowed upon it the additional privilege of being repre-
fented in the national councils. ‘The right of eleétion is in
the holders of burgage tenures, being refident within the
borough, and not receiving alms: the mayor is the re-
12
N. lat. 37° 30.
WES
turning officer. The town confifts principally of one long
ftreet, running nearly in a dire¢tion north and fouth. Ac-
cording to the population return of the year 1811, it con-
tained 351 houfes, and 1790 inhabitants, who were chiefly
engaged in the manufa&ture of woollens. A market is held
weekly on Fridays; and two fairs annuzlly, when there is
ufually a large fupply of cattle, horfes, fheep, pigs, cheefe,
&c. The borough and hundred of Weftbury form only
one parifh: for the former, a court-leet is held by the mayor
in November annually ; and for the latter, one in May by
the fteward of the lord of the manor, at which two high
conftables are appointed for fecuring the public peace.
The only public buildings in this town which demand par-
ticular notice, are the town-hall and the church. The hall
is a convenient edifice, in which the borough-courts are
held : it is fituated near the centre of the town, and is alfo
appropriated in part as a wool-hall. The church is a lar
ancient ftru€ture of ftone, with a tower in the middle. In
it are feveral monuments in honour of perfons of confidera-
ble note.
About a mile to the fouth of Weftbury is the village of
Leigh, commonly called Weftbury-Leigh; fuppofed by
feveral antiquaries to be the place defignated in Affer by
the word Aiggles, where king Alfred encamped on the
night previous to the battle of Ethandune.
Heywood houfe, fituated about two miles due north from
Weltbury, was built in the reign of king James I., by
James, lord Ley, afterwards created earl of Marlborough.
It was long poffeffed by the family of Phipps; but is now
the property and feat of Abraham Ludlow, efq.—Beauties
of England and Wales, vol. xv. Wiltthire. By J. Brit-
ton, F.S.A. 1814.
Westsury, a village in the hundred of Ford, and
county of Salop, England, fituated 8 miles W. by S. from
Shrewfbury. In this village is a refpeCtable free-fchool ;
and in the church, among other monuments, is one raifed to
the memory of general Severne, who inherited Wallop-hall,
in this parifh. About two miles S.W. of Weitbury is
Cawfe, or Caux-Caftle, which is fuppofed to have been
erected by Roger Corbett, who held of earl Roger de
Montgomery a trac of land confifting of thirty-nine
manors. It is conje€tured that he gave the above name to
this his capital feat, in allufion to a cattle in the Pays de
Caux, in Normandy. As he and his fon probably joined
with Robert de Belefme in his rebellion, the caftle is fup-
pofed to have been forfeited to Henry I., who gave it to
Paris Fitz-John, from whom it was taken by the Welfh.
It was reftored to the original lords, and in the firft of kin
John a weekly market was obtained for it, at the inftance oF
Robert Corbett. Its proximity to the Welfh frontiers
rendered its tenure uncertain, and we find that it was again
feized by the Welfh, and reftored by Henry III. In the
reign of Edward IIL., the male line of the family becoming
extind, the caftle was transferred, by marriage of a daugh-
ter of the houfe, to the Staffords, earls of Stafford; on the
execution of the laft of whom, Edward, duke of Bucking-
ham, it was forfeited to the crown, but was reftored to his
fon Edward. It was alienated in the reign of Elizabeth
to Robert Harcourt, from whom it defcended to lord vif-
count Weymouth. The {cite of this caftle is perhaps one
of the moft lofty and commanding in the whole range of
the Salopian frontier. It is an infulated ridge, rifing ab-
ruptly from a deep ravine on one fide, and floping towards
a vait valley, bounded by the Stiper-ftones on the other.
The keep-mount is fingularly fteep and towering ; it muft
have been afcended by fteps, or by a winding path, but no
traces of either at prefent remain; part of a well is {till dif-
tinguifhable ;
WES
tinguifhable ; the caftle itfelf is nearly deftroyed. Parts of
one of the entrance-gateways, evidently of a more recent
date than the original caftle, are {till to be difcerned.—
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiii. Shropfhire. By
R. Rylance, 1811.
Wesrsury, a townfhip of Lower Canada, on the river
St. Francis.
WESTENBERG, a town of the marggravate of
Anfpach ; 6 miles N.E. of Anfpach.
WESTENSEE, a lake of the duchy of Holftein; 8
miles E. of Rendfburg.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of
Holftein, on the fide of the lake of the fame name; 8 miles
S.E. of Rendfburg.
WESTERBURG, a town of Germany, which gives
name toa lordfhip, fituated on the Wefterwald. The lords
of Wefterburg fucceeded the counts of Leiningen. They
are counts of Leiningen and lords of Wefterburg; 16 miles
W.N.W. of Weilburg.
WESTERHAM, a market-town in the hundred of
Wefterham and Eden-bridge, lathe of Sutton, and county
of Kent, England, is fituated near the confines of the
county towards Surrey, at the diftance of 5 miles W. from
Seven-Oaks, and 22 miles S.E. by S. from London. The
manor was given by Edward I. to the abbey at Weftmin-
fter, for the performance of certain religious fervices for the
repofe of the foul of queen Eleanor. He alfo granted
feveral privileges to the abbot, which were confirmed by
Edward III., who alfo gave permiffion to hold a weekly
market at Wefterham, which is {till continued. After the
diffolution, Henry VIII. conveyed thefe eftates to fir John
Grefham, younger brother of fir Thomas Grefham, the
founder of the Royal Exchange: and his defcendant, fir
Marmaduke Grefham, fold this manor to the Wardes of
Squerries, a refpeétable feat in this parifh, near the weft end
of the town; and John Warde, efq. is now the owner. Wef-
terham is ftated, in the population return of 1811, to contain
272 houfes, and 1437 inhabitants. The market is now
held on Wednefday ; and here are two annual fairs. The
church, a fpacious edifice, contains a great variety of fepul-
chral memorials ; among which is a neat cenotaph in com-
memoration of major-general James Wolfe, a native of
this town, who was flain before Quebec in 1759. This
town alfo gave birth to Dr. Benjamin Hoadley, who, in the
laft century, was fucceflively bifhop of Bangor, Hereford,
Salifbury, and Winchetter.
Some fingular land-flips are recorded by Hafted, as hav-
ing happened at different periods in this parifh. The firft
which is mentioned occurred in 1596, near Oakham-hill,
about a mile and a half fouthward from the town ; where
about nine acres of ground continued in motion for eleven
days; fome parts finking into pits, and others rifing into
hills. A fimilar occurrence took place in 1756, at Toy’s-
hill, about a mile and a half to the eaft of the town, where a
field of two acres and a half underwent confiderable altera-
tions of furface, from an almoft imperceptible motion.—
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. viii. Kent. By
E. W. Brayley, 1808. Hafted’s Hiftory of Kent, 1778.
WESTERHAUSEN, a town of the bifhopric of
Halberftadt ; 3 miles E. of Regenftein.
WESTERLEY, a town of America, in Rhode ifland ;
30 miles §.S.W. of Providence.
WESTERLOO, atown of France, in the department of
the Two Nethes; 15 miles E.N.E. of Malines.
WESTERMO, a town of Sweden, in Sudermanland ;
62 miles W. of Stockholm.
WESTERN Amplitude, Church, Horizon, and Ocean.
See the feveral articles.
WES
WESTERN, in Geography, a town of the ftate of Maffa-
chufetts, in the county of Worcetter, containing 1014 inha-
bitants ; 20 miles W. of Worcefter.
Western Jflands. See Azores.
Western //lands. See Hepripes.
Western Reef, rocks in the Spanifh Main, near the
Mofquito fhore. _N. lat. 14° 42/. W. long. 82° 25!.
WESTERNACH, a river of Bavaria, which runs into
the Mindel, 2 miles N. of Mindelheim.
WESTEROS, or Wesvresas, or Weftern Arofia, fo
called to diftinguifh it from Oftra Aros, or Eaftern Arofia,
the ancient name of Upfala, a town of Sweden, and capital
of Weftmannland, fituated on a {mall river clofe to the lake
Meler. This is efteemed by the native writers a place of
high antiquity ; and they derive its appellation, by a fanciful
etymology, from the river Ar, and Os, a mouth, and fuppofe
it alluded to by Tacitus, and by Jornandes the Gothic hif-
torian. However this be, the name occurs in the earlieft
times of Swedith hiftory. Wefteros carries on a confider-
able commerce with Stockholm acrofs the lake Meler ; par-
ticularly in copper and iron from the mines, which abound
in the province of Weftmannland. It is a large ftraggling
town, compofed of wooden houfes, and contains the ruins of
an ancient palace, formerly inhabited by the kings of
Sweden. It is a bifhop’s fee ; and the cathedral, which is
built with brick, is celebrated for the tower, efteemed the
higheft in the kingdom; the lower part of this tower is
fquare, and fupports an oftagon fpire, covered with copper.
Within this cathedral is the tomb of Eric XIV. Wefteros
has often fuffered much by fire, particularly in 1714. It is
36 miles W.S.W. from Upfal. N. lat. 59° 36’. E. long.
16° 3o!.
Wesreros, a townfhip of New York, in Oneida county,
bounded N. by Boonville, E. by Steuben, S. by Floyd
and Rome, W. by Lee, which was ereéted from the W.
part in 18ir. It is watered by fmall head waters of
Mohawk river, and has plenty of mill-feats. The foil, fur-
face, and produ@ts, are fimilar to thofe of Steuben and the
adjoining towns. In 1810, the population was 2416, and
the number of ele€tors was 275. The lands are well culti-
vated and produétive. The inhabitants are rich, and are
clothed in houfehold manufa@ure.
WESTERWALD, a diftri& of Germany, in the north
part of Wetteraw, or Wetteravia.
Westerwatp Larth, a kind of earth mentioned by
Agricola, of a whitifh-yellow colour, of a like nature to the
terra Silefiaca, but preferable to it, as yielding more falt.
He tells us, that it diffolves filver fo much better than other
menitrua, as to render it potable, and capable of being pre-
pared into a ufeful medicine in cephalic cafes. Boyle’s
Works, vol. i. p. sor.
WESTERWYCK, in Geography, a fea-port of Sweden,
in the province of Smaland, fituated in a bay of the Baltic.
This bay is called Sparefund ; and near it is a cuftom-houife,
where all homeward and outward bound fhips are fearched.
Welterwyck formerly ftood two Swedith miles higher up in
the country, on the fpot where the market-town of Gam-
melly now ftands.° It has a good harbour, a commodious
quay, and a cloth manufacture, and carries a brifk trade in
fhip timber, and all forts of naval ftores; 68 miles N, of
Calmar. N. lat. 57° 45/. E. long. 16° 24!.
_ WESTEY, a townthip of Ohio, in the county of Wath-
ington, containing 172 inhabitants. .
WESTFIELD, a river of Maffachufetts, which runs
into the Conneéticut, 4 miles S. of Springfield—Alfo, a
town of the ftate of Maffachufetts, in the county of Hamp-
fhire, containing 2130 inhabitants ; 6 miles W. of Spring-
field.
WES
field.—Alfo, a poft-town of New York, on the eaft fide
of lake George; 6 miles S. of Ticonderoga.—Alfo, a
townfhip of New York, in Richmond county, in Staten
ifland. At its fouthern extremity in the S.W. is a ferry
of three-quarters of a mile to Amboy, in New Jerfey. It
has one church near the centre, and well cultivated land.
The whole population in 1810 was 1444, and the number
of eleGtors 139.—Alfo, a town of Vermont, in the county
of Orleans, containing 149 inhabitants.—Alfo, a town of
New Jerfey, in the county of Effex, containing 2152 inha-
bitants ; 8 miles W. of Elizabethtown.
WESTFORD, a town of Vermont, in Chittenden
county, containing 866 inhabitants.—Alfo, a poft-town of
Maflachufetts, inthe county of Middlefex, containing 1330
inhabitants ; 28 miles N.W. of Bofton.—Alfo, a townfhip
of New York, in Otfego county ; 8 miles S.E. of Coo-
perftown, ereéted in 1808 from the N.W. part of Worcef-
ter. Its furface is broken by hills and valleys, but hasmuch
rich mould in the valleys. The hills are adapted to
grazing, and it has many traéts of meadow land. Its tim-
ber confifts of maple, beech, afh, elm, bafs-wood, and
pine ; and the whole is hen abundantly by fprings and
brooks. In 1810 the whole population confifted of 1215
perfons, and the number of electors was 73, and that of
taxable inhabitants 177.
WESTGATE Bay, abay of the Thames, on the coaft
of Kent, W. of Margate.
WEST GREENWICH, a town of Rhode ifland, in
the county of Kent, with 1619 inhabitants.
WESTHAM, a town of Virginia; 4 miles N.W. of
Richmond. .
WESTHAMPTON, a poft-town of New York, in
the fouth-eaft part of Long ifland.—Alfo, a townfhip of
Maffachufetts, in the county of Hampfhire, containing 793
inhabitants ; 7 miles W. of Northampton.
WEST HANOVER, atownfhip of Pennfylvania, in
the county of Dauphin, containing 2461 inhabitants.
WESTHAVEN, a townbhip of Conneéticut ; 3 miles
W.S.W. of Newhaven.
WESTHOFEN, a town of France, in the department
of Mont Tonnerre ; 5 miles N.N.W. of Worms.—Alfo,
a town of France, in the department of the Lower Rhine ;
12 miles W. of Strafburg.
WESTHOVEN, a town of Germany, in the county of
Mark, at the foot of a mountain near the Roer; once the
domain of the celebrated Witikind, and poffeffed of confi-
derable privileges; 4 miles S.W. of Schwiert.—Alfo, a
town of Vermont, in the county of Rutland, containing
679 inhabitants.
WESTING, in Navigation, the fame with departure.
WESTLAND, in Geography, a town of Ohio, in the
county of Guernfey, with 250 inhabitants.
WESTMAES, atown of the ifland of Beyerland ; 12
miles W. of Dort.
WESTMAN, or WesrmontA, anifland in the North fea,
near the coaft of Iceland. N. lat. 63° 20'. W.long. 20° 28’.
The Weitman iflands fuffered very much about the com-
mencement of the feventeenth century, by the piracies of
the Algerines ; almoft their whole population being deftroyed
or carried into captivity.’ In 1627 a large body of Algerine
irates landed on various parts of the fouthern coaft of Ice-
find ; and not fatisfied with the booty they obtained, mur-
dered between forty and fifty of the inhabitants, and carried
off nearly four hundred se oi of both fexes. Thefe un-
fortunate captives, tranfported to Algiers, were expofed
there to fo much wretchednefs, that nine years afterwards,
when the king of Denmark obtained their liberty by ran-
WES
fom, only thirty-feven out of the whole number were found
to be furviving ; of thefe, thirteen fucceeded in reaching
their native land. A prieft named Olaus Egilfon, a captive,
and releafed in 1629, left a MS. relation of this event, which
has been fince publifhed in Danifh.
W estMAn, a town on theW. coatt of the ifland of Stromoe.
WEST MANCHESTER, a townhhip of Pennfylvania,
in the county of York, containing 978 inhabitants.
WESTMANNLAND, or Wesrmanta, a province of
Sweden, bounded on the north by Dalecarlia, on the eatt
by Upland, on the fouth by Sudermanland, Nericia, and
the Meler lake, and on the W. by Warmeland ; about 110
miles in length, and 80 in breadth where wideft. The foil
is fertile, and confifts moftly of arable lands, with meadows,
paflures, and very fine woods in proportion; and it is
reckoned the moft famous province in the kingdom for
mines. ‘The iron trade carried on by the inhabitants of
Weftmannland, is the moft confiderable in all Sweden: the
quantity of iron exported annually from Wefteros, Ar-
boga, and Kioping, is very large. The fouth part of the
province chiefly confilts of arable and meadow lands, and
fupplies the inhabitants of the mine diftri@s with corn ; and
the northern parts abound in mine-works, and fine woods.
Weitmannland is well watered, both with rivers and lakes,
which yield a vaft plenty of fifh; and the Meler lake is a
great advantage to its commerce, as it opens a paflage from
this province to Stockholm. The chief fubfiftence of the
inhabitants is derived from agriculture and the mines, breed-
ing of cattle and fifhing. The wood, hammer-mills, &c.
alfo employ a great many hands.
WEST MARLBOROUGH, a townhhip of Pennfyl-
vania, in the county of Chefter, containing 917 inhabitants.
WESTMEATH, a county of Ireland, which formerly
was a part of the kingdom of Meath, but on the divifion
into counties was feparated from it, and both now form a
part of the province of Leinfter. It has Cavan on the N.,
Meath on the E., the King’s county on the S., Rofcom-
mon, from which it is feparated by the Shannon, and Long-
ford on the W. Its greateft extent from E. to W. is 33
Irifh (42 Englifh) miles, and from N. to S. 27 Irifh (34
Englifh) miles. Its area meafures 231,538 acres, or 361
f{quare miles Irifh, equal to 371,979 acres, or 577 fquare
miles Englifh meafure. The number of parifhes is 62, of
which 21 have churches, and all but three are in the
diocefe of Meath. ‘The population was computed by Dr.
Beaufort to be 69,000. No part of this country is embar-
rafled with mountains, but a great number of acres are ren-
dered unprodu€tive by large lakes and extenfive bogs; yet
the convenience of fuel, the abundance of gravelly hills, and
the variety of profpe&s which arife from thefe beautiful
lakes, and the undulating form of the furface, render it a
very pleafant and healthful country. The foil is in general
light, but in fome places deep and.rich ; and though there is
more of it kept under vial than employed in tillage, yet
the plough is by no means negleéted ; for after fupplying
the home confumption, the farmers of this county largely
contribute to the exportation of oats from Drogheda. The
Royal Canal from Dublin to Tarmonbury, on the Shan-
non, was to pafs through this county, and it has been car-
ried as ‘far as Mullingar; but the difficulties into which the
company has fallen make it doubtful when the original de-
fign will be completed. Weftmeath is remarkably well
watered. Befides the Shannon, which forms part of its
weftern boundary, the Inny and Brofna, two rivers of
confiderable extent, pafs through its lakes, and infulate the
greater partof it. ‘The Inny rifes in the county of Cavan,
and firft enters Lough Shelin, which feparates that nreacd
rom
WES
from Weltmeath ; then in its courfe paffing through the
loughs Derveragh and Iron, it is at length loft in that vaft
expanfe of the Shannon, called Lough Ree, or the Royal
Lake. The Brofna, rifing in Lough Iron, flows from it
to Lough Hoyle, after quitting which it paffes the town of
Mullingar ; it then expands into Lough Ennel, and when
again contraéted, flowing by the town of Kilbeggan, it en-
ters the King’s county, through which it proceeds to the
Shannon. As Weftmeath is nearly central, fo its ftreams
flow in both dire@tions. 'Thofe which have been already
mentioned, joining the Shannon, are mixed with the Atlan-
tic ocean ; whilft other {mall ftreams, being colleéted in the
river Dele, take an eaftern direction, and being united with
the Boyne, flow to the Irifh fea.
Befides Lough Shelin on the north, and Lough Ree on
the weftern boundary, there are fix confiderable eae in this
county, and feveral {mall ones. Thefe are well ftored with
fith of various kinds, and afford a number of beautiful pro-
{pets ; yet it is to be regretted that fo many acres fhould be
almoft an unprofitable wafte. The fifh found in thefe lakes
are, perch, pike, bream, tench, trout, and very fine eels.
The trout are often of ten pounds weight, and as red asa
falmon. Such is the abundance, that Mr. Young tells us
that a child with packthread and a crooked pin is able to
catch perch enough in an hour to fupport a family for a day.
This territory once belonged to Mortimer, earl of March,
who married the daughter and heirefs of Lionel, duke of
Clarence, third fon of Edward III. This nobleman re-
fided much in Ireland, and was probably induced by the
beauties of the fituation to build a palace at Fahatty, on the
banks of Lough Derveragh, one of the fineft of thefe
lakes, the remains of which were faid above a century ago
to retain ‘ the lineaments and footfteps of ancient {tate and
magnificence.”” When Richard II. was depofed by Henry
of Lancafter, Mortimer was the next in fucceffion to the
throne, and he found it neceffary to conceal himfelf, which
he did by retiring to Fahatty. By a marriage with his
daughter, Richard, duke of York, fucceeded to his Irifh
property, and to his right of fucceffion. This nobleman
refided in Ireland for fome years as lord-lieutenant, before
circumftances enabled him to urge his claim to the crown,
which, after a long and bloody civil war, was obtained by
his fon. The attachment of the fettlers in Ireland to this
family was fhewn in the reign of Henry VII., by their
pers embracing the caufe of Simnel and Warbeck.
Mullingar is the fhire town of Weftmeath ; but Athlone
is a place of more confequence. For an account of thefe,
and of Kinnegad, Kilbeggan, Fore, &c. fee their refpective
articles in this work. Weftmeath has three reprefentatives in
the imperial parliament, two for the county, and one for the
borough of Athlone.—Beaufort, Young, Colleétanea, &c.
WESTMINSTER, a fpacious, populous, and im-
portant city of the county of Middlefex, England, is
fituated on the north bank of the river Thames, and con-
ftitutes the weftern extremity of the metropolis. Although
in every refpe€t, local pofition alone excepted, independent
of London, Weftminfter conftitutes a moft effential portion
of the great metropolis of the Britifh empire. The line of
demarcation between thefe two cities has long indeed, by
the rapid increafe of buildings, ceafed to be perceptible to
general obfervation ; but it is not the lefs real and efficient.
The inhabitants of Weftminfter, it is true, confider them-
felves, in a general fenfe, as belonging to London ; but for
the purpofe of internal difcrimination, they confine the term
Weltminfter to its original fignification, the fcite and the
environs of the prefent collegiate, formerly the abbey-
church of St. Peter. Confidering the city in this reftrifted
~ Vou. XXXVIII.
WES
fenfe, and St. Peter’s church as the centre, the latitude of
Weltmintter is 51° 29! 52!" N., and the longitude 0° 7! 32"
W.., from the meridian of the royal obfervatory in Green-
wich-park. St. Peter’s church bears from St. Paul’s in
London W.S.W. 2900 yards, or above one mile and five
furlongs. The form of Weftminfter, in its prefent extended
ftate, is triangular, having the bafe along the line of Oxford-
ftreet, which feparates it from Marybourne on the north ;
and the vertex on the Thames, where the buildings termi-
nate at Millbank on the fouth. The bafe, from Tyburn
turnpike, at the weftern extremity of Oxford-ftreet, to the
vicinity of Chancery-lane, at Lincoln’s-inn, meafures nearly
two miles. The fide on the weft from that turnpike to the
vertex on Millbank, is alfo about two miles. ‘The remaining
fide on the eaft, in a right line from the vertex to Chancery-
lane, is one mile and fix furlongs. ‘The ground occupied by
the buildings of the city and liberties therefore contains one
{quare mile and a half, or about one thoufand acres. Welt-
minfter and London come into contaét at Temple-bar, the
boundary of the former city commencing at the Thames on
the weft of the Temple-buildings, ee running north to
Lincoln’s-inn. There quitting London, it turns weftward
to the eaftern extremity of Oxford-ftreet, excluding the
church and parifh of St. Giles-in-the-Fields, which belong
to the county of Middlefex.
General View of Weftminfler.—From the extent of ground
occupied by the city and liberties, and from the general po-
pulation, amounting, by the enumeration of 1811, to
162,085 perfons, Weftminfter would, in another pofition,
be fully entitled to rank high among the fecondary ca-
pitals of Europe. In common language, the great aggre-
gate of Weftminfter is termed acity ; bu tthat term belongs
only in ftri€tnefs to the immediate environs of St. Peter’s
church, while all the other parts of the community are
{pread over the diftri& or liberties belonging to the mo-
nattic eftablifhment, of which that church was a principal
member. The city is of great antiquity, in the fenfe in
which antiquity is eftimated in Britain ; but the occupation
of the liberties is of comparatively late date. This portion of
Weltminfter may alfo be diftinguifhed, as to its age, into the
old and the new towns, by a line running north from
Charing-crofs up St. Martin’s-lane into Crown-ftreet, Soho-
{quare, and terminating near St. Giles’s church, at the eaft-
ern end of Oxford-{treet. On the eaft of this line lies the
old town, and on the weft fpreads out the new. The dif-
tribution of the ftreets, and the conftruétion of the buildings
of the city, fufficiently indicate their early origin ; an ob-
fervation not unfuitable to the extremities of the old town.
The new town, on the other hand, having been formed
when better notions of diftribution and arrangement began
to prevail, poffefles a high proportion of all the advantages
which fuch notions were calculated to produce. The abbey-
church of St. Peter is diftant from the limits of London at
Temple-bar, by the prefent ftreets along the S:rand and
Whitehall, about 2400 yards, or one mile and three fur-
longs ; but from Temple-bar to the extremity of the Strand,
at Charing-crofs, is only 1500 yards, or feven furlongs.
The origin of this ftreet is manifeft from its name, havin
been only a road along the ftrand, or bank of the Thames,
leading through the village of Charing to Weftmintter.
Without keeping however precifely along the margin of the
water, the road, owing to the fteep fall of the bank, was
carried forward at fuch a diftance as to permit fpacious
houfes and gardens to be formed on the flope between it
and the river. The refidence of the court, in early times,
was frequently in the Tower of London, or at fome place at
a diftance from the capital; but under Henry III., who
Sf reigned
WESTMINSTER.
reigned from 1216 to 1272, the court ufually refided in
Weftminfter. The courts of juftice, which had before ac-
eompanied the king in his motions, were, by his confirm-
ation of Magna Charta in 1225, made ftationary in Weit-
minfter, where the parliament alfo generally met. For the
convenience of attendance on the king, the courts of juftice,
and the parliament, for the enjoyment alfo of good open
air, and an agreeable profpe&, many of the nobles, and ef-
pecially of the bifhops, ereéted palaces along the banks of
the river. Perfons of inferior ftation, whofe chief depend-
ance for bufinefs and fubfiftence refted on thofe great men,
were neceflarily induced to fix their abode in their vicinity.
In this way, a chain of dwellings, of various forts, was pro-
greflively raifed between the cities of London and Weit-
minfter, and united both with the intervening village of
Charing. The fituations of thofe palaces, or inns, as they
were called, are preferved to the prefent day, in the fuccef-
fion of ftreets retaining their names, which communicate
from the Strand on both fides, efpecially to the river.
Thus, for inftance, from Temple-bar we come to ftreets
bearing the names of Effex, Arundel, Norfolk, Surry,
Somerfet, Savoy, Beaufort, Cecil, Salifbury, Durham,
York, &c., all calling up perfonages memorable in former
times; but of the houfes to which thofe names belonged, no
veltige, if we except the fragments of the palace of the Savoy,
and the prefent Northumberland-houfe, can now be faid to
remain. The oppofite fide of the Strand being’ cut off
from the ufe and the view of the Thames, was of courfe
little frequented ; but Exeter-change ftill indicates the refi-
dence of the celebrated Cecil, lord Burleigh, whofe fon
Thomas became earl of Exeter. Bedford and Southampton
ftreets declare the origin of their names. As late as in the
year 1353, when Edward III. was on the throne, the Strand
was an open highway, crofled and cut up by water-courfes from
the higher grounds. It wasthen repaired, but not before great
complaints had been made: for in the petition of the per-
fons who lived near the palace of Weftminfter to Edward II.,
“the footway from Temple-bar to the palace’’ is ftated to
be fo bad, that “the feet of horfes, and rich and poor men,
received conftant damage, efpecially in the rainy feafon ; the
footway being interrupted by thickets and bufhes.”” From
‘Temple-bar to the palace of Savoy, the Strand feems to have
been paved, or properly made about 1385, in the reign of
Richard II. : but the paving went no further till the latter
part of Elizabeth’s reign ; and in the 35th of Henry VIII.
the road was ftated to be “full of pits and floughs, very
perilous and noifome.” In the year 1533 the Strand took
the form of a ftreet, bordered on each fide with houfes and
ardens ; among which was Covent-garden, corruptedly fo
called from the garden of the convent, or abbey of Wett-
minfter, to which it belonged. Charing was ftilla detached
village ; St. Martin’s church ftood literally in the fields ;
and St. Giles’s, alfo furnamed in the fields, ftood in a
diftant hamlet in the country. Such, however, was the in-
creafe of the town in the end of Elizabeth’s reign, that in
1600 St. Martin’s-lane was built on both fides; and al-
though St. Giles’s church ftill ftood detached, the great
weft road, now called Holborn, (properly Old-bourne, from
the name of a fmall brook running along it,) was formed
ito a ftreet all the way into London at Fleet-ditch.
Covent-garden and Lincoln’s-inn-fields were partially built
on, as were Drury-lane and Long-acre, and principally in-
habited by the gentry. The village of Charing was long
before this time, or in 1292, adorned with a crofs by Ed-
ward I., being the laft {pot where the body of his queen
refted on- the way to. Weltminfter. In 1647 it was re-
moved, and in part employed in pavement at Whitehall ;
9
but foon after the Reftoration, its place was file, as it now
is, by a ftatue of Charles I. on horfeback. F Charing
to Weitmintter, the bank of the Thames was occupied by
the refidences of royal, or other diftinguifhed perfonages.
Firft was a palace for the king of Scotland, when he came
to court to attend the parliament, of which, on account of
lands he held in England, he was confidered a member. An
ancient painting, formerly in the college of arms in London,
reprefented Edward I. fitting in parliament, having on his
right-hand Alexander III., king of Scotland; and on
his left, Llewellyn, prince of Wales. The palace has long
been effaced, but its {cite is ftill called Scotland-yard. To
this fucceeded in pofition the palace of Whitehall, which
will be noticed in another place. The church of St. Martin
{tands within the limits of the old quarter, but its parifh
originally extended over the whole of the new quarter of
Weltminfter ; and out of it, as buildings increafed, the pa-
rifhes of St. Paul, Covent-garden, St. James, St. Anne, and
St. George, have fucceffively been formed.
Among the various improvements lately introduced into
the ftreets of Weftminfter, muft be reckoned the fubftitution
of gas-lights for oil-lamps, now much in ufe in fhops as
well as without doors. The gas, or vapour, is extra¢ted,
by a fpecies of diftillation, from pit-coal. Purified from the
incombuftible aerial fubftances with which it is extricated
from the coal, by tranfmiffion through a body of water, the
inflammable or carburetted hydrogen gas is conveyed by
pipes, like water, to the places where it is wanted. “By the
admiffion of flame to the orifice of the pipe, the gas takes
fire, producing together with a ftrong heat, a lively light of
peculiar force and brilliancy. The coals from which, in
London and Weftminfter, the gas is obtained with the
greateft effe€t, are the Lancafhire cannel, and the Scotch
fplint coals. Newcaftle coal is found to be much lefs
pure, but from its cheapnefs is now mottly ufed.
Origin and Hiftory of Weftminfler-—Much learning and
more fancy have been employed in devifing an etymology
for the name of London; but the name of Wettminfter is
too obvious to afford exercife for the fkill or the ingenuity
of the philologift or the antiquary. ‘The Saxon terms com-
pofing the latter name evidently refer to the church of St.
Paul, in London, in the eaft. Stowe indeed, and fome
later writers, carry the reference to a monaftery, not far
from the Tower of London, called the Eaft-minfter. But
that eftablifhment was founded only by Edward IIL., in the
middle of the fourteenth century, long pofterior to that of
Weftminfter, and could not therefore have given origin
to the latter inftitution. The hifttory of Weftminfter is
founded on, and clofely interwoven with that of the mo-
naftery of St. Peter: for to the exiftence and importance
of the latter, the rife, progrefs, and profperity of the former
mutt be attributed.
The fcite of the church and monaftery of St. Peter was
in early times an ifland, inclofed by the main channel of the
Thames on the eaft, and by a collateral branch of that river
on the weit. Hiftory furnifhes no information concerning
the limits or the extent of this infulated tract ; but by a
careful examination of the ground, even under all its
alterations, the courfe of the collateral branch may {till
be difcovered. This branch feems to have broken off
from the Thames to the ealt of Chelfea hofpital, to
have paffed northward, along the natural hollow in which
the water ftill flows to fupply Chelfea water-works, and
thence over a fhort interval, now covered with the houfes of
Pimlico, into the depreffion occupied by the canal in
St. James’s park, acrofs the {cite of Whitehall into the
Thames. In this cafe the ifland was in length from SW
oO
WESTMINSTER.
to N.E. about one mile and three-quarters, and in breadth
in the middle about half that diftance. Of this fpacious
tra&t; by far the greateft portion mutt, in former times, have
been regularly overflowed by each returning tide of the
river ; as it would be at the prefent time, were not the em-
bankments bordering the Thames carefully preferved. The
age of thefe mounds is unknown ; but to no others than the
heads of the monattery to whom the ifland belonged can
their formation be reafonably afcribed; and to them is
Weltminfter therefore indebted for the many advantages de-
rived from the lands refcued from inundation. The em-
bankments muft have been conftruéted, and the ground
within them well improved in 1386: for in that year abbot
Litlington died in the manor-houfe of Neyfe, fituated with-
in that fpace. So defirable was that fituation, that the duke
of Lancafter, ftyling himfelf king of Caftille, had re-
quetted leave to refide in the houfe during the fitting of a
parliament. The name of this place {till furvives, although
abfurdly corrupted into Weat-houfes. In an authentic char-
ter, dated in 785, Offa, king of Mercia, grants certain
lands to the monaftery of St. Peter ; its fituation is defcribed
to be in * Torneia in loco terribili ad Weftmuntter.”” In the
writings of Sulcardus, a monk of this monaftery who wrote
in the eleventh century, the name is Thorneia. Both thefe
names are fuppofed to be formed from the Saxon Thorn-ey,
the ifle of thorns and briars, exprefling the wild uncultivated
ftate of the ‘terrible fpot’’ noticed by’Offa. Forbidding
as fuch a fituation now would be, it bore a different afpeé&
in ancient times ; for it poffeffed alike fecurity from attack,
and feclufion from the world. To the religious eftablifh-
ment on Thorney, the rife, progrefs, and profperity of Wett-
minfter are to be afcribed; but the origin and the date of
that eftablifhment itfelf are involved in obfcurity. The pro-
bability, however, is, that it was founded by Sebert, king of
the Eaft Saxons, who died in 646. That it had in 785 ac-
quired celebrity, is evident from the charter before-mention-
ed, granted by Offa. From Sebert’s time the monaftery
feems to have been only a priory ; but by Offa it was changed
to an abbey, of which the abbots arofe, in the courfe of a
few years, to the higheft dignity of which their rank was
fufceptible. To demonftrate more fully his attachment to
the patron of the abbey, St. Peter, Offa in it depofited his
coronation-robes and regalia. From this circumftance, per-
haps, as much as from fubfequent papal authority, St. Pe-
ter’s church afterwards became, and full is ufed for the in-
auguration of the Englifh fovereigns ; and to the dean, as
fucceffor of the abbot, are intrufted many of the implements
and ornaments employed in that important funtion, which
was firft there performed on William the Conqueror, in 1066.
After fuffering feverely in common with other works of the
fame character, by the ravages of the Danes, the abbey was
reftored by Edgar, who began to reign in 957, on the inftiga-
tion of Dunftan, who removed thither, probably from Glaf-
tonbury, twelve monks of the order of St. Benedi&. It is
neverthelefs to Edward the Confeffor that the inftitution is
principally indebted for its fplendour. Sulcardus informs
us that Edward had vowed to go to Rome, there to exprefs
his pious gratitude to heaven for his unexpected eftablifhment
on the Englifh throne. The many inconveniences, how-
ever, by which the performance of this engagement mutt
have been attended, induced him to fubftitute in its ftead
fome other mode of teftifying his thankfulnefs. He there-
fore undertook to rebuild the church and monaftery of St.
Peter in a magnificent manner, and endow them with ample
revenues. Of the ftruéture itfelf we only know from Mat-
thew Paris, that “ it was conftruted in a new kind of ar-
rangement, from which many perfons in ereting churches
took a pattern, and ftrove to imitate it.’ Speaking of the
fame edifice, fir Chriftopher Wren refers to an account
printed from an ancient manufcript. This account he tran{-
lates into language proper for builders, in this way. “The
principal area or nave of the church being raifed high, and
vaulted with {quare and uniform ribs, is turned circular to
the eaft. This on each fide is ftrongly fortified with a dou-
ble vaulting of the aifles in two ftories, with their pillars
and arches. The crofs-building, contrived to contain the
choir in the middle, and the better to’ fupport the lofty
tower, rofe with a plainer and lower vaulting ; which tower
then {preading with artificial winding-ftairs, was continued
with plain walls to its timber-roof, which was well covered with
lead.” The ftriking novelty in this ftru€ture was probably
the introduétion of an imitation of a crofs in the plan: for
the earlier Saxon churches are fuppofed to have had no
tranfepts. The grants of lands, and of relics, beftowed by
Edward on his new foundation, were ample beyond all pre-
cedent. He likewife invefted it with peculiar privileges,
exempting it from all fecular fervices and authority, even
from epifcopal fuperintendance. But this laft exemption
brought on each new abbot the trouble and expence of a
Journey to Rome, to be confirmed by his holinefs in perfon.
Edward died on the 5th of January, 1066, having furvived
but a few days the {plendid ceremony of the confecration of
the new ftructure. From thefe privileges, afterwards ex-
tended to a confiderable fpace conneGted with the abbey,
may be traced in a great meafure the prefent civil conftitu-
tion of Weftminfter. While Laurence was abbot in 1163,
in the reign of Henry II., the power was obtained from
pope Alexander III. for his ufing the mitre, ring, and
gloves, diftinguifhing marks of epifcopal dignity. But this
privilege became, in the fequel, of ftill higher importance ;
for mitred abbots came to fit in parliament as well as
bifhops, and to enjoy every honour to which bifhops, as
lords of parliament, were entitled. Laurence dying before
the papal approbation of the meafure was formally an-
nounced, his fucceffor Walter was the firft abbot of Weft-
minfter who actually enjoyed the honours of the mitre. The
reign of Henry III., of great importance in the hiftory of
England in general, is not lefs fo to. that of Weftminfter
abbey in particular. In it the greater part of the edifice was
rebuilt, in the lofty elegant ftyle by which it is chiefly cha-
racterized ; a ftyle which about that time began to be
adopted in ecclefiaftical buildings throughout Europe. As
early as 1220, although then only a youth, Henry laid the
firft ftone of the chapel of the Virgin, which was afterwards
fuperfeded by the gorgeous ftru@ture of Henry VII.; but
It was not until 1245 that he direSted the church to be en-
larged, and the tower, with the eaftern part, to be con-
ftructed anew. In 1269 the building was opened for divine
fervice, and the body of Edward the Confeffor was depofited
in a {plendid fhrine ere€ted behind the high altar.
The abbey of Weftminfter is entitled to the peculiar ve-
neration of every friend of literature, of fcience, and of
civil and religious liberty ; for within its bounds was ere&ted
the firft apparatus for printing books employed in this ifland.
William Caxton, a mercer of London, during a long refi-
dence on the continent as agent for the affairs of his com-
pany, and in 1464 as minifter from Edward IV. to the duke
of Burgundy, became acquainted with the art of printing,
then very recently praétifed in Lower Germany. In 1471
he printed at Cologne a work which he had tranflated from
the French into Englifh ; and returning home in the follow-
ing year, he, under the patronage of the abbot of Weftmin-
fer, commenced printing in the almonry, or eleemofynary
adjoining to the abbey. In March 1474 appeared his book
Sf2 ’ on
WESTMINSTER.
ou the “ Game at Chefs,”? which may be regarded as the firft
produdtion of the Englifh prefs. (See Printinc.) The
honour of being the frit protector of printing in England
has been frequently affigned to John Iflip: but this muft be
erroneous ; for he became a monk only in 1480, and arofe to
be abbot only in 1500. To one of his predeceffors, there-
fore, to Efteney, ele€ted in 1474, or rather to Millyng,
eleGted in 1469, is the introduétion of printing to be attri-
buted. The abbacy of Iflip is however memorable on an-
other account: In it was founded, on the 24th of January,
1502-3, the celebrated chapel of Henry VII. Having
obtained the crown as heir to Henry VI., he refolved to
ereé&t a fumptuous monument for his remains, in the expect-
ation of his canonization. The firft part of the proje&
was carried into effe@: but the court of Rome requiring a
greater fum for compliance with his folicitation than the
prudent Henry of Richmond cared to beftow, the laft part
of the proje& was relinquifhed. Weftminfter-abbey was
now on the eve of great alterations. The fchemes of
Henry VIII. began to be put in praétice. On the 16th of
January, 1539-40, a furrender of the whole eftablifhment
was executed by abbot Benfon of Bofton, and twenty-four
of the monks. The annual revenue is ftated to have then
been nearly 4000/.; a fum of great real value, when the
pound of beef was regulated at one halfpenny, and that of
veal and mutton at three farthings.
Prior to the diffolution of the monalteries, Henry had re-
folved to convert fome of them into epifcopal fees, to be
endowed with a portion of the lands or the revenues which
that diffolution would place at his difpofal. Of the pro-
jeGted fees, Weftminfter was to be one ; and on the 17th of
December, 1540, the abbey-church was, by letters patent,
conftituted a cathedral, with a bifhop, a dean, twelve pre-
bendaries, and other inferior officers. The new bifhop was
Thomas Thirleby, then dean of the chapel-royal. The late
abbot Benfon was, for his ready compliance with Henry’s
withes in the change of the abbey, appointed dean of the
new cathedral: certain monks became prebendaries, minor
canons, and ftudents in the univerfity : the others were dif-
miffed with penfions, decreafing from ten pounds down to
five marks. The abbatial manfion was converted into a
palace for the bifhop, whofe annual revenue is varioufly
flated from fix hundred to eight hundred pounds. The
diocefe included the whole county of Middlefex, with the
exception of Fulham, the rural refidence of the bifhops of
London. The endowment of the dean and chapter was not
completed till the 5th of Auguft 1542, when lands, in va-
rious parts of the kingdom, were afligned, of the yearly
value of 2598/., out of which, however, the fum of 4oo/.
was to be paid for the falaries of five profeffors of divinity,
law, phyfic, Hebrew, and Greek, in each of the univer-
fities. A farther fum of 166/. 13s. 4d. was to fupport 20
ftudents in the univerfities ; and two matters, with 40 gram-
mar {cholars, were to be maintained in the {chool of Weft-
minfter. The new bifhopric was, however, but of fhort
duration ; for on the 29th of March 1550, bifhop Thirleby
was required to furrender it to Edward VI., and it was foon
afterwards reunited to that of London. Part of the pof-
feffions of St. Peter’s cathedral were appropriated to the
repairs of St. Paul’sin London ; whence arofe the proverb
of “robbing Peter to pay Paul.” In the edi& for fup-
prefling the fee of Weftminiter, no mention was made of
the eftablifhment of a dean and prebendaries, &c. ; it be-
came confequently a queftion whether they were to be con-
tinued. To remove all doubt on this head, an aé& paffed in
parliament, declaring the church {till to remain a cathedral,
with the former eflablithment, but within the diocefe of
London. On the acceffion of Mary to the throne, the re-
ftoration of the monattery to its priftine condition was car-
ried into effe&. The abbot, John Fackenham, furviving
Mary, was the only ecclefiaftic of his rank who fat in the
firft parliament of Elizabeth in 1558; and he took the
lowelt place on the bifhops’ bench. But on the 21it of
May 1560, the monks were again difplaced, and the chureh
again rendered collegiate, on a bafis very fimilar to that
which had been eftablifhed by her father, Henry VIII.
The laft dean of Elizabeth’s appointment was the learned
Lancelot Andrews, afterwards bifhop of Wincheiter, dean
of the chapel-royal, and a fpecial favourite of James I.
Since the reftoration by Elizabeth, if we exclude the ge-
neral diforganization of fimilar inftitutions, in confequence
of the internal diforders which commenced in the reign of
Charles I., the collegiate eftablifhment of the abbey-church
of Weiftminfter has undergone no material alteration.
Abbey-Church.—Such is briefly the hiltory of the reli-
gious eftablifhment on Thorney, to which modern Weit-
minfter is indebted for its origin and profperity. Of this
eftablifhment, the church remains in a great meafure entire :
the buildings appropriated for the abbot and the monks have
undergone great alterations ; but their bar arrangement
may ftill be traced, and they are ftill allotted for the refi-
dence of the perfons attached to the fervice of the church
and the dependent fchool. For a fully detailed defcription
of this celebrated church, of its archite€tural beauties and
defe&s, of the fepulchral monuments it contains, of the cere-
monies performed within its walls, and for a recapitulation
of the important tranfaétions conneéted with its hiftory,
recourfe muft be had to the various works publifhed fpe-
cially on the fubje&. ‘This church is a diftinguifhed fpeci-
men of that mode of archite€ture, commonly but abfurdly
ftyled Gothic, a term which, however improper, moft writers
ftill continue to employ, though no fpecific ftyle or clafs of
building is defined by it. Ereéted in the 13th century,
when buildings in this ftyle of architecture were well under-
ftood, and fkilfully conftru&ted, it would doubtlefs have pof-
feffed, if not the {pacioufnefs, at leaft the light and airy and
elegant appearance for which fuch ftructures are generally
remarkable. But by the introdu@tion of fepulchral monu-
ments, elevated above the level of the choir, many of them
magnificent indeed in themfelves, but certainly mifplaced as
far as regards the internal arrangement of the building, that
attraGtive appearance muft very early, perhaps from the be-
ginning, have been injured. Owing to thofe encroachments,
it has been neceflary to bring forward the prefent choir
much beyond its ufual ftation, not only intercepting the
tranfepts, but advancing a confiderable way into the nave,
or body of the church. The building confifts of a nave
and two fide aifles, feparated by ranges of tall, flender,
cluftered columns, fupporting the roof raifed to a great ele-
vation, ftill further increafed in appearance by the narrow-
nefs of the {pace between the columns. The length of the
whole edifice within the walls is 360 feet, the breadth of the
nave and aifles 72 feet, the length of the crofs or tranfept 195.
The infertion of St. Edward’s chapel in the choir is particu-
larly unfavourable ; for that important divifion of the build-
ing was from the beginning very fhort : nor is it eafy to dif-
cover the reafon of this deviation from general ufage. On
entering the great weftern door, the whole body of the
church difplays itfelf to view in a very ftriking manner.
Loftinefs, lightnefs, and elegance, are its marking features ;
but thefe features are much obfcured, and diftratied by the
numerous difcordant monuments, which fill up the open
4 ge and cover the walls. The nave is feparated from
the choir by a fcreen ; and ealt of the latter is a chapel,
raifed
WESTMINSTER.
railed above the level of the pavement, appropriated to the
fhrine of Edward the Confeflor, but alfo occupied by feve-
ral monuments to royal and noble perfons. At the eaft
end of this is 2 {umptuous architetural chantry to the me-
mory of Henry V. Still more to the eaft is the fplendid
and interefting chapel, called Henry the Seventh’s, becaufe
begun by him, and founded for his maufoleum. On the
north and fouth fides of the choir are aifles, and alfo fome
{mall chapels, dedicated to different faints.
From the time of Henry VII. little was done, although
very requifite, to the exterior of Weitminfter church, till
that of George II., when many parts of it were coated over
with ftone, and otherwife repaired at the public expence.
Some time before this, the two towers at the weft end were
completed from defigns of fir Chriftopher Wren, as they
now appear. In covering the outfide of the church, the rich
{culpture, and the ftatues which formerly adorned the but-
treffes, could not be reftored. Thofe parts feem now, there-
fore, unfuited to the highly ornamented building to which
they are attached : nor do the weftern towers affimilate with
the ftyle of the fabric to which they belong. The paint-
ings in the great weft window were executed in 1735: the
window in the fouth tranfept was alfo renewed in 1705. In
the interior of the church, the pillars dividing the nave from
the fide aifles guide the eye to the fine painted window at
the extremity of the choir, which, in former times, when the
altar-piece was low, muft have had a fine effet in giving a
lighter air to that part of the building. The altar-piece
was brought hither by queen Anne in 1706: it had for-
merly belonged to Whitehall chapel. The marble columns
of the Corinthian order, however elegant in themfelves, but
ill accord with the ftyle of the ftruéture around them ; an
incongruity but too often fanétioned in other edifices of the
fame kind in England. In front of the communion-table is
{till to be feen, although woefully mutilated, a curious Mo-
faic pavement of lapis lazuli, porphyry, jafper, ferpentine,
touch-ftone, &c. placed there by abbot Ware in 1272, who
brought it from the continent, where he procured the mate-
rials during a miffion to Rome. The black and white
lozenged marble pavement of the choir was the gift of the
celebrated Dr. Bufby, mafter of the fchool annexed to the
church. In the centre of Edward the Confeffor’s chapel,
ftands the mutilated body of the fhrine, containing, in a
wooden cafe, the afhes of St. Edward; and around the
fides of the chapel are ranged the monuments of feveral
kings, queens, and princeffes, from Henry III. to Eliza-
beth, the daughter of Henry VII.; all of which are ex-
tremely curious and interefting. In this chapel are preferved
the chairs, one very ancient, the other made for the laft
queen Mary, in which our kings and queens are feated
within the choir at their coronation. In the frame of that
ufed by the king is the fatal ftone, to the pofition of which
the fovereignty of Scotland, or rather of the Scotch na-
tion, was attached.
The choir of the church, in the form of a femi-o€tagon,
was furrounded by eight chapels, now reduced to feven, by
the appropriation of the central chapel to be the porch of
that of Henry VII.
The crofs-aifles or tranfepts of the church, as well as the
nave, have long been confecrated to the interment of per-
fons in various ways diftinguifhed in the world. The fouth
tranfept has only an eaftern aifle, the weft being occupied
by part of the cloifters. This tranfept, named Poets’-
corner, contains many interefting memorials of men whofe
genius and talents in {cience, literature, and the arts, entitle
them to the honourable recolleétion of pofterity. Of thefe
monuments, many are highly interefting as memorials of
eminent characters, and others as {pecimens of the {culptor’s
art. No {mall number of them, however, and thofe not
the leaft fumptuous and obtrufive, are entitled to no regard
on either account, being vaft mafles of marble devoid of
beauty and tafte. It is, however, to be remembered, that
to be “numbered among the illuftrious dead,”? within the
walls of the abbey-church of Weitminfter, now is and long
has been purely a queltion of finance with the officers at-
tached to the foundation.
Chapel of Henry V1I.—In ancient cathedrals and other
churches of confiderable extent, it was the practice to appro-
priate to the peculiar fervice of the Virgin, the chapel
fituated immediately behind the high altar, and in the
ealtern recefs of the building. Such a chapel originally
belonged to the abbey-church; and on its {cite with fome
adjoining fpace, under the fame patronage, but now belt
known by his own name, Henry VII. conftruéted his mag-
nificent and admirable chapel. When we contemplate this
mott curious {pecimen of Englifh archite€ture, and confider
the expence which muft have been encountered to complete
it, we are utterly unable, on any rational grounds, to recon-
cile its ere€tion with the acknowledged difpofition and
charafter of the founder. In perufing the hiftory of nations,
we mutt be ftruck with the frequent recurrence of this fa&t,
that men of all degrees, particularly of the higheft, have
aéted on the vain fuppofition, that, by a fingle oftentatious
aét of beneficence or munificence, not unfrequently pofthu-
mous, they could acquire immortal fame, and even fecure the
favour of heaven, however unworthily they may have per-
formed their duty in life. Of this fa&t, the chapel of
Henry VII. ftands a memorable example ; for in no one
a&t of his life and reign, did that prince give evidence of
any one of thofe feelings from which the conftrution of
this fuperb ftruéture could be expeéted to proceed. Of
benevolence, however, in a certain fenfe, no fovereign ever
had a better conception than Henry. The vaft fums he
exacted under this {pecious title, far exceeded the demands
for which they were required: he accordingly amafled great
wealth, and at his death his treafury was enormoufly rich.
Towards his end, Henry, fenfible of a mif-fpent reign, endea-
voured to atone for his offences by various charitable works,
by beltowing a large fum on King’s-college chapel in Cam-
bridge, and in particular by founding, ere@ting, and endow-
ing his chapel in Weftminfter. From the elegance and
richnefs of the defign, and from the fkill and labour necef-
fary to complete it, we are warranted to conclude that the
mott eminent artifts and artificers of the country were em-
ployed. The firft ftone of the new chapel was laid by the
hands of abbot John Iflip, and other perfons of the court, in
the prefence of Henry, on the 24th of January 1502-3.
How much of the work was executed at the king’s death,
on the 21{t of April 1509, is unknown; but moit probably
the mafonry mutt have been nearly, if not altogether, com-
pleted. ‘Towards the finifhing of the whole, Henry left, in
the hands of the abbot, s500o/. with provifion for more if
required. The fuperb tomb for the king is particularly:
defcribed in his will; but a different plan was followed,
and the work was finifhed by his fon Henry VIII. The
ground-plan of the building confilts of a body nearly a
{quare, terminated at the eatt end by a femicircular part,
compofed of five fides of an o€tagon. The extreme length
of the whole chapel, including the porch, is 134 feet, and
the correfponding breadth 82 feet 6 inches. On viewing
the exterior of the building, we are ftruck by the apparent
flightnefs of the work; for inftead of walls, the principal
weight and quantity of the whole refts on a few detached
piers and lateral buttreffes. This peculiar character of
ancient
WESTMINSTER.
ancient ecclefiaftical: buildings, manifefts great fcience and
fill in the archite&ts; for to raife lofty walls, and poife
ponderous wide-fpreading roofs on piers and columns, re-
quires the niceft geometrical accuracy. The fides are fup-
ported by five octagonal piers; thofe of the femicircular
end are united to. wedge-fhaped maffes, entering fo far into
the chapel, as to correfpond with the pillars feparating the
aifles from the nave. The interftices between the external
piers are filled by windows of a peculiar plan and great
delicacy of workmanfhip. The roof over the nave refts on
perpendicular walls; fupported by very flender internal
pillars, and is ftrengthened all around by flying buttreffes or
femi-arches from the external piers. Within, the chapel
is divided by two ranges of pillars into a nave 33 feet
6 inches in width, and fide-aifles each 11 feet 3 inches wide.
The internal roof is executed in ftone, with pendants and
numerous ribs. By the advance of the piers in the circular
part, that end is formed into five {mall chapels or oratories ;
but the fide-aifles in their original had no feparation from
the nave, except the ranges of pillars. They are: now,
however, unfortunately cut off by a row of italls on each
fide, on the line of the pillars, and fhooting up with their
fretted and frittered canopies as high as the roof of the
aifles. What tends to heighten the deformity of thefe ftalls,
is the number of gaudy flags of the knights of the Bath,
who are inftalled in this chapel, fufpended all around, at
once concealing many beautiful parts of the architecture
and fculpture, and utterly at variance with the elegance and
the defign of the edifice. The entrance to the chapel is by
a flight of fteps to a magnificent gateway, but from its
fituation dark in itfelf, and darkening the extremity of the
adjoining church. The chief objeét within the chapel is
the tomb of the founder, inclofed by a fereen of gilt brafs: it
is a piece of admirable workmanfhip, executed by Torregiano
of Florence, a rival of Michael Angelo. There alfo, ftill
in oppofition, lie the jealous and vindictive Elizabeth and
her unfortunate vitim Mary Stuart. Thus in a corner of
the abbey-church, a few feet only of earth now feparate the
once formidable political antagonifts William Pitt and
Charles James Fox. The bronze figure of Margaret
Tudor, mother of Henry VIL., is one of the fineft pieces of
{culpture in the whole building. In viewing this chapel,
two fubjeéts always excite regret ; the fituation in which it
ftands, and the matermls of which the exterior is con-
ftru@&ted. Attached to the end of the abbey-church, with
which its mode of conftruétion has but a very diftant re-
lation; although in itfelf, if furnifhed with a fuitable frontif-
piece, worthy to be a feparate and independent work, it now
finks into a mere appendage. The exterior furface of the
chapel is in many parts corroded and confumed; and moft of
the fculpture is now quite defaced. Some years ago parlia-
ment voted a confiderable fum of money, to be annually
applied to defray the expence of new-cafing the whole
edifice with Bath ftone, and the work has been carried on
under the direétions of Mr. T. Gayfere, with fcrupulous
attention to the form and manner of the original workman-
fhip. Beneath the chapel is the vault prepared on the
death of Caroline, queen of George II. in 1737, and con-
taining the remains of feveral members of the prefent royal
family. The cloifter of the abbey, {till fufficiently entire,
and containing numerous fepulchral infcriptions, communi-
cates with the ancient chapter-houfe, which is of oa
form, and the roof is fupported by a branching central co-
lumn. It was erected, according to Matthew of Wett-
minfter, in 1250, by Henry III. This building, which,
till the time of Edward VI., ferved as a houfe for the
commons of England, is now employed to preferve public
records; amongft them, the celebrated Liber de Wintonia,
as it was called by the compilers, or Domefday-book, as it
was not unaptly named by thofe perfons whom it regarded.
This work, the moft ancient and venerable record, or ftatif-
tical account, as we now fpeak, of which this or any other
country can boa{t, was completed about 1086, in the end of
the reign of William the Conqueror. (See Domespay-
Book.) In the fame chapter-houfe are alfo preferved the
recorded proceedings of the notorious ftar-chamber, fo
called from the ftar-like ornaments of the roof.
School.—The cloifter alfo communicates with the cele-
brated fchool of Weftminfter, which was refounded by
Elizabeth in 1590, with an eftablifhment for the claffical
inftruGtion of forty boys. After a certain time, the fcho-
lars, if duly qualified, are feleéted alternately for their re+
fpe€tive inftitutions, by the dean of Chrift-church, Oxford;
and the matter of Trinity college, Cambridge. Befides the
youths on the foundation, from three to four hundred, éthers
ufually receive their education in the fchool, at the ex-
pence of their re{peétive parents.
Parifh Churches of Weftminfler.—T he city and liberties are
now diltributed into ten parifhes. Within the city are St. Mar-
garet’s and St. John the evangelift’s; within the liberties, Sts
Martin’s, St. James’s, St. George’s, St. Anne’s, St. Paul’s,
St. Clement’s, St. Mary’s, and the Savoy. St. Margaret’s,
the original church of the city, is a fimple plain ftru@ture. It
is handfomely fitted up to accommodate the commons of the
kingdom on certain folemn occafions; as the choir of the
neighbouring abbey-church is allotted to the peers of parlia-
ment. One peculiar ornament of St. Margaret’s church is
a magnificent painted window reprefenting the crucifixion.
This very interefting piece was executed in Holland as a pre-
fent for Henry VII. St. John’s church, belonging to a
parifh formed out of St. Margaret’s, furnifhes an admirable
example of what imagination, unreftrained by judgment and
tafte, can produce. It ought however to be known, that Mr.
Archer, and not fir John Vanburgh, who has been oftener
blamed than underftood, was the architeét of this fabric.
St. Martin’s and St. George’s churches are remarkable for
their noble porticoes ; but both are fo unfortunately, not to
fay abfurdly fituated, that it is impoffible to have a view of
them in any way fatisfactory. St. Paul’s, Covent-garden,
is noted for its fimplicity, and its plain, heavy, Tufean’ por-
tico. In ereGting the latter at the ea/f end of the church,
where it can be feen, Inigo Jones eflayed a bold deviation
from eftablifhed pratice ; but to change the interior diftri-
bution of parts was perhaps beyond his power. The por-
tico therefore ftands where no entrance can be opened, for
there within ftands the communion-table; and the entrance is
opened at the qwe/ end; where there fhould be, but is not, a
portico. The church of St. Mary, like that of St. Clement,
is ftrangely placed in the midft of the Strand, a moft pub-
lic and noify ftreet; and inftead of poffeffing the fimple dig+
nity of a Chriftian temple, feems rather a model contrived
to fhew the fkill of the archite& in comprifing the greateft
quantity of ornament devoid of utility, within the narroweit
bounds. But Mr. Gibbs the archite& followed his inftruétiens
in adorning an edifice to be fo oftentatioufly exhibited. He
had befides but juft returned from Italy, where fimilar ftruc-
tures abound. It is no wonder, therefore, that, in both the
interior and the exterior of the New church of St. Mary,
he was led to imitate the buildings he might, as a mere ftu-
dent of architeétural defign, long have admired.
Befides the churches and chapels of the eftablifhment,
Weftminfter contains places of worfhip for Chrittians of all
denominations, and of profeffions the moft contradictory,
from the myfterious Swedenborgian, who maintains the fole
and
WESTMINSTER.
and abfolute divinity, to the fimple Unitarian, who/aflerts the
pure Aumanity of the great founder of the Chriftian religion.
French, Swifs, Dutch, and German Proteftants, have pro-
per places where the fervice is performed in their own lan-
uages. The Society of Friends or Quakers have a re-
Foettable place of affembly in St. Martin’s-lane ; and various
chapels are open for the members of the church of Rome.
Tn Denmark-court, in the Strand, isa well-frequented Jewith
fynagogue. '
Civil and Political State of Weftminfler.—The firft dwell-
ings conftruéted around the monaftery in Thorney, ftood on
the lands of the eftablifhment, which confequently had full
authority to govern the inhabitants. Thefe were rapidly
inereafed in numbers by the privilege of fanétuary granted
to the abbey for offenders; but the great cautes of the
growth, population, and importance of Weftminfter, were
the refidence there of the kings, and the tranfaétion of all
public bufinefs within its precinéts. Although the Strand,
Whitehall, and a few other parts were inhabited, at the
elevation of the abbacy into an epifcopal fee in 1540, yet
the quarter only immediately inclofing the cathedral church
was honoured with the title of city. The whole of this
quarter was included in the original and ancient parifh of
St. Margaret ; but in order to accommodate the increafed
body of inhabitants, efpecially in the fouthern parts, a
new parifh was formed out of the old in 1728, and named
after St.John the evangelift. All the other quarters of
the prefent Weitminfter, ere€ted on the liberties of the
abbey, are contained within the following eight parifhes,
arranged in the order of their eftablifhment. St. Clement’s
Danes, St. Martin’s in the Fields, and St. Mary’s in the
Strand, all of uncertain antiquity. St. John the Baptift’s,
in the Savoy, alfo ancient, St. Paul’s, Covent-garden, St.
James’s, St. Anne’s, Soho, and St. George’s, Hanover-
fquare ; the laft four all formed within the laft 200 years.
In defignating Weftminiter in the aggregate, the city and
the liberties are neceffarily mentioned; but in no refpeé&
does any diftin€tive rank, right, or privilege exift between
the inhabitants of thofe different quarters, who are all
equally citizens and members of the fame community. On
the public change of religion, and the convertion of the
abbey of St. Peter into a collegiate eftablifhment of a
dean and chapter in 1560, the latter were placed, as to all
their civil rights and authority, in the fituation poffefled by
their predeceffors; but the fanétuary was, with all other
fimilar privileges, fuppreffed in the 21ft year of James I.
The dean and chapter of St. Peter’s have, therefore, con-
tinned ever fince to be the f{upreme magiltrates and adminif-
trators of the inhabitants of the city and liberties of Wett-
minfter. Since the Reformation, however, the exercife of all
civil powers has always been veited in lay perfons, elected
or confirmed by the dean and chapter. Of this fingular and
anomalous fyitem of government, which, how applicable
foever to the original, feems wholly unfuitable to the mo-
dern Weftminfter, the following are the principal members,
as fettled by an aét of the year 1585:—The firft is the
high-fteward, ufually a refident nobleman of diftin@ion
(the prefent is the duke of Northumberland), who is ele@ted
by the chapter of St. Peter’s; the dean a¢ting as high-
fteward during and previoufly to the ele@ion. By this
principal officer a deputy {teward is nominated ; but his
appointment muit ‘be confirmed by the dean and chapter.
This deputy aéts as a fheriff, holding the court-leet with
the other magiltrates: he is always chairman of the quarter-
feffions of Weftminfter, which are independent of thofe of
Middlefex. Next in rank is the high-bailiff, nominated
on the other hand by the dean and chapter, but confirmed
by the high-fteward. He is the returning officer in the
eleGtion of the reprefentatives in parliament for the city
and liberties ; and to him all the other bailiffs are fubordi-
nate. He fummons juries, and has a right to all fines, for-
feitures, and ftrays, within his jurifdi@tion: he alfo, on due re-
quifition, calls together and is prefent in aflemblies of the
eleGtors, for the purpofe of petitioning parliament or the
crown, or of tranfaéting any other public bufinefs in which
they are all concerned. The high-conftable, chofen at a
court-leet of the magiftrates, has all the other conftables under
his fuperintendance. In addition to thefe officers, fixteen
houfeholders, ftyled burgeffes, are chofen, with their affiftants
out of the different parifhes. Thefe refemble the aldermen
and common-council of London, each having a_ particular
ward or diftri& under his infpe€tion; and of their number
two head burgeffes are chofen, who, at the court-leet, fit next
to the high-bailiff. The inhabitants of Weftminfter form
no corporation, nor do they poffefs as fuch any exclufive
privileges ; neither do any companies of trade or profeffion
exift within the jurifdi€@tion. The various courts of juftice
belonging peculiarly to Weftminfter are, 1. The court of
the duchy of Lancafter, a fupreme court of record, held in
Somerfet-place, for deciding by the chancellor of the duchy
all matters of law or equity concerning the eftates belong-
ing to the county-palatine of Lancafter. 2. The quarter-
feffions of the peace, a court of record, held by the juftices
of the peace at the Guild-hall, near the abbey-church, for
all trefpafles, &c. committed within the city and liberties.
3. The court-leet, held by the dean, or his fteward, for
ehoofing parochial officers, preventing and removing nui-
fances, &c. 4. Courts of requefts, or of confcience, as
they are called, for deciding without appeal by commiffion-
ers, all pleas for debt under forty fhillings. 5. Courts of
petty-feffions, held every lawful day at the offices in Bow-
ftreet, Marlborough-ftreet, and Queen-{quare, for matters
of police, mifdemeanor, or offence. 6. To thefe muft be
added the court of St. Martin-le-grand, in London, but
belonging to Weftminfter. The jurifdiGtion of the dean and
chapter of St. Peter’s, widely extended as the liberties are,
is not confined to their bounds. In the very heart of Lon-
don, under the walls as it were of St. Paul’s, is the preciné,
as it is termed, of St. Martin-le-grand, an integral part of
Weitminfter, and wholly independent of London. This
precinét took its name from a collegiate church founded in
1056, dedicated to St. Martin and qualified /e-grand, on ac-
count of the great privilege of fanétuary conferred on it.
By Henry VII. it was beftowed on the abbey of St. Peter ;
but on the furrender to Edward VI. it was pulled down,
and houfes were built on the ground. Being let out to
{trangers not freemen of London, they claimed the privileges
before enjoyed by the canons of the fuppreffed inftitution.
Thofe claims produced many contefts which were never de-
finitively fettled ; and the exemption of St. Martin’s pre-
cing from the jurifdi€tion of London feems now to be efta-
blifhed, rather by long-continued ufage than by any regular
or authoritative declaration of right. This {mall precin&
(a term in London fignifying fpecifically a fubdivifion of a
ward) confifts of one fhort {treet of its own name, leading
north from the eaft end of Newgate-ftreet to the beginning
of Alderfgate-{treet, and a few lanes and courts on each fide.
In this precin€& perfons not freemen of London, exerctfe
their feveral trades or profeffions without controul; the in-
habitants alfo concur in the ele¢tion of reprefentatives for
Weitminfter, in the fame way with thofe who aétually dwell
within that city. A very material change is now (1818) in pro-
grefs in St. Martin-le-grand. ‘The chief office of the general
poft, domeftic and foreign, fituated in Lombard-ftreet, in Lon-
don,
WESTMINSTER.
don, has long ceafed to be either central in pofition or commo-
dious in diitribution, for the prodigious bufinefs tranfaGted in
it. After many attempts, chiefly on the part of the inhabit-
ants of the weft end of the town, where many of the princi-
pal men of bufinefs refide, parliamentary fanétion has at laft
been obtained for the ereétion of a new pott-office, properly
adapted, in fituation and internal arrangement, to the pur-
pofes of the eftablifhment. The fituation feleéted is in St.
Martin-le-grand ; and the neceffary preparations in remoy-
ing houfes and clearing the ground, have made confiderable
progrefs. The expence of this enterprife muft be great ;
but the edifice may be rendered highly ornamental as well
as ufeful to the metropolis. Mr. Kay is the archite&t. The
jurifdi€tion of the dean and chapter of Weftminfter extends
alfo over fome places in Effex, on that account independent
of the diocefan bifhop of London, and even of the metro-
politan of Canterbury ; for while the Roman Catholic reli-
gion prevailed, the abbey was immediately under the pope.
If the jurifdi€tion of the abbey thus extended over places
remote from its bounds, it on the other hand compre-
hended within its bounds, a diftri& exempt from its jurif-
dition. This is what is commonly called ‘ the liberties,
or the duchy of Lancafter.”” The diftri& comprehends all
the fouth fide of the Strand, from the Temple to Cecil-
ftreet, with nearly the fame extent on the north fide. The
palace and diftri& of the Savoy having been a part of the
poffeffions of the houfe of Lancafter, which were feparated
from the crown by Henry IV., that part of ‘the Strand be-
longing to the Savoy became a diftri& or liberty of itfelf.
It has a fupreme court under the chancellor of the duchy
of Lancafter, as already mentioned ; and formerly no inha-
bitant of this diftri& voted for the reprefentatives of Wet-
minfter. But at the ele&tion in March 1795, thofe of the
duchy-liberties who lived within the parifhes of St. Mary
in the Strand, and St. Martin’s in the Fields, were admitted
to give their fuffrages. Until after the diffolution of the
abbey, Weftminfter fent no reprefentatives to parliament ;
being virtually reprefented by the abbot, who fat with the
bifhops in the houfe of peers. In the records of the laft
parliament of Henry VIII. no mention appears of any
{ummons or returns relative to Weftminfter, Peterborough,
er any other abbey-town. The firft parliament of Ed-
ward VI., therefore, is, that in which the members for Weit-
minfter began to take their place. The two reprefentatives
of the city and liberties are eleGted by the inhabitant houfe-
holders, or thofe paying fcot and lot, who are now efti-
mated at about 17,000; the number being confiderably in-
creafed by the enlargement before-mentioned in 1795. The
eleétive franchife being thus widely diffufed among all ranks
of the inhabitants, and the popular favour being commonly
in the inverfe proportion of that of the court, one if not
both of the reprefentatives of Weftminfter == generally
be expected to be decidedly hoftile to the meafures of the
exifting adminiftration. So well is this underftood by mi-
nifters, that, to have at leaft one member favourable to their
views, they have frequently encouraged fome diftinguifhed
naval commander to offer his fervices to the eleétors.
Having for many years been the ordinary refidence of the
fovereign, Weftminfter has of courfe contained the princi-
pal departments of every branch of legiflative and execu-
tive adminiftration. The parliament, originally ambulatory
and attached to the perfon of the king, was rendered ftable
in Weftminfter on the confirmation of Magna Charta by
Henry III. in 1216. Long before that period, the royal
palace was erected adjoining to the abbey ; and as in thofe
early times juftice was often adminiftered by the king in
Fete, or in his prefence, the various courts of judges were of
6
courfe eftablifhed in or near his refidence. When the palace
of Weitmintter ceafed to be occupied by the monarch, and
Henry VIII., in 1512, tranfported his court to White-
hall, the parliament and the judges ftill retained their ori-
ginal ftation ; but the executive branches of adminiftration,
relative to financial and military affairs, accompanied the
court. Hence we fee thofe departments all eftablifhed in
what is ftill called Whitehall ; although the king has long
ceafed to refide in that quarter, and that a very {mall por-
tion of the old palace is either occupied by public offices, or
even in exiftence. Hence alfo it is that all public a&ts of
government are dated from Whitehall. From the prodi-
gious multiplication and fubdivifion of all public affairs rela-
tive to juftice, finance, and military and naval operations, the
details of various branches have neceffarily been carried on in
other convenient quarters of the metropolis. Such are the
Temple, Lincoln’s-Inn, Guildhall, the Bank, the Cuftom-
houfe, the Excife-office, the Tower, &c.; ftill it is in
Weftminfter alone that the general arrangement of the
whole is conduéted
Public Buildings. —Of the ancient refidence of the kings
of England in the vicinity of the abbey of Weftmintter, the
name, the general pefition, and a few mutilated apartments,
are all now remaining. According to a furvey and plan of the
whole buildings and veftiges of this palace, it extended alon
the bank of the Thames from north to fouth, and then turn
weftward near to the buildings of the abbey. Of the gene-
ral arrangement, it is impoffible to difcover more than that the
walls and foundations feem to have been all parallel to the
correfponding“walls of the prefent great hall, the only part
ftill remaining in its original ftate. Compofed of parts
erected at different periods, no balance or fymmetry of plan
feems to have been regarded in their diftribution.
Weftminfler Hall, memorable in itfelf as a building, as the
fcene of many important tranfaétions, and for the ufes to
which it is applied, was ereéted by William Rufus, or Wil-
liam II., about 1097, as an appendage to the old palace, or
a part of a new project. aving fuffered much from acci-
dental fires, as well as from the hits of time, the hall, juft
three centuries after its conftru€tion, was completely reftored
by Richard II., who heightened the walls, altered the win-
dows, adding a new roof, and built a ftately gateway. The
hall is a vaft parallelogram, ftanding north and fouth, in
length, within the walls, 249 feet, and in breadth 66 feet, not
74, as is generally ftated. The walls, although maffive and
plain, are externally ftrengthened by buttreffes. The roof,
rifing toa high pitch, is ingenioufly and firmly conftruéted,
not of Trifh oak, as ufually faid, but of chefnut brought
from Normandy. This room is faid to be of greater mag-
nitude without pillars than any other known. In this h
parliaments have been held ; Richard II. was depofed in it in
1399, and for many ages it has been employed in the corona-
tion-feafts of the fovereigns. In it aflembled the court for
the trial of Charles I., in January 1649. It is ftill the
place of inquiry, before the houfe of peers, into the condué
of perfons impeached by the houfe of commons. In the
middle of the right or weft fide of the hall, is an openin
into the court fe common pleas. The fouth end of the
is occupied by wooden ftruétures, to contain on the right-hand
the court of chancery, and on the left the court of king’s
bench ; fo called becaufe the king in ancient times actually
fat, as he is at prefent aflerted, by what is ftyled a legal
fiction, aétually to fit, on the bench to adminifter juftice,
Between thefe two courts ftairs condu& to the apartments
occupied by the two houfes of parliament. That employed
by the peers was towards the fouth end of the old palace ;
but on account of the additional number of 32 peers enti-
tled
WESTMINSTER.
tled to’ feats on the union with Ireland, over and above the
unexampled augmentation of the peerage in the prefent reign,
their meetings were transferred to what was the court of re-
quetts,; fo called becaufe the mafters of the court, in ancient
times, received the requefts or petitions of the people, and
gave their opinions on the fubjeéts. This room, confider-
ably larger than the former, is alfo within the old palace ;
and is now ornamented with the celebrated tapeftry, repre-
fenting the difcomfiture of the Spanifh Armada, or fleet
and army, deftined for the invafion of England in 1588.
At the upper end of the room is the throne, a highly en-
riched arm-chair ; and at the lower end is an open fpace,
termed the bar. The commons of England, when they
formed a feparate body from the peers, were, by an agree-
ment with the abbot of St. Peter’s, allowed to meet in the
chapter-houfe already mentioned. But when, at the Re-
formation, the eftablifhment of the collegiate chapel of St.
Stephen in the old palace was fupprefled, to that place their
meetings were transferred by Edward VI. ‘This chapel,
originally conftruéted by king Stephen, was rebuilt by
Edward III. in 1347. The commons, before the union
with Ireland, were accommodated within the chapel ; but
their number being by that meafure augmented from 558 to
658 members, it became neceflary to enlarge the place of
affembly. At the eaft, or upper end of the room, is the
f{peaker’s chair ; before it is the table with the clerks, and at
the bottom is the bar. The feats for the members rife one
behind another, as in a theatre. Thofe on the floor, on the
fpeaker’s right-hand, are called the treafury-benches, and oc-
cupied by the members of adminiftration: the bench in front
is ufually occupied by the leading members of the oppofi-
tion. St. Stephen’s chapel, highly adorned by Edward III.,
fuffered greatly by its firft adaptation for the commons ;
but much more by the late alterations. By removing the
wainfcot, a great part of the ancient decorations was dif-
clofed, and a very important faét in the hiftory of the fine
arts was, for the firft time, afcertained. Onthe r1thof Au-
guft, 1800, was difcovered a feries of {culpture and painting,
the latter exhibiting portraits, fcripture-fcenes, and other de-
corations, interefting in themfelves, and peculiarly fo as fpeci-
mens of the ftate of the arts, as they exifted nearly five
hundred years ago. It has been ufual to afcribe to John Van
Eyck, of Bruges, in Flanders, the invention of painting in
oil-colours, in 1410. This opinion has, however, of late
years, been much invalidated ; by the difcovery in St. Ste-
phen’s chapel it is completely overthrown. From original
records of the expences incurred in the con{trudtion and de-
coration of that building, it now appears that the renovation
was begun in the fourth year of Edward III., or about 1329,
and not in 1347, as {tated by Stowe and others; that the
painters had not begun in 1345, but were at work in 1350,
and ceafed to be mentioned in 1364 : that thofe who painted
on glafs had begun in 1350, and finifhed in 1352: that the
paintings were unqueftionably in oil : andthat, of feventy-
fix painters employed in the chapel, the whole, with the
exception perhaps of two, and they not the mafters, were
natives of England. From thefe authentic documents it is
therefore fully afcertained, that pidures, in the ufual fenfe of
the term (not hou/é-painting), in oil were executed in Welt-
minfter palace in 1350, or fixty years before Van Eyck’s
fuppofed difcovery of the art. But the fame genuine re-
cords go ftill farther back : they prove oil to have been em-
ployed in painting piétures in the chapel before the rebuild-
ing by Edward III. ; that is, in the 20th year of Edward I.,
or in 1272, which was one hundred and eighteen years prior
to Van Eyck. (See Parnrinc.) Under the old houfe of
VoL. XXXVIII.
lords are the cellars which were prepared for the famious
powder-plot, of the 5th of November, 1605.
Whitehall Palace.—This royal manfion occupied a confi-
derable {pace on the bank of the Thames, including Privy-
Garden, and extending to Scotland Yard, ftretching out in
breadth from the river quite acrofs the ftreet {till called
Whitehall into St. James’s-park. It was originally the
property of Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kent, and grand
jufticiary of England under Henry III. The fituation was
low and marfhy, owing to the concourfe of the branch on
the weft of Thorney ifland with the main channel of the
Thames. In 1248 the palace belonged to the archbifhops
of York, who poffeffed it until, on the fall of cardinal arch-
bifhop Wolfey, it was, in 1529, feized, with his charaéter-
iftic love of juftice, by the infatiable Henry VIII. Pof-
feffion being obtained, many alterations were made in the
building, of which a portion, commonly called the Cock-pit,
adjoining to the Treafury, {till exifts. Falling into decay,
James I. refolved to rebuild Whitehall in a fuitable man-
ner ; and for fuch a defign the fpacious ground between the
Thames and the park, and commanding both, offered every
facility excepting that of elevation of ground, without a proper
degree of which dignity is hardly attainable in archite¢ture.
OF the magnificent, although in many parts faulty, pro-
je&t of Inigo Jones, prepared for the intended work, one
portion only was executed. This is the Banqueting-houfe,
fo called from its fucceeding, in deftination as in fcite, to a
part of the old palace appropriated to royal entertainments.
The prefent edifice, one of the few f{pecimens of noble and
regular architeCture in the metropolis, confifts of two ftories,
on a ruftic bafement, ornamented with Ionic and Corinthian
columns and pilafters. This edifice, containing feven win-
dows on a floor, was only one of the angular pavilions of
the intended grand ftru€ture. It is fufficiently enriched, but
not overloaded with ornament ; and being conftruéted on a
{cale of very large dimenfions in the parts, had the whole,
even with all the defets of the project, been carried into
effe&t, no fovereign in Europe could have exhibited a place
of refidence to be compared with that of the king of Great
Britain. Magnitude of parts was in that project held to be
indifpenfable for grandeur of effeét. The interior of the
Banqueting-houfe has long been converted into a royal, and
lately into a military chapel ; adorned, as is {till moft in-
congruoufly imagined, with trophies of war. The’ ceiling
is peculiarly worthy of obfervation, being the produétion of
the fplendid pencil of Rubens ; exhibiting the allegorical hif-
tory of his patron, James I. This matterly performance
ought to have diffuaded the advifers of George I. from con-
verting the room into a place of Chriftian worfhip ; for
“¢ its contents are in no way akin to devotion ; and the work-
manfhip is fo very extraordinary, that, in beholding it, the
f{petator muft either poffefs an uncommon meafure of zeal,
or be utterly deftitute of {kill and tafte, who can attend to
any thing befides.”?_ From a window of the Banqueting-
houfe the unfortunate Charles I., unfortunate in living in
times when the art of managing parliaments was either un-
known, or perhaps thought unworthy of a prince, paffed to
the fcaffold ereéted in the public ftreet in the front of his
own palace. In a court behind the building ftands one of
the {mall number of public ftatues of the metropolis me-
riting examination. It is the work of Gubbins, and exhi-
bits James II., indicating, as he would do in his deftined
fituation, with an air and attitude full of expreffion, the
{pot where his father fuffered. At no great diftance, on
the former fcite of the crofs in the village of Charing, is
erected another fine atl figure of Charles himfelf.
t Ste
WESTMINSTER.
St. James’s Palace—That the fovereign of the Britifh
empire was far lefs fuitably lodged in his capital than are
numbers of his fubjeéts, has by foreigners been often re-
marked, and by natives been fometimes converted into a
compliment to the fovereign and to the nation. But the fac
is, that St. James’s palace was in its origin an hofpital, of
part of which Henry VIII. availed himfelf to conitrué
the prefent buildings, as an appendage to the palace of
Whitehall, with which it was conneéted by St. James’s
park. Having been allotted for the refidence of the prin-
cefs, afterwards queen Anne, and her hufband George of
Denmark, St. James’s has ever fince continued to be occu-
pied for court or ftate purpofes. The buildings are neither
grand nor regular: the front, overlooking the park, has
alone a certain air of dignity : and the ftate apartments,
although they contain bes red peculiarly magnificent in the
furniture or the decorations, are commodious and handfome.
Conneéted with this palace is the park of the fame name,
ornamented with a long canal in the middle, and with broad
walks, feparated by rows of trees on the fides, the only
fpecies of improvement of which its flat fituation is well
fufceptible. Near the centre of the canal, a wooden bridge,
jn the Chinefe ftyle, has been built acrofs the water. On
the north-weft af St. James’s-park is an open f{pace, called
the Green-park, capable, from its elevation and variety of
ground, of much greater improvement: but its principal
recommendation is that, being in faét a wide extended
green field, it furnifhes a delightful promenade in all direc-
tions, and welcome relief from the hard pavement of the
ftreets.
Buckingham-Houfe.—This edifice, now fettled on the pre-
fent queen in lieu of Somerfet-houfe, and hence called the
Queen’s palace, poffeffes peculiar attraétion, as much from
its very favourable fituation, as from its hiftory. It was
built by John Sheffield, duke of Buckingham, about the year
1700, and its gardens were adorned with terraces, canals, &c.
The building is of brick, and moft of the apartments are
{mall. In this palace for feveral years were held his ma-
jefty’s levees, while his health permitted his appearance.
Annexed to the palace are an o€tagon and other apart-
ments, containing the king’s library, rich in various works
of value, particularly in early editions of books. Interior
views of the chief rooms, with an ample hiftory of this edi-
fice, &c. are given in Pyne’s Hiftory of the Royal Palaces.
Carlton Houfe, the refidence for a number of years of
the prince of Wales, regent of the united kingdom, as
formerly of the princefs dowager of Wales, his majefty’s
mother, occupies a fituation in between Pall-Mall and St.
James’s park. The chief front towards the ftreet prefents
the fingular incongruity of a lofty and highly enriched Co-
rinthian portico, giving entrance into a ie rufticated edi-
fice. Between the houfe and the ftreet is a court-yard,
bounded by a low wall, fuftaining an open colonnade, with
an entablature. The interior has undergone many changes,
and is-fitted up in the moft coftly and fumptuous manner.
The library, confervatory, and the armoury, are very fine
and fplendid. The work juft referred to contains feveral
beautiful prints of the different rooms; alfo a partfcular
account of the houfe and its contents.
The ancient palace of Somerfet-houfe has now difap-
peared, being fuperfeded by the magnificent ftructures
compofing Somerfet-place. Of the Savoy a few portions
itill exift, but much changed from their original deftination ;
and in a few years, perhaps, even the whole may be effaced.
The plan of Somerfet-place, as formed by fir William
Chambers, was to comprehend within one vait edifice pro-
10
per apartments for tranfaGting many branches of the national
bufinefs ; and to-this purpofe, incomplete as it is, it is now
applied. Befides thefe departments, Somerfet-place con-
tains handfome fuites of rooms for the Royal and Anti-
quarian Societies, and for the Royal Academy of the Fine
Arts. The front towards the Strand, of regular architec-
ture, is fpacious and lofty ; but, on the whole, having the
air, as in fa& it is, of the entrance to a ftru€ture of great
extent and magnificence. The front confifts of nine arcades
on the ground-floor, the three in the middle forming the
entrance, by three colonnades fupported on coupled co-
lumns. Above the bafement is a range of ten Corinthian
femi-columns extending over two ranges of windows.
Above the three centre windows rifes an attic, with ftatues.
The whole is, however, a very great work, and cannot fail,
when beheld from the river, or the new bridge adjoining,
to have a powerful effe&t on the fpeétator. Situated on a
rapid defcent to the river, the labour and expence of raifing
the {quare to the level of the ftreet has been prodigious ;
and the {kill fhewn in conftruéting the whole edifice well
merits admiration.
Part of the old palace of Whitehall, as already noticed,
may be traced in the building ufually called the Treafury ;
but that part which faces the parade in the Park is com-
paratively modern, and conftructed in a ftyle announcing
itrength as well as dignity and accommodation for bufinefs.
Clofe to this edifice ftands that called the Horfe-Guards,
becaufe a party of that clafs of troops daily do duty there.
Conftruéted on a plan and elevation intended to recal the
idea of an antique fortrefs, it contains the chief departments
of bufinefs comprehended under the title of the War-Office.
The neighbouring office of Admiralty, fpacious and lofty,
is greatly indebted to the fkreen ere&ted by the Adams,
by which the enormous portico is brought to bear appa-
rently fome degree of proportion to the building.
The theatres of Drury-lane, Covent-garden, the Hay-
market, and Opera-houfe, have been all noticed in the
defcription of London. See Lonpon.
At no great diftance from the magnificent pile of So-
merfet-place, and fimilarly fituated over the Thames, ftands
an extenfive range of buildings called the delphi. The
ereétion of thefe, a vaft enterprife for private individuals, is
the work of the celebrated archite&ts, Meflrs. Adam. The
terrace, which commands the river and furrounding build-
ings, and the ftreets and buildings, are elevated on arcades
rifing from the edge of the water, adapted for warehoufes,
and opening into roads leading up to the Strand. In the
Adelphi is a handfome edifice, belonging to the Society for
the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce.
The great hall exhibits a feries of paintings, unique in modern
times, by James Barry. An eftablifhment of a peculiar cha-
rater has lately begun to appear on the bank of the Thames,
a fhort way above the extreme buildings of Weftminiter.
This is the Penitentiary, defigned for the punifhment, employ-
ment, and reformation of a ete of fecondary criminality.
When, by the emancipation of the Britith colonies in North
America, tranfportation of offenders to that country necef-
farily terminated, the plan was adopted of removing them,
to contribute to the colonization of the newly-acquired ter-
ritories in the Afiatic feas. The fyftem, however, when
applied to cafes of limited expatriation, being highly ob-
jectionable, the fcheme of the rifing eftablifhment has been
approved, and its execution begun. The criminals are con-
fined in circular buildings, fo conftruéted that the overfeers
may, from a central fituation, unfeen, obferve every room.
The edifice will, when complete, form externally a hexagon,
€on-
WESTMINSTER.
confilting of fix of thefe circular divifions ; the whole en-
compafled with a wall, inclofing 18 acres of ground, and cal-
culated to contain altogether from 1000 to 1200 prifoners.
Some of them are already placed, and the beneficial effeéts of
the inftitution on their general conduét has already been very
perceptible. Asa part of Middlefex, the proper prifons
for criminals are thofe belonging to the county; but in
Tothill-fields is a bridewell for the detention and temporary
punifhment of petty offenders, under the charge of the
magiftrates of the city and liberties. The charitable efta-
blifhments of Weftminiter for the education and maintenance
of youth and the confolation of age, for the relief of difeafe
and accidental calamity, are much more numerous and ufeful
than fplendid. St. George’s and the Middlefex hofpital,
(not, however, properly within the town,) the Weftminfter
infirmary, &c. are excellent inftitutions, fuperintended by
medical gentlemen of the highetft profeffional reputation. Of
the diftinguifhed private manfions of noblemen and others,
it is impoffible here to do more than point out a few of
the moft remarkable. Among thefe are Northumberland-
houfe, the only refidence now remaining of our ancient
nobility in the Strand; the duke of Marlborough’s in Pall-
Mall, ereéted by the nation for the great duke John; the
duke of Norfolk’s, St. James’s fquare; earl Spencer’s in
St. James’s place ; Burlington-houle; the duke of Devon-
fhire’s and earl of Egremont’s in Piccadilly ; the marquis
of Lanfdowne’s in Berkeley-fquare; the earl of Chefter-
field’s in South Audley-{treet ; earl Grofvenor’s in Upper
Grofvenor-ftreet ; the marquis of Anglefey’s in Burlington-
ftreet ; the marquis of Stafford’s, Cleveland-houfe. Thefe
are fome of the beft, as far as the exterior is concerned ;
but many others might be noticed highly deferving of at-
tention, particularly for the admirable paintings by the beft
mafters with which they are enriched.
Bridges.—It is a remarkable fa&t, that, great and im-
portant as Weftminfter is, until the conftruétion of the
noble bridge of its own name, of 15 arches, and in total
length 1223 feet, completed in 1750, it poffeffed no other
mode of communication acrofs the Thames than by ferries,
or by the embarrafled circuit of London-bridge. The
opening of Blackfriar’s-bridge was certainly a great accom-
modation for an extended portion of the town; but ftill
fomething more was wanted, in a fpace between thofe
bridges of no lefs than 3100 yards, or one mile and three
quarters, of a moft populous and ative metropolis. About
mid-way of this interval was opened, on the 18th July,
1817, a new bridge, leading from the Strand between the
Savoy and Somerfet-place, called the Strand or Waterloo
bridge: it is a ftrudture of a novel defcription in this
country. The idea of it is not, however, new, having
been frequently fuggefted, particularly by Gwyn in 1766.
(For a particular defcription of this bridge, and the di-
menfions of its various parts, we refer to the article Wa-
TERLOO.) The road-way is ftri€ly horizontal on the level of
the {treet in the Strand, but much above the furface of the
Surrey fhore, to which it defcends by a long and gentle flope.
Each pier, as in Blackfriar’s-bridge, is externally ornamented
with two Tufcan columns fupporting a {quare projetion:
‘The bridge was opened on the anniverlary of the horrible car-
nage of Waterloo, and from this event it has been attempted
to give it aname. In this cafe, however, as in that of what
was formerly ftyled Pitt’s-bridge, in London, in 1760, the
public, unable to difcover even the moft diftant relation be-
tween the ftructures and the propofed appellations, know
them only, as they muft naturally do, by their fituation, as
Blackfriar’s and the Strand bridges. This admirable work
does great honour to the engineer and architeét Mr. Joha
Rennie, and to the judgment of the managers of the enter-
prife ; and is, all circumftances of pofition, form, and ma-
terials confidered, without a parallel in Europe. Befides
the Strand-bridge, another of a different kind has lately
been conftruéted over the Thames, juft a mile above Weft-
minfter-bridge, leading over from Tothill-fields to Vauxhall,
and thence properly named Vauxhall-bridge. Vhe archite&,
Mr. Walker, has divided the breadth of the river into nine
apertures, covered by frames of calt-iron, refting on ftone
piers. The road is not horizontal, but forms two gently
inclined planes, meeting in a very obtufe angle in the middle.
The length of this light and elegant bridge is 809 feet. A
third bridge, not indeed immediately conneéted with Weft-
minfter, but of great importance to the metropolis, is now
in progrefs. This is the Southwark-bridge, commencing
between that portion of the town and the city of London,
on the line of Queen-flreet and King-ftreet to Guildhall.
This extraordinary ftruéture, defigned alfo by Mr. Rennie,
confifts of three grand arches of calt-iron, in fegments of
very large circles: the centre arch 240 feet m fpan, and
the two others of 210 feet, each. ‘To enable the reader
to form a comparative idea of the bridges now mentioned,
the following dimenfions of fome other remarkable bridges
are fubjoined. London-bridge, (fee Brincr,) confifts of
1g very unequal arches; Southwark-bridge (the iron part),
730 feet long, and of three arches; Blackfriar’s-bridge,
995 feet long, of nine arches; Strand-bridge, 1280 feet
long, of nine arches; Weftminfter-bridge, 1223 feet long,
of 15 arches; Vauxhall-bridge, 809 feet long, of nine
arches. On the continent, the moft remarkable ftru€tures
of this defcription are the celebrated horizontal bridge over
the river Loire, at Tours, in the weft of France, in length
1335, and confifting of 15 elliptic arches ; the bridge over
the Moldaw, at Prague, in Bohemia, 1700 feet long.
Thefe, however, are all far outdone by the antique bridge
over the Rhone, at St. Efprit, in the fouth of France, con.
fitting of a multitude of {mall arches, fupporting a very:
narrow road-way, extending in all nearly to 3000 feet.
This bridge has the peculiarity, that, inftead of bein
ftraight, it is compofed of two lines forming an bree
angle, turned againit the current, as if the better to with-
ftand its violence.
Literary and fcientific Inftitutions—Thefe have already
been noticed in the article Lonpon, to which the reader is
referred. It will always be a peculiar honour for the Britifh
nation in general, and to the metropolis in particular, that,
with very few exceptions indeed, all thofe valuable inftitu-
tions for the promotion of learning, fcience, and the arts,
which add fo much fplendour to the capital, owe their ori-
gin, their maintenance, and their reputation, to the volun-
tary exertions, perfonal and pecuniary, of private individuals.
The two principal exceptions in London and Weftminfter
are the Britifh Mufeum, and the Academy of Painting, Sculp-
ture, and Architefure; but from their nature, without
public aid, neither of thefe inftitutions might ever have been
eftablifhed. (See Museum.) The Britifh Mufeum is in
regular and rapid progrefs, in the acquifition of ftores of
high importance in the departments of natural hiftory, lite-
rature, and art, to which it is devoted. The Elgin marbles,
or the venerable monuments of Grecian f{culpture, refcued
by the earl of Elgin, during his embafly at the Ottoman
porte, from barbaric negle& and deftruétion, in their ori-
ginal pofition in Athens, are objets of attraGtion and im-
portance unparalleled in Weftern Europe. Of the Britith
Maufeum, in general, it is but juitice to obferve, that, in no
Tte2 fimilay
WES
fimilar eftablifhment, can more attention be fhewn to facili-
tate the refearches, literary or {cientific perfons, of all who
refort to the treafures it contains.
The population of Weftminfter very fenfibly fluGuates,
according to the feafon of the year. From Oéober to
July, while the parliament is aflembled, the courts of law
are fitting, and the places of amufement are open, the town
is fully inhabited. During the other months, even thofe
whofe bufinefs is {till tranfaGted in town retire to their villas
or quarters, in the furrounding villages and country. A
hundred years ago, the inhabitants were computed, but
furely overrated, at 130,000: by the laft returns to parlia-
ment in 1811, they amounted to 62,085, occupying 17,555
houfes.
The books examined for the foregoing account, and to
which the reader is referred for more minute particulars,
are, Antiquities of Weftminiter ; the literary part by J. S.
Hawkins, efg.; plates from drawings by J. T. Smith;
1 vol. 4to. 1807. The Hiftory of Henry VII.’s Chapel,
pt J. Britton, with plan, views, elevations, &c.; in vol. ii.
of ArchiteCtural Antiquities of Great Britain. The Hif-
tory and Antiquities of the Abbey Church of St. Peter at
Weiftminiter, 4to. 1818, &c., by E. W. Brayley; with
numerous plates from drawings by J. P. Neale. The Hif-
tory of the Abbey Church of St. Peter’s, Weftmintter,
its Antiquities, and Monuments; in 2 vols. 4to., with
63 engravings; publifhed by Mr. Ackermann. An Inquiry
into the Time of the firft Foundation of Weftminfter
Abbey, &c., by R. Widmore, 4to. 1743. Alfo, The
Hiftory, &c. of the Abbey Church, by the fame author,
1751. Weftmonafterium, or the Hiftory and Antiquities
of the Abbey Church of St. Peter, Weftminfter, by John
Dart ; 2 vols. fol. 1723. The general hiftories have been
already referred to in the article Lonpon.
WEsTMINSTER, a town of Maflachufetts, in the county
of Worcefter, containing 1419 inhabitants ; 55 miles N.W.
of Bofton.—Alfo, a poit-town of Vermont, in the county
of Windham, containing 1925 inhabitants; 18 miles N. of
Brattleborough.—Alfo, a town of Maryland, with a poft-
office ; 26 miles N.W. of Baltimore.
WesrMinsTER-Hall, an ifland in the ftraits of Magellan,
fituated to the N.E. of Cape Pillar. S. lat. 52° 34’. W.
long. 76° 16'—Alfo, an ifland in the Mergui Archipelago.
N. lat. 10° 42/.
WESTMORE, a town of the ftate of Vermont, in
Effex county, containing 71 inhabitants; 65 miles N. of
Norwich.
WESTMORELAND, Wesrmorianp, or Wefmere-
land, a northern county of England, furrounded by parts of
Durham and Yorkthire to the N., N.E., and E.; by Lan-
ceafhire to the S. and to the S.W. ; and by Cumberland on
the W. and N.W. The greater part of the boundary line
is artificial ; but at the S. and S.W., rivers and lakes con-
ftitute natural lines of demarcation. This diftri& is fup-
pofed to have derived its name from being a weftern moorifh
country ; perhaps it was the land of the moors or lakes in
the weft. It formed a part of the territory of the Brigantes
in that diftri@ occupied, according to Richard of Ciren-
cefter, by the Voluntit and the Sifuntii. The Brigantes
were the principal inhabitants of the Roman province
Maxima Cefarienfis; and during the heptarchy were in-
cluded in the extenfive kingdom of Northumberland. In
the time of Edward the Confeffor, this kingdom was divided
into fix fhires, of which one was called « Appulbifchire, to
which belonged the land of Weftmoreland.”? In this divi-
fion, however, Kendal and its diftri& were not included ; for
II
WES
long after the Norman Conqueft, they were reckoned to be-
long to the hundred of Lonfdale, in Lancafhire. Of the
Roman eftablifhments in Weftmoreland, many noticeable vef-
tiges are to be found in ftations, forts, roads, infcriptions,
and other remains. Among the ftations, or towns, may be
mentioned Amboglana, a name {uppofed to be ftill preferved
in Amblefide, at the N. end of Windermere ; but Horfley
places Di@is at that town. At any rate, ‘bricks, urns,
coins, and other relics, fufficiently prove it to have been oc-
cupied by the Romans. Vertere, another Roman iftation,
was fituated where now ftands Brough-under-Stanmore, a
name announcing an ancient fortification. ballaba feemed
naturally to have given rife to the modern name of Appleby;
but no Roman remains have ever been found at that place,
although it be undoubtedly of confiderable antiquity. Ga-
lacum is by Camden placed at Whellep ; but by later writers
near Appleby. Brovacum is probably Papapnae cattle,
near Penrith. This {tation has often been confounded with
Brovonace, of which remains exift in Kirkbythore. This
ftation Whellep or Whelp caftle lies in the middle of the
village, and is commonly called High Burwens. It occu-
pies an advantageous pofition ; the extent from weft to eaft
is about 160 yards. The foundations of the vallum are very
plain. Among the infcriptions found in it is one Fortune
Servatrice. A branch of the great Roman road, called the
Watling-ftreet, pafled through the county from Stanemore
to Brougham caitle ; and until the modern turnpike-road was
made, the former was very confpicuous almott all the way.
Between Brough and Kirkby, parts of it are ftill to be ob-
ferved ; keeping, as was the practice of the Romans, a
ftraight courfe, regardlefs of difficulties. This road mea-
fured about fix yards in width, and is defcribed to have been
formed, in many places, by three courfes of large fquare *
ftones. Near the northern border of the county, and not
far from Kirkbythore, is a large encampment, attributed to
the Romans, and meafuring about 300 yards in length, by
150 in breadth. It is reprefented as having twelve en-
trances, with baftions to each; but this is improbable.
Some topographers defcribe a few of the antiquities of the
county as of Caltic, or Druidical origin; particularly * a fort
of Druidical place of worfhip near Shap.” Maybrough
caftle, and Arthur’s Round Table, near Penrith, are re-
ferred to the Britifh era. There are alfo feveral cairns, or
heaps of loofe ftones, in the county. At Kirkbythore, a
Roman road, called the Maiden-way, branched off, and
pafling over the lower end of Crofs-fell, terminated at Caer-
vorran, in Northumberland. Roman infcriptions have been
found in various parts of the county. One in particular was
difcovered at Kirkbythore, infcribed Deo Belatucadro, a local
divinity probably of the original Britons. In 1739, at the
fame place, was found a ftone infcribed Jovi Serapi. In the
manor of Milbourne was found an altar to Si/vanus, within
a round fort furrounded by deep ditches, called Green-caftle.
This county is divided into the two baronies of Kendal and
Weftmoreland, the latter of which is occafionally called the
barony of Appleby ; and thefe again fubdivided into the
four wards of Eaft, Weft, Kendal, and Kirkby Lonfdale.
In ancient times, the Kendal barony was deemed part of the
county of Lancafter. Inthe Domefday furvey, an account
is taken of fome places in the barony of Kendal, with fome
neighbouring property in Lancafhire and Yorkfhire ; but
the Weftmoreland diftri& is unnoticed in that record, and
thence fuppofed to have been uninhabited and watte at the
time of the Conqueft. The Kendal barony isin the diocefe
of Chefter, and confifts of two rural deanries ; whereas the
other barony is within the diocefe of Carlifle, and confifts of
one
WESTMORELAND.
one rural deanry. The whole county contains only thirty-
two parifhes. According to the cenfus of 1811, thefe con-
tained 9064 houfes, and 45,922 inhabitants. 4
The general appearance of Weftmoreland is marked with
fome of the ftrongeft features in nature; immenfe traéts of
mountains, beautiful but contraéted valleys, extenfive lakes,
and large rocky diftriéts, which contain many high, fteep,
and bulging crags. The county is not only encircled with
mountains, but the greateft part of its interior furface is
{welled into hills. A long range of heavy-looking hills
bounds the eaftern fide of the county; in front of which is
an extenfive traét of tolerably level ground. The reft of
Weftmoreland is almott wholly hill and dale. The farm-
houfes and thofe of the {mall villages, covered with blue
flate and whitened with lime, are feated about the bafes of
the hills, with their fmall irregular fields {preading up the
fides of the mountains, and almoft univerfally divided with
ftone-walls. This laft circumftance gives the country a
naked appearance; but the numerous traéts of woodland
interfperfed tend to enliven the fcene. Every dell or hol-
low has its little brook, and the fmalleft of thefe are plenti-
fully fupplied with fifth. Several low heathy commons are
feen towards the eaftern fide of Weftmoreland ; and the
weftern part is characterifed by high rugged prominences,
and even fome rocky plains, {mall coppices, and a large ex-
tent of low flat peat-mofs; on the north, the fine woods
about Lowther add a ftriking feature to the landfcape.
Such are the brief but general outlines of the pifture: we
proceed to particularife fome of its peculiar charaéteriftics,
the moft prominent of which are its Mountains. 'Thefe are
provincially called fells, of which the following are the moft
noted.
Farlton-knot, near the borders of Lancafhire, is a very
protuberant lime-ftone rock ; from the Kendal road, near
Burton, it is faid to have very much the appearance of the
rock of Gibraltar. '
Whitbarrow-fcar is alfo a very high rock, and in fome
parts prefents a perpendicular face of folid lime-ftone. It
rifes its grizzly front between Milnthorp and Cartmel.
The high road leads along its bafe, whence it prefents a
grand, and in fome places a tremendous afpect.
Langdale-pikes, in the weftern corner of the county, are
conical hills of great height, with pyramidal rocky tops, and
are fituated in the interior parts of a very mountainous dif-
tri€t ; their fides and bafes are verdant, and have formerly
been covered with wood.
Hill-bell is alfo a high conical-topped mountain, about
four miles eaft from Amblefide.
Harter-fell, High-ftreet, and Kidfey-pike, are ftupendous
heights, within a few miles of the fouthern end of Haws-
water. From the top of High-ftreet, thirteen lakes, and
the fea in feveral diretions, may be feen.
The chain of hills on the eaft, which is continued north
and fouth through other counties, prefents a heavy and regu-
lar appearance; and they have moitly mofly and heathy tops,
except two or three conical green hills oppofite Appleby.
They are in general picturefque ; fome with abrupt decli-
vities, or rocky fronts, form high precipices, or in bulging
fhattered crags project over the vales in a frightful manner ;
while others fhew fmooth, verdant, and fwelling furfaces,
beautifully {potted with flocks of fheep and herds of cattle.
There are few Caves in Weftmoreland ; one, however,
is to be found at Dun-fell, bordering on Cumberland, and
is of confiderable extent. So intricate are the different
paflages and chambers of this capacious cave, that the Rev.
William Richardfon is faid to have been feven hours in
examining its varied parts. He defcribes the roof in fome
parts to refemble pointed arches, in others flat furfaces: he
found in fome places the flala@ites, and pieces of rhomboidal
Spar. He travelled nearly two ‘miles in a right line, and
difcovered evident marks of fome of the chambers having
been filled with water. The higheft part of the vault is
rather more than 25 yards; the breadth in fome places
about 150 yards; in other parts there was fearcely height
fufficient to creep through the hollow. Some other vifitors
have mentioned the afonithing luftre of the fpar with
which thefe vaults are encrufted. Nicholfon and Burn, in
their “ Hiftory of Weftmoreland,”? mention three pits, one
of which is generally confidered unfathomable. In the fea-
fon of falmon {melts, thefe pits abound with thofe {melts, when
they are to be feen alfo in the river Kent, which induces a be-
lief that they arrive from thence in fubterraneous paflages.
Rivers.—Although the rivers or ftreams, (provincially
called becks,) are numerous, they are but fmall, and
moftly rife within this diftri@. Only three of thefe
are fufficiently important to retain their original names
from their fources to the fea. Thefe are, the Eden,
the Lune, and the Kent, or Ken. The firit {prings in
Mallerftang, and runs north, and having received in its
courfe, befides many leffer ftreams, the conjoined rivers of
Lowther and Eamont, enters Cumberland, which county
it traverfes in its courfe to the fea, at Rowcliff. The Lune,
or Lun, hath its fource in Ravenftonedale, and paffing to the
fouth, through a fine vale, to which it gives name, enters
the county of Lancafter, formerly called Loncafter. The
Ken, or Kent, has its origin in Kent-mere, and runs
through a valley, called Kendale ; paffes the town of Ken-
dal, and empties itfelf in the fea at Cartmel bay. The
different rivulets from the eaftern diftri& empty themfelves
into the Eden, which, during its courfe through this county,
receives its principal fupplies. An irregular line, drawn
eaft and weft through the centre of Weftmoreland, divides
the direétion of its feveral rivers: thofe on the north falling
into the Eden, either before or at its entrance into Cumber-
land, except two or three fmall branches of the Tees, which
rife on the eaftern ridge of hills on the borders of the county
of Durham. The rivers on the fouthern parts take a con-
trary direétion, and enter the fea at different places.
The Lowther has its fource in the Moors, above Wetf-
laddale, and paffing Rofgill-hall, there unites with Swindale-
beck, which rifes near the flate-quarries ; with the augment-
ation of a few other ftreams, it joins the Eamont.
The Eamont emerges from Ulls-water, and forms a
boundary to parts of this county and Cumberland; and
after being augmented by the waters of the Lowther river,
which defcends from the centre of the county, it joins the
Eden as it enters Cumberland.
The Loyne, or Lune, has been defcribed in a previous
volume of this work, under Lancasuirr.
The Crake, a brook or rivulet, defcending in feveral
heads from a variety of dells on the fide of Brackenthwaite-
fell, paffes through a very extenfive peat-mofs to the Ken,
jutt before its influx to the fea.
The Winter, or Wintter-beck, forms the boundary be-
tween the lower part of Weftmoreland and Lancafhire. It
rifes on the hills about two miles eaft from Windermere lake,
and dire&s its courfe fouthwards, when it difcharges itfelf
in an eftuary ofthe fea.
The Trout-beck is a brook iffuing from the mountain
High-ftreet, and unites itfelf with Windermere lake.
Rothay fprings on the borders of Cumberland, among a
number of high mountains; it runs feveral miles weftward,
and receives various ftreams in its progrefs to Grafmere.
Lakes.—Weftmoreland is defervedly celebrated for its
fine
WESTMORELAND.
fine lakes. Among thefe, Windermere, or Winandermere,
and Ulls-water, merit particular attention for fize, and for
the piéturefque beauty of the fcenery which furrounds
them. They may be, and are by competent judges, re-
garded as unequalled in the kingdom.
Winandermere is a large lake of about ten miles and a
half in length, by a breadth of from one to two miles ; in-
cluding an area, or fheet of water, of nearly 4534 acres. Its
depth is in one place 23 fathoms, in a fecond 29, and ina
third 31 fathoms. Four mountain ftreams, or rivers, fup-
ply this lake, and it is fingular that its waters {carcely ever
appear to be augmented or decreafed. ‘ Even in the
moft violent rains, when the country is drenched in water,
when every rill is {welled into a river, and the mountains
pour down floods through new channels, the lake maintains
the fame equal temper; and though it may fpread a few
yards over its lower fhores, (which is the utmoft it does, )
yet its increafe is feldom the obje& of obfervation ; nor does
the feverity of the greateft drought make any confiderable
alteration in its bounds.’? In this lake are thirteen iflands,
the largeft of which is now called Curwen’s ifland. It
contains about 27 acres of land, which are laid out in
pleafure-gardens, walks, &c. around a very handfome man-
fion belonging to Mr. Curwen.
Ulls-water, part of which is known by the name of Oufe-
mere, is a large and long lake, fituated at the north-weftern
extremity of the county, and partly in Cumberland. Next
to Windermere, it is the largeft fheet of water in this part of
England. It covers an area of about nine miles in length
from N.E. to S.W. by two in the broadeft part, though
the general width rarely exceeds a mile. Its fides are very
irriguous, and from its fhores the mountains rife in various
bold, picturefque, and romantic forms ; occafionally farting
abruptly from the lake, and in other places afcending by
gradual flopes. Towards the fouth-weftern end the moun-
tains are on the grandeft fcale. Onthe northern and weftern
fides the feenery is moftly rocky and woody. In fome
places its waters are from 29 to 35 fathoms deep. It
abounds with trout, perch, fkellies, and eels; alfo fome
char, and a large fpecies of trout, fome of which have been
caught of ten pounds weight. In its higheft part are a
few {mall rocky iflands.
Haws-water, in beauty and extent, ranks next. This
lake is fituated between Shap and Ulls-water, in a moun-
tainous diftri& ; it is about three miles in length, and in
breadth from a quarter to half a mile. The hills on the
eaft fide are high and rocky, and partially covered with
wood. 'Thofe on the weft are alfo high, but have a por-
tion of low cultivated ground along the margin, which is
divided into {mall farms. The narroweft part of this lake
is faid to be fifty fathoms deep.
Grafmere lake is a {mall but beautiful fheet of water,
about a mile in length, and nearly half a mile broad, having
its margin codented with numerous fmall bays with lofty
and rocky eminences. Its fituation is a few miles north of
Amblefide. Near its centre is a {mall green ifland. The
poet Gray defcribes this lake and its fcenery in terms of
high panegyric. ‘“ After paffing the romantic mountain of
Helm-Crag,’’ he fays, ‘opens one of the {weeteft landfeapes
that art ever attempted to imitate. The bofom of the
mountains here, {preading into a broad bafon, difcovers in
the midft Grafmere-water; its margin is hollowed into
{mall bays with bold eminences, fome of rock, fome of turf,
that half conceal and vary the figure of the little lake they
command. From the fhore a low promontory pufhes it-
felf far into the water, and on it ftands a white village, with
the parifh-church rifing in the midft of it.’
South of this, in the fame vale, is Rydal-water, a {mali
lake nearly a mile in length, and interfperfed with wooded
iflands. Its water is fhallow, and abounds with reeds.
On an elevated fituation, nearly two miles weft from
Amblefide, is a {mall lake called Elter-water.
Broad-water is a fmall lake half a mile long, and e
quarter of a mile broad, fituated a few miles above Ulls-
water.
Kentmere-tarn, a piece of water upwards of a mile
songs and nearly half a mile broad, is fituated in Kentmere-
ale.
nape sealer a very {mall lake, three miles north-
eaft of Kentmere-tarn, is embofomed in the mountains of
Longfleddale.
Sumbiggin-tarn, and Whin-fell-tarn, are fmall pieces
of water ; the: former four or five miles eaft from Orton,
well fupplied with eels and a red trout, refembling char ;
and the latter about five miles north-eaft from Kendal.
The foil of Weftmoreland is moftly dry and gravelly; but
in the eaft and north, fand and hazel-mould are found. Clay
prevails on a few farms towards the Eden and the eaftern
hills ; and a moift foil appears in fome northern diftri&ts.
Peat-mofs abounds on the tops of fome high mountains,
confifting of a dry foil upon a hard blue rock, provincially
called rag. The foil that lies upon a ftratum of lime-ftone
is efteemed the moft profitable.
The Roads in Weitmoreland, from the rocky nature of
the country, are very firm and good. ‘They are generally
formed to wind gradually round the fides of the hills and
along the vales, in fuch a manner, that the declivities of the
former are moftly avoided. The principal roads leadin
through this county are thofe from Scotland and Cumber-
land to London, and the fouthern parts of England. Thefe
roads are united through Cumberland, but divide near Pen-
rith, on the confines of Weftmoreland : one turns eaftwards,
over Stainmoore, and through the centre of Yorkshire, to
London, &c.; the other proceeds diretly fouth, through
Kendal, Lancafter, &c. to Manchefter, Liverpool, Wales,
the weftern counties of England, and alfo to London. A
branch from this road goes through Kirkby-Lonfdale to
the manufacturing towns in the Weft Riding of Yorkshire,
and other fouthern diftriéts.
Before the rebellion of 1715, the public roads of this
county were almoft impaflable ; but in that year the govern-
ment planned feveral new roads: very little, however, was
done to them before the more ferious infurrection of 1745.
This event impelled the government to direé&t fome effectual
repairs to be made. In 1774 an aét of parliament was ob-
tained to make a turnpike-road from Bowes to Brough. In
this year, the firft- {tage-coach from London to Glafgow
was eftablifhed to run this road. A mail began to travel
through Kendal, &c. from London in 1786. Since which
time the great roads have been kept in very good repair.
With the exception of fome trifling veins of lead ore, few
minerals have been found in the eaftern part of this county.
Coal is obtained only in the fouth-eaftern extremity of
Weltmoreland, except an inferior quality called crow-coal,
procured in the neighbourhood of Shap.
The county affords various forts of valuable ftone ; par-
ticularly lime-ftone, marble, gypfum, blue flate, and free-
ftone. There is great abundance of lime-ftone, except
among the weftern hills.
Marble of a beautiful kind was difcovered a few years
ago on the banks of the river Kent, near Kendal, and has
been worked with fuccefs. The fame vein has alfo been
found on the oppofite fide of the river.
Blue flate of various forts is dug from the rocky hills on
the
WES
the weitern fide of the county ; though great quantities are
ufed in the country, yet much of the better fort is fent to
London, Liverpool, Hull, and other large fea-ports. Beds
of lime-ftone are generally incumbent on beds of flate.
The buildings of Weftmoreland are diftinguifhed for their
neat appearance. The houfes are moftly built with lime-
ftone, or blue rag ; thatched roofs are common, but flate
is more generally ufed. In farm buildings, the barn is
ufually built upon the scow-houfe and ftable, a method
which requires the flope of a hill, as carts are carried along
a level on one fide into the barn. As very little corn or
hay is ftacked without, the barns are neceflarily very
fpacious. There are many noblemen’s and gentlemen’s feats
in this county ; and alfo fome pleafant villas which ornament
the borders of the lakes.
The commerce of Weftmoreland is not extenfive. Its
exports are chiefly a coarfe woollen cloth, ftockings, flates,
tanned hides, gunpowder, hoops, charcoal, hams, wool, fheep,
and cattle.
The manufactures of the county confit of filk and
worfted waiftcoat-pieces, knit worfted ftockings, flannels,
tanned leather, and gunpowder.
Formerly the whole county was governed by military
tenure, 7.¢. by homage, fealty, and cornage, “which laft
drew after it wardfhip, marriage, and relief ; and the fervice
of this tenure was military fervice.”” Cornage appears to
have been peculiar to the border-fervice again{ft the Scots.
Cornage, horngeld, and noutgeld, were probably fyrony-
mous, and implied annual payments of horned cattle, to
provifion the garrifons. The lord’s rent was called white-
rent, probably from its being paid in filver. Scutage, or
fervice of the fhield, was another compenfation in money,
inftead of perfonal fervice againft the Scots.
Some veins of copper ore have been found and worked in
different parts of the county; but the produ@& has not
been found fufficient to defray the expence of workmanfhip.
Before the year 1704, great quantities of /ead were found
near Hartley. ‘Some mines at Dunfell have proved very
produétive of this metal for many years, but latterly there
has not been much ore found. At Dufton are fome rich
and produétive lead mines, belonging to the earl of Thanet.
There are fome confiderable mines at Greenfide, near
Paterdale, and at feveral other places in the county. This
metal is obtained in various quantities.
Crofs-fell, the higheft of the chain of mountains which
extend along the eaftern frontiers of the county of Weit-
moreland and Cumberland, is faid by Robinfon, in his
Natural Hiftory of the County, to have been formerly
called Fiend’s-fell, from evil {pirits which are faid in
former times to have haunted its fummit, and continued
their haunts and no@urnal vagaries upon it until St. Auftin,
as is reported, erected a crofs, and built an altar upon it,
whereon he offered the Holy Eucharift, by which he coun-
tercharmed thofe hellifh fiends, and difturbed their haunts.
Since that time it has been named Crofs-fell ; and unto this
time there is a heap of ftones on the fummit, which bears
the name of Crofs-fell.
Upon this and the adjoining mountains occurs the pheno-
menon, called the Helm-wind; which, in {pite of St. Auttin’s
charms, continues its vagaries on its ancient haunts. It is
peculiar to this diftri€t, and the confines of Lancafhire and
Yorkfhire, about Ingleborrow, Pendle, and Penigent. It
alfo occurs on Wildboar-fell, in Ravenftonedale; and is
moft prevalent in the months from Oétober to April. The
appearanees attending it are a whitifh cloud hanging half
way down the mountains, but keeping an exaét parallelifm
with every plane, depreffion, and elevation of their tops,
WES
which it covers as with a helmet. Above this appears the
blue fky, and then a white cloud, called the helm-bar, from
an idea that it repreffes the fury of the ftorm : it continues
in a tremulous agitated motion till it difperfes; and then
the hurricane iffues forth, roaring along the fides of the hills,
and frequently extending two or three miles from their fides.
The following are the heights of the principal mountains,
as afcertained by Mr. Dalton. Helvellyn is 1070 yards
high. A deep drift of {now was feen on this mountain
on the 12th of July, 1812. Bowfell and Rydal-head are
each 1030 yards in height. The High-ftreet is g12 yards
high. On its fummit are annual horfe-races, and other
{ports, on the 1oth of July, to which every one brings
the fheep that have ftrayed into their heathing-ground, for
their owners to challenge.
It appears that different grammar-fchools were eftablifhed
in this county previous to the diffolution. Edward VI.
was patron of the fchool at Kendal ; and queen Elizabeth
founded {chools at Appleby, Kirkby Stephen, and Kirkby
Lonfdale. From thefe feminaries many learned men have
been diftributed over England, fome of whom have obtained
eminence in the literary world. They have alfo contributed
towards the eftablifhment of other public fchools in the
county. Seminaries are, therefore, eftablifhed in nearly
every village in Weftmorelasd.—The Hiftory and Anti-
quities of the Counties of Weftmoreland and Cumberland,
by Jofeph Nicholfon, efq. and Richard Burn, LL.D.
2 vols. 4to. 1778. An Effay towards a Natural Hittory
of Weitmoreland and Cumberland, by the Rev. Thomas
Robinfen, 8vo. 1709. General View of the Agriculture of
the County, by Andrew Pringle, 4to. 1794. Obferva-
tions relative chiefly to Pi@uref{que Beauty of the Moun-
tains and Lakes of Weftmoreland and Cumberland, by the
Rev. William Gilpin, 2 vols. 8vo. 1788. A Survey of the
Lakes, by James Clarke, folio.
WESTMORELAND, a poft-townfhip of New York, in
Oneida county; 10 miles W. of Utica, and 107 miles from
Albany. Its waters are fmall ; its furface very level, but
the foil is very rich and fertile. It has a church for Con-
gregationalifts, and a competent number of common fchools.
In 1810, the population was 1135, and the fenatorial elec-
tors were 141.—Alfo, a county of Pennfylvania, containing
26,392 inhabitants, of whom 20 are flaves.—Alfo, a county
of Virginia, containing 8102 inhabitants, of whom 4080
are flaves.—Alfo, a townfhip of New Hamphhire, in the
county of Chefhire, on the E. bank of the Conneticut,
containing 1937 inhabitants ; 5 miles N. of Chefterfield.
WEST NANTMILL, a townthip of Pennfylvania, in
the county of Chefter, with 1188 inhabitants.
WEST NORTHERN LIBERTIES, a: town of
Pennfylvania, in the county of Philadelphia, containing
9795 inhabitants.—Alfo, a townfhip of the fame, contain-
ing 168 inhabitants.
WEST NOTTINGHAM, a townhhip of Pennfylvania,
in the county of Chefter, with 642 inhabitants.
WESTOE, a townfhip of Durham, with 2900 inhabit-
ants; 2 miles S. of Shields.
WESTON, a townthip of Conneéticut, in the county of
Fairfield, with 2618 inhabitants; S. of Fairfield.—Alfo, a
town of Vermont, in the county of Windfor, containing
629 inhabitants; 30 miles N.N.E. of Bennington.—Alfo,
a town of the ftate of Maffachufetts, in the county of
Middlefex, containing 1008 inhabitants; 12 miles W. of
Botton.
WEST PENNSBOROUGH, a townhhip of Pennfyl-
vania, in the county of Cumberland, with 1264 inhabitants.
WESTPHALIA, a circle of Germany, bounded ca
t
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the N. by the Dutch ftates, on the W. by the Netherlands,
and elfewhere by the circles of the Rhine, Upper and
Lower. The ancient Saxons were divided into Weftpha-
lians, Angrians, and Eaftphalians. The people inhabiting
between the Wefer and the Rhine, were called Weffphalians,
and the tract of country inhabited by them, has from thence
been called Wefphalia. The duchy of that name, in the
eleGtoral circle of the Rhine, conftituted a part of this
country ; but the circle of Weftphalia comprifed alfo under
it other countries, which never belonged to the above-men-
tioned Weitphalia. And thus we mutt carefully diftinguifh
from each other the three denominations, which are, the
circle of Weftphalia, Weftphalia itfelf, and the duchy of
that name. Formerly, not only certain ftates were reckoned
in this circle, which at prefent no longer belong to it, as
Utrecht, Guelderland, Zutphen, the bifhopric and city of
Cambray ; but in other refpeéts, alfo, the ancient and the
modern lifts of the countries of the Weftphalian circle
differ greatly from each. The following appeared to be
ftates of the Welftphalian circle before the peace of Lune-
ville, viz. the bifhoprics of Paderborn, Munfter, Liege,
and Ofnabruck; the duchy of Verden; the principality of
Minden; the abbeys of Corvey, Stablo, Werden, Cornelius
Munfter, Effen, Thorn, and Hervorden; the duchy of
Cleves, with the county of Mark; the duchies of Juliers
and Berg, Nafflau Siegen, and Naffau Dillenburg; the
principalities of Eaft Friefland and Meurs; the counties of
Sayn, Wied-Runkel, Schauenburg, Oldenburg, Delmen-
horft, Lippe, Bentheim, Tecklenburg, Hoya, Virnenburg,
Diepholz, Spiegelberg, Rietberg, Pyrmont, Gronsfeld,
Reckheim ; the figniories of Anhalt and Winneburg ; the
county of Holzapfel; the figniories of Witten, Blanken-
heim, Geroldftein, Gehmen, Gimborn and Neuftadt, Wic-
kerad, Mylendonk, and Reichenftein; the county of
Kerpen and Lommerfum ; the figniory of Schleiden, and
the county of Hallermund, to which in the matricula are
reckoned moreover to belong the figniories of Dyck,
Severn, Kniphaufen, Keyl, Mechernick, Eyfs, Schlenacken,
Wylre, Richold, Dreyz, and Schonau, together with the
cities of Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, and Dortmund. The
fummoning princes, and direétors of the circle, were the
bifhop of Munfter, and with him alternately the eleGtors of
Brandenburg and Palatine, as dukes of Cleves and Juliers,
both of whom in this direétory enjoyed together but one
voice. The diets of the circle were ufually appointed at
Cologne. The archives belonging to it were kept at
Duffeldorf. The contribution of this circle in men and
money, to the aids of the empire, was made equal to the
contributions of Upper and Lower Saxony, Burgundy,
and Swabia, and rated at fomewhat more than the ninth,
but lefs than the tenth part of the whole fum granted by
the empire. With refpeét to religion, this circle was one
of the mixed. Indeed the Catholic ftates ufed to nominate
two, and the Proteftant alfo the like number of affeffors,
to affift at the Imperial and chamber court of the empire.
By the peace of Luneville, all that part of the circle which
lay on the left bank of the Rhine, was ceded to France.
WestrHaria, (Duchy of,) a country of Germany,
bounded on the N. by the bifhopric of Munfter and county
of Lippe, on the E. by Paderborn, Waldeck, and Hefle ;
on the S. by Witgentftein, Naffau, and Berg ; and on the
W. by Berg and irk’: about forty miles in extent from
N. to S. and thirty-two from E. to W. Agreeably to its
natural fituation, this county is divided into three parts.
The firft of thefe, called the Hellwege, is low, and produces
plenty of corn and other neceffaries, with a fufficient breed
of cattle and falt-fprings. The fecond is the Haarflrank,
WES
which ftands fomewhat higher, between Hellwege and the
Sunderland, and has indeed a good, but not fo fruitful a
foil as the Hellwege. The third is the Sunderland, com-
monly called the Surland, or Saurland, which confifts of
hills and vales. This tra& indeed is neither of great, nor
even a fufficient fertility in corn; but, on the other hand, it
has fine woods and meadows, together with a good breed
of cattle, game, and fifh, in particular trout, as alfo plenty
of iron ore, calamy, lead, copper, filver, and gold. The
principal rivers are, the Ruhr, the Lenne, the Dimel, and
Lippe. The duchy of Weftphalia contains in it thirty-five
towns. Henry, duke of Bavaria and Saxony, being put
under the ban by the emperor Frederic I. in the year
1180, the latter made a donation of the duchy of Welt.
phalia, as alfo a part of the duchy of Engern, which be-
longed to the former, to the archbifhopric of Cologne, and
inveited therewith the archbifhop Philip; concerning which
donation, in the fame year, a record, or inftrument, was
executed at Gelnhaufen, and the faid donation confirmed
afterwards in the year 1200, by the emperor Otho IV., as
alfo in the year 1204, by the emperor Philip. In the year
1368, Godfrey, the laft duke of Arenfberg, and his con-
fort Anne, ceded the county of Arenfberg to the arch-
bifhopric of Cologne; and, in the year 1371, the emperor
Charles IV. invefted the archbifhop Frederic therewith.
The county was afterwards added to the fhare of the duchy
of Engern. The archbifhops and eleétors of Cologne
governed this duchy, till the year 1442, by marfhals, but
afterward under the dire¢tion of an eleétoral bailiff. Brilon
is the capital. In 1802, the duchy of Weftphalia was
given to the prince of Heffe Darmftadt.
WesrTruaLi, a kingdom formed of feveral principalities,
taken from the king oF Pruffia, after the battle of Fried-
land, and acceded to at the peace of Tilfit. Weftphalia is
divided into eight departments. 1. That of the Elbe;
confifting of the greater part of the duchy of Magdeburg,
with the Old Mark of Brandenburg. Its population is
253,000 fouls: the chief place Magdeburg. 2. That of
Fulda: the chief place Caflel. It is compofed of a part of
Lower Heffe, of the countries of Paderborn, Corvey,
Minden, &c. Its population 239,502 inhabitants. 3. That
of the Harz: chief place Heiligenftadt. It confifts of
Eichsfeld, of the cities of Mulhavfen and Nordhaufen, of
the principalities of Hohenftein, Grubenhagen, Blanken-
burg, &c. Its population is 210,989 fouls. 4. That of
the Leine: chief place Gottingen. It is compofed of a part
of the principality of Grubenhagen, and of the countries
of Hildefheim, Brunfwick, and Heffe. Its population is
145,537 fouls. 5. That of the Ocher: chief place Brunf-
wick. It is compofed of the greater part of the duchy of
Wolfenbuttel, and the bifhopric of Hildefheim. Its popu-
lation is 267,878 fouls. 6. That of Saal: chief place
Halberftadt. It is compofed of the principalities of Hal-
berftadt, Wernigerode, Quedlinburg, &c. The population
is 206,222 fouls. 7. That of the Werra: the chief place
Marburg. It confifts of Upper Heffe, the Hersfeld, &c.
The population is. 254,000 fouls. 8. That of the Wefer :
the chief place Ofnabruck. It confifts of the bifhopric of
Ofnabruck, a part of Schaumburg ; and its population is
334,000 fouls.
WestrHarta-Ham. See Ham.
WESTPOND Ptanration, in Geography, a town of
the diftriét of Maine, in the county of Kennebeck, con-
taining 481 inhabitants.
WESTPORT, a townfhip of Maflachufetts, in the
county of Briftol, incorporated in 1787, with 2585 inha-
bitants ; 60 miles S. of Bofton.
WESTPORT,
WES
Westrort, a fea-port and poft-town of Ireland, in the
county of Mayo, fituated on a beautiful bay, wooded to the
water’s edge, in the S.E. angle of that large haven called
Clew bay, founded by the late marquis of Sligo, whofe re-
fidence was within half a mile of it. Weftport is a neat
regular well-built town, 123 miles W.N.W. from Dublin,
and 84 S.W. from Caftlebar. The following account,
extracted from a late report to the Linen Board by Peter
Bernard, efq. fhews what judicious indulgence and liberal
protection on the part of a landlord, aflifted by the exer-
tions of an induftrious individual, may do. Were the exam-
ple univerfally imitated, many fqualid and decayed villages
would quickly affume a more comfortable and exhilarating
afpe&. ‘ The eftablifhment and fuccefs of the linen ma-
nufaéture in Weftport, is due to the perfevering attention
of the marquis of Sligo and Robert Patten, efq. The
latter, moft fortunately for the neighbourhood, fettled here
in the year 1787; at that period Weftport was a very in-
confiderable town, containing but few houfes, and its general
market attended only by two or three hundred perfons; now
it is a beautiful well-built town, with 3700 induftrious inhabit-
ants, and many gentlemen of the higheft refpetability re-
fiding in it. Its market at prefent (1817) is attended by
from 4000 to 5009 perfons, whofe manners, appearance,
and drefs, befpeak mott ftrongly the happy effeéts of a well-
regulated fyftem of induftry.”” ‘* The firft linen-market was
held in 1790. For the firft five years it produced only eight
webs per week, and Mr. Patten was the only buyer; but
he, by giving fair and liberal encouragement to the weavers,
gradually but firmly advanced the trade, which now ftands
on a foundation not likely to be fhaken. An acceffion of
fettlers from Uliter in the years 1797, 98, and 99, who
brought their looms, fome capital, and their accuftomed
habits of induftry, completed what Mr. Patten had fo for-
tunately begun.”? At prefent the market is held every
Thurfday in a fpacious. linen-hall built by the marquis of
Sligo, where the goods are meafured by a machine. The
linens are all feyen-eighths of three different qualities, and
are all brought to market in a brown ftate. There are fold
weekly about 200 webs, the value of which is eftimated at
above 20,000/. per annum. ‘There are about 150 weavers
and about 20 buyers, two of whom have bleach-greens at
Wettport. Mr. Patten has alfo fuccefsfully introduced at
Weltport the provifion and corn-trade, and alfo the oil
bufinefs, which is carried on to a confiderable extent, and
gives employment in the feafon to a great number of fifher-
men and boats. In March and April a number of fifh
appear off the coaft, which, from their appearing only on a
funny day, the inhabitants call /un-fi/h, though they differ from
the fifh ufually fo called. The fifhermen {trike thefe with
harpoons, then cut out the liver, and abandon the reft of the
fifh, the liver being fufficient to load one boat of four tons
burden. A large fith yields eight barrels of oil and two of
fediment. This trade amounts to fome thoufands annually,
and Mr. Patten’s houfe has often bought in one year near
3000/. worth. The oil is efteemed as good as fpermaceti
oil, and is particularly well-fuited for lamps, as it has no
offenfive {mell. The price of the prefent day is five fhillings
per gallon; the dregs are ufed by tanners. Bernard’s Re-
ort to the Linen Board in 1817.
WESTRAY, one of the Orkney iflands, terminating the
clufter on the N.W. quarter, is fituated 20 miles N. from
Kirkwall, and 347 miles in the fame bearing from Edin-
burgh. Its fhape bears fome refemblance to that of a
cro{s; of which the longer part extends about eight miles,
the arms or tranfverfe part not more than five, and compre-
hends in the whole about fourteen fquare miles. The ifland
Vou. XX XVIII.
«
WES
comprifes two parifhes, St. Mary’s and Crofs Kirk ; and
in the population return of the year 1811 was ftated to con-
tain 248 houfes, and 1396 inhabitants. The only manu-
facture is that of kelp, of which are produced on an average
300 tons annually. Much corn is raifed, but of an indiffer-
ent quality; the grafs is excellent for the dairy, and for
the pafturage of black cattle ; and the boifterous feas which
furround the ifland afford great plenty of fifh, of a very
fuperior kind. On the eaft and fouth are two bays; but
the only harbour that can be depended on is on the north-
eaft, and this is fit for {mall veffels only: formerly it re-
ceived fhips of much greater burthen ; but from the blow-
ing of the fand the water has become fo fhallow, they are
now compelled to anchor in a more open road. In two ex-
tenfive plains near the fea-fide, one on the fouth, the other
on the north part of the ifland, a multitude of graves have
been difcovered, all formed in nearly the fame manner; and,
though tradition is filent, they were probably formed after a
fanguinary conflict at fome remote period: fome of thefe
graves, on the north fide, have been opened, and were found
to contain fkeletons in a reclining pofture, with weapons,
domeftic utenfils, and feveral other articles, the ufe of which
could not be afcertained.—Beauties of Scotland, vol. v.
Orkneys, 1808. Carlifle’s Topographical DiGtionary of
Scotland, 1813.
WESTRINGIA, in Botany, was fo named by the
author of the prefent article, in honour of Dr. John Peter
Weltring, phyfician to the king of Sweden, member of the
Royal Society of Stockholm, and author of feveral learned
papers on the Lichen tribe, publifhed in the TranfaGtions of
that body. He has alfo publifhed feven numbers in 8vo. on
the dyeing properties of many Swedifh lichens, comprehend-
ing a full hiftory of the modes of applying them to ufe,
and accompanied with moft elaborate and complete coloured
figures, drawn by the celebrated profeffor Acharius himfelf.
—Sm. in Stockh. Tranf. for 1797, 171. Traés relating
to Nat. Hift. 277. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 4.. Brown Prodr.
Nov. Holl. v. 1. 501. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 372.—
Clafs and order, Didynamia Gymnofpermia. Nat. Ord. Ver-
tcillate, Linn. Labiate, Juff. Brown.
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
fomewhat bell-fhaped, with five fides and five prominent
angles, but no furrows, divided about half way down into
five equal, ereé, lanceolate, beardlefs fegments, permanent.
Cor. of one petal, ringent, twice as long as the calyx:
tube the length of the calyx, hairy in the throat: limb
two-lipped; the upper lip flat, ere&t, divided, rather the
longeft ; lower in three oblong, equal, fpreading, entire
fegments. Stam. Filaments four, fhorter than the limb,
divaricated, the two upper ones longeft; anthers of the
two upper ftamens roundifh, halved, thofe of the two lower
deeply divided, imperfe&. iff. Germen in the bottom
of the calyx, four-lobed ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of
the longer ftamens; ftigma fmall, cloven, acute. Peric.
none,.except the hardened calyx. Seeds four, obovate,
naked.
Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft half way down, five-fided.
Upper lip of the corolla flat, cloven; lower in three deep
equal fegments. Stamens diftant; the two upper with
halved anthers ; two lower with divided abortive ones.
A genus of New Holland fhrubs, chiefly from the colder
parts of that country, having the appearance of our rofe-
mary, deftitute of glands, but mottly downy. Leaves
whorled, entire. Flowers axillary, folitary, on fhort ftalks,
with a pair of braéeas clofe to the calyx. Corolla white,
fometimes datted with purple or violet. One fpecies only
was, for a long time, known to us, hvt Mr. Brown has
Uu afcer=
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afcertained feven more, one of which, it feems, was brought
home by the famous old navigator Dampier, and is pre-
ferved in the Sherardian herbarium at Oxford, if we remem-
ber right. They all very much refemble each other in
habit, and prove the genus to be peers natural, though
it has been confounded with Cunila by fome very eminent
botanitts. re 2
1. W. rofmariniformis. Rofemary-leaved Weitringia.
Sm. in Stockh. Tranf. for 1797, 175. t.8. f.2. Tracts
282.t.3. Brown n.1. Ait. n.1. Donn. Cant. ed. 5.
141. (W. rofmarinacea; Andr. Repof. t.214. Cunila
fruticofa; Willd. Sp. Pl. v.1.122.)—Leaves four in a
whorl, lanceolate, revolute ; fhining and nearly fmooth
above; filky beneath. Calyx filky; its teeth longer than
the tube.—Native of New South Wales, near Port Jack-
fon, from whence fpecimens and feeds were fent by Dr. John
White, in 1791. The /lem is fhrubby, feveral feet high,
very much branched ; éranches either oppofite, or four
together, {quare, filky with white clofe hairs, denfely leafy.
Leaves {preading, an inch or fomewhat lefs in ‘length,
acute, fingle-ribbed, entire; dark green, and polifhed above ;
white with filky hairs beneath. Foot/alks broad and very
fhort, filky, without flipulas. Flowers about the upper
part of the branches, fhorter than the leaves; their corolla
{preading nearly an inch, white, dotted about the mouth
with violet fpots. Anthers violet. The calyx is filky on
the outfide of the tube, its fegments naked with revolute
margins ; they appear to us variable in length. The plant
is flightly bitter, not aromatic; nor have the flowers any
{cent.
‘2, W. Dampieri. Dampier’s Weftringia. Br. n. 2.
Ait. n, 2.—* Leaves four in a whorl, linear, ftrongly revo-
lute; nearly {mooth above; hoary and opaque beneath.
Calyx hoary and opaque ; its teeth half the length of the
tube.”?—Gathered by Mr. Brown on the fouthern coaft of
New Holland. Sent to Kew in 1803, by Mr. Peter Good.
It flowers in the greenhoufe, from May to July. Aiton.
3. W. rigida. Rigid Weltringia. Br. n. 3.— Leaves
three in a whorl, linear-lanceolate, divaricated, fharp-pointed,
revolute ; fmoothifh above; hoary beneath. Calyx hoary;
its teeth half the length of the tube.””—Difcovered by
Mr. Brown, in the fouth part of New Holland.
4. W. cinerea. Grey Weltringia. Br. n. 4.—‘* Leaves
three in a whorl, linear, fpreading, pointed, revolute, hoary
on both fides. Calyx hoary; its teeth fcarcely a quarter
the length of the tube.”—This was found by Mr. Brown,
in the fie country as the laft fpecies.
5. W. anguflifolia. Narrow-leaved Weltringia.
n. 5.—‘¢ Leaves three in a whorl, linear, fpreading, revo-
lute ; roughifh on the upper fide; hoary beneath. Calyx
hoary ; its teeth half the length of the tube.”-—Found by
Mr. Brown, in the ifland of Van Diemen.
6. W. longifolia. Long-leaved Weftringia. Br. n. 6.—
Leaves three in a whorl, linear, revolute; rough with
minute points on the upper fide; flightly hairy beneath.
Calyx fomewhat hairy; its teeth equal to the tube.—
Gathered near Port Jackfon by Mr. Brown. We have
f{pecimens, gathered in that country by Dr. White, which
anfwer to the fpecific charaéter, except that the back of
their /eaves, as well as the calyx, are rather hoary than, as
Mr. Brown fays, green, and the /eaves are four, or even five,
in a whorl. The corolla is externally downy ; but this laft
chara¢ter is, perhaps, not peculiar to the prefent {pecies. »
7. W. glabra, Smooth Weltringia. Br. n. 7.—‘ Leaves
three in a whorl, linear-lanceolate, fat, {mooth on both fides,
as well as the calyx.’’—Gathered by Mr. Brown, in the
tropical part of New Holland.
Br.
WET
8. W. rubiefolia. Madder-leaved Weftringia. Br. n. 8.
—* Leaves four in a whorl, elliptic-lanceolate, nearly flat,
very {mooth and fhining. Calyx nearly fmooth.””— Found
in the ifland of Van Diemen, by Mr. Brown.
The two laft fpecies feem to differ remarkably from all
the foregoing, in the flatnefs and {moothnefs of their eaves.
WESTRIZ, «in Geography, a river of the duchy of
Stiria, which runs into the Latfaitz, near Furftenfeld.
WESTS, a town of Virginia; 4 miles S.W. of Leef-
burg.
WEST SALEM, a township of Pennfylvania, in Mer-
cer county, with 660 inhabitants.
WEST SOUTHWARK, a town of Pennfylvania, in
the county of Philadelphia, containing 6443 inhabitants.
WEST SPRINGFIELD, a town of Maffachufetts, in
the county of Hampfhire, containing 3109 inhabitants.
WEST STOCKBRIDGE, a town of Maflachufetts,
in the county of Berkfhire, containing 1049 inhabitants.
WEST WHITELAND, a townfhip of Pennfylvania,
with 636 inhabitants.
WEST WINDSOR, a town of New Jerfey, in the
county of Middlefex, containing 1714 inhabitants.
WET Arr. See Moisture.
Wer Couch, aterm ufed by the maltiters for one of the
principal articles of malt-making.
In the making of malt, the ufual way is to foak the
grain in water two or three days, till it becomes plump and
{welled, and the water is brown; the water is then drained
away, and the barley is removed to a floor, where it is
thrown intoa wet couch, that is, an even heap of about two
feet thick.
In this heap the barley fpontaneoufly heats, and begins
to grow, fhooting out firft the radicle, and, if fuffered to
continue growing, foon after the blade; but at the eruption
of the radicle, the procefs is to be {topped fhort, by {pread-
ing the wet couch thin over the floor, and turning it once
every four or five hours for two days, laying it thicker each
time ; after this it is thrown into a large heap, and there
fuffered to grow hot of itfelf, and afterwards {pread abroad
again and cooled, and then thrown upon the kiln to be dried
crifp, without fcorching. Shaw’s Lectures, p. 186.
Wert Dock. See Dock.
Wer-Glover, a drefler of the fkins of fheep, lambs,
goats, &c. which are flender, thin, and gentle. 5
WETA, or Wrinpau, in Geography, a river of the duchy
of Courland, which runs into the Baltic, a little below
Windau. 1
WETERFELD, a town of Bavaria, onthe Regen ; 21
miles N.E. of Ratifbon.
WETHER-Gertrer,
Ram.
WetHeER-Sheep, in Rural Economy, a term applied by
ftock-farmers to a caftrated male fheep of more than one
year old; but before that time it is called a wedder-
lamb. The wedders of the improved breeds of fheep,
efpecially thofe of the new Leicefter fort, are much more
early than the old kinds. See Sneep.
WETHERBY, in Geography, a market-town in the
upper divifion of the wapentake of Claro, Weit Riding of
the county of York, England, is fituated on the river
Wharfe, 7 miles N.W. from Tadcafter, about the fame dif-
tance S.E. from Knarefborough, and 194 miles N.N.W.
from London. The courfe of the river forms an angle,
whofe fides are each about one mile in length ; at the point
of this angle the town is feated. It affords nothing worthy
of notice, but a handfome bridge crofling the Wharfe.
Above this bridge the river forms a beautiful cafoade, by
falling
among Sheep-Farmers. See
WET
falling in a fheet of water over a high dam ereéted for the
convenience of the mills. Over this cafcade, the falmon, in
their way up the river from the fea, are feen to leap with
wonderful dexterity. Wetherby has a weekly market on
Thurfdays, and three annual fairs, In the population re-
turn of the year 1811, the town is ftated to contain 1140
inhabitants, occupying 243 houfes. In the time of Wil-
liam the Conqueror, this manor was poffeffed by two Nor-
man lords, William de Percy and Erneis de Burun. It
was afterwards given to the knights templars ; and, together
with all their eftates in England, was forfeited on the aboli-
tion of their order, in the year 1312. In the civil war of
Charles I. this town was garrifoned by fir Thomas Fairfax,
who, in 1642, repulfed fir Thomas Glenham, in two differ-
ent attacks. A little below the town is St. Helen’s Ford,
where the Roman military-way crofled the Wharfe.
Within a mile of the town is Wetherby Grange, the feat of
Richard Thompfon, efq. In the park is an heronry, a
thing rather uncommon in this part of the country. The
herons build their nefts in the tops of the higheft trees ; but
feldom take the trouble, when they can get them ready made
by the rooks, whom they expel, and enlarge and line the
nefts, driving away the original poffeflors, fhould they
happen to renew their fruitlefs claims.
About two miles to the weft of Wetherby, is Stockeld
park, the feat of William Middleton, efg. His anceftors
defcended from Hypolitus de Brame, lord of Middleton,
who lived in the reign of Henry II. Not far from the
houfe, and near the high road, is a rock of a very fingular
fhape, 65 feet in circumference, and 30 feet high, ftanding
on the margin of a lake.—Hargrove’s Hiftory of Knaref-
borough, 1809. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvi.
Yorkthire. By J. Bigland, 1812.
WETHERSFIELD, a town of Conneicut, in the
county of Hartford, containing 3961 inhabitants.
WETMORE?’s Istanp, a {mall ifland on the coaft of
Maffachufetts, at the mouth of the river Penobfcot.
WETSTEIN, Joun James, in Biography, was born at
Bafle in 1693, and made fuch proficiency in his early
ftudies, that he was fit to be admitted into the univerfity at
the age of eleven years. In his zoth year he was ordained
minifter, on which occafion he maintained a difputation on
the various readings of the New Teftament, in which he de-
fended the authenticity and integrity of the text. To this
courfe of ftudy he was feduloufly devoted, and in order to
explain the words and phrafes of the New Teftament, he
carefully read the Greek authors, both facred and profane ;
and he alfo confulted the Rabbinical writings, for the pur-
pofe of acquainting himfelf with the opinions and cuftoms
of the Jews. Richly furnifhed with this kind of knowledge,
he fet out, in 1714, on a literary tour to Zurich, Berne, and
Geneva. From the latter place he proceeded through
Lyons to Paris, where he became acquainted with Mont-
faucon, Courayer, and other eminent men; and he alfo vifited
England, where he was particularly noticed by the cele-
brated Bentley, and diligently fearched for MSS. of the
New Teftament. During his ftay in this country, he was
made chaplain to a regiment of Swifs troops, and having
obtained leave of abfence, vifited Paris, in order to collate a
particular MS., and, after three months, joined the regi-
ment at Bois-le-duc. Having afterwards vifited Holland
and Germany, he returned to Bafle in 1717, and became
deacon to the church of St. Leonard, which office he held
with diftinguifhed approbation for nine years. In purfuance
of his main objeét, he correfponded with Bentley on the
fubje&t of various readings ; but he was interrupted in his
plan by a violent difpute with a divine of Bafle, who had
WET
been his intimate friend, occafioned by his publitation of a
{pecimen of his various readings in 1718. In the progrefs
of this difpute, the clergy took a part, and prefented a peti-
tion to the council, requefting that Wetftein’s edition of the
New Teftament might be prohibited; alleging, amongtt
other objeCtions, that it favoured of Socinianifm. His Pro-
legomena, however, were printed in 1730, and a new accufa-
tion was preferred to the council againft the author. This
kind of clamour proving ineffeCtual, his enemies engaged
fome of his pupils to appear as witnefles againft him ; and
they produced extraéts of his lectures from the MS. copies
of thefe pupils to fupport their accufation. The refult of
thefe difhonourable proceedings was a fufpenfion of his func-
tions in 1729, and this was foon followed by his total depo-
fition. This condu& of the clergy was aggravated by a
variety of mifreprefentations ; the minifters of Mulhaufen,
Neufchatel, Vallangen, and Geneva, expreffed their difap-
probation of thefe meafures ; and forty heads of families in
the parifh of St. Leonard prefented a petition for obtaining
Wetttein’s re-eftablifhment. But as this interpofition on his
behalf was unfuccefsful, he left his native country, and re-
moved to Amfterdam, where the Remonftrants eleéted him
profeffor of philofophy in the room of Le Clerc, requiring,
at the fame time, that he fhould juftify himfelf, either by a
public apology, or before the council at Bafle. Adopting
the latter method, he returned to Switzerland, and in the
prefence of thirteen commiffioners, chofen from the council
and body of the profeffors, he fhewed that the extras fur-
nifhed by his pupils were not worthy of credit ; that the wit-
neffes had {worn nothing that could prove the accufation al-
leged againft him ; and that the ats of the divines contra-
di&ed each other. The council, in March 1732, annulled
the decree of condemnation, and reftored him to the full
exercife of his fun&tions. ‘The Remonftrants at Amfterdam
were fatisfied, and in 1733 he took poffeffion of his office,
the duties of which he faithfully difcharged till his death.
His chara¢ter being re-eftablifhed at Bafle, he was elected
in 1744 profeffor of the Greek language; but the Remon-
ftrants, in order to retain him, nominated him profeffor of
ecclefiaftical hiftory, and made an addition to his falary.
Amidit the labours of the offices, which he fuitained with
great honour to himfelf and benefit to his pupils, he pro-
ceeded in colle&ting and arranging his various readings of the
New Teftament ; grudging no expence, and availing himfelf
of every opporttnity that occurred in collating various MSS.
Encouraged by a great number of learned men in England,
Holland, and Germany, he at length publifhed his firft
volume in 1751, and the fecond in the following year; and
in order to preclude every objection, he printed the text
from that commonly received, and the various readings at
the bottom. ‘To the whole he fubjoined a. commentary,
comprehending all the remarks with which he had been fur-
nifhed by the Hebrew, Greek, and Roman writers whom he
had confulted. His attachment to received principles is
evinced by his mode of explaining feveral paflages, and par-
ticularly thofe which related to the divinity of Jefus Chrift.
To his New Teftament he added two epiftles of St. Clement,
now firft publifhed, with a Latin verfion, and a diflertation
on their authenticity. His literary reputation being now
eftablifhed, he was made a foreign aflociate of the Academy
of Sciences at Berlin, in 17525 and in the following year
elected a fellow of the Royal Society in London. Although
Wettftein’s conftitution was vigorous, his inceflant labour
accelerated the infirmities of age ; and he was feized with a
numbnefs and coldnefs in his right leg, which threatened a
gangrene, and all attempts to check the progrefs of this ma-
lady were ineffe€tual ; fo that it terminated his valuable life
; Uuz2 in
WET
in March 1754, in the 61ft year of his age. He beheld the
approaches of death with tranquillity and refignation. Wet-
itein was focial, and fond of innocent amufements, though
ftudious. He was an excellent Greek fcholar, poffeffed a
retentive memory, and {poke feveral modern languages.
He was affable even to ftrangers, and kind and condefcend-
ing to his pupils. His benevolence comprehended all of
every nation and communion, and he was prompt in commu-
nicating affiftance and advice to all who applied to him.
His charaéter has been amply vindicated from invidious and
degrading charges by Krighout, in his “ Memoria Wet-
iteniana Vindicata,” qto. Formey’s Elog. Gen. Biog.
WETTELSHEIM, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the principality of Anfpach; 4 miles N.W. of Treucht-
lingen.
WETTENHAUSEN, a princely abbey, founded in
the tenth century ; 20 miles W. of Augfburg.
WETTER, a town of Germany, in the county of
Mark ; 6 miles S.W. of Schwiert.—Alfo, a town of Ger-
many, in the principality of Hefle; 6 miles N.W. of
Marburg. N. lat. 50° 54’. E. long. 8° 45'.—Alfo, a
river of Germany, which rifes in the county of Solms, and
runs into the Nidda, at Affenheim.
Werrer Jfand, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,
about 90 miles in circumference, of an irregular form. S.
lat. 7° 24!. E. long. 126° 4o!.
Werter Lake, a lake of Sweden, in Eaft Gothland,
fixty-five miles long, and from ten to fixteen wide. This
lake has but one outlet by the river Motala, though above
forty little ftreams difcharge themfelves into it. This lake
lies much higher than either the Baltic or the North fea,
and is deep and clear, but very boifterous in winter. It is
fuppofed certainly to prognofticate the approach of ftormy
weather. -As this lake, like all inland pieces of water,
furrounded with hills or mountains, is fubje& to fudden
ftorms in the ftilleft weather, fuperftition and credulity co-
operating, asin other cafes, have been bufy in explaining and
admitting caufes for this phenomenon; and accordingly it
has been reported and credited, that thefe fudden ftorms are
occafioned by a fubterraneous communication with the lake
of Conitance in Switzerland. It is faid, that by a regular
feries of correfpondence and obfervation it was found, that
when the waters of one lake arofe, thofe of the other fell in
the fame proportion ; and frequently the waters of the Wetter
were violently agitated without the leaft wind, or any appa-
rent caufe, until information arrived that at the fame time
the Jake of Conftance had been difturbed by a tempeft.
The whole is fuppofed to be a fable grounded on fome anti-
quated tradition. See WapsTENA.
WETTERAU, or WerreRAVIA, a country of Ger-
many, fituated between the county of Heffe and the river
Maine, which takes its name from the river Wetter. It
contains the counties of Siegen, Schaumburg, Dillenburg,
Dietz, Hadamar, Weilburg, Idftein, Hanau, Solms, Wei-
terburg, Ifenburg, Sayn, Witgenftein, Hohenttein, Cron-
berg, and Waldeck, the lordfhips of Weid, and the imperial
towns of Wetzlar, Friedberg, and Gelnhaufen. The
northern part is called Wefterwald.
WETTERINGEN, a town of Germany, in the bi-
fhopric of Munfter ; 7 miles S.W. of Rheine.
WETTING, a town of Weltphalia, in the duchy of
Magdeburg, on the Saal, the principal place of a bailiwick,
which was formerly a county, in the year 1283 granted to the
cathedral of Magdeburg.. In the neighbourhood are fome
coal-mines ; 34 miles S. of Magdeburg. N. lat. 51° 37/.
E. long. 12°
!
Ww TTINGEN, atown of Switzerland, and principal
9
WEX
place of a bailiwick, in the county of Baden, on the Lim-
mat, with a celebrated wooden bridge of one arch over the
river, executed by the fame perfon who built the bridge over
the Rhine, at Schaffhaufen; 1 mile S. of Baden.
WETZ, a river of Germany, which runs.into the Lahn,
near Wetzlar.—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Solms Braunfels; 5 miles S. of Wetzlar.
WETZLAR, an imperial town of Germany, in the cir-
cle of the Upper Rhine, fituated on the Lahn. The Ro-
man Catholics, the Lutherans, and the Calvinifts, have each
a church; 45 miles E. of Coblentz. N. lat. 50° 34’. E.
long. 8° 33!.
WEVELSBURG, a town and citadel of Weftphalia, in
the bifhopric of Paderborn ; 8 miles S. of Paderborn.
WEVER, ariver of England, in the county of Chef-
ter, which runs into the Dee, 7 miles N. of Chefter.—
Alfo, a river of England, in the county of Devon, which
runs into the Culm, near Bradninch.
WEVERHAM, a townthip of England, in Chehire ;
3 miles W. of Northwich.
WEVERY, a river of Wales, which runs into the Wye,
near Builth.
WEWER, or Wever, a town of Weltphalia, in the
bifhopric of Paderborn ; 22 miles S.S.W. of Paderborn.
WEWURTZE, a river of Lithuania, which runs into
the Minnic, 3 miles S. of Proeculs.
r WEXEL, a mountain of Stiria; 4 miles N.W. of Frid-
erg. |
WEXFORD, a county of Ireland, in the fouth-eaft
part of it, which has St. George’s Channel on the E. and
S., the counties of Waterford, Kilkenny, and Carlow, on the
W., and that of Wicklow on the N. It extends from N.
to S. 44 Irifh miles, and from E. to W. 25; being 56
Englifh miles in length, by 32 in breadth. It contains
342,900 acres, or 535 {quare miles Irifh, equal to 550,888
acres, or 695 fquare miles in Englifh meafure. ‘The num-
ber of parifhes 142, having 41 churches, all of which, ex-
cept two parifhes with one church, are in the diocefe of
Farns. ‘The population was eftimated by Dr. Beaufort at
about 115,000. Wexford forms almoft a peninfula, bein
feparated from Waterford and Kilkenny by the haven o
Waterford, and the deep and navigable river Barrow, and
from the counties of Carlow and Wicklow by formidable
ranges of mountains, which admit of few pafles. Being
fituated next to the principality of Wales, and nearly
oppofite to the mouth of the Britifh Channel, it prefented
great advantages to the Englifh invaders of Ireland in the
reign of Henry II.; who, after their firft vitories over
the natives, fele€ted this county, from its natural ftrength,
for the refidence of the firft colonifts. The inhabitants of
the baronies of Bargie and Forth are fuppofed to retain
traces of their defcent from thefe fettlers. (See Barcus.)
Wexford cannot be called hilly or mountainous, except on
the frontiers of Carlow and Wicklow. Yet it contains a
great deal of coarfe coldland, and {tiff clay foil, which the
want of lime-{tone renders it difficult and expenfive to im-
prcnes The baronies of Bargie and Forth, being of a
ighter foil, are well tilled, and produce large quantities of
barley. The river Slaney croffes the county sorb New-
town Barry to Wexford, receiving the Bann from the
northward, and affords a merpetnal witiae of piéturefque
and romantic views among its wooded and winding ee)
This river is navigable to Ennifcorthy. The linen manufac-
ture has made no progrefs in this county, but there is a ma-
nufaéture of coarfe woollens. The chief towns are Wex-
ford, New Rofs, and Ennifcorthy, of which an account is
given
WEY
given under their names. Wexford has been notorious for
the events which took place in it during the rebellion
of 1798. Init the mifguided populace was fuccefsful for
fome time, and the maflacres at Scullabogue, and at the
bridge of Wexford, afford a melancholy proof of what may
be expeéted from an ignorant and almoft barbarous pea-
fantry, when they have the afcendancy. Their leaders were
unable to controul them, and if the king’s troops had not
been fuccefsful, there would have been no bounds to their
exterminating phrenfy. Before the Union, Wexford had
eighteen members, but thefe have been reduced to four, two
for the county, and one each for the towns of Wexford and
New Rofs. Beaufort.
Wexrorp, a fea-port and poft-town, and alfo the affize
town of the county of the fame name, in Ireland, at the
mouth of the river Slaney. It was originally built by the
Danes, who named it Wefsford, and it was formerly confi-
dered a place of ftrength, being enclofed by very thick
walls, fome of which are {till remaining. There are fome
handfome buildings ; on the fcite of the old caftle the bar-
racks are ere€ted, commanding an extenfive view of the
harbour. The church, fituated in the main ftreet, is an ele-
gant modern ftruéture. The market and court-houfe are like-
wife new edifices ; but the chief ornament of Wexford is its
wooden bridge, thrown over an arm of the fea, 2100
feet long, where infurmountable difficulties baffled all
efforts to form a ftone bridge. This bridge is a favourite
promenade, and is as delightfully calculated for a pleafant
recreation, as it conftitutes an ufeful communication. The
harbour, though fpacious, is fhallow, and formed by two
necks of land, between which there is an entrance about
half a mile broad, which was formerly defended by two
forts, ereéted at the extremity of each ifthmus. The
mouth of the harbour is choked with a bar, and there-
fore no veffel drawing more than twelve feet water can pafs
to the town. Provifions of all kinds are very plentiful and
cheap here, particularly the fineft wild fowl. The chief ex-
port is corn, principally barley and malt. Wexford was
taken from the Danes by the Englifh invaders, after a fiege
of four days, in 1170; it was befieged and ftormed by
Cromwell in 1649; and on being evacuated by the king’s
troops, it was taken poffeffion of by the rebels in 1798.
The fhocking murder of the loyal inhabitants, when 97 un-
offending victims fuffered at the bridge, has been already
alluded to. There are feven parifhes, but they are all
united, and have only one church in common. Wexford is
67 miles S. by W. from Dublin. Carlifle. Traveller’s
Guide.
WEXIO, atown of Sweden, in the province of Sma-
land, fituated on the Helga lake: the fee of a bifhop, and
refidence of the provincial governor ; 46 miles N.N.W. of
Carlfcrona. N. lat. 56° 52'. E. long. 14° 44!.
WEY, ariver of England, which runs into the Thames
at Weybridge. This river is} made navigable to Guilford
and Godalmin, and a canal has lately been made from it to
Bafingftoke, in Hampthire.—Alfo, a river of England,
which runs into the fea at Weymouth.
Wey. See WEIGH.
WEYBER, in Geography, a lake of Bavaria; 3 miles
W.N.W. of Kempten.
WEYBRIDGE, a confiderable village in the hundred
of Elmbridge, and county of Surrey, England, is fituated
on the river Wey, whence it derives its name, not far from
its conflux with the Thames, at the diftance of 12 miles
N.E. by N. from Guildford, and 20 miles S.W. by W.
from London. It contains fome refpeétable houfes, among
which is a large edifice, called Holftein-houfe, from having
WEY :
been the refidence of a prince of Holftein, when on a vifit
to England ; it has for fome years been ufed as a printing-
office. Thechurch isa fmall, but neat ftru@ture, having a
nave and fouth aifle, at the weft end of which is the vault
of the earl of Portmore’s family, built up about four feet
above the level of the pavement, inclofed with iron rails,
but without any infcription. The population return of the
year 1811 ftates the parifh of Weybridge to contain 167
houfes, and 918 inhabitants.
In this parifh is Oatlands, the feat of his royal highnefs
the duke of York. This domain came into the pofleffion
of Henry VIII. by an exchange with the family of Rede,
for the manor of Tandridge, in the fame county. It was
fettled by Charles I. on his queen Henrietta Maria for her
life; and their youngeft fon, called Henry of Oatlands, was
born here. At the Reftoration the queen dowager was
again put in poffeffion of the eftate; and after her death
Charles II. granted it to the earl of St. Alban’s. In the
next century it defcended to the earl of Lincoln, after-
wards duke of Newcaftle, who fixed his refidence here, en-
larged the park, and made confiderable plantations. In the
park is a large piece of water, formed by fprings which rife
init. Between the houfe and garden is a grotto, divided
into three apartments, in one of which is a bath, fupplied
by a {mall {pring, dripping through the rock ; at the end of
it is a copy of the Venus de Medicis, as if going to bathe.
The duke of York purchafed this eftate of the duke of
Newcaille, together with the manors and parks of Byfleet
and Weybridge, which he held by leafes from the crown.
In 1800 two aéts were paffed for inclofing the common fields
and waftes, under which the duke obtained by allotments
and purchafes about 1000 acres of the walte, fo that the
domain now comprifes about 3000 acres. The manfion
was burned down while the duke was in Flanders, in 1793.
The prefent houfe was then ereéted, from defigns by Mr.
John Carter ; and in 1804 an a& was paffed for granting to
the duke fo much of this eftate as was held of the crown.
In a {mall park in this vicinity is Ham, an old manfion,
formerly the refidence of the countefs of Dorcheiter, mif-
trefsof James II. It is now uninhabited, and in a ruinous
condition. Near it are many large cedars ; one, in particu-
lar, meafures, at five feet from the ground, about thirteen
feet in circumference, and runs up ftraight to a great height.
—Hiftory and Antiquities of Surrey. By the Rev.
John Manning, and William Bray, efg. 3 vols. folio.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiv. Surrey. By F.
Shoberl.
WEypRIDGE, a townfhip of the ftate of Vermont, in the
county of Addifon, feparated from Newhaven by the Otter
Creek, containing 750 inhabitants.
WEYDA, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Neuftadt,
on the Elfter ; 11 miles E.N.E. of Neuftadt. N. lat. 50°
42). E. long. 12° 14—Alfo, a river of Saxony, which
runs into the Elfter, 2 miles N. of Weyda.
WEYDEN. See WEIDEN.
WEYDENAU, a town of Silefia, in the principality
of Neiffe; 8 miles S.W. of Neiffle. N. lat. 50° 12/. E.
long. 17° 2!.
WEYDENEN, a town of Pruffian Lithuania; 3 miles
W.S.W. of Pilkallen.
WEYDENHAYN, a town of Saxony, in the margra-
vate of Meiflen; 7 miles W. of Torgau.
WEYER, a town of Auftria; 2 miles N.E. of Gmun-
den.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 6 miles S. of
Pruck.
WEYEREN, a town of Autftria; 6 miles W. of
Gmunden.
WEYERS,
WEY
WEYERS, a town of Wetphalia, in the bifhopric of
Fulda; 8 miles E.S.E. of Fulda.
WEYERSHEIM, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Rhine; 6 miles S. of Haguenau.
WEYHER, a town of Auftria ; 6 miles W. of Bavarian
Waidhoven.
WEYHILL, a village of England, in the county of
Hants, celebrated for the great annual fair held here for the
fale of fheep, hops, &c.; 3 miles W. of Andover.
WEYL, or Wyt, a town of Switzerland, belonging to
the abbey of St. Gal, and principal place of a bailiwick 5
14 miles S.S.W. of Conftance.
WEYLANOO, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat, on
the coaft; 20 miles S.E. of Puttan Sumnaut.
WEYMOUTH, or Waymovurn, a borough and
market-town in the hundred of Uggefcombe, Dorchefter
divifion of the county of Dorfet, England, is fitaated on
the fouthern coaft of England, at the extremity of a beau-
tiful bay, which forms nearly a femicircle, making a {weep
of about two miles. The town is 8 miles S. by W. diftant
from Dorchefter, and 128 miles S.W. by W. from London.
It received its name from the mouth of the little river Wey,
near which it ftands, and communicates with Melcombe
Regis, to which it is united by a bridge erected in 1770.
That the fcite of Weymouth was Known to the Romans is
probable from feveral circumftances ; and Mr. Baxter fup-
pofes it to have been the Clavinio, which is mentioned in the
anonymous Ravennas. In the Saxon ages, however, it is
exprefsly named in a Saxon charter ftill extant, by which
king Ethelred gave a certain portion of land, called by the
inhabitants Weymouth (or Wick), near the ifle of Port-
land, to his faithful minifter Atfere. In the reign of Ed-
ward III. the town had become of fome importance, the
inhabitants being ordered, together with thofe of Meleombe
and Lyme, to fend a certain quota of fhips for the king’s
expedition to Gafcony. In the 21ft year of that reign,
Weymouth (for Melcombe is not mentioned, though per-
haps included) furnifhed the king with 20 fhips, and 264
mariners, at the fiege of Calais, according to the roll of his
fleet preferved in a manufcript in the Cottonian Library.
In the year 1471, Margaret of Anjou, with her fon, prince
Edward, landed here from France, in order to reftore her
hufband to the throne. In 1507, king Philip of Cattile,
with his queen, were driven on this coaft, and having run
into the port, were detained by fir Thomas Trenchard, till
an interview took place between the Englifh and Spanifh
monarchs, from which the former derived fome advantages.
In 1588, Weymouth contributed fix fhips to oppofe the
Armada, one of which was of 120 tons burthen. During
the civil war of Charles I., this town was alternately gar-
rifoned and befieged by the king, and by the parliament’s
forces. In 1649 the corporation petitioned parliament for
an indemnification for the lofles they had fuftained in the
war, and a relief from the burthen of maintaining the gar-
rifon; but their requeft does not appear to have been
granted, as a letter was foon afterwards received concerning
the “ refraétorinefs of the magiftrates.”” The manors of
Portland and Wike, with the ports of Waimuth and Mel-
combe, and the liberties attached to them, were granted by
charter of Henry I. to the monks of St. Swithun, Winton ;
and Henry II. confirmed the port of Waimue and the whole
land of Melcombe to that eftablifhment, with additional
privileges. Weymouth and Melcombe are (as has been
obferved under Metcomse Regis) fo frequently joined in
defcents and ancient grants, that fome difficulty occurs in
feparating them with precifion. Weymouth is the more
ancient borough; though neither fent members to parlia-
12
WEY
ment till the reign of Edward II., fince which time each
of them returned two. Melcombe, being part of the de-
mefne of the crown, and poffefling fome peculiar privileges,
is principally noticed in fueceeding charters. The rivalfhip
which fubfitted for centuries between the two boroughs
arofe, in the reign of Elizabeth, to fuch a height, that it was
judged expedient to unite them ; and an aé was paffed in her
13th year (afterwards confirmed by James I.), by which
they were incorporated, and direéted hereafter to be called
«The united Town and Borough of Weymouth and
Melcombe Regis ;”? the government being vefted in a mayor,
recorder, two bailiffs, an indefinite number of aldermen,
and twenty-four capital burgefles: and they now poffefs, as
one borough, the peculiar right, with the metropolis, of
fending four members to piellnenans The reprefentatives
are elected by the frecholders of Weymouth or Melcombe.
whether inhabitants or otherwife. The number of voters is
about two hundred. Thefe eleétors have alfo votes for the
county members. Leland fays, ‘ The tounlet of Way-
mouth lyith ftrait agayn Milton (Melcombe) on the other
fide of the haven, and at this place the water of the haven is
but a {maul brede, and the trajeétus is by a bote or a rope
bent over the haven; fo that in the ferry-bote they ufe no
oars. Waighmouth has certain liberties and priviledges,
but there is no mair in it. ‘Ther is a kay and wharf for
fhippes. By this town on a hill is a chapel of eafe. The
paroche church is a mil off.” The chapel mentioned by
Leland was remarkable for its elevated fituation; having,
according to Coker’s furvey of this county, an afcent of
eighty ftone fteps. It was of confiderable antiquity, as ap-
pears by a patent of Henry VI., granting a licence to found
a guild in the chapel of St. Nicholas, in the borough of
Weymouth, by the name of the mafter and wardens of the
fraternity or guild of St. George, in Weymouth. This
chapel was demolifhed in the civil war : the fcite is ftill called
Chapel Hays, and is now ufed as a bowling-green. Wey-
mouth, fince the time of Elizabeth, had, from a variety of
caufes, been gradually going to decay. The anarat of
the wool-ftaple to Poole, the lofs of the Newfoundland
trade, the havoc made by the civil wars, damages by fire,
want of public fpirit, and other circumitances, had con-
curred to produce this effeét ; and till it began to acquire
celebrity as a watering place, it was little more than an in-
confiderable fifhing-town. The late Ralph Allen, efq. of
Bath, about the year 1763, firft contributed to bring Wey-
mouth into repute. Having received great benefit from bath-
ing there, he proclaimed its falubrity to the extenfive circle
of his acquaintance ; and his encomium being exceeded by
the real beauties of the fituation, it foon began to be the
refort of the firft company from all parts of the kingdom.
The reputation thus acquired was extended by the late
duke of Gloucefter, who, having derived confiderable ad-
vantage himfelf, provided a refidence for the accommoda-
tion of the royal family ; and their majefties, accompanied
by the three elder princeffes, in the year 1789, made their
firft vifit to this place. His majefty experienced its benefi-
cial effeéts, and became fo attached to the fpot, that’he has
repeatedly honoured it with his prefence. The advantages
arifing from thefe vifits have proved of the greateft confe-
quence to the town, which has rapidly augmented in fize and
importance, from the vatt concourfe of people by which
it is now frequented. The chief objects of curiofity to
ftrangers, are the Efplanade and the Bay. The Efplanade
a fine level piece of fand, which, but a fhort time ago, was
nothing but a receptacle for all the rubbifh of the town, is
now converted into one of the moft charming promenades
in England, and adorned by a range of handfome edifices.
This
‘W EZ
This public walk is half a mile in length, and about thirty
feet in breadth. The bay, where the company bathe, makes
a femicircular {weep of nearly two miles, and is prote&ed
from winds by the furrounding hills, which render the fea
perfeétly fecure. As foon as Weymouth became a place of
fafhionable refort, the expediency of public amufements
was perceived; and Mr. Sproule of Bath offered propofals
for ereGting a fet of aflembly-rooms, with an hotel, and
other neceflary appendages. The propofitions were acceded
to; and about the year 1772, a building, 600 feet in length,
and 250 in width, was erected on a vacant fpot adjoining
the town, at the expence of 6000/., which was defrayed by
fubfcriptions in fhares of 100/. each. The Royal Aflembly
Room is a lofty, light, and fpacious building, in which
upwards of an hundred couples may dance with eafe and
pleafure. The theatre has been recently fitted up in a ftyle
of elegance that does equal credit to the manager and the
archite&t. The boxes are capable of containing 300 f{pec-
tators ; and the mode in which they are decorated is little in-
ferior to the London theatres. On the quay is a moft con-
venient hot falt-water bath. The bridge has been rebuilt in
the Chinefe ftyle. The church is a low ftru€ture, occupy-
ing the fcite of an ancient chapel belonging to the church
at Radipole, of which parifh this was originally a part, but
in the reign of James I. was made a feparate jurifdiction ;
within it is a fine altar-piece, reprefenting the Latt Supper,
for which fir James Thornhill, who executed and prefented
it to the town, is faid to have refufed 7oo/. Eait of the
church are fome buildings that are connected with a Domi-
nican priory, founded here about the commencement of the
fifteenth century. Thefe are now parcelled out in tene-
ments; and the chapel belonging to the priory is ufed as a
malt-houfe. The Quakers and Independants have each a
meeting-houfe here. The number of houfes in Weymouth,
as returned under the population a& of 1811, was 447; of
inhabitants1747. Markets are held on Tuefday and Friday;
and here are three annual fairs.
Several {mall forts have at various periods been ereéted
to defend the town and harbour. On a high cliff, about
a mile from the town, are the ruins of Sandisfoot caftle, a
fortrefs erected by Henry VIII. about the year 1539,
when he expected the Papal fee to excite an invafion of
this country. Leland denominates it, * a right goodly and
warlyke caitle, having one open barbicane.?’ Its form was
a parallelogram, the greateit length running from north to
fouth. The walls, which were moftly cafed with {quared
Portland ftone, were lofty and very ftrong: in fome places,
the thicknefs was not lefs than feven yardss—Hutchin’s
Hiftory of Dorfetfhire, 3 vols. folio. Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. iv. Dorfetfhire. By J. Britton, and E.W.
Brayley, 1804.
WeymoutH, a town of New Jerfey, in the county of
Gloucefter, containing 1029 inhabitants.
WeymourH, or WaAssaGusseET, a town of the ftate of
Maflachufetts, in the county of Norfolk, containing 1889 in-
habitants. This is faid to be one of the oldeit towns in the
ftate. It lies on the coaft, and has fome {mall veffels em-
ployed in fifhing. The cheefe made in its environs is much
efteemed ; 5 miles S. of Botton.
Weymoutu Bay, a bay on the N.E. coaft of New Hol-
land, to the N.W. of Cape Weymouth.
WEYPERT, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Saatz;
25 miles N.W. of Saatz. N. lat. 50° 25’. E. long. 13°.
WEYS, a river of Auftria, which runs into the Danube,
a little to the E. of Ips.
WEZE, a river of France, which runs into the Meufe at
Liege.
WHA
WHALE, in Afronomy, one of the conttellations,
Cetus.
Wuate, Cee, in the Linnzan fyftem of Zoology, the fe-
venth order in the clafs of mammalia. For the charaéters
and diftribution of this order, fee Crere.
For the difcriminating charaéters of the genus of dalena,
or whale, and a general account of its fpecies, fee Ba-
LENA.
The common whale, or dalena myflicetus of Linneus,
with its variations, &c. is defcribed under the article Mys-
ticetus. Ariltotle is faid to have given it the name of
myfticetus, wusverlos, or bearded whale, from its having in its
mouth hairs in‘tead of teeth.
In old time the whale feems never to have been taken on
our coafts, but when it was accidentally flung on fhore: it
was then deemed a royal fi/h; and the king and queen di-
vided the {poil ; the king aflerting his right to the head, and
the queen to the tail. The reafon of this whimfical divifion,
as afligned by our ancient records, was to furnifh the queen’s
wardrobe with whale-bone.
The anatomy of the bones of the whale has been fo little
undertftood, that there have been many very great errors in re-
gard to fuch of them as have been at times found foffile, or
buried in the earth among the teeth of elephants, and the re-
mains of teftaceous and other animals. The moft frequent and
mott ridiculous of all the wrong opinions about thefe, is their
having originally belonged to creatures of the human fpe-
cies ; yet many, even among the more intelligent part of the
world, have taken them for the remains of giants. -The
vertebre of a whale have been miltaken for thofe of a giant,
and a part of its fins for a hand, and fo of the reft. While
the world, more ready to {pread the marvel, than to enquire
into the truth, have made computations of the height of the
man to whom bones of that fize muft have belonged, and
from their proportion in regard to thofe of the common hu-
man fize, have found the giant who poflefled them muft have
been go or 100 feet high; much lefs pains in comparative
anatomy would have taught them, that they never could
have belonged to any human body at all. Mem. Acad. Par.
1727.
Wnate, Beaked, Bottle-head, or Nebbe-haul, Balena Rof-
trata, the {mall whale, with taper fnout, and adipofe back
fin, or with very long and acute beak or fnout. The head,
upper part of the back, fins, and tail, are of a dark or blue-
ifh-brown; and the fides and abdomen are of a beautiful
white, with a flight tinge of pale rofe or flefh colour ; and
marked for more than half the length of the animal by nu-
merous longitudinal plaits or furrows: the eyes are {mall,
as is alfo the head, and the fnout is more elongated than in
any other f{pecies, tapering gradually to the extremity,
which is flightly pointed ; the back fin is {mall, and fituated
at no great diftance from the tail ; the peétoral fins are {mall
and narrow, and the tail is divided into two longifh and
pointed lobes. This is of a more elegant form than thofe of
the larger {pecies. Thefe fith fometimes, but rarely, grow
to the length of twenty-five feet; they make little noife in
blowing, are very tame, come very near the fhips, and will
accompany them a great way.
Wuats, Fin-back, Balena Phyfalus of Linnzus, called
alfo fin-ifo. See Puysaxus.
Wuate, Pike-headed, Balena Boops of Linneus, is a fpe-
cies which takes its name from the {hape of its nofe, which
is narrower and fharper-pointed than that of other whales.
The length of one taken on the coaft of Scotland, obferved
by fir Robert Sibbald, was forty-fix feet, and its greateft
circumference twenty ; but it fometimes exceeds this length.
From the fkinny flap at the root of the tongue, as a as
rom
See
WHA
from the inteftines, the Greenlanders prepare windows. See
Booprs.
Wuate, Round-lipped, or Broad-nofed, or Under-jawed,
Balena Mufeulus of Linneus, is charaéterifed by having
the lower lip broader than the upper, and of a femicircular
form. See Muscutus.
Wuate, Bunched, Balena Gibbofa of Linnzus, with one
or more gibbous excrefcences on the back, and without dor-
fal fins: the knotenfifch oder knobbelfifch of Anderfon
and Crantz. ‘This fpecies is a native of the Northern feas,
and though not much known, is faid to be of the fame
general form with the great whale, but of {maller fize, and
having its back furnifhed with one or more tubercles. The
variety with a fingle tubercle is found about the coaits of
New England; the other with fix tubercles along the back
is fuppofed to {warm about the coafts of Greenland. Their
whale-bone is faid to be of a pale or whitifh colour.
Wuate Spermaceti. See CacHatot, Puyserer, and
SPERMACETI.
See on the fubjeéts of the preceding articles, Pontopid-
dan’s Nat. Hift. of Norway, vol. ii. p. 118, &c. Crantz’s
Hift. of Greenland, vol. i. p. 106, &c. Pennant’s Brit.
Zool. vol. iii. p. 50, &c. Phil. Tranf. abr. vol. viii. p. 424,
&c. Shaw’s Zoology, vol. ii.
Wuate-Blubler, in Agriculture, the fat oily refufe matter
left in making the oil from that fifh. It is a material which
has been ufed as a manure in fome cafes with fuccefs, efpe-
cially when employed in mixture with clayey loam, fandy
loam, or any other common earthy or mouldy fubftances.
Thefe matters fhould be blended together in fuch a manner,
it is faid by the writer of the “ Elements of Agricultural
Chemittry,”’ as to expofe a large furface to the action of the
air, the oxygen of which produces foluble matter from them.
It is obferved, too, that lord Somerville made ufe of this oily
fubftance with great fuccefs on his farm, in the county of
Surrey ; in which cafe it was made into a large heap with
foil, and retained its powers of fertilizing for feveral fuc-
ceffive years.
It is noticed, that carbon and hydrogen abounding fo
much in this as well as other oily fubftances, fully account
for their effeéts ; and that their durability is eafily explained
from the very gradual manner in which they change by the
aétion of the air and water on them, as muft obvioufly be
the cafe.
- This fatty material, in this fort of union with earthy mat-
ters, may culinenty be a very beneficial application in
many cafes of tillage-land, efpecially where the fuperficial
bed of mould or foil is rather of the thin kind. It may
alfo be very ufeful as a top-dreffing to grafs-land, particu-
larly where the {ward is thin, tender, and not well fet with
grafly herbage, as tending not only to promote the growth
of the crops, but the clofenefs and firmnefs of the furface
{wardy covering. See Manure, and O1t Compofl.
It fhould therefore be preferved and procured as much as
poflible for thefe ufes and applications.
Wuatre-Bone, a commodity procured from the whifkers
of the whale, ufed as a ftiffening in ftays, fans, butks, fcreens,
&c. See WHALE /upra.
Frederick Martens has particularly defcribed the whale-
bone and the method of procuring it in his * Voyage to Spitz-
bergen.”? Within the mouth of the fith is the whale-bone,
hairy as a horfe’s hair, and hanging down from both fides, all
about his tongue. In fome whales the whale-bone is bent
like a fcymitar, and in others like a half-moon. The f{malleft
whale-bone is before in his mouth, and behind towards his
throat ; and the middlemoft is the largeft and the longett,
being fometimes about two or three men’s length. On one
WHA
fide, all in a row, there are 250 pieces of whale-bone, and
as many on the other, containing in all 500; and there are
ftill many more, for the cutters let the leaft of all remain,
becaufe they cannot eafily come at it to cut it out, on ac-
count of the meeting of the two lips, where the fpace is
very narrow. The whale-bone is in a flat row, one piece
by the other, fomewhat bending within, and towards the
lips every where like a half-moon. It is broad at the
top, where it fticks faft to the upper lip, every where
overgrown with hard white finews towards the root, fo that
between two pieces of whale-bone you may put your hand.
Thefe’ white finews are of an agreeable {mell, break very
eafily, and may be boiled and eaten. Where the whale-bone
is the broadeft, as underneath by the root, there groweth {mall
whale-bone, the other being greater. The {mall whale-bone,
as Mr. Martens fuppofes, does not grow bigger; from one
end to the other it is equally thick, and full of long jacks,
like horfe’s hair. The whale-bone is underneath narrow
and pointed, and all overgrown with hair, that it may not
hurt that which is young; but without the whale-bone has
a cavity, for it is turned like a gutter, in which the water
runs, where it lies the one over the other, like the fhields
or plates of craw-fifh, or the pantiles of an houfe, that lie
one over the other; for otherwife it might eafily wound or
hurt the under lip. To cut the whale-bone out is a parti-
cular operation, and many iron tools are ufed for this pur-
pofe. Some whale-bone is of a brown, black, or yellow
colour, with ftreaks of feveral colours. The whale-bones
of fome whales are blue and light-blue, which latter are
fuppofed to come from young whales.
Wuate-Fins, a name improperly given to whalé-bone.
Wuate-Fifbery. See FisHery.
Wuate Oil. See Om.
Mr. Parkes (Effays, vol. i.) obferves, that the dealer in
Greenland whale oil might alfo increafe the profits of his trade
very much, by preparing his oil for fale when the weather is
fuitable for the operation. This kind of oil is always purified
by pafling it through large flannel bags, which retain the im-
purities, and fuffer the finer parts to percolate through them.
When the oil has undergone this treatment, it is called bagged .
oil, and is then deemed fit for fale. At a low temperature, a
confiderable quantity even of this latter kind would concrete,
and might be feparated by fimilar means; whereas in a
warm atmofphere this diffolves, and, being lefs inflammable,
very much injures the oil for burning.
By proper attention to this circum{tance, all the oil which
is defigned for burning might be very much improved, and
the portion thus feparated from it, would be worth more to
the foap manufaéturer for making yellow foap, than fimilar
oil which had not undergone this procefs.
This intelligent chemift conceives, that an oil-merchant
would do well always to bag different oils in different fea-
fons ; though many experiments might be neceflary before
it could be afcertained what was the exact temperature at
which the refpeétive kinds would moft copioufly depofit this
feculence. After obferving that in feveral parts of Germany,
and particularly in the neighbourhood of Gottenburgh, am-
monia is prepared from the dregs which remain afer the
expreflion of train-oil, he fuggefts that whale-blubber might be
employed for the diftillation of ammonia. Madder, he fays,
might be devifed for correcting its offenfive fmell, and render-
ing it very productive of volatile alkali. See AMMONIA.
Wuatr Bank, in Geography, a filhing-bank on the coaft of
Newfoundland, 60 miles long, and 21 wide ; go miles S. of
Cape Mary. N. lat. 45°. W. long. 53° 50’.
WHALE Cove, a bay of the Atlantic, on the north coaft
of the ifland of Manan, near the coaft of Maine.
WuaLe
WHA
Wate Fi/h T/land, an ifland on the coaft of Guiana, at.
the mouth of the river, Effequibo.
Wua te //land, a {mall ifland in the North fea. N. lat.
69° 14’. W. long. 134°.—Alfo, a {mall ifland near the
north-weft coaft of Borneo. N. lat. 4° 10’. E. long.
at2°.27'.
Wuate /flands, {mall iflands in Portfmouth harbour. N.
lat. 50° 48’. W. long. 1° 5!. é
Wuate Point, the fouth-eaft cape of an ifland in the ftraits
of Magellan ; 6 miles S.S.W. of Paflage Point.
Wuate Rock, an under-water rock at the entrance of the
Bay of Iflands, on which the Endeavour ftruck in 1769 ;
4 miles S.E. of Point Pocock.
WHALE Sound, a channel in the ftraits of Magellan, be-
tween an ifland and the coaft of Terra del Fuego.
WHALFIRTH Vos, a bay on the welt coaft of the
ifland of Yell. N. lat. 60° 58’. W. long. 1° 25/.
WHAME, in Natural Hiffory, the name given by the
people of fome parts of England to the burrel-fly, or wringle-
tail, a {pecies of bee-fly very troublefome to horfes.
WHANG-HO, in Geography. See Hoanc-no.
WHAPLODE, a townfhip of Lincolnfhire ; 2 miles S.
of Holbeach.
WHAPPING’s Creex. See Waprine’s Creek.
WHARYF, a perpendicular building of wood or ftone,
raifed on the fhore of a road or harbour, for the convenience
of landing or difcharging a veflel, by means of cranes,
tackles, capfterns, &c. See Artificial Ports.
The fee paid for the landing of goods on a wharf, or for
shipping them off, is called cwharfage. And the perfon who
has the overfight or dire€tion of the wharf, receives wharfage,
&c. 1s called the wharjinger.
There are two legal denominations of wharfs, viz. legal
quays and fufferance wharfs. ‘ ,
Legal quays are certain wharfs in all {ea-ports, at which all
goods are required, by the 1 Eliz. c.11., to be landed and
fhipped (except at Hull); and they were fet. out for that
purpofe by commiffion out of the court of exchequer, in the
reign of Charles II. and fubfequent princes. Others have
been legalized by a& of parliament ; as the London docks,
by 39 & 40 Geo. III. c.47.; Welt India docks, by 39
& 40 Geo. III. c,69. and 42 Geo. III. c.1133; Eatt
India docks, by 43 Geo. III. c. 126. and 46 Geo. III.
c.113. (See Docks.) Hull, by 14 Geo. III. c. 56. and
42 Geo. III. c. 191.; Milford, by 30 Geo. III. c. 55. ;
Briftol, by 48 Geo. III. c. 11.
In fome ports, certain wharfs are deemed to be legal quays
by immemorial pra€tice, though not fet out by commif-
fion, or legalized by act of parliament ; fuch as Chepftow,
Gloucefter, &c. :
Sufferance wharfs are places where certain goods may
be landed and fhipped ; fuch as hemp, fiax, raff, and other
bulky goods ; likewife goods carried coaftwife, in Great
Britain, by fpecial fufferance granted by the crown for that
purpofe. F
The conftituting limits to the ports and legal quays is part
of the royal prerogative. Lord Hale’s Treatife. Vide Har-
grave’s T'racis. : ;
Wuarr alfo, ina canal, denotes that wider part of it
where boats lie while loading or unloading.
WHARFAGE, in Commerce, certain rates paid for land-
ing and fhipping goods from the quays. f
WHARYSE, or WueErrs, in Geography, a river of Eng-
land, in the county of York, which runs into the Oufe,
miles below York.
. WHARFINGER, the proprietor or farmer of the
quays where goods are fhipped and landed,
Vou. XXXVITI.
WHA
By the 26 Geo. III. c. 40. no goods entitled to draw-
back or bounty on exportation are to be fhipped in Great
Britain, but by wharfingers licenfed by the commiffioners of
the cuftoms ; and in docked lighters. And they are to give
bonds not to be concerned in illegally landing, relanding, or
fhipping goods. They are alfo liable to certain penalties at
conniving or knowing of any fraudulent tranfa@tion, or land-
ing goods at improper places and times, by 1 Eliz. c. 11.,
and 13 & 14 Cha. II. c. 11.
WHARTON, Henry, in Biography, an Englifh divine
of the Eftablithed Church, was born in 1664, at Worttead,
in Norfolk, where his father was vicar; and in his fixteenth
year admitted a penfioner of Gonville and Caius college at
Cambridge, where he affiduoufly purfued the ftudy of va-
rious branches of literature, and particularly of mathe-
matics, under Ifaac Newton, Lucafian profeffor. After
taking the degree of B.A. with great reputation, he aflifted
Dr. Cave in his “ Hiftoria Literaria,’’ contributing almoft
the whole of the appendix of the three laft centuries. In
1687 he took orders, and his degree of M.A. in the follow-
ing year. He had various literary occupations, chiefly in
writing or editing treatifes againft Popery ; until he took
prieft’s orders, when he was prefented firft to the vicarage
of Minfter in the ifle of Thanet, and in 1689 to the reGory of
Chartham. By the advice of Dr. Lloyd, bifhop of St. Afaph,
he undertook the work which gave fome celebrity to his
name, intitled ‘ Anglia Sacra, five Colle&tio Hiftoriarum,
partim antiquitus, partim recenter Scriptarum, de Archiepif-
copis et Epifcopis Angliz a prima Fidei Chriftiane fuf-
ceptione ad Annum 1540,” 2 vols. fol. London, 1691.
An additional part was publifhed after his death in 1695,
under the title of ‘ Hiftoria de Epifeopis et Decanis Lon-
dinenfibus ; necnon de Epifcopis et Decanis A flavenfibus
(St. Afaph) ; a prima Sedis utriufque Fundatione ad An-
num 1540,” 8vo. The author’s “* Anglia Sacra’? was the
refult of great induftry and labour, and evinces the author’s
zeal for the church to which he belonged ; but it is charge-
able with incorrectnefs. In 1692 he publifhed “ A Defence
cf Pluralities ;” in the following year he edited fome ancient
theological pieces ; and, under the name of Anthony Harmer,
publifhed «A Specimen of fome Errors and Defeéts in the
Hiftory of the Reformation of the Church of England, by
Gilbert Burnet, D.D.,”’ a work which excited the indigna-
tion of the author, and caufed him to mention Wharton with
a{perity in the introduétion to the third volume of that work.
The laft publication of Wharton was “, The Hiftory of
the Troubles and Trial of Archbifhop Laud ;” to which
were added Laud’s diary, and fome other pieces. He alfo
edited the Life of Cardinal Pole, by Bacatelli, together
with fome animadverfions on Strype’s Memorials of Arch-
bifhop Cranmer. Although his conftitution was ftrong, he
clofed his life, in confequence of intenfe application, fome-
what prematurely, in March 1694-5, in the 3itt year of his
age, leaving feveral MSS., fome of which were afterwards
printed, as alfo two volumes of fermons. He was interred
in Weftminiter-abbey. Biog. Brit.
Wuarton, Puri, Duke of, the fon of the marquis of
Wharton, who was a firm {upporter of the Revolution and
Hanover fucceffion, was born in 1699; and after having
exhibited talents which commanded notice, when he was
13 or 14 years of age, in the courfe of his education under
domettic tutors, contra@ted a premature marriage with
the daughter of major-general Holmes, and thus difap-
pointed his father’s views, and haftened his death in 1715.
In the beginning of 1716, Philip fet out on his travels, pro-
pofing to finifh his edueation at Geneva; but the young
Marquis, having contracted a tafe for gaicty and expence,
xe X was
WHA
was difgufted with the manners of that place, and leaving |
his governor there, proceeded to Lyons, and wrote to the
Pretender at Avignon, accompanying his letter with the
prefent of a fine horfe. The Pretender was highly gratified,
and receiving the marquis at his court, decorated him with
the title of the duke of Northumberland. At Paris he paid
his refpeéts to the dowager-queen of James IT., and received
notice and good advice from the Englifh ambaffador, lord
Stair. About the end of 1716 he returned to England,
and going over to Ireland, where he poffeffed a peerage, he
was admitted to take his feat in the houfe of lords of that
kingdom. Here, deferting the principles and conneétion
which he had lately formed, he defended the eftablifhed go-
vernment with all the powers of his reafoning and eloquence ;
in confequence of which he was advanced to a dukedom, by
the ftyle of duke of Wharton, in the county of Weftmore-
land. Upon coming to age, he took his feat in the Englifh
houfe of lords, where he diftinguifhed himfelf by an aban-
donment of his lately avowed principles, in the defence of
bifhop Atterbury ; and he alfo publifhed a virulent oppofi-
tion paper, intitled “ The True Briton.” But fuch was
his boundlefs extravagance, that his eftate was vefted, by a
decree of chancery, in the hands of truftees, who allowed
him an annuity of 1200/. Having only this pittance, he de-
termined to live abroad, and to enter into the fervice of the
Pretender. Having vifited Vienna and Madrid, he formed
an acquaintance at the latter place with a young lady of
Trifh extraGtion, who was maid of honour to the queen of
Spain, and married her; his duchefs having died in 1726,
without leaving any iffue. From Rome, where he appeared
under the title of the duke of Northimberland, and decorated
with a blue ribband and garter, he returned to Spain, and
obtained permiffion from the king to go as a volunteer to
Gibraltar, which was then under fiege by the Spaniards.
When this fiege broke up, he vifited the Spanifh court, and
was nominated by the king ‘‘ colonel-aggregate”’ of one of
the Irifh regiments. Difcouraged in his wifhes to be ac-
tively employed in the fervice bf the Pretender, he went to
Paris, and with fingular effrontery paid a public vifit to the
Englifh ambaflador, Horace Walpole ; informing him, upon
taking leave, that he was going to dine with the bifhop of
Rochefter, though it had been made criminal to hold any
communication with that exiled perfon. At this time a bill
of indi&ment for high treafon was preferred againft him in
England, for having appeared in arms againft his majefty’s
fortrefs at Gibraltar ; but a wifh to reclaim him induced fir
Robert Walpole to fend two friends to offer him his re-
eftablifhment and the poffeffion of his eftate, if he would
only fue for pardon. This he refufed to do, confenting only
to accept a pardon if freely granted him. His allowance
from home was difcontinued, and he was overwhelmed with
debts abroad. From Rouen, where he had for fome time
refided, he removed to Paris, living mearly, and providing
for himfelf by various difhonourable expedients. Having
obtained a {mall fum, when all his refources had failed, he
took his duchefs with him, and went by water to Bilboa.
From thence he proceeded to join his regiment, fubjeéting
his duchefs to extreme diftrefs, in which fhe was*occafionally
relieved by the bounty of the duke of Ormond, who was
himfelf an exile. In 1730 his health declined, and he
amufed himfelf in compofing a tragedy, on the ftory of
Mary queen of Scots; but his end was approaching. In
his way to a mineral {pring, in the mountains of Catalonia,
where he had once oben relief, he was obliged to {top at
a fmall village, when his condition was fo pitiably deftitute,
that the fathers of a Bernardine convent took compaffion
upon him, and brought him to their houfe, where by atten-
WHE
tion and cordials his life was prolonged for about a week.
At length, without a friend or acquaintance to clofe his
eyes, having performed the laft duties of penitent devotion,
he expired on May 31, 1731, in the 32d year of hisage, and
was interred the next day after the manner of a poor monk.
Pope has recorded his charaéter, in the firft epiftle of his
Moral Effays, in the following beautiful lines ;
«‘ Thus with each gift of nature and of art,
And wanting nothing but an honeft heart ;
Grown all to all, from no one vice exempt,
And moft contemptible to fhun contempt ;
His paffion ftill, to covet general praife ;
His life, to forfeit it a thoufand ways ;
A conftant bounty which no friend has made ;
An angel tongue which no man can perfuade ;
A fool, with more of wit than half mankind ;
Too rath for thought, for aétion too refin’d ;
A tyrant to the wife his heart approves ;
A rebel to the very king he loves ;
He dies, fad outcalt of each church and ftate,
And, harder ftill! flagitious, yet not great.”
Wharton was one of the warmeft patrons of Young, who
dedicated to him his moft celebrated tragedy “ The Re-
venge,”” and gave him the credit of having fuggefted the
mo bedntifer incident in that compofition. Beng: Brit.
Pope’s Works. Johnfon’s Lives of the Poets.
Wuarton, Tuomas, a phyfician and anatomiit, was
born in Yorkhhire, in 1610, and educated at Pembroke-hall,
Cambridge. Before the civil wars he refided in Trinity
college, Oxford, as private tutor to a natural fon of lord
Sunderland. Upon the commencement of the war, he re-
moved to London, and engaged in the praétice of phyfic.
After the furrender of Oxford to the parliament in 1646, he
returned to Trinity college, and was created M.D. by
the recommendation of general Fairfax. Returning again
to London, he became a member and cenfor of the college
of phyficians, and acquired confiderable praétice and repu-
tation. In 1652 he read leétures before the college on the
fubje& of the glands; but labouring, as other anatomilts of
that day did, under a fcarcity of human fubjeéts, he was
under a neceffity of availing himfelf of animal diffeétion.
In his work, intitled ‘“* Adenographia, five Glandularum
totius Corporis Defcriptio,”’ 1656, 8vo., his defcriptions
are almoft wholly taken from brute animals, and therefore
cannot ftand the teft of modern accuracy. Neverthelefs he
revived and improved the knowledge of the falivary du&ts on
the fide of the tongue, to which he affixed his own name ;
and he furnifhes ufeful obfervations on the difeafes of the
glands. He died in 1673. Haller. Gen: Biog.
Wuarton, in Geography, a townfhip of Pennfylvania,
with 922 inhabitants ; 30 miles S. of Pittfburgh.
WHATLY, a town of Maffachufetts, with 891 in-
habitants ; 10 miles N. 6f Northampton.
WHATOGA, a town of United America, in the Ten-
nafee ftate ; 40 miles S. of Knoxville.
HEAT, in Botany. See Triticum.
Wueart, in Agriculture, a well-known valuable grain,
much cultivated and grown in many parts of this as well as
moft other countries, as being the principal fort of corn
from which bread is made. It is not now well known from
what country wheat was firft introduced into this; but it
has lately been fuggefted as probable, by fir Jofeph Banks,
in confequence of having a {mall paper of feeds, on which
were written Hill wheat, put into his hands, the feeds con-
tained in which were found to be fcarcely larger than thofe
of our wild grafles; though, when nicely examined, they
perfeétly
WHEAT.
perfe@tly refembled’ grains of wheat, and which on being
fown in a garden very unexpectedly proved to be wheat of
the {pring kind, and the ufual fize, the grains of which
being nearly, if not wholly, as large as thofe of the ordinary
wheat of the above fort, that the packet and feeds came
either from the peninfula, or from the hilly country, far
within land from Bengal, as that province itfelf is a flat al-
luvial traét of land, entirely level. That as this hill wheat
is, however, no doubt, it is fuppofed, known to fome per-
fons who are now either in India, or who have lately re-
turned from thence into this country, it is certainly a matter
of fome importance to know what information they can give
on the fubje& of it, efpecially whether this wheat be a cul-
tivated, or a wild plant ; as we fhall, it is faid, if the latter
be the cafe, afcertain two of the greateft defiderata of cul-
tivators ; as thofe of the country where wheat grows fpon-
taneoufly, and the nature of the grain in its original ftate,
when unaffifted by the foftering hand of man.
It is by no means improbable, from the nature and habits
of wheat, that it may have come originally from the hilly
country of the eaft, and been rendered hardy by time and
cultivation in this and moft other parts of the world.
Wheat is a kind of grain of which there are two dif-
ferent {pecies, in cultivation as crops, in the climate of this
country ; as the common /mooth or polled wheat, and the cone
rough ov bearded wheat. Of the firlt of thefe forts, which
is by much the moft cultivated in this kingdom, as being
the moft fuited to the nature and quality of the largeit
extent of the foils or lands in it, and as affording the fineft
kind of flour, there are numerous varieties that are dif-
ferently preferred in different fituations; and the latter
f{pecies, which is often termed rivet wheat, and which has
alfo feveral varieties that differ little except in the colour of
the chaff and the form of the ears, though it does not afford
the fineft fort of flour, as yielding the largeft quantity of
produce on ftiff moift clayey lands, and as being lefs fubjeét
to injury and difeafe from wetnefs on fuch foils, as well as
lefs liable to lodge from its firmnefs of ftem, is frequently
cultivated and grown on fuch forts of land.
It has been obferved by an able and intelligent cultivator
in the county of Kent, Mr. Boys, that the number of forts
of this grain is annually increafing by importation from
foreign countries. But that the o/d forts are the brown and
yellow lammas, the white fraw, Fulham, and the white or
egg-/bell. "That the brown lammas was the kind chiefly cul-
tivated in that county till within thefe twenty or thirty years ;
but that it has now given way to a variety of new kinds, as
well as fome of the other old forts : experiment has, however,
fhewn it to be the leaft produétive of the feveral forts. It
is the common brown-/trawed wheat that grows with a long
jointed ear, the chaff of a dark brown colour, the ftraw
long and apt to fall, the hull or bran thin, the flour very
white, and the corn mellow in grinding, for which reafon it
is efteemed by the millers as the beft of the o/d forts for
their ufe; and that the yellow lammas refembles the brown,
in every refpe&, except that the colour of the grain is of a
yellow hue, and the chaff of a fomewhat lighter colour
than the others. A red lammas with a red ftraw, red ear,
and red kernel, is noticed by Young as being reckoned by
many farmers the beft of all the forts hitherto known, as
yielding the fineft and whiteft flour. The firft of thefe
writers ftates, that the white-/frawed wheat takes its name
from the colour of its ear, and in other counties has the title
of the Kentifh white flraw. ‘That it fends out a greater
number of {tems from the {tool or plant than the other forts,
and in that way is often a very thick crop on the land. That
the ftraw is generally fomewhat fhorter than that of many
other forts, and not quite fo liable to fall in rainy feafons.
That it is on thefe accounts much fown in the eaftern parts
of that county ; but that from its dull colour, its having a
thick bran, and often grinding very fteely, it is not much
approved by the millers of the diftriét. It is remarked,
that the Fulham fort produces a white ftraw, which grows
fhort and coarfe; but that it is very produdtive, particularly
on poor land: the grain is however coarfe, and the bran
thick, which circumftances render it the leaft valuable to
the millers of any of the forts defcribed above. And that
the white or egg-/bell wheat is known by its producing a
white ftraw, a {mooth white chaff, and very white grain :
the bran of which is very thick, but the flour remarkably
white. It works mellow in grinding, is very early ripe, and
fo free in the ear as to blow out in windy weather, which is a
difadvantage.
It is noticed, that of the mew forts of wheat in that
county, as the hogry white, the nonpareil, the pilbeam, the
Square ear, the hoary brown, and the hoary white, called by
fome the velvet-eared, the laft is by far the mott valuable, as
being very produétive, and the beft for the miller’s ufe. It
has the itraw white and fhort, the chaff covered with a
thick fine down, fomewhat of a brownifh hue; the grain
remarkably {mall, and of a dull white colour, the bran very
thin, fo that the grain in fome cafes is almoft tranfparent
when held up to the light. It grinds very mellow, and
makes a beautiful fine white flour. But from the quantity
of the down upon the chaff, and its {mall ears binding up
very clofe in the fheaf, it is apt in a rainy feafon to vegetate
too freely in the field ; on which account it is not fo proper
to cultivate in a moift climate, and in {mall inclofures that
are not open to the influence of the fun and winds. That
the nonpareil is a fort faid to have been brought into this
country from America: it has a bright ftraw, with a brown
ear; and the grain is very white, large, and plump. It is
very produétive on all foils, thrafhes very free, and yields in
that operation the greater part of its chaff; thereby pro-
ducing a great quantity of horfe-meat. It grinds very mel-
low, and is well efteemed by the millers in moft diftris.
And that the ilbeam is a brown wheat growing very {tiff,
and is generally thick on the land. The grain is {mall and
plump, fomewhat of a yellow-brown. It is accounted very
produétive on rich lands, and is a valuable kind to mix with
others, but will not of itfelf make good bread, from its not
fermenting or working properly in that operation. In re-
ee to the /quare-eared wheat, that it is a very produétive
ort, but is apt to drop out in the field, before it is ripe, and
in gales of wind, on which account it is not fo much culti-
vated. And that the Aoary brown is but lately introduced,
confequently little known at prefent. And the soary white
fort, which has a white ftraw, ear, and grain, is in much
the fame fituation. That the Clarke-qwheat, which has a
red bloffom, chaff, and ftraw, but white grain, is much
cultivated in Suffex. That the hedge wheat is alfo white
and very productive. And that the velvet wheat is diftin®
from the hoary white, but is white, not weighty, yet afford-
ing much flour, being very thin in the fin.
There are alfo different varieties of cone or bearded
wheat, a fort which is named from the form of the ear, as
has been feen above. That of the rivet wheat, there are
two forts, the white and the brown, neither of ‘which are
much cultivated in Kent. They both ripen late in the fea-
fon, and are fo coarfe-and fteely, as to be unfit for making
bread, unlefs mixed with a large proportion of a better fort
of flour. They, however, produce very abundant crops on
ftrong wet lands, as has been noticed, It is remarked, too,
by Mr. Young, to be a produGive fort on very poor, wet,
Xx 2 cold
WHEAT.
cold land, though a coarfe grain, felling at an inferior price
in the markets. And the bearded or rivet kind of wheat is
likewife thought, by fome cultivators, to be the moft adapted
to fuch kinds of rich lands as have been newly broken up,
and where there may be danger of the crop lodging from too
at luxuriance, as it pofleffes the property of a greater
rmnefs of ftraw or {tem than the common kinds, as fug-
gefted above. A
The white and the red are the forts the moft efteemed in
general among the polled kind; the former affording the
whiteft flour, but the latter has the greater produce in moft
cafes.
It is obferved, that of the feveral forts of wheat that are
in cultivation in the county of Suffex, the velvet-eared is
preferred in the weald part of it, as having by much the
thinneft fkin: they there call it fuged. It weighs on the
average from fifty-nine to fixty pounds the buthel. It is
faid by the beft judges that the white fluff on good land
anfwers belt, as being the moft faleable: but that on poor
land, fubje& to poppies, the ftrong-ftrawed fort that over-
powers this weed fhould certainly be fown.
There is a fort of wheat that obtains much’ on the
Down parts, which is what they call Clark wheat. It is
not bearded; has a red bloffom, red chaff, and red flraw ;
white grain, as already feen; the fample coarfe, being in
price under the fineft forts. It is, however, a great yielder,
and requires to be cut forward. ; ‘ ;
The Chidham white or hedge wheat is much in cultiva-
tion, being introduced by Mr. Woods of this diftri&. Upon
trial it is fiand to be avery fine fort: it is white, of a very
fine berry, and remarkably long in the ftraw. It is now
much grown in many of the fouthern as well as northern
counties.
In the county of Effex, according to the Corrected Re-
port on the Agriculture of that difti@, Mr. Kemp of He-
dingham compared wheat from Italy, from Scotland, and
from Dantzic; the laft by far the beft, and next the
Scotch; but the Italian was full of {mut in fpite of every
attention in brining and liming ; and fowing it a fecond
time with ftill more precaution, the refult was the fame.
About Burnham; fome cultivate a fort of wheat from
Italy, which they approve of much; the ftraw is remark-
ably ftout and ftiff. They cultivate alfo a fort called the
Sopfodite; red grain, red chaff, and purple ftraw ; this is a
very good fort. ‘The Taunton Dean, too, is beautiful, but
will not bear rough weather. For two years paft the Ham-
burgh white, with white grain, and white chaff, has been a
fafhionable fort ; the white American fort is alfo ufed.
The forts moft ufually fown about Kelvedon are the durrel
red chaff, and red grain ; and the white rough; white chaff,
and white grain, the chaff rough : this fort ftands the weather
well, and does not fhell eafily; but is rather difficult to
thrath. About Langenhoe they generally fow white wheat
on heavy land, and rarely rivets, rough chaff, York white,
alfo American red. Some other of the above forts are like-
wife in ufe.
It is remarked that a few years ago, as a perfon at Brad-
field was walking through his wheat-fields when the corn was
in full bloffom, he was ftruck with the variety of hues, or
colours, which the bloffoms affumed: at firft he conceived
it might be owing to the different ftages of forwardnefs in
the bloffom ; but on particular examination and more mature
refleGtion concluded that they were certain figns of a {peci-
fic difference in the quality of the wheat: impreffed with
this idea, he fele&ted the ears of different hues, and particu-
Jarly marked eleven ditin& numbers; noting very minutel
their charaéteriftic qualities and appearances in the field.
Thefe he gathered and kept feparate when ripe, and planted
them apart from each other in his garden; the fame charac-
teriftic difference was obferved to continue upon the feveral
numbers when growing in the garden as was obferved in the
field the preceding fummer, and are as below.
Firft year in the garden culture.—No. 1. A {tiff ftraw,
thick ear, the rows or chefts in which fet clofer than in
any other.
2. Dark ftraw, full blade, and large open ear.
3. A large long ear, ripened late, and well fet.
4- Full foliage, and a long open ear.
5. Straight handfome ftraw, large well-fet ears, flag or
leaf fmall.
6. Red rufty leaf before fpindling, red ftraw with little
leaf at harveft and fmaller ears than any.
: 7. Very like No. 6. in ftraw, the ears {mall, but well
et.
8. Straw leafy at harveft, of a good colour, well eared
and handfome.
9, to. Straw full of flag or leaf at harvelt, ears fet
wide. ;
11. Very like No. 5.
Second year in the garden culture—No. 1. Short upright
tiff ftraw, thick well-fet ears, and later by four or five days
than any of the others.
z. Very dark ftraw, upon which there remained a full
dark blade at harveft ; long open ears.
3. Strong leafy ftraw, of a good colour, with a thick
long ear, well fet, rather later than Nos. 5, 8, and 11.
4. Thick leafy brown ftraw, with a {mall ear.
5, 8, 11. Short handfome bright leafy ftraw, ears long,
thick and well fet.
6. Long ftraw with a good deal of flag, ears ill fet and
open.
ee Straw handfome, but {mall ears, and fubje& to root~
falling.
; 9, 10. Long weak ftraw, very leafy, and fubje€t to root-
alling.
It e noticed. on thefe, that the lemon-coloured bloffom
was obferved to attend Nos. 5, 8, and 11; but the colour
of Nos. 1 and 3. was not particularly remembered. ‘Thefe
are the numbers which had been preferved, Nos. 5, 8, and
11, coming to the fickle about a week earlier than Nos, 1
and 3, the produce of which, when compared with the -re-
je&ted numbers, is an excefs of from fix to eight bufhels per
acre, and weighing about three pounds more to the bufhel.
At Bradwell, it is obferved, a crop of Windfor wheat
was had, white grain, white {traw, and white chaff, which
was a moft beautiful fample; the ftrength of the ftraw
middling.
That of all the different forts of wheat Mr. Hardy has
tried on his farm, the beft has been the white egg-fhell, and
this is the fort moft cultivated in Foulnefs ifland.
That the red American is a fort which yields remarkably
well with fome ; it is much approved in Merfea ifle. Some
have had the beft fuccefs with it. But Mr. Strutt, at Ter-
ling, fowed a barrel of remarkably beautiful wheat from
New York, in part of a field, the reft of which was fown
with Englifh wheat, and the American was fo blighted in
the ear as to produce a poor and miferable grain both in
quality and quantity. He fowed it again, and the refult
was the fame, and repeated the experiment the third time,
the refult again the fame, though the adjoining Englifh
wheat in all the three years produced a fair crop free feds
all blight. The Aadit of this wheat, therefore, was not, it
is faid, changed in three years fowing.
That the rough chaff, a white chaff and white grain, with
2
a velvet
WHEAT.
a velvet car; is found about Burnham to be an excellent
“fort ; for there they are fubje& to ftrong eafterly winds, and
it does not fhell eafily. But fome, however, do not like it
on heavy land, as it has not ftraw enough; and think that
_it fhould ftand till ripe, or it will not thrafh well.
And about Hallingburg Rife, and indeed through all the
diftriét of the Roodings, they find the rivet fort a very ufe-
ful wheat, which is very general, and is found to yield on
that heavy foil much better crops than any common fort ;
but on lighter foils the Kentifh red.
In Norfolk about Reddlefworth they have an opinion
that red wheat will not anfwer on black fand, white fucceed-
ing to much better advantage. But at Winborough red is
‘only fown by Mr. Salter, the white forts not anfwering fo
well on the heavy foils: it is termed the o/d red. Some pre-
fer the red chaff, or red wheat to the white, as being lefs
liable to grow at harveft ; white however is a better fample,
and produces a better price.
In Hertfordhhire the rivet or bearded fort is the common
fort on the clays and ftrong loams about Sawbridgworth,
on which it yields more abundantly than the red and white
wheats, four or five quarters fer acre not being uncommon
in favourable years. And a fort termed folled rivets is alfo
very productive, one hundred grains having been feen in an
ear.
About St. Alban’s, Dey s.fail which has the ears grow-
ing with four fets of kernels, is much fown: alfo about
Hitchen, where it was difcovered by a poor labourer who
gathered a few ears. It is faid to yield well. It is fup-
pofed to be the pirks of Ellis. The red lammas and Lu/well,
brought from Cambridgefhire, are likewife much fown. On
the Albury clays the rivets are grown, yielding largely, but
fubje& to mildew, and felling badly with indifferent ftraw.
They have a d/ue and white fort ; the latter is preferred.
In moft other counties, the fame forts of wheat are like-
wife cultivated and grown with fome other varieties.
In addition to thefe, there is, however, another fpecies or
fort of this grain, which is now much cultivated in fome
cafes, as that which is known by the name of {pring-wheat.
This is a fort of wheat that is capable of being put into the
ground at the fame time with other grain crops, in the early
Pane months.. The cultivation of it has been long prac-
tifed, in fome degree, in both the northern and fouthern
parts of the ifland; but of late a much greater attention has
been beftowed upon it, and at prefent it is raifed and grown
to confiderable extent in different diftrifs and places, as in
the fens of Lincolnfhire and Cambridgefhire, in many parts
of Oxfordfhire, in fome inftances in Berkfhire, in Hertford-
fhire, where it is found to anfwer well, and in moft of the
other fouthern counties, as well as in many parts of the
north of England, and even in the lower parts of Scot-
land.
The common autumn or winter fort of this grain is in
neral moft fuited to the heavier defcriptions of mellow
foils, which do not retain too much moitture. They fhould
however be of a fertile quality, and capable of afford-
ing a fine furface mould, for the reception of the grain.
But good crops may be raifed on the lighter forts; though
the introduétion of it on fuch kinds of Jand, has been fug-
gefted as difadvantageous from their being fo much more
adapted to the raifing of other kinds of crops.
The cone, bearded, or rivet forts of fuch wheat are the
moft proper for the heavier, more moift, and lefs broken
down and reduced kinds of land that have been more lately
put in cultivation, on which very weighty crops are not un-
frequently produced.
All thefe forts of wheat are grown to the moft advantage
and with the greateft fuccefs, where the bottom in the land
is fomewhat inclined to be firm and clofe.
In regard to the {pring fort of this grain, it would feem
to be capable of being cultivated on the ftrong and heavy,
as well as on the lighter forts of land; but that it is the
moft calculated for the latter, where the vegetation and
growth are rapid, particularly fuch fenny lands as have a firm
turf-earthy bottom. In thefe it rifes in a very quick manner,
and they are not by any means well fuited for the winter forts
of wheat from their lightnefs, rendering them liable to be
thrown out in that feafon.
Preparation of the Land.—Wheat is a crop that is ufually
grown after the land has been prepared by repeated plough-
ing and harrowing or f{ummer fallowing ; but which is often
capable of being raifed after different kinds of green crops,
as well as thofe of the root and other forts with equal or
more advantage. In fome cafes, flax and hemp alfo afford a
good preparation for this grain; but fome confider beans as
the moft favourable preparation: and experiment has fhewn
tares, and clover, to be nearly equal to them in this inten-
tion. In the county of Norfolk, wheat almoft conftantly
fucceeds clover, except where pea or bean crops are inter-
pofed, the land being {carcely ever fallowed with this view,
except in the inftances of what are termed da/lard_/ummer
tills. It has indeed been well obferved, that if there is one
practice in hufbandry proved by modern improvement to be
worfe than another, it is that of fowing wheat on fallows ;
it is therefore only ftated on this point, that in fome counties
the fallows are ploughed juft before harveft on to two-bout
ridges ready to plough and fow under the furrow in the
f{praining method, a feed{man to every plough which reverfes
the ridges. In others they lay their lands into ten or twelve
furrow-{titches or ridges, and fow fome under the furrow,
fome under the harrow. That the ridges vary exceedingly,
according to their wetnefs; and that in Kent they have by
means of the turn-wreft plough, no lands at all, but a whole
field, one even furface. It would be ufelefs to expatiate on
the circumftances of fallow-wheat which ought no where
to be found. If fallows be or are thought neceflary, let
them be fown for barley or oats, or with any thing but
wheat. However, in whatever manner or after whatever
kind of crop this fort of grain may be cultivated, the foil
fhould conftantly undergo that fort of preparation that may
be fufficient, according to the particular circumflances of
vthe Jand, to bring it into a fate of confiderable finenefs of
mould, efpecially in the more fuperficial parts, and thereby
prevent as much as poflible the rifing of weeds; for it has
been well noticed by a late writer, that whoever has attended
to the progrefs of this fort of crop, in fuch lands as have
been well broken down and reduced, and in fuch as have
been left in a lumpy crude ftate at the time of fowing, will
have found the difference to be very confiderable. But it
may be noticed, that when this kind of crop is taken after
clover, the land feldom undergoes more than one ploughing,
which is moftly given immediately before the feed is fown.
However, as the grafly matter, in many cafes where this mode
is adopted, is extremely apt to rife and injure the crops in
the more early flages of their growth, it may be better to
follow the praétice adopted in fome diftrits of ufing a {kim-
coultered plough, as by this contrivance the remains of the
clover weeds, and graffy material on the furface, may be cut
or fkimmed off, and turned into the bottom of the furrows,
where they are immediately covered with the loofe mould
from below to fuch a depth, that little or no inconvenience
can be fuftained by them, while the land is thus rendered
more clean, and capable of being harrowed in a more per-
fe& manner than where the common plough only is em-
ployed.
WHEAT.
ployed. Befides, perhaps, a better bed of mould is turned
up in this way for the feed to vegetate in, provided the fur-
row is not made of too great a depth and breadth, and re-
main fome time before it is fown; which fhould conftantly
be attended to by the agriculturift in preparing this fort of
ground for wheat-crops, But it is the cuftom of fome
counties, as of Norfolk and Warwick, where the land is
often continued for nearly two years in a {tate of clover, to
break them up in the latter end of June ; in the fecond, giv-
ing two, and fometimes three ploughings. Where the fitua-
tion is favourable, and the weather turns out fuitable for
reducing the foil to a proper ftate of tilth, this may be an
advantageous praétice, as by fuch means great benefit may
be obtained by cutting the grafs in the beginning of the fea-
fon, in which it is to be ploughed up; but where circum-
ftances of fo favourable a nature do not occur, fuch a
method of preparation muft be lefs beneficial than that of
iving only one ploughing. In the preparation of a clover
iey for wheat, Mr. Ducket has noticed a fingular experi-
ment and practice. He had a field in which wheat rarely
efeaped being greatly root-fallen ; not to lofe fowing it with
that grain, and at the fame time to guard againit the ex-
perienced malady, he fcarified it repeatedly, till he had torn
up the clover, and alfo produced tilth enough for drilling it
in; then he colle&ted the clover fragments, and carted them
into the farm-yard to make dung, and drilled the field; the
wheat having a firm bottom in an unttirred foil, efcaped the
difeafe, and yielded an ample produce. The clover bulb,
which would have fecured the dreaded loofenefs of foil, had
it been turned down, made a large quantity of dung, and
therefore was not loft to the farm, though the particular
field was deprived of it. And it has been ftated on the au-
thority of a cultivator of much experience, that in cafes
where the clover-crops have been fuch as to leave the land
in a foul condition in refpe& to weeds, it would be highly
improper to fow them with this fort of grain, as from its
remaining for fuch a great length of time upon the ground
they may be liable to have their feeds perfeétly evolved, and
brought into a ftate of vegetation. In fuch cafes, it has
been fuggefted as more advantageous to have recourfe to
fuch fort of crops as may require the operation of hoeing
during the time they are upon the ground. The putting in
of wheat after pea-crops, is a pra¢tice that may probably
be purfued with the moft propriety and fuccefs in thofe dif-
tris that are, from the nature of their fituation, fufficiently
early to admit of the land being fully cleaned and prepared
by repeated ploughings and harrowings, after fuch crops
have been removed, before the proper time of fowing fuch
grain. But where they are fo late as only to allow of the
find being prepared by one ploughing before the period of
fowing, it is fuppofed by fome to be an extremely hazardous
practice to attempt the culture of wheat after fuch crops ;
as unlefs the ground be in a high ftate of tilth, there is little
chance of a good crop being produced. This is the opinion
of the writer of the work on modern agriculture ; but the
Norfolk farmers are in the conftant habit of fetting or fink-
ing in wheat upon a pea-{tubble with a fingle ploughing, and
confider it a very fafe and excellent hufbandry. The pea-crop
ought, however, to have been kept clean; and after it is har-
vetted, the haulm harrowed off. They never plough a bean-
ftubble there more than once. In fome counties, it is the
conftant practice to cultivate beans and wheat alternately on
the fame land for fome time. This is the cafe on the ftronger
kinds of foil in the county of Kent, on which it is found to
anfwer in a very advantageous manner; and where wheat is
only occafionally fown after fuch crops, it is often found an
uferal practice ; but in all fuch cafes the beans fhould be
cultivated in drills at from twenty to thirty inches diftance,
in order that they may admit of being hand and horfe hoed
in the moft perfeé&t manner. If this method has been fol-
lowed, and the bufinefs of hoeing during the growth of the
crops Fe cy | performed, the land may be fufficiently pre-
pared for the fucceeding wheat-crops by one ploughing, as
the foil from being thus kept clean, and in high tilth, can
fearcely fail of affording a good produce. It Shai been re-
marked, that where the farmer has a bean-{tubble intended
to be fown with wheat, he fhould give it the due tillage as
early as poffible, which fhould be regulated by the fol, as
on fome it may be better to truft the fkim feufflers and feari-
fiers than the plongh. That where the land is very clean,
the great fkim of the ifle of Thanet is capable of cutting
through every thing, and loofening the furface fufficiently to
enable the harrows to render it as fine as poffible, being
picked and burned by women. Where not fo clean, the
Kentifh broodfhare may be more effeétive. In other cafes,
the feuffler may be fufficient for the purpofe. It is noticed
that in this cafe, when the farmer has got the furface to his
mind, he is to confider whether or not he fhould plough it,
which is advifeable if the foil be of a firm folid tenacious
quality, and if he does not intend to drill the wheat : if he
fhould plough fuch a foil he may not have any apprehenfion
of root-fallen wheat, that is, failing roots, from a loofe bot-
tom ; but he will bring up a new furface that may drill with
difficulty, whereas that which has received the influences of
the crop, atmofphere, and of his late operations, will be in
exactly the right temper for the drill to work in. If the
foil is of a more loofe friable quality, and he fhould plough
down the fine furface he has gained, he will give the wheat
too loofe a bottom, and he will run the chance of a root-
fallen crop. In all fuch cafes, or in any that have a ten-
dency to this circumftance, he fhould determine not to
plough at all, but drill direétly; a method in which he
faves tillage, and has the probability of a better produce.
Thisis rather a new practice on ftrong land, but fuch fuc-
cefs has been feen in it as leaves no eins for doubting the
foundnefs of its principles. It was done by Mr. Ducket
on a fandy foil for years, and with great effet. It fhould
be remembered, that whatever other circumftances may in-
fluence the growth of this grain, it loves a firm bottom to
root in, and rarely flourifhes to advantage where it is loofe
and crumbly ; nor will a depth of fuch mould do, if the
under ftratum, in which it will attempt to fix its roots, be
from its quality of a repellént nature. The beft bafis is the
cultivable earth, firm from not having been lately dif-
turbed. Thefe obfervations, as being quite practical, are
certainly deferving of the farmer’s attention. Where the
diftri@ is early, and the land is preferved in good order by
proper modes of cropping, wheat may be grown after
beans, whether cultivated in the drill or broad-caft fyftem,
with fuccefs, as there may be fufficient time to give the ne-
ceffary preparation before the time of fowing, which cannot
be done where they are late, and there is only time for one
ploughing. But in other fituations it is found advantage-
ous when this crop is to be grown after either peas, beans,
or tares, to plough the land in as light or fhallow a manner
as poffible, and then harrow and take out the roots and
weeds, fo that they may be confumed.on the ground in
heaps ; the field being after this formed into proper ridges
for the reception of the feed by ploughing again a few inches
deeper than the firft. And in fome ted it is even har-
rowed after the fecond ploughing, and ploughed a third
time for the putting in of the grain.
Wheat, too, may fometimes be cultivated after turnip-
crops to advantage on the heavier turnip-foils, particularly
10 where
WHEAT.
where they have been kept clean from weeds by repeated
hoeings, and fed off upon the land at fuch early periods as
to admit of the ground being prepared by once ploughing,
in a light manner. In cafes where this kind of crop is in-
tended to be cultivated after potatoes, which, from their
having a great tendency to lighten the foil as well as to ex-
hauft it, fhould never be done on the lighter forts of land in
backward fituations, or under any circum{tances where a
fufficient proportion of manure has not been applied for the
potatoe-crops, one light ploughing immediately before the feed
may be in moft cafes an adequate preparation ; as where
proper attention has been beftowed in the culture of fuch
crops, the foil is generally left in a fufficiently fine condition
for the purpofe. It has been remarked, that the caufe of
wheat not fucceeding well after potatoe-crops, in many in-
ftances, is, that, befides the land being rendered too light
and porous by the growth and cultivation that are requilite
for them, the wheat is more expofed to the injurious attacks
of the grub, earth-worm, and other infeéts ; and in fome
expofed fituations, from the feed-time being too long pro-
tracted, the pra¢tice becomes obvioufly improper. In
growing the crop after thofe of hemp and flax, as weeds are
apt to rife, it is always proper that the land fhould be
ploughed over two or three times, in order that a fine ftate
of tilth may be produced. The cuftom of giving but one
earth after fuch forts of crops, can feldom or ever enfure
full returns of this grain. It has been remarked in ‘* Prac-
tical Agriculture,’’ on the beft authority, that experience
has fhewn, in the moft clear and fatisfaétory manner, that
this fort of crop fhould never, when it can be avoided, be
grown after other kinds of grain-crops, as rye, barley, or
oats ; and that the manure fhould not be applied to it, but
for fuch crops as may precede it. That where the contrary
is practifed, the crop is not only liable to be injured by the
rampant growth of weeds, but from its being more apt to
be difeafed.
On the whole, it may be obferved, that whatever the na-
ture or {tate of the ground may be, or the kinds of crops
that precede this fort of grain, it would appear that the pre-
paration for it fhould always be fuch as has a tendency to re-
duce the parts of the foil to a pretty fine ftate, as under
fuch circumftances the growth of the crops is not only
more regular and perfeét, but from the even and compact
ftate in which the furface is left, it is more fit for affording
fupport and proteGtion to the roots of the wheat-plants, as
allowing them to {pread and extend themfelves with greater
readinefs in the fine mouldy earth thus provided, as well as
by its falling down more clofely about them. It has, how-
ever, been contended by fome cultivators, that a rough
cloddy ftate of the furface-part of the land is the moft pro-
per fituation of it for the reception of this kind of crop, as
the young wheat-plants are thereby better guarded and fe-
cured againft the effects of the fevere cold that often takes
place in the winter feafon. It is probable, however, that
cold is feldom hurtful, in any great degree, to winter wheat-
crops, except when accompanied with too much moifture, or
where fudden frofts and thaws have the effect of rendering
the furface parts of the foil fo light and open, as to be inca-
pable of affording proper fupport to the roots of the young
wheat-plants.
In Berkfhire they prepare the land for wheat chiefly in
three different ways, as by fummer fallowing, and manuring
with yard-dung, compoit, rags, foot, and chalk in fome
cafes ; by folding on it with fheep in cafes where the ground
is not of too deep and wet a nature ; and by putting it in on
the back of clover-leys, after one or two crops of grafs by
one or more ploughings..
It is thought by fome, however, that manuring for beans
or other crops is a much better praétice when followed by
wheat, than the old cuftom of fallowing and manuring for
this crop, which renders the land too light, and confequently
fubje& to blight.
The farmers in Oxfordshire prepare for wheat by different
numbers of ploughings, as the circumftances of the land
may be; but the layers are moftly ploughed,in a fhallow
manner, as wheat loves a firm bottom to root in, and which,
in fandy land, cannot be too tight. Too loofe a bottom is
apt to caufe a root-fallen crop. ‘
An equally careful preparation of the foil is neceflary for
the {pring fort of this grain, though fewer ploughings will
often be fufficient.
_ Time of fowing.—In regard to the proper period of fow-
ing this fort of crop, it may, the author of Modern Huf-
bandry obferves, be ufeful to remark, that the earlier the au-
tumnal fowings can be put into the foil, the greater chance
the young plants will have of being well eftablifhed before
the frofts take place, which has been feen to be a circum-
ftance on which the welfare of the crop in a great meafure
depends. Befides, the ftate of the land and that of the
feafon are much more proper for the procefs of vegeta-
tion, when the crop is put in at an early period, than when
it is delayed till a late one; the ftate of the weather in the
latter cafe often admitting of only a very languid and imper-
fect growth till the fpring, by which the crop muft be ex-
pofed to much danger from various caufes. Indeed expe-
rience has abundantly fhewn that late fown wheats feldom
fucceed fo well, or afford fuch plentiful crops as thofe that
are put in early. But when fown too early there may not-
withitanding be danger of the crop running too much to
{traw, and confequently of the grain proving light in the
ear. From the beginning of September to the middle, or
even the end of Oétober, may probably be confidered as
the moft favourable period for this bufinefs. This is indeed
confirmed by the ettablifhed praétice of the moft corre&
farmers in almoft every diftriét of the kingdom where this
fort of grain is grown. If fown earlier, efpecially on the
heavy kinds of foils, the land is for the molt part in too
hard and lumpy a ftate to allow of the feed being properly
covered by the harrow ; and in the lighter ones in too dry a
condition for the grain to vegetate in a proper manner; and
when delayed later, the ground in one cafe is apt to become
too wet and clofe by the falling of the autumnal rains, and
in the other too loofe and porous from the aétion of the
froft upon it. It is remarked by the writer juft mentioned,
that more than four-fifths of the whole of this fort of grain
is fown between the middle of the firft and the end of the
laft of the above months. Mr. Young thinks September
the beft feafon for cold backward wet foils, and O@ober for
thofe of the more dry and warm kinds, after there has been
a plentiful rain. There are, however, circumitances, it is
farther obferved, on the authority of the Synopfis of Huf-
bandry, that may render the times of fowing different from
the above ; as where the foils are of the rich fertile, loamy,
chalky, or gravelly kinds, it may be better to defer it in
many inftances to a confiderably later period; as when fuch
warm forts of land are cropped tov early, they are apt, it is
faid, to pufh the plants forward in fuch a rapid manner, that
they become weak and fpindling in the early {pring months,
and at the fame time the crops are more liable to be infefted
with weeds, on account of the feafon being then more fa-
vourable to their growth. But that the prattice of putting
in crops of this fort fo late as the latter end of November
and beginning of December, frequently depends on the
crops that precede them not being capable, from the sa:
°
WHEAT.
of the fituation, or other caufes, of being taken off fo
early as that the land may be made for the wheat-crop in the
propertime. This is often the cafe after peas, beans, tares,
turnips, and other fimilar crops. In thefe cafes, on the
lighter forts of foils, and where drill culture is employed, it
may often be an advifeable practice to fow in the fpring, as by
fuch a delay the ground may be brought into a more per-
fe& ftate of preparation than could be the cafe in fowing it
fo late in the winter. .
It is indeed remarked in the Corrected Report on Agri-
culture for Middlefex, that thofe perfons who fow wheat in
autumn lofe the great advantage of a previous crop of
turnips, both as to deftroying the weeds and manuring the
land ; and that they create the labour of either hoeing, har-
rowing, or otherwife tampering with the weeds and young
wheat in the following {pring. That a wet feed-time fome-
times renders it impoflible for the farmer of a clayey foil to
fow his ufual quantity of wheat in autumn; this fhould not
induce him to fow his grain when the land is too wet for the
occafion, but rather let him wait till the firft favourable op-
portunity in the months of February or March, by which
time froft will have rendered the land mellow, and then he
fhould fow the refidue of his wheat ; as the probability is
great that wheat fown on a mellow foil, in a dry February,
will be more produétive than if it had been fown on the
fame land, in an adhefive ftate, during a wet November.
That autumnal-fown wheat precludes cultivation for one
entire year, which, apart from all other circumftances, gives
great encouragement to the growth of weeds ; but that in
order to appreciate the great mifchief done by fowing wheat
in that feafon, its conne&tion with the ufual courfe of crops
muft be taken into confideration. For inftance, firft, in the
ancient, and ftill very common courfe of fallow, wheat, oats,
there is feldom any ploughing from the fowing of the
wheat until the fowing of the oats, which is one year and a
half ; fecondly, in the courfe of wheat, clover, {pring corn,
or pulfe, there are two years together in which the plough
cannot poflibly be put into the pronies thirdly, in the va-
luable courfe of turnips, barley, clover, and wheat, the plough
is fhut out of the ground for two years and a half. That
thefe three cafes include moft of the arable land in Britain,
and they demonftrate the prodigious encouragement which
fuch courfes give to the growth of weeds. On the contrary,
wheat fown in the fpring occupies the,ground only half a
year ; and that when that is placed in a fucceffion with win-
tertares and turnips every two years, the weeds have not
time to grow in fuch a manner as to do any material injury.
There is no period in fuch a courfe of more than fix months
in fummer, or eight in the winter, free from the operation
of the plough. This degree of tilth keeps the land free of
weeds, and, in that manner, preferves it from being exhautted
by them; and, by giving the green and root crops to fheep
and other cattle, on the land, it becomes doubly manured
every other year, which cannot fail to force the growth of
the wheat as though it were growing in a hot-bed.
It certainly is not in every poffible cafe advifeable to re-
frain from fowing wheat in the autumn, in order to fow it in
the {pring. A dry feed-time is of fo much importance to
the occupiers of adhefive and fenny foils, that they fhould
not let any fuch time pafs without fowing their grain. In
the cafe of a dry autumn, which is the fame thing as a fine
feed-time, the laters fhould fow all fuch land as is then
ready, and thereby enfure the important points of a good
feed-bed for their grain, and againft the danger of a wet
{pring. On the other hand, the more rain that falls in au-
tumn, the better chance there is of having a dry {pring ;
and confequently in every wet avtumn the wheat-fowing
fhould be poftponed until the fpring. The proof of the
fuccefs of one inftance of this kind may enable farmers to
judge what is capable of being effefted, even in an unfa-
vourable fituation, by patience in wet feafons, and exertion
in fuch as are dry. A large wheat-farmer, near Hadding-
ton, in Scotland, owing to a wet autumn, delayed fowing
his wheat until after the 19th day of February, between
that time and the middle of Mareh, feeding one hundred and
forty-five acres with wheat, principally the Effex white and
Egyptian red. The harveft in this cafe was about ten days
later than ufual, and the crop yielded from twenty-four to
forty Winchefter bufhels on the acre, which weighed nearly
fixty-two pounds each. On examination, the wheat was
found a firit-rate fample.
Such a fuccefsful cafe of raifing fine wheat from the feed
fown in the {pring may afford reafon for putting it in at that
feafon in many cafes. Such a practice has never been known
to fail, by the writer, when performed early, and on land
in good heart. The advantages of the practice are faid to
be many, and very confiderable.
When the fowing is to be done later than the above pe-
rie in the fpring, the true fummer wheat is always to be
ufed.
The exa& periods at which this fort of grain may be put
into the ground in different cafes with the greateft chance of
fuccefs, under different circumftances of foil and climate,
have not hitherto, however, fo far as we know, been fully
afcertained and fhewn by any correé& trials ; but the above
periods of autumn fowing are in very common ufe by the
beft farmers. J
In the counties of Effex, Suffex, Hertford, Oxford, and
many others, moft of the beft farmers are in favour of early
fowing ; but more to the eaft it is done fomewhat later. In
Berkshire they fow their light lands early, and thofe that are
rich at a later period.
The {pring fort of wheat may be fown from about the
middle of March to the end of the following month, in moft
parts towards the fouth; but moft probably the fooner it is
put in after that period of the above month, as the ftate of
the feafon will permit, the better it will be in the crop or
produce.
Sced.—In refpe& to the proportion of feed that is necef-
fary in different cafes, it muft depend upon and be regu-
lated by a variety of different circumftances, but in general
from two to three bufhels, according to the ftate of the
foil, the nature of the climate, and the period in which it
is put into the ground, may be the moft fuitable proportion
for foils of a medium ftate of fertility, under the broad-caft
method of hufbandry ; but where the drill fyitem of cul-
ture is praétifed, a confiderable lefs quantity may be fuffi-
cient for the purpofe. In the drilling and dibbling methods
of fowing, however, which are unquettionably the beft
where they are performed with correétnefs, fix pecks of feed
are fufficient ; in the latter mode two rows being put in on a
flag, care being taken to have the land rolled after having
been ploughed a fortnight or more, and the feed dibbled in
to a fufficient depth, without fcattering, covering it in by
buh harrowing.
Where the lands have a known difpofition to mildew, a
larger proportion of feed fhould be given, whatever the time
or feafon in which it is put in may be. Much lefs feed is
alfo neceffary in early than late fowings. It is remarked
that on the rich foils of Gloucefterfhire, the quantity gene-
rally fown is about feven pecks, while in Yorkshire it is from
eight to twelve. Where the lands are in a fuitable ftate of
tillage for receiving crops of this grain, ten pecks have been
adel by a practical writer as the medium propery’?
ut
WHEAT.
but much larger quantities are frequently fown in the
northern parts of thekingdom. It is obvious, however, that
where fuch large proportions of feed are made ufe of, the
» plants muft be liable to be drawn up too much, and the
crops in confequence to become weak and imperfe€tly fed, as
well as {maller in the fize of the ears. There may be alfo dif-
advantages from making ufe of too {mall proportions of feed,
from the ground not being properly covered with plants ;
but where care is taken in the after-culture of the crops, lefs
danger is probably to be apprehended from this than the
other extreme, as a great number of plants will be fupplied
by the tillering or fhooting out of new ftems from the joints
about the furface, in confequence of the mould being laid
up again{t them.
In Hertfordfhire, in the broad-caft method, from two to
three bufhels are ufually fown. But in the county of Norfolk
they fow broad-caft, from two to two and a half buthels ;
and in the drilling and dibbling methods, from five to fix or
feven pecks. j
In Effex they fow broad-caft about two and a half
bufhels ; and in the drilling and dibbling modes, from feven
to ten or more pecks.
In Suffex they fow a large quantity of feed, fome four
bufhels on ley land, and three upontilth ; others three and a
half: but when this crop fucceeds peas, only three, it it
beearly, but if late, more. The medium quantity is about
three.
In Berkfhire commonly from two and a half to three mm
the broad-caft fowings of this crop.
And in Oxfordfhire from two to two and a half, and fome-
times three.
In the fowing of the {pring fort of this grain, the quan-
tity made ufe of is various. Some, for a full crop, fow
fourteen pecks to the acre, but with grafs-feeds only nine.
Eight pecks have produced an abundant crop in fome cafes,
on the fame portion of land. Others advife two bufhels to
the acre ; exis fay that the earlier it is fown the lefs feed will
be required. Sometimes three bufhels are fown upon the
acre. However, from two and a half to three bufhels on
the acre may be confidered as the moft proper quantity. In
the dibbling method, four pecks and a half have been found
fufficient for an acre and a half.
The broad-caft praGtice of putting this fort of crop into
the ground is the moft common on the heavier kinds of wheat-
lands, as thofe of the clayey and loamy forts, the feed being
harrowed well in by a rather light harrow. But in the
lighter forts of wheat-lands, the drilling method is often
praGtifed when they are clean, and fufficiently mellow and
mouldy on the furface. Sometimes, too, the feed is put in
partly by the plough, and partly by the harrow. In fome
diftri€ts it is ploughed in on the fallows, and harrowed in
on clover. The clover-leys are alfo occafionally ploughed
in fome cafes, and have the feed fcuffled in, and folded upon
by fheep. See Sowine, Seep, &c. Alfo UNpER-FuRRow
Sowing.
Some farmers prefer a ftale furrow for fowing wheat upon,
while others are in favour of the contrary practice. A ftale
furrow is probably, however, the beft in many cafes.
SraLe-Furrow.
Preparing feed-wheat for fowing is pratifed in many
eafes and places in different modes and manners. See
Picktinc, Sreerinc, &c. Alfo Wueat-Seed, Liming
See
of.
rhe depth of putting the feed in fhould not probably be
more than from one to two or three inches.
In fome parts of Oxfordfhire the laft is the ufual depth,
Vou. XXXVIII.
and the farmers are generally friendly to depofiting the feed
to a fhallow depth.
It is alfo the pra€tice with many farmers in thefe different
diftri&ts to change their feed-wheat frequently.
In the county of Suffex, an intelligent and fpirited farmer
has found by long and attentive experience that a change of
feed-wheat is of effential importance to the cultivator, as
that feed which has been repeatedly fown over the fame
ground at length degenerates, and the produce each fuc-
ceeding year becomes inferior in quality ; on which account,
wheat that is apt to run to ftraw is fown on ley-land, and
the Hertfordfhire white fort on pea-ftubbles.
In other diftrifts the praétice is thought by the belt
farmers to be always proper; and that the feed-wheat
fhould be brought from a colder foil or fort of tand than
that on which it is to be fown. See Change of Step, and
SEED.
As foon as the feed has been put into the land, it fhould
conftantly be laid as dry as poffible by the conftru@tion of
proper drains and water-furrows, fo as inall feafons to keep
the water from ftagnating upon it. See Warter-Fur-
rowing.
It has been lately fuggefted as a beneficial praétice to
have the feed-wheat well trodden in at the time of fowing it
by fheep, or ftill heavier ftock, on heavy as well as light foils ;
as by this means the young plants are prevented from dying
away in the winter, from the land lying too light and hollow.
But more fats are wanting to eftablifh the utility of this
method of praétice in different cafes. See Treapinc Wheat
in, and PLoucu.
Although under the prefent pra@ticeand managementin the
cultivation of wheat, the autumn or winter fort mutt always
neceflarily occupy a large extent of the heavier kinds of
wheat-lands in this country, and be raifed in the manner that
has been dire€ted above ; yet in a number of cafes the true
{pring fort may be cultivated, grown, and had recourfe to
with great advantage, fuccefs, and benefit. But in all fuch
culture, the real {ummer fort muft always be employed, for
though the winter kind may be put into the ground with
advantage in many cafes fo late as after the middle of Fe-
bruary, as has been feen above, it is better to have this real
fort for later {pring fowing, as it poffefles many properties
highly neceffary for the purpofe. By fome it has been fup-
pofed that it would interfere with winter wheat, and that it
may be difficult to find proper courfes for introducing it in.
However, this fort of wheat fhould principally be cultivated
and grown on foils or lands, and in climates which are not well -
fuited for winter wheat, or in cafes where that fort is particu-
larly liable to mildew. But though it may not be fuited for
univerfal application, it is moft tka to fucceed in the lighter,
the fenny, and the fofter forts of foil, where the winter wheat
is apt to be thrown out of the earth by frofty feafons. In
fuch cafes the courfes might be turnips, or rape, according
to the nature of the land, {pring wheat, clover, :and oats,
or fome fuch rotations, as in fick, if after the clover or
other grafs, the land be paftured for one year, the oat-
crops will be certain, and abundantly produétive.
The preparation in fome cafes might be the rendering the
land fine and clean by one or more ploughing and proper
harrowing, and in others by ploughing and burning, and
fowing cole and other feeds and crops, for being fed off by
fheep, or in fome other fuch ways.
In this manner large crops have been raifed in many dif-
ferent inftances, as thirty Winchefter bufhels, or more, on
the acre, which were ripe and ready at the fame time with
the other fpring-fown grain. It is a wheat which is faid to
Yy yield
WHEAT.
yield as much flour in any given quantity as other wheats,
and which does not appear to be fubjeét to any difeafe, nor
to have any difadvantages attending the cultivation of it.
It does not require more manure than barley or beans, nor
does it exhauft the land more. It anfwers extremely well
for laying down with clover, in which cafe the clover-feed
fhould be fown and harrowed in with the laft harrowing for
the wheat, and the ufual quantity of grafs-feeds fown. It
is to be preferred to all other forts of corn for raifing crops
of grafs-feeds ; owing to the fmall quantity of leaf which
it bears, and which is of fhort duration, as it fades and falls
down almoft as foon as it has attained its full fize : more air
is thus admitted to promote the growth of the clover, or
other grafs ; and the admiffion of more air may alfo contri-
bute to prevent the mildew with which this fort of wheat is
fo rarely affe@ted.
There is a further advantage ftated to arife in the cultiva-
tion of this fort of wheat in fome cafes, which is, that on
various foils, and in fome feafons, it often happens that the
autumnal-fown crop of wheat may be feen to fail and to go
off in patches, from the injury of the wire-worms, or other
caufes. Confequently, that in the beginning of April, by
raking {pring wheat into the vacant places, as alfo where
the wheat-plants may appear weak and thin fet, the uni-
formity of the crop may be reftored, and the {pring wheat
be ready for the fickle quite as early as the autumnal fown.
And that, although fuch a mixed crop would render its pro-
duce highly improper for feed ; for the miller’s ufe it would
afford no objeétion.
The remarks that are given below are the refult of much.
experience and practice in the cultivation of this fort of
wheat. It isfound that crops of this kind are ready to cut
quite as early as the autumnal-fown wheat in fimilar foils and
fituations. That it is highly probable that the fuccefs of
this fort of wheat on cloyer ley may be found to depend
more on the coming feafon than autumnal-fown wheat ; as
if the following feafon fhould prove dry, the crop would be
more hazardous in the former than in the latter. Ina dry
fummer it would feem that this wheat would have a better
chance upon land that has been longer upon tillage than
upon clover ley. That turnip and rape fallows, where the
foil is not too light, feem highly proper for {pring wheat.
That pea and bean fallows may alfo in many inftances
prove eligible for {pring wheat ; and efpecially after having
been ploughed early in the autumn, and benefited by the
winter’s rains and froft. That when the {pring wheat is
harrowed in, at the lait light harrowing, Sasiven teciliy &c.
may be fown, the ground will moftly be well fet, and the
feeds profper equal to any in other cafes. That in the ap-
plication of top-dreflings for this fort of wheat, it may feem,
that in a long-continued dry feafon, the moft eligible way
would be by applying them at the fame time when the wheat
is fown. Only once lightly harrowing after may fuffice.
But that, in amoift and continued rainy feafon, top-drefling
would probably prove to at more powerfully by being
fown upon the furface of the foil ; becaufe top-dreflings are
moft particularly calculated to invigorate the coronal, roots
of the wheat-plants, and thereby to caufe them to tiller well.
And that, when top-dreflings are’ fown on the furface of
the foil, the belt time of applying them, it may feem,
would be when the wheat is grown to the height of three or
four inches; becaufe if laid on before the blades of the
corn-crop afford a kind of fhelter, the finer particles thereof
are liable either to be exhaled by the fun, or blown away by
high winds, which frequently occur at that feafon. Moiit
and fhowery weather, at that critical period, will always be
i3t
found of the higheft importance ; therefore, the farmer
would do well by having due attention to the ftate of the
weather when employed on this bufinefs. And that, asa
crop of this fort of wheat is fo much more valuable than
any other kind of {pring-fown corn, there are good grounds
for fuppofing that top-dreflings cannot any other way be
more beneficially employed.
Trials with this fort of wheat in other unfavourable cafes
of poor wet cold land likewife thew that this fort of grain
may be had recourfe to with confiderable fuccefs in different
cafes. That five quarters per acre have been had on rich good
landin perfeé cultivation of excellent wheat of this kind, when
put into the foil fo late as the 4th of May. It is evident,
that this fort of wheat has a rapid growth, being equally
forward at harveft with the autumn-fown crops. That on
the whole it feems probable, from the fuccefs that has at-
tended this kind of culture in the fen, in the fouthern and
the more northern diftri€ts of the kingdom, that it may be
advantageoufly introduced in many different fituations and
circumftances of arable land.
We have already confidered the hiftory, nature, qualities,
and many other properties and circumftances in relation to
this fort of pee See Sprinc- Wheat.
Culture while growing.—In the culture of wheat after it has
been put into the foil, there may be fome difference, accordin
as it has been fown, according to the preparation of the land,
or other circumftances. But in all cafes it fhould be kept per-
feétly clean and free from weeds, either by the horfe or
hand hoe, as weeds not only injure the crop in its growth,
but leffen the value of its fample when brought to the mar-
ket. And befides, the ftirring of the mould on the furface
amongft the plants may frequently be ufeful in other ways,
in addition to that of preventing the growth of feed-weeds ;
for as in the heavy kinds of foils that are moft adapted to
this grain, the more fuperficial parts are liable to become fo
hard and baked as not to be eafily penetrated by the new-
formed or coronal roots of the plants in the early {pring
months, efpecially when they are very dry, and have been
preceded by much wet; loofening of the earth, by any
means whatever, muft of courfe be of great utility. This
effe& is generally fhewn to have taken place by the appear-
ance and progrefs of the crop, which becomes of an un-
healthy yellow colour, and advances but little in its growth.
In fuch cafes it has been fuggefted that harrowing once or
oftener in a place may be of much fervice in the early {pring
months. Where the crops are thin, and of feeble growth,
this operation may produce beneficial effects, by affording a
fort of earthing up to the weak plants, and thereby pro-
mote a more vigorous growth, at the fame time that a num-
ber of new fhoots are fent off from the joints thus covered,
and the crop in confequence rendered more full and abun-
dant ; and where the grain is too thick upon the ground, it
may alfo be of utility by drawing out and deftroying many
of the plants. It has likewife been fufpe&ted by Dr. Dar-
win, that many of the root-fibres, by being torn in the
operation, may prevent the over luxuriance 3 the item and
leaves, and by that meaus promote the more early frutifica-
tion of the grain.
It has been obferved by a late writer, that the practice of
{cartfying the young drilled wheat-crops fhould conftantly
be performed in an effectual manner, and not later than
March: but that fome have not fuppofed it to be fo very
beneficial, from not performing it at the proper time. Mr.
Cook has, it is faid, contrived two implements for this ufe,
a fixed harrow and {carifier ; the former executing its work
merely by common tines or teeth; having three rows, which,
by
WHEAT.
by varying its pofition diagonally, one, two, or three of
them may be brought to aét in the fpace of nine inches,
without injury to the rows of wheat-plants. If two, they
may, it is faid, be drawn in a breadth of three inches ; if
three, in a fpace of four inches, and thefe {paces widened
at pleafure, but {till fo as to keep quite clear of the rows of
wheat ; and that by loading the harrow, the teeth are
forced to a proper depth. Further; that the {carifier has
teeth of various breadths; but for working at this feafon,
between nine and twelve-inch rows, the narrowetft are to be
preferred. By the ation of thefe tools the furface mould
is, it is remarked, loofened, and the air admitted, being
performed to the depth of two inches with fafety, and
without mould being raifed fo as to cover or bury the
plants, the earth being only loofened, and not difplaced.
By thefe contrivances much work can be accomplifhed in
a very fhort time. This procefs is alfo ufeful again{t the
attacks of the worms. ‘They horfe and hand hoe their
wheat-crops repeatedly in Effex, and with great advantage,
though very expenfive.
But the drilled and dibbled crops, where this method is
not employed, particularly in the latter mode, where only
one row is placed on a flag, muft be hand-hoed in the inter-
vals, which fhould be done the firft time in the beginning
of the above month, and a fecond time towards the end of
it, or a little later. Some likewife do it to the broad-caft
wheats, but this has been fuppofed injurious by many.
The bufinefs of thiftling the wheat-crops fhould alfo be
carefully performed in May, or in the very early part of
the following month, in all cafes where it may be neceflary.
The practice of rolling fhould alfo be employed without
either having recourfe to the harrow, or after it has been
ufed, being highly beneficial where the furface is cloddy,
and the operation is executed when the ground poffefles a
medium degree of moifture, as well by forcing the roots of
the wheat into the earth, as by caufing the new ftems to
rife. And in thin light foils, when this fort of grain is
cultivated upon them, much benefit may alfo be produced
in this way, by the roots of the plants being prevented
from being fo eafily loofened and thrown out of the ground.
And the fame practice is recommended as generally ufeful
by fome where clover or grafs-feeds are fown with .wheat-
crops, as a means of rendering the vegetation more fecure
and perfect.
In Berkfhire, wheat-crops by the beft farmers are hoed
every where, and fometimes hand-weeded, the former on
ftrong foils often twice.
By good cultivators in fome parts of Oxfordfhire, too,
all the wheat-crops are hand-hoed in February or March,
and weeded afterwards.
And in Suffex, the practice moft commonly adopted is
to hand-hoe wheat in the fpring, fometimes only once, but
frequently twice, as the nature of the preceding crop may
have been. By fome, however, hand-hoeing wheat is dif-
approved of, they never hoe white corn, having given it
up, from a conviction that the crops were never benefited
by the practice ; but, on the contrary, that mifchief was
always done by it. On which, it is obferved, that fhould
the praétice fometimes be right, and fometimes wrong ; or
right on fome foils, and wrong on others, thefe contrary
fa&ts may probably depend on the {pring roots, which
are faid to ftrike into the air, and enter the ground at
fome {mall diftance from the ftem. If a hand-hoeing be
given juft before the appearance of thofe roots, it may, on
a bounden furface, prepare for their eafy entrance; but
if given afterwards, it is probable the effeét would be mif-
chievous, would retard the progrefs of the plant, and force
it to do its work over again, perhaps at a worfe feafon. If
this be the cafe, the benefit which refults from hitting the
time exaétly, may by no means equal the probability of
mifchief upon a fcale of any extent; in which the right
time can fearcely be taken for the whole of a crop. It has
been heard declared, too, by excellent farmers, that if a
perfon would pay for the hoeing of their wheat, they would
not permit the operation, being convinced that it does more
harm than good.
It has alfo been. recommended, in fuch cafes where the
land is not in a fufficient ftate of fertility or preparation to
bring the crops to perfection, to make ufe of top-dreflings.
Subftances of both the folid and fluid kinds have been made
ufe of for this purpofe ; the firft confift chiefly of the dung
of different forts of birds, after being brought into a
powdery ftate, bone-duft, foot, peat-afhes, and various
faline matters. ‘The latter are principally the drainings of
dung-hills, and other fimilar liquid materials. The former
fhould be thinly fown over the crops with as much evennefs
as poffible, as early in the {pring as horfes can be admitted
upon the land without injury ; and if it can be done when
the weather is inclined to be moitt, it is the better ; a roller
may then be paffed over the crop with advantage. Where
the latter fubftances are made ufe of, care fhould always be
taken that the plants be not injured by having too large a
quantity applied to them. In this praétice, the expence
fhould be a primary confideration, and {mall trials firft made
where dungs are not to be ufed. The proper feafon for
performing the bufinefs is the beginning of February, See
Manurg, and Topr-Dre/ffng.
It has been fuggefted, too, that the method of tranfplant-
ing wheat may be had recourfe to in particular cafes, with
beneficial confequences, as where there are fome parts
of {uch crops too thickly fet upon the ground, while others
are too thin, irregular, or patchy ; as by thinning and fet-
ting out the plants of fuch overabundant parts, among
thofe that are deficient, much fervice may be done to each
of them. The firft will be rendered more capable of admit-
ting the operation of the hoe, and thereby of fupplying
more abundant nourifhment for the luxuriant vegetation of
the plants, and the latter be fupplied with the proper num-
ber of plants, which could not be accomplifhed in any other
way. And it has been ftated, that when raifed in the gar-
den, one acre would be capable of affording fets for an hun-
dred, when planted, after being properly divided at the
diftance of nine inches from each other; and that as the
bufinefs of tranfplanting is to be performed in the fpring,
it is {uppofed that crops of this grain may be raifed in this
manner on lands that poflefs a greater degree of moifture
than is fuited to the healthy growth of wheat in general.
Befides, clean crops may be produced in this way with
much greater certainty, as where the ground is ploughed
over juit before the plants are fet out, the grain may rife
much quicker from the plants than the weeds from their
feeds, and the crop in this way overpower ‘ch noxious
plants. Advantages of other kinds have been ftated by
different writers, as the refult of this mode of -aifing wheat-
crops. It is a praétice, which, as well as that of dibbling,
ee been had recourfe to with fuccefs, both in Norfolk and
ex.
The cuftom of feeding down wheat-crops, where too
forward or luxuriant in the early {pring months, by means
of fheep, is a pratice that has been contended to be bene-
ficial in many cafes. The good effeéts, in fuch inftances,
according to Dr. Darwin, are fuppofed to arife from the
removal of the upright central ftems, by which means dif-
ferent new lateral ftems or root fcions are fent off or
Yy2 brought
WHEAT.
brought forward with more vigour, by the acquifition of a
larger proportion of nutritious matter from the joints in
confequence, that muft otherwife have been exhaufted in
fupporting the central ftems. It is, however, a method
which has been found by experience to be the moft ufeful
on fuch ftrong and ertile lands as are apt to produce a
larger proportion of ftraw than can be properly {upported.
In which cafes, advantage has been faid to be derived by
feeding off the blade at two or more fucceffive times; but
in effecting the bufinefs, great care is neceflary to fee that
the whole is completed before the crop begins to {pindle,
otherwife more injury than CR be produced. And
on the lighter and poor de criptions of foils, the practice
muft be employed with great caution, as on fuch lands the
growth of the crops may be fo retarded, as to become
weak and fpindly. Befides, on thofe lands where they are
very light, and the crops thin, injury may frequently be
done by many of the plants being pulled up, on account
of the clofenefs of the bite of the fheep. They fhould,
therefore, never be fuffered to remain upon the crops
when the weather is wet, and the furface of the ground
much loofened, or after fudden frofts and thaws; as in
fuch cafes much harm may be done by the plants being
pulled up and deftroyed. _
The treading of the animals may, however, be of great
fervice in all the light forts of wheat-land, and where the
crops are thin ; as by it the earth will not only be preffed
more: clofely about the roots of the plants, but the ftems
in many inftances fo forced into the ground and covered up,
that new fhoots will be fent off laterally, and the crops be
thus rendered more full on the land. But where the foils
are very {tiff and adhefive, the growth of the crops may be
checked and retarded by the praétice, and of courfe the
fhoots thus caufed become weak, affording only {mall ears
and light grain. Obfervations and experiments have con-
eet a writer in the Bath Papers, that wheat ought not
to be fed down with fheep, unlefs it be very rank in January ;
and that fuch crops fhould only be fed as were fown early.
And it has been fuggefted, that though this practice has
much fimilarity to that employed in gardening, of ftopping
the growth of the main ftems of fome forts of plants, as
thofe of the cucumber and melon kinds, by rubbing off or
cutting away the central buds, in order to expedite their
fruiting ; yet in wheat-crops, where the principal ftems are
eaten down, except when they are early, and of very
luxuriant growth, the ears of the new fhoots may not have
time to perfeét the feed, and of courfe become light and
fhrivelled in the grain, and the new {tems from their
weaknefs be more apt to fall down and be lodged. Thefe
are circumftances that have been frequently obferved to
occur by Mr. Tull, in the feeding down of wheat-crops by
means of fheep. And that the fame philofophical ob-
ferver fuppofes, that in the culture of wheat-crops, the
moft beneficial method is that of promoting, a8 much as
poffible, the time of bloffoming, while that of ripening is
protracted, as it is for the farinaceous refervoir of nutriment,
depofited in the cotyledon of the new feed, im order to
fupport the growth of the corculum, or freth embryon, that
the plant is cultivated ; which farinaceous depofition is
effeéted in the interval between the Le and ripening
of the corn, either before the impregnation of the pericarp
or feed-veffel, or afterwards ; and the weight and plump-
nefs of the rain are thus augmented.
The practice of feeding down young wheats by fheep
may, therefore, be often hurtful, by retarding the period of
ilofloming, as well as by reftri€ting the growth of the ftems
of the wheat-plants.
Sheep have likewife been employed on young whiat-
crops in other views, as it has been remarked, that as the
coronal parts of the roots of fuch crops are liable to be
laid bare and expofed for fome inches in length about the
furface of the earth, during fevere frofty winters, the turn-
ing in fheep upon them in fuch circumitances when the
ground is moift, and keeping them in motion, may tend to
prefs them into the loofe foil, and in that way produce new
roots, as well as afford covering and prote¢tion to fuch as
have been denudated. And, it is added, that fome farmers
who contend that much advantage is derived from it, turn
fheep upon the crops where danger is apprehended from
worms, flugs, and other infeéts ; in order that by keeping
them conftantly in motion, fuch animals may either be
wholly deftroyed, or fo fixed in the furface mould as to
caufe their more gradual death. There is a very great
variety of thefe animals, which are fuppofed injurious to
wheat as well as other crops; and for the deftruétion of
which, lime, foot, and other faline matters, have been had
recourfe to with fuppofed advantage. See Grus, Soot,
&e. :
Wheat-crops are fuppofed to be much injured from dif-
ferent forts of vegetable difeafes, as the Blight, Blafl, Mil-
dew, Smut, &c. &e. See thefe different heads.
In the Effex Report it is mentioned, that a difeafe which
had not before been noticed or heard of, was met with at
Copdock in that diftri&, which is called the purples. The
ears affected are perceived at once by their colour, a dirty
brown mixed with green, as if part was ripe, with fome
chefts quite green: they feel nearly, but not quite, like
blighted or abortive ears, which are brown, while the ears
in general of the crop are of a bright red or white ;
when rubbed in the hand, asif to get the grain, no wheat is
found, but apparently the {mall grains of a flattened in-
dented globular form,-and of a darkifh purple, greenifh or
dark hue. It has not the fmalleft refemblance-in appearance
or {cent to {mutty grains or bladders, and is certainly a
diftinét diftemper. In many of thefe purpled ears are found
fome grains of good wheat. In order to difcover if all the
ears from the fame root were affected on trial, in many in-
ftances they were found ail fimilar from every root. It is
very fingular that no account that is recolleGted fhould have
been given of fuch a ftrange malady, and fo diftin& from
all others. Smutty ears were found in the fame field, under
all the common circumftances of that diftemper. In Kent,
it is faid, this diftemper is called cockle-eared.
It has likewife been noticed, that particular ftates of the
weather have confiderable influence on wheat-crops, at par-
ticular periods of their growth. As when the feafon is
fufficiently dry, there is feldom much injury done to them
during the winter months, however fevere they may be in
other refpects, nor in thofe of the fummer, provided the
weather is not too moift about the time of blooming, as
where that is the cafe the crops are moltly deficient in their
produce.
And feveral forts of weeds are injurious to wheat-crops,
where they have been fown upon lands in an imperfeé ftate
of preparation, as charlock on the light caleareous foils ;
the corn poppy, on thofe of the chalky kind, as well as
cockle, white-darnel, puck-needle, and couch: likewife colt’s-
foot on the rather heavy kinds of lands. See thefe different
heads, and Weep and WeepIne.
This fort of crop is fhewn to be ripe and ready for the
reaper by its flraw turning of a yellow colour, its ears be-
ginning to bend in the neck and hang down, there being
no greennefs in the middle of them, and the grain becoming
hard and plump. It is remarked, in the Effex Report on
Agricul-
WHE
Agriculture, that fome do not like to cut wheat green,
except it be the American white, which is brittle, and muft
be cut early, to prevent a lofs of ears. It rarely lays.
In Rochford hundred they do not cut till the wheat is
ripe; but fome few reap while it is yet green. It is, how-
ever, obferved by a good farmer, that moft rough chaff
wheats, if they do not ftand till fully ripe, will not threfh
well.
It is ftated, too, in the Norfolk Report on Agriculture,
that Mr. Parmenter, miller at Aylefham, a confiderable
farmer alfo, and a very intelligent man, remarked that the
farmers let their wheat ftand too long before cutting. They
are apt to have a notion, that when millers give this opinion,
it is {peaking for their own intereft ; but he cuts his own
wheat before it is ripe, and would do fo on the largeft
feale, if he was not a miller. The quality is far fuperior,
and the corn juft as good. And Mr. M. Hill prefers cut-
ting green, and never yet commenced harveft but he wifhed
he had begun three days fooner.
In the firft of thefe Reports on Agriculture, a praétice
termed fagging is noticed as being for the firft time met
with. When the wheat-crops are very heavy, with broad
luxuriant leaves, men with fickles move regularly through
it, {trike off many of them, for lightening the top, as a pre-
fervative againft being beaten down by rain. It fhould be
done ena or damage may enfue. See ReEapine,
HarvestineG of Grain, Srackine, and THRESHING.
Produce.—In refpe& to the quantity of wheat produced
upon an acre, it muft vary confiderably, according to the
circumftances of foil and preparation, as well as the ftate of
the feafon ; for it has been found that in fome years the
yield is under twenty, while in others it is upwards of thirty
buthels the acre, the foil and culture being in every refpeét
the fame. And the average return of this crop throughout
the whole of the kingdom, is probably not more than from
three to three and a half quarters. And Mr. Donaldfon
has, indeed, {tated it at not more than three quarters the
acre. The greateft crop of wheat, of which the author of the
Report on Agriculture for Middlefex has any account, 1s,
it is obferved, fixty-eight buthels fer acre; the leaft about
twelve. The medium between thefe extremes 1s forty,
which, it is conceived, would be the average of land highly
conditioned. But the average produce of Britain does not,
it is imagined, exceed one-half of this quantity, and yet, it
is thought, that wheat is as certain a crop as any that is
cultivated. It is obferved, that the yield of feveral years
varies the proportion which wheat bears to the ftraw in a
very great degree, but that the average is about twelve
bufhels of wheat to each load of ftraw, weighing eleven
hundred weight two quarters and eight pounds. It has
been afferted, and probably with truth, that the ftraw of
autumnal-fown wheat is more harfh, and lefs agreeable to
cattle, than the ftraw of that which is fown in the fpring.
The weight of wheat by the bufhel differs very much in dif-
ferent cafes ; but in moft ftrong land diftrifts it is ufually
about fixty-two or three pounds to that quantity.
The yield of wheat is the greateft at the time of reaping,
and becomes fucceflively lefs and lefs the longer it is kept,
fo as ultimately, in many cafes, to be a difadvantage to the
farmer of not lefs than nearly one fhilling in the bufhel. .
It may be noticed, that it is neceflary, with the view of
afcertaining the goodnefs of a fample of wheat, to deter-
mine by the eye whether the berry be perfe€tly fed or full,
plump and bright, and whether there be any adulteration
proceeding from fprouted grains, fmut, or the feeds of
weeds ; and by the fmell, whether there be any improper
impregnation, and whether it has been too much heated
in the mow or upon the kiln; and finally by the feel to
WHE
decide if the grain be fufficiently dry, as when much loaded
with moifture, it is improper for the ufes of the miller and
baker. In cafes where a fample handles coarfe, eh and
does not flip readily in the hand, it may be concluded not
to be in a condition either for grinding or laying up for
keeping.
Wheat is ufually fold by the farmers to the dealers for
being made into flour ; and, in fome cafes, as feed-wheat
for other diftriéts, which is very advantageous, as the price
in that way is moftly higher. The dealers, who convert
it into flour, difpofe of that to the different confumers, and
the refufe part, as the pollard, to other perfons for the
food of horfes, fheep, hogs, and other animals.
Wueat, Brining of. See BRINING.
Wueat, Brufh, that fort of wheat-crop which is grown
after oats, barley, or any other fuch kinds of grain, on light
foils of the fandy and other fimilar forts.
Brufh-wheat crops are common in many of the more
northern parts of this country, but the practice of putting
wheat-crops in, in this way, is by no means to be much re-
commended, as they feldom anfwer any great purpofe.
Wueat, Buck. See Bucx-Wheat.
Wueat, Buck, in Botany. See Potxconum Fago~
pyrum.
Wueat, Cow, in Botany and Agriculture. See Mr-
LAMPYRUM, and Cow-Wheat.
Wueat, Crofing of, the prattice of putting into the foil
in fowing two different forts of this grain of good qualities,
in order to raife a new variety of a ftill better kind. The
practice of croffing in this manner has been found to anfwer
perfe&tly, not only in this cafe, but in thofe of peas, apple-
trees, &c. by Mr. Knight. In his trials, in years when
almoft the whole wheat-crops of the country were blighted,
the varieties procured by crofling alone efcaped, though
raifed on different forts of land, and in very different
fituations and circumftances. See SEED, and VARIETIES.
Wuear Fallow, that fort of complete naked fallow on
which wheat is fown. See FaLLow, and FALLOWING.
Wuear Grafs, a fort of grafs met with in land of fome
kinds. In the trials made on graffes at Woburn, the qua-
lities of it ftand as below.
Oz. Lbs..- 4Oz,
From a rich fandy loam, the produce
at the time of flowering was on the
acre -
- - - - 196020 = 12251 4
Weight of the grafs when dry - 78408= 4900 8
Weight loft by the produce of the
fame extent of ground in drying 9350 12
The produce of the fame fpace of
land in nutritive matter - Slay OLY fam oa Zhen)
In the creeping rooted wheat-grafs,
the produce from a light clayey
loam, at the time of flowering, was
on the acre - - - - 196020 = 12251 4
Weight of the grafs raifed on the fame
{pace when dry - 78408 = 4900
Weight loft by the produce of the
acre in drying - - - 7850 12
The fame extent of land afforded in
nutritive matter - - - 612510 = 38213 10
Sixty-four drachms of the roots afforded of nutritive mat-
ter 5.3dr. The proportional value of the roots is therefore
to that of the grafs, as 23 to 8.
Wueat, Grinding and converting of, into Flour, Fc. the
art and means of reducing it into this flate, in which there
are much nicety and difficulty in fome cafes, efpecially with
the thinner-fkinned forts of this grain.
It
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It is ftated by the writer of the work on Agricultural
Chemiftry, that in this country the difficulty of grinding
thin-fkinned wheat is in fome meafure an obje€tion ; but that
this difficulty is eafily overcome by moittening the corn.
And on the authority of John Jeffery, efq., the conful-
general at Lifbon, the following obfervations on the fubjeé
are given, as tran{mitted by fir Jofeph Banks. In order to
grind hard corn of this fort with the mill-ftones ufed in this
country, the wheat muft be well fcreened, then fprinkled
with water at the miller’s difcretion, and laid in heaps, being
frequently turned and thoroughly mixed together, which
will foften the hufk fo as to make it feparate fossa the flour
in grinding, and, of courfe, give the flour a brighter colour ;
otherwife the flinty quality of the wheat, and the thinnefs of
the fkin, will prevent its fopivation, and will render the flour
unfit for making into bread.
The writer has been informed by a miller of contiderable
experience, and who works his mills entirely with the ftones
from this country or Ireland, that he frequently prepares
the hard Barbary corn of this kind by immerfing it in water
in clofe wicker bafkets, and then fpreading it thinly on a
floor to dry ; much depends on the judgment and fkill of
the miller in preparing the corn for the mill according to its
relative quality. It is obferved, however, that it is not
from this previous procefs of wetting the corn that the
weight in the flour of hard corn is increafed ; but from its
natural quality it imbibes confiderably more water in making
it into bread. The mill-ftones muft not be cut too deep,
but the furrows very fine, and picked in the ufual way.
The mills fhould work with lefs velocity in grinding hard
corn than with foft, and be fet to work at firft with foft corn,
until the mill ceafes to work well; then put on the hard
corn. Hard wheat always fells at a higher price in the
market than foft wheat, on an average of from ten to fifteen
per cent. ; as it produces more flour in proportion, and lefs
bran than the foft corn.
Flour made from hard wheat is more efteemed than what
is made from foft corn ; and both forts are applied to every
purpofe.
The flour of hard wheat is in general fuperior to that
made from foft ; and there is no difference in the procefs of
making them into bread: but the flour from hard wheat
will imbibe and retain more water in making into bread,
and will confequently produce more weight of bread. It
is the practice in Lifbon, and which it is thought would be
advifeable to adopt in this country, to make bread with
flour of hard and foft wheat, which, by being mixed, will
make the bread much better. As the moft flinty wheats
are capable of being readily and eafily ground by thefe
means, much advantage may arife from the mixing of
the flour of the thin-fkinned wheats with thofe of the
thicker-fkinned kinds in the forming of bread, as well as
in preventing the objeétions to the cultivation and growth
of the former, on account of their fteely quality, and grind-
ing hard and with inconvenience, By thefe means many of
the well-harvefted and well-kept wheats of this country will
be found to be equal to thofe of any other, for moi pur-
pofes to which the flour is ufually put. See Sprinc-Wheat,
and Wueat. Alfo VEGETABLES.
In the Middlefex Corre&ted Report on Agriculture, it is
ftated, that the beft flour is moftly ufed by the paftry-cooks,
and the makers of fine bifcuits, and the inferior forts in the
making of bread. ‘That thefe have often the worfe kinds
of damaged foreign wheats, and other materials, mixed with
them in grinding them into flour. And that, if the bread
confumed in the metropolis was prepared from the wheat of
this country, unmixed with the leaner produce of other
nations, the trial detailed below would thew with accuracy
WHE
the quantity of bread that could be made from a Win-
chefter bufhel of that grain.
One bufhel of the wheat of this country, which weighed
fixty-one pounds, was taken. It was then ground, and the
meal weighed 603 Ibs. ; which, on being dreffed, produced
463 lbs. of flour, of the fort called feconds, which alone is
ufed for the making of bread throughout the greater part
of this country ; and of pollard and bran 123 lbs., which
quantity was bolted, and it produced in fharps 3 lbs., which
being fifted produced in good fecond flour 14 1b. :
Ibs.
The whole quantity of bread-flour obtained from the :
bufhel of wheat, weighed - - = ‘I 48
Ibs.
Fine pollard - - - - rr
Coarfe pollard < - . = 4 :
Bran cicraiel hide alk heater ko 5
— 1i
The whole together P3 f S59
To which add the lofs of weight in manufa@uring
the bufhel of wheat - . & = t 2
Produces the original weight - “61
The fack of marketable flour is by law obliged to
weigh 240 lbs., which is exa&tly the produce of five buthels
of fuch wheat; and the fack of flour is conftantly fup-
pofed to make eighty quartern loaves of bread; and
confequently fixteen of fuch loaves are made from each
bufhel of fuch wheat. It is admitted, however, that two or
three loaves more than the above quantity can be made
from the fack of flour, when it is the genuine produce
of good wheat ; that is, in the proportion of about fix-
teen and a half loaves from each bufhel of found grain,
and, it may be prefumed, fixteen from a bufhel of medium
corn. The expence of making the fack of flour into bread,
and difpofing of it, is about 8s.
Wueat, /ndian. See Maize.
Wueat, Mildew in. See Mitpew.
Wueat, Muft of, is, according to the ingenious Mr.
Hatchett, a taint produced by damp upon the aylaceous
part of the grain, or ftarch; and he conceives, that this
taint is, in moft cafes, fuperficial. He propofes the follow-
ing as a fuccefsful method of removing it.
The wheat muft be put into a veffel capable of holding at
leaft three times the quantity, and the veffel filled with boiling
water ; and the grain fhould then be occafionally ftirred, and
the hollow decayed grains, which float, may be removed.
When the water has become cold, or in about half an hour, it
is drawn off. Then rince the corn with cold water, and
having completely drained it, fpread it thinly on the floor
of a kiln, and thus thoroughly dry it, ftirring and turnin
it frequently during this part of the procefs. Phil. Trant
for 1817, part 1.
Wueat Rick/land. See Stappte, and STanp.
Wueart, Root-fallen or Welten, that fort of wheat-crop in
which the roots are thrown out of the ground by its light-
nefs or porofity, as caufed by frofts or other means. See
Wueat, and Wext-Root.
Wueat, Ruffin. See Rust.
Wueat-Seed, Liming of, the praétice of drying moift-
ened corn of this fort by means of powdery lime. It is the
cuftom in fome places to make it wet over-night, with falt or
other water, and to duit it over with the lime the next
morning before it is fown, mixing it well together in the
operation. By the lime, however, thus remaining fo fhort a
time on the grain before fowing, it has no time to penetrate
into
WHE
into the corn; whereas, by moiftening the wheat, and leav-
ing it until the fucceeding morning well limed, the lime has
a greater power, it is fuppofed, in deftroying the fmut-
powder, than when it remains on it only for half an hour,
and is then moftly rubbed off the corn. Half a bufhel of
the ftrongeft lime is fufficient for a quarter of wheat, when
fifted over and mixed well with it. ;
In this laft mode of drying feed-wheat with lime, it is
found td be very efficient in preventing the crops from
being difeafed in fome diftriéts. See Srerpine Seed.
As there is an uncertainty whether the effeé in this prac-
tice is to be afcribed to the wafhing of the grain or the
lime, fome merely moiften the corn for the purpofe of
making the lime adhere to it; while others are extremely
attentive to the liquor made ufe of and the wafhing of the
feed, and fimply make ufe of the lime for drying it for
fowing. Lime is, however, confidered as a great prevent-
ative of difeafe in the grain by many. It fhould always be
ufed while frefh and newly flacked.
WueEat, Setting of, the praétice of putting it into the
foil by the hand. In many parts of the vale of the county
of Gloucefter, they fet wheat by the hand and line ; but the
difficulty of getting on with the work at the proper feafon,
when on a large {cale, in confequence of the want of hands,
operates againft the more general introduétion of this prac-
tice. When wheat is fet by the hand in this way, not more
than three pecks of feed are made ufe of. On clover-leys
wheat is often put in by the hand in fmall channels made
acrofs the beds, which have been formed by the plough to
the width of half a ley, dropping the feed into them, and
leaving a diftance of about even inches between the different
channels. This mode is faid to be good for late work ;
and the expence to be about feven fhillings the acre, the
feed being ufually about fix pecks. In fome other diftriéts
the fetting of wheat is faid to be praétifed with much fuc-
cefs and advantage; but it is probably too tedious and ex-
penfive a mode to be had recourfe to on any large extent of
wheat cultivation. See Dissiine, and Serrine of Wheat.
Wueat, Spring. See Sprine-Wheat, and WHEAT.
Wueat, Smyrna, a peculiar kind of wheat that has an ex-
tremely large ear, with many leffer or collateral ears coming
all round the bottom of the great one.
As this is the largeft of all forts of wheat, fo it will dif-
penfe with the nourifhment of a garden, without being over-
fed, and requires more nourifhment than common huf-
bandry in the large way can give it. In the common way its
ears grow not much larger than thofe of our common wheat.
_ This fort of wheat feems, of all others, the moft proper
for the new method of horfe-hoeing hufbandry, as that
method feems capable of giving as much nourifhment as the
farmer pleafes, by often repeating the hoeing. Next to
this, the white-cone wheat is beft for this fort of hufbandry ;
then the grey-cone wheat.
Wueat-Stubble, Cutting and Colleding of, the ufeful
practice of mowing and raking together the itrong ftubbles
of wheat-crops, and itacking them up in or near the farm-
yards as additional litter, and for other purpofes. It fhould
always be done as foon as poffible after the wheat has been
taken from the fields. See STUBBLE.
Wueat, Tillering of, the throwing out of new fhoots,
items, or ftalks, from about the roots, fo as to increafe the
thicknefs of the crops on the grounds. It takes place
much more extenfively in the autumnal and winter fown
wheats than thofe of the {pring fowings. See T11uER, and
WHEAT. i c
Wueatr, Tran/planiation of, the practice of putting into
the ground the young plants, of wheat that have been raifed
in other places, or which ftand too thick on the land. It is
WHE
obferved in the Middlefex Report on Agriculture, that it is
well calculated for increafing the quantity of corn produced
from a fingle grain, and that it may be reforted to for the
fake of curiofity when the cultivator has procured a {mall
quantity of fome new and very valuable variety of feed ; but
that a farmer fhould never extend it to his field culture.
There would be much lofs in labour and in other ways,
it is {uppofed, by this praétice, and nothing be gained by it.
See TRANSPLANTING, and WuHEaT.
Wueat, White-cone, a term ufed by our hufbandmen, to
exprefs a peculiar kind of wheat, which is very ftrong, and
has a large ear.
It is the beft kind for fowing in fields fubje€&t to the
blight ; for the ftalks of it being, for the moit part, folid or
full of pith, like a rufh, not hollow, like thofe of common
wheat; the infects that caufe the blight, feizing en the
{talks of other wheat, do this no injury, even though they
fhould attack it; the ftalks of this kind being often found
full of the black {pecks, which are always the marks of that
infe&t having been there, and yet the ear full, and the grain
ood.
This wheat makes very good bread, if the miller does
not grind it too {mall, or the baker make his dough too
hard, it requiring to be fomewhat larger than other wheat-
flour, and fomewhat fofter in the dough. A bufhel of
white-cone wheat will make confiderably more bread than a
bufhel of Lammas wheat ; but it gives it a fomewhat yellow-
ifh caft.
Wueat-Bird, in Ornithology, aname given by the people
of Virginia to a {pecies of bird, which, after the time of the
fowing of the wheat in that country, made its appearance
annually at the feafon of its beginning to ripen, and was
never feen there before. See Micrarion of Birds.
Wueat-£ar, the Englifh name of the common cenanthe,
or motacilla enanthe of Linneus, called alfo the qwhite-tail
and the fallow-finch. See Moracitita Cinanthe.
WHEATEN-Breap. See Turory of Bread, and
Wueat, Grinding of, &c.
WHEATFIELD, in Geography, a townfhip of Penn-
fylvania, in the county of Indiana, with 1475 inhabitants.
WHEATLY, Francis, in Biography, was born in
London in 1747, and received his firft inftruGion as an
artift in Shipley’s drawing-fchool. Whilft young he re-
ceived feveral premiums from the Society for the Encourage-
ment of Arts, &c. He does not appear to have had any
particular inftru€tor in painting, but by his own induftry
and ingenuity contrived to obtain fome knowledge of it; and
having formed an intimacy with Mr. Mortimer, whom he
aflifted in painting the ceiling at Brockett-hall, by that cir-
cumftance obtained confiderable improvements. He had
great employment in painting {mall whole-length portraits,
to which he added landfcape back-grounds with confider-
able tafte. After praétifing fome years in London, he went
to Ireland, and was much employed in Dublin, where he
painted a large pi€ture of the Irifh houfe of commons, with
portraits of the moft confiderable political charafters, by
which he acquired great reputation. On his return to
London he painted a piéture of the foldiery attacking the
rioters in 1780, which was well engraved by Heath.
About this time he appears to have changed his pra@tice,
and painted rural and domeftic fubje&s in a manner which
evidently exhibits them to have been the offspring of the
natural bent of his mind. He was engaged in the Shak-
{peare Gallery, but failed to ME eM aeS : neither his talent
nor his ftyle was fuited to the charaéter of the fubjeés.
given to him. In the flighter fubje&ts of common life he
was at home, and he touched them and compofed them in a
moft agreeable manner, and with a very pleafing tone of
colour :
WHE
colour: thefe he executed with rapidity, and, as he always
fold them, he acquired fufficient money to indulge a natural
propenfity to the pleafures of the table. Hence he became
a martyr tothe gout, and died of that difeafe in 1801, at the
age of 54. He was elected an academician in 1791.
WHEE, Wuey, Whie, or Qui, in Rural Economy, a
term ufed to fignify a young heifer, or heifer-calf, in differ-
ent places and parts of the country.
WHEEANG, or Wuang, a provincial term made ufe
of to fignify a thong or ftrap of leather for the harnefs
or geer of farm-teams, or other domeftic purpofes.
WHEEL, Rora, in Mechanics, a fimple machine, confift-
ing of around piece of wood, metal, or other matter, which
revolves on an axis.
For an account of the wheel and axle, as a mechani-
cal power, fee Axis in Peritrochio, and MrcHANIcaL
Powers. :
The wheel is one of the principal mechanic powers. It
has place in moft engines: in effect, it is of an aflemblage of
wheels that moft of our chief engines are compofed. Wit-
nefs clocks, mills, &c.
Its form is various, according to the motion it is to have,
and the ufe it is to anfwer. By this it is diftinguifhed into
Jimple and dented.
WHEELS, Simple, are thofe whofe circumference and axis
are uniform, and which are ufed fingly, and not combined.
Such are the wheels of carriages, which are to have a double
motion; the one circular about their axis; the other recti-
linear, by which they advance along the road, &c. which
two motions they appear to have; though, in effe@, they
have but one: it being impoffible the fame thing fhould
move, or be agitated, two different ways at the fame
time. :
This one is a fpiral motion ; as is eafily feen, by fixing a
piece of chalk on the face of a wheel, fo as that it may
draw a line on a wall, as the wheel moves. The line it
here traces is a juft {piral, and ftill the more curve, as the
chalk is fixed nearer the axis.
The faé&t, however, has been difputed ; and it has been
alleged, that nothing is more eafy than for any one, who
will take the trouble to make the experiment, to prove its
falfehood. Place the chalk on the face of the wheel, as
dire@ted, and you will find that, fo far from its defcribing
a juft fpiral, and that ftill the more curve as the chalk is
fixed nearer the axis, the chalk, if placed on the periphery of
the wheel, will defcribe a cycloid, and the nearer it is placed
to the axis, the nearer will the line it defcribes approach to
the ftraight line which is defcribed by the axis itfelf. More-
over, it is not true, nor pretended to be fo, that the fame
thing moves two ways at once in the reétilinear and circular
motion of wheels. The local motion, or motion of the
whole wheel, is re@tilinear only ; that of the parts of the
wheel circular. Nor can this latter motion with any pro-
priety be called that of the wheel, unlefs the fame thing
could alfo move quick and flow at the fame time, which the
different parts of the wheel, in revolving round its axis,
evidently do. Jacob’s Obf. on the Struéture and Draught
of Wheel-Carriages, 1773, p- 28, &c.
For a very nice phenomenon, in the motion of thefe
wheels, fee Rota Ariffotelica.
We fhall add, that, in wheels of this kind, the height
fhould always be proportioned to the ftature of the animal
that draws or moves them. The rule is, that the load and
the axis of the wheels be of the fame height with the power
that moves them; otherwife the axis being higher than the
beaft, part of the load will lie upon him; or, if it be lower,
he pulls to difadvantage, and muft exert a greater force.
Though Stevinus, Dr. Wallis, &c. fhew, that, to draw a
10t
WHE
vehicle, &c. over walte uneven places, it were beft to fix the
trages to the wheels fomewhat lower than the horfe’s breait.
See Wueets of Coaches, &c.
The power of thefe wheels refults from the differences of
the radii of the axis, and circumference. The canon is
this: “ As the radius of the axis is to that of the circum-
ference, fo is any power to the weight it can fuftain
hereby.”” .
This is alfo the rule in the axis in peritrochio ; and, i
effect, the wheel, and the axis in perteiselas, are the fame
thing ; only, in theory, it is ufually called by the latter
name, and in praétice by the former.
Wueets, Dented, are thofe either whofe circumference,
or axis, is cut into teeth, by which they are capable of
moving and aéting on one another, and of being combined
together.
7 The ufe of thefe is very confpieuous in clocks, jacks,
Ce
‘The power of the dented wheel depends on the fame
principle as that of the fimple one. It is only that to the
fimple axis in peritrochio, which a compound lever is to a
fimple lever.
ts doGtrine is comprifed in the following canon; viz.
“« The ratio of the power to the weight,” in order for that
to be equivalent to this, ‘* muft be compounded of the ra-
tios of the diameter of the axis of the laft wheel to the dia-
meter of the firft; and of the ratio of the number of revo-
lutions of the laft wheel, to thofe of the firft, in the fame
time.” But this doétrine will deferve a more particular
explanation.
1. Then, if the weight be multipled into the produ& of
the radii of the axes, and that produét be divided by the
produé& of the radii of the wheels, the power required to
fuftain the weight will be found. Suppofe, e. gr. the weight
A (Plate XL. fig. 83. Mechanics,) = 6000 pounds, BC =
6 inches, C D = 34 inches, E F = 5 inches, EG = 3
inches, HI = 4 inches, H K = 27 inches: then wi
Be x EF x Hl = 1203; adCD x EG x HE
= 32130. Hence the power required to fuftain the weight,
will be 6000 x 120 + 32130 = 22; very nearly ; a {mall
addition to which will raife it.
2. If the power be multiplied into the produ& of the
radii of the wheels, and the faétum be divided by the pro-
du& of the radii of the axes; the quotient will be the
weight which the power is able to fuftain. Thus, if
the power be 22} pounds; the weight will be 6000
pounds.
3. A power and weight being given, to find the number
of wheels, and in each wheel the ratio of the radius of the
axis, to the radius of the wheel; fo as that the power,
being applied perpendicularly to the periphery of the laft
wheel, may fuftain the given weight.
Divide the weight by the power ; refolve the quotient
into the faGtors which produce it. Then will the num-
ber of fa&tors be the number of wheels; and the radii of
the axes will be to the radii of the wheels, as unity to the
feveral wheels. Suppofe, e. gr. a weight of 3000 pounds,
and a power of 60, the quotient of the former by the latter
is 500, which refolves into thefe fa&tors, 4. 5. 5. 5. Four
wheels are, therefore, to be made; in one of which, the ra-
dius of the axis is to the radius of the wheel, as 1 to 43 in
the reft, as 1 to 5.
_ If a power move a weight by means of two wheels,
the revolutions of the flower wheel are to thofe of the fwifter,
as the periphery of, the fwifter axis is to the periphery of the
wheel that catches on it.
Hence, 1. The revolutions are as the radius of the axis
FE to the radius of the wheel DC. 2. Since the num-
r
WHEEL.
ber of teeth in the axis F D, is to the number of teeth in
the circumference of the wheel M, as the circumference of
that to the circumference of this; the revolutions of the
flower wheel M, are to the revolutions of the fwifter N, as
the number of teeth in the axis to the number of teeth in
the wheel M, which it catches.
5. If the fa€tum of the radii of the wheels GE, DC,
be multiplied into the number of revolutions of the floweft
wheel, M, and the produét be divided by the fa€tum of the
radii of the axes which catch into them, GH, DE, &c.
the quotient will be the number of revolutions of the {wifteft
wmceliOe? Ce cy eltdG bi Ss Caz |G Einana,
DE = 3, and the revolution of the wheel M be 1; the
number of revolutions of the wheel O will be 8.
6. If a power move a weight by means of divers
wheels, the {pace pafled over by the weight, is to the {pace
of the power, as the power to the weight. Hence, the
greater the power, the quicker is the weight moved ; and
vice verfa.
7. The {paces paffed over by the weight and the power,
are in a ratio compounded of the revolutions of the floweft
wheel, to the revolution of the fwifteft ; and of the peri-
phery of the axis of that, to the periphery of this. Hence,
fince the fpaces of the weight and the power are recipro-
cally as the fuftaining power is to the weight; the power
that fuftains a weight will be to the weight, in a ratio com-
pounded of the revolutions of the floweft wheel, to thofe of
the {wifteft, and of the periphery of the axis of that, to
the periphery of this.
8. The periphery of the axis of the floweft wheel, with
the periphery of the {wifteft wheel, being given ; as alfo the
ratio of the revolutions of the one, to thofe of the other ;
to find the {pace which the power is to pafs over, while the
weight goes any given length.
Multiply the periphery of the axis of the floweft wheel
into the antecedent term of the ratio, and the periphery of
the {wifteft wheel into the confequent term; and to thefe
two produéts, and the given fpace of the weight, find a
fourth proportional: this will be the {pace of the power.
Suppofe, c. gr. the ratio of the revolutions of the floweft
wheel, to thofe of the {wifteft, to be as 2 to 7, and the
fpace of the weight 30 feet; and let the periphery of the
axis of the floweft wheel be to that of the fwifteft, as 3 to
8: the {pace of the power will be found 280. For 2 x 3:
7 xX 8 :: 30: 280.
g- The ratio of the peripheries of the fwifteft wheel, and
of the axis of the floweft ; together with the ratio of their
revolutions, and the weight, being given: to find the power
able to fuftain it.
Multiply both the antecedents and the confequents, of
the given ratios into each other, and to the produ& of the
antecedents, the produét of the confequents, and the given
weight, find a fourth proportional: that will be the power
required. Suppofe, e. gr. the ratio of the peripheries 8 : 3;
that of the revolutions 7 : 2, and the weight 2000 ; the
power will be found 214%. For 7 x 8:2 x 3 :: 2000
: 2142. After the fame manner may the weight be found ;
the power, and the ratio of the peripheries, &c. being
given.
10. The revolutions the {wifteft wheel is to perform while
the floweft makes one revolution, being given; together
with the {pace the weight is to be raifed, and the periphery
of the floweft wheel; to find the time that will be fpent in
raifing it.
Say, As the periphery of the axis of the floweft wheel
is to the given {pace of the weight; fo is the given number
of revolutions of the {wifteft wheel to a fourth proportional ;
’ Vou. XXXVIII.
which will be the number of revolutions performed while
the weight reaches the given height. Then, by experiment,
determine the number of revolutions the fwifteft wheel per-
forms in an hour; and, by this, divide the fourth propor-
tional found before. The quotient will be the time {pent
in raifing the weight. Wolf. Elem. Math. tom. ii. p. 214,
&e.
Wuterts of a Clock, &c. are the crown wheel, contrate
wheel, great wheel, fecond wheel, third wheel, ftriking
wheel, detent wheel, &c. See Crock and Watcu.
Wueets of Coaches, Waggons, &c. With refpe& to
thefe, the following particulars are colleéted from the ex-
periments and reafonings of Camus, Defaguliers, Beighton,
Fergufon, Brewfter, &c.
1. The ufe of wheels, in the draught of carriages, is
two-fold; viz. that of diminifhing, or of more eafily over-
coming the refiftance arifing from the fri€tion of the car-
riage, and that of more readily furmounting obftacles, which
form angular prominences on the plane over which they are
drawn, and which mutt be either depreffed by the weight of
the carriage, or render it neceflary for the carriage, with its
load, to be lifted over them. They ferve in their firft ufe
to transfer the fri€tion from the under furface of the car-
riage, and the plane fupporting it, to the furfaces of the
axle and nave of the wheel. The common method of ac-
ten for this advantage is by faying, that the refiftance,
arifing from fri€tion in planes of equal afperity, increafes
with the velocity of the motion ; fo that this velocity muft
be compared with that of the power neceflary to move the
machine, and overcome the fri€tion; and it is obvious, at
the fame time, that the velocity of a circular motion dimi-
nifhes gradually from the circumference to the centre. See
Friction.
But to this pofition it has been objefted, that the illuf-
tration is not applicable to the cafe: for, granting that, in
the fri€tion of fledges or flat furfaces, the refiftance increafes
in proportion to the velocity of their motion, this is not a
parallel cafe with that of a circular furface rolling over a
flat plane. On the contrary, the velocity of motion, in the
outer furface of a wheel, is greater than that of its nave,
moving under the axle; while at fuch outer furface there is
little or no fri€tion at all; whereas at the nave, moving
much flower, there is much more. Indeed, the friétion,
which the wheel would have againft its fupporting plane, if
it did not turn round its axis, is by its turning round trans-
ferred almoft wholly to the axis and nave; whofe cireular
motion is notwithftanding fo much flower. It is, indeed,
notorious, that the great friction of the wheels of carriages
lies between the axle and nave ; and how then can it be pro-
perly afferted, that {uch friction is diminifhed at the axle, as
the velocity of the circular motion is there diminifhed? Ac-
cordingly it has been alleged by a late writer, that fri€tion
is not diminifhed by the ufe of wheels, but merely trans-
ferred from the outer furface of the wheel to its nave and
axle; and that in the cafe of a wheel rolling along the
ground, the {pokes aé& only as fingle levers, to overcome
the friction of the periphery againft the plane of its fupport,
the prominences, conitituting the roughnefs of the plane
over which it moves, being the fulera upon which they
turn, and not the common centre of thefe {pokes, as others
have maintained, who fay thatthe wheel aéts, in overcoming
frition, as an axis in peritrochio. However, in obyiatin
the friGion of the wheels in loaded carriages, their {pokes
aét as double levers, reiting on a fulcrum at each end. See
the author’s method of illuftrating and evincing thefe prin-
ciples, in Jacob’s Obf. on Wheel-Carriages, p. 23, &c.
If carriages were to move along fmooth horizontal planes,
Zz wheels
WHEEL.
wheels would be ufeful only in overcoming fri€tion ; but as
they are drawn along roads covered with loofe ftones, indented
with cavities, they are farther ufeful in ferving to deprefs,
aaa the carriage over the one, and in raifing it out of the
other.
2. The wheels of all carriages ought to be exa@tly round ;
and the fellies fhould be at right angles to the naves, accord-
ing to the inclination of the {pokes, i.e. the plane of the
curvature of the wheel fhould cut the nave at right angles,
though it need not pafs through the place where the {pokes
are inferted into the nave.
3. The fpokes, according to Mr. Fergufon and moft
other writers on mechanics, fhould be inclined to the naves,
fo that the wheels may be difhing or concave. If, indeed,
the wheels were always to go upon {mooth and level ground,
it would be beft to make the {pokes perpendicular to the
nayes, or at right angles with the axles ; becaufe they
would then bear the weight of the load perpendicularly,
which is the ftrongeft way for the wood. But becaufe the
ground is generally uneven, one wheel often falls into a
cavity or rut, when the other does not, and then it bears
much more of the weight than the other does ; in which
cafe difhing wheels are beft, becaufe the fpokes become
perpendicular in the rut, and therefore have the reateft
itrength when the obliquity of the road throws moit of its
weight upon them; whilft thofe on the high ground have
lefs weight to bear, and therefore need not be at their full
ftrength. Befides, by this form of the wheels, the bafe of
the carriage is extended, and it is thus prevented from being
eafily overturned, and the fellies are hindered from rubbing
againft the load or the fides of the cart. Dr, Brewfter, how-
ever, is of opinion, that the difadvantages of concave wheels
overbalance their advantages. Mr. Anttice alfo, in his “* Trea-
tife on Wheel-Carriages,’”? whilft he recommends concave
wheels, candidly allows, that fome difadvantages attend this
conftruétion of them ; for the carriage thus takes up more
room on the road, fo that it is more unmanageable ; and
when it moves upon plane ground the {pokes not only do
not bear perpendicularly, by which means their ftrength is
leffened, but the fri@ion upon the nave and axle is made
unequal, and fo much the more as they are the more difhed.
Dr. Brewtter farther fhews, that they are more expenfive,
more injurious to the roads, more liable to be broken by ac-
cidents, and lefs durable in general, than thofe wheels in
which the {pokes are perpendicular to the naves. From
thefe and other confiderations, our author is decidedly of
opiition, that if wheels are to be compofed of naves, fpokes,
and fellies, the rim fhould be cylindrical, and the {pokes
perpendicular to the naves ; whereas in concave wheels, the
rims are uniformly made conical, which fubjeé&s them to a
variety of difadvantages. Every cone that is put in motion
upon a plane furface will revolve round its vertex, and if
force is employed to confine it to a ftraight line, the {maller
parts of the cone will be dragged along the ground, and
the frition greatly increafed. Now when a cart moves
upon conical wheels, one part of the cone rolls while the
other is dragged along, and though confined to a reGtilineal
direGtion by external Srcry their natural tendency to revolve
round their vertex occafions a great and continued friction
upon the linch-pin, the fhoulder of the axle-tree, and the
fides of deep ruts.
Dr. Brewiter has made fome farther obfervations on the
conftruétion of certain parts of the wheels. The iron plates,
he fays, of which the rims are compofed, fhould never be
lefs than three inches in breadth, as narrower rims fink deep
into the ground, and therefore injure the roads and fatigue
the horfes. See the fequel of this article.
12
4. The axles of the wheels ought to be perfectly ftraight,
and at right angles to the fhafts, or to the pole. When the
axles are ftraight, the rims of the wheels will be parallel to
each other, and then they will move the eafieft, becaufe they
will be at liberty to go on ftraight forwards. But in the
ufual way of pra¢tice, the axles are bent downwards at their
ends ; which brings the fides of the wheels next the ground
nearer to one another than their higher fides are; and_ this
not only makes the wheels to drag fideways as they go
along, and gives the load a much greater power of crufhing
them than when they are parallel to each other, but alfo en-
dangers the overturning of the carriage when any wheel falls
into a hole or rut, or when the carriage goes on a road
which has one fide lower than the other, as fou the fide of
a hill. Thus, in the hind view of a waggon or cart, let
AE and BF (Plate XL. fig. 9. Mechanics) be the great
wheels parallel to each other, on their ftraight axle K, and
H CI the carriage loaded with heavy goods from C to G.
Then as the carriage goes on in the oblique road A a B, the
centre of gravity of the whole machine and load will be at
C; and the line of direétion C d D falling within the wheel
BF, the carriage will not overfet. But if the wheels be
inclined to each other at the ground, as A E and BF are
( fig. 10+)» and the machine be loaded as before from C to
G, the line of dire€&tion C d D falls without the wheel BF,
and the whole machine tumbles over. When it is loaded
with heavy goods which lie low, it may travel fafely upon
an oblique road, fo long as the centre of gravity is at C
(fig. 9-), and the line of dire&tion CdD falls within the
wheels ; but if it be loaded high with lighter goods from C
to L ( Sg. 11.), the centre of gravity is raifed from C to
K, which fhews the line of direétion K &£ without the loweft
edge of the wheel BI’, and then the load overfets the wag
gon. Mr. Beighton has offered feveral reafons to prove, that
the axles of wheels ought not to be ftraight : for which we
mult refer to Delaenle Exp. Phil. vol. ii. Appendix,
p- 540, &c. Moreover, if the axle were not at right angles
to the pole or fhaft, but this was on one fide, then the
coach or,carriage would be drawn on one fide, and almoft
all the weight would bear upon one horfe. With fome
mechanics, it is a practice to bend the ends of the axle-trees
forwards, and thus make the wheels wider behind than be-
fore. Mr. H. Beighton maintains, that wheels in this pofi-
tion are more favourable for turning; fince, when the wheels
are parallel, the outermoft would prefs againft the linch-pin,
and the innermoft would rub againft the fhoulder of the
axle-tree. In reétilineal motions, Tonnes thefe converging
wheels occafion a great deal of friGtion, both on. the axle
and the ground, and mutt therefore be more difadvantageous
than parallel ones. This fact is allowed by Mr. Beighton :
but he feems to found his opinion upon this principle ; that
as the roads are feldom ftraight lines, the wheels fhould be
more adapted to a eusitinenlithen to a reétilineal motion.
5. Large wheels are always more advantageous for rolling
than {mall ones, in any cafe, or upon any ground whatever.
If we confider wheels with regard to their fri€tion upon the
axles, it is evident, that {mall wheels muft turn as much of:
tener round than the large ones, as their circumferences are
lefs; and, therefore, a wheel which is twice as large as an-
other will have twice the advantage in re{peét of the fric-
tion, the holes of the naves and axles, and the weights upon
them, being equal. Again, if we confider the wheels as
they fink into the earth, or fall into holes, the bearing of
the great wheel being double that of the {mall one, it would
fink but half fo deep ; and if the {mall wheel fhould meet
with a hole of the fame diameter with itfelf, it would wholly
fink in, whilft only a fegment lefs than half of the great
wheel
WHEEL.
wheel would fall in: the fame thing would alfo happen in
marfhy ground, where the fmall wheel would fink wholly in
the fame hole which the great one would fink into but in
part. The large wheel would alfo have the advantage of a
{mall one in rifing over eminences or rubs that occurred ; fo
that the former would go over rubs much higher than the
latter ; and indeed over any eminences, provided their height
be not equal to its femidiameter. Defaguliers has reduced
this matter to a mathematical calculation, in his Exp. Phil.
vol. i. p. 171, &c.
A late writer has alfo proved, that a wheel of eight feet
diameter has fomewhat more than twice the advantage in
overcoming obftacles of a wheel of two feet ; and he found,
in practice, that if it requires a certain power to draw a
carriage of a certain weight over a certain obftacle, with
wheels of any determinate diameter, it will require wheels
of four times that diameter, to draw the fame carriage over
the fame obftacle with half that power. This writer alfo
obferves, that, in the draught of carriages afcending inclined
planes, the moving power aéts not only againft the vis in-
ertiz, which is always equal to the abfolute gravity of the
load, but alfo againit its relative gravity, which increafes
with the inclination of the plane; and with refpe& to car-
riages raifed on wheels, it is to be obferved, that the higher
the axle is removed from the plane, the farther is the centre
of gravity removed out of the perpendicular line of fup-
port; fo that the lower the wheel, the lefs is the relative
gravity of the carriage. Hence he infers, that fuppofing
the fri€tion of two carriages of equal weight, but of dif-
ferent fized wheels, to bé equal, the low-wheeled one would
be drawn up hill, on a fmooth plane, much more eafily
than the high-wheeled one ; though on a f{mooth, horizontal
plane, the latter would be drawn more eafily than the for-
mer. On the contrary, in going down hill, the high-
‘wheeled carriage will be urged forward, by its relative gra-
vity, more than the low-wheeled one. Jacob, ubi fupra,
p- 63, &c.
It appears, therefore, that the larger wheels are, the more
advantageous they are in proportion, provided that they are
not more than five or fix feet in diameter ; for when they ex-
ceed thefe dimenfions, they become heavy ; or if they are
made light, their ftrength is proportionably diminifhed, and
the fpokes, being long, are more liable to break : befides,
horfes applied to fuch wheels, would be incapable of exert-
ing their utmoft ftrength, by having the axles higher than
their breafts, fo that they would draw downwards ; as in
{mall wheels the draught is made more difficult, by the
horfes drawing upwards.
It is obferved by Dr. Brewfter, in the appendix to his
edition of “* Fergufon’s Mechanics,” that when the wheels
of carriages either move upon a level furface, or overcome
obftacles which impede their progrefs, they aét as mechani-
cal powers, and may be reduced to levers of the firft kind.
In order to elucidate this remark, which is of great import-
ance in the prefent difcuffion, let A be the centre, and B CN
the circumference of a wheel 6 feet in diameter, and let the
impelling power P, which is attached to the extremity of a
rope A D P, pafling over the pulley D, a& in the hori-
zontal direction A D. Then, if the wheel is not affe&ted
by friction, it will be put in motion upon the level furface
MB, when the power P is infinitely {mall. For fince the
whole weight of the wheel refts on the ground at the point B,
which is the fulcrum of the lever A B, the diftance of the
weight from the centre of motion will be nothing, and there-
fore the mechanical energy of the fmalleft power P, ating
at the point A, with a length of lever A B, will be infi-
nitely great when compared with the refiftance of the
weight to be raifed ; and this will be the cafe, however fmall
the lever A B, and however great be the weight of the
wheel. But as the wheels of carriages are conftantly meet-
ing with impediments, let C be an obftacle fix inches high,
which the wheel is to f{urmount. ‘Then the fpoke A C will
reprefent the lever, C its fulcrum, A D the direétion of the
power ; and if the wheel weighs 100 pounds, we may repre-
fentit by a weight W, fixed to the wheel’s centre A, or to
the extremity of the lever C A, and aéting in the perpendi-
cular direction A B, in oppolition to the power P. Now
the mechanical energy of the weight W to pull the lever
round its fulcrum in the direétion A E, is reprefented by
CE, while the mechanical energy of an equal weight P to
pull it in the oppofite dire&tion A F,is reprefented by C F ;
an equilibrium, therefore, will be produced, if the power P is
to the weight W as C Eto CF, or as the fine is to the co-
fine of an angle, whofe verfed fine is equal to the height of
the obftacle to be furmounted; for E B, the height of the
mound C, is the verfed fine of the angle B A C, and CE
is the fine, and C F the cofine of the fame angle. In the
prefent cafe, where E B is fix inches, and A B three feet,
E B, the verfed fine, will be 1666, &c. when A B is rooo;
and, confequently, the angle B AC will be 33° 33, and
CE will be to EF, as 52 to 83, or as 66to 100. A
weight P, therefore, of 66 pounds, aéting in a horizontal
dire@tion, will balance a wheel fix feet diameter, and 100
pounds in weight, upon an obftacle fix inches high; and a
{mall additional power will enable it to furmount that ob-
ftacle. But if the direétion, A D, of the power, be in-
clined to the horizon, fo that the point D may rife towards
H, the line F C, which reprefents the mechanical energy of
P, will gradually increafe, till DA has reached the pofi-
tion H A, perpendicular to A C, where its mechanical
energy, which is now a maximum, is reprefented by A C,
the radius of the wheel; and fince E Cis toC A as 53 to
1000, a little more than 53 pounds will be fufficient for
enabling the wheel to overcome the obftacle.
Proceeding in this way, it will be found, faysour author, that
the power of wheels to furmount eminences increafes with their
diameter, and is dire&tly proportional to it, when their weight
remains the fame, and when the dire€tion of the power is
perpendicular to the lever which aéts againft the obftacle.
Hence we fee the great advantages which are to be derived
from large wheels, and the difadvantages which attend {mall
ones. ‘There are fome circumftances, however, which con-
fine us within certain limits in the ufe of large wheels. When
the radius A B of the wheel is greater than D M, the height
of the pulley, or of that part of the horfe to which the rope
or pole D A is attached, the dire€tion of the power, or the
line of tration A D, will be oblique to the horizon as A d,
and the mechanical energy of the power will be only A e,
whereas it was reprefented by A E when the line of trac-
tion was in the horizontal line D A. Whenever the radius
of the wheel, therefore, exceeds four feet and a half, the
height of that part of the horfe to which the traces fhould
be attached, the line of tra€tion A D willincline to the ho-
rizon, and by declining from the perpendicular A H, its me-
chanical effort will be diminifhed ; and fince the load refts
upon an inclined plane, the trams or poles of the cart will
rub againft the flanks of the horfe, even in level roads, and
ftill more feverely in defcending ground. Notwithftanding
this diminution of force, however, arifing from the un-
avoidable obliquity of the impelling power, wheels exceed-
ing four and a half feet radius have {till the advantage of
{maller ones ; but their power to overcome refiftances does
not increafe fo faft as before. Hitherto we have fuppofed
the weight of the large and {mall wheels to be the fame, but
Zz2 it
WHEEL.
it is evident that when we augment their diameter we add
greatly to their weight ; and by thus increafing the load,
we fenfibly diminifh their power.
From thefe remarks, we fee the fuperiority of great wheels
to {mall ones, and the particular circumftances which fug-
eft the propriety of making the wheels of carriages lefs than
pa feet and a half radius. But even this fize is too great ;
and it may be fafely afferted that they fhould never exceed
fix feet in diameter, nor ever be lefs than three feet and a
half.
6. Carriages with four wheels, as waggons or coaches, are
much more advantageous than carriages with two wheels, as
carts and chaifes ; for in applying horfes to a carriage with
two wheels, it is plain that the tiller carries part of the
weight, in whatfoever manner it be kept in equilibrio upon
theaxle. In going down a hill, the weight bears upon the
horfe; and in going up a hill, the weight falls the other
way, and lifts the horfe, by which means part of his force is
loft. Befides, as the wheels fink into the holes in the road,
fometimes on one fide, fometimes on the other, the fhafts
itrike againft the tiller’s flanks, which is the deftruétion of
many horfes. Add to this, that when one of the wheels
finks into a hole or rut, half the weight will fall that way,
whereby the carriage will be in danger of being overturned.
7. It would be much more advantageous to make the four
wheels of a coach or waggon large, and nearly of a height,
than to make the fore-wheels of only half the diameter of
the hind-wheels, asis ufual in many places. The fore-wheels
of carriages have commonly been made of a lefs fize than
the hind ones, both on account of turning fhort, and to
avoid cutting the braces. Crane-necks have alfo been in-
_yented for turning yet fhorter, and the fore-wheels have
been lowered, fo as to go quite under the bend of the crane-
neck. See an account of an ingenious contrivance for this
.purpofe, under Percu.
Some carriers and coachmen have, indeed, abfurdly al-
leged, that when the fore-wheels are much lower than the
hind ones, they ferve to pufh them on. However, many
difadvantages attend this conftru€tion. A confiderable
force is loft that would be effectual, if they were large: the
carriage would go much more eafily, if the fore-wheels
were as highas the hind-ones; and the higher the better, be-
caufe their motion would be fo much the flower on their
axles, and confequently the fri€tion proportionably dimi-
nifhed. The jolting and uneafy motion occafioned by low
wheels, has induced perfons to contrive {prings, in order to
prevent it. But nothing can be more inconfiftent, even with
this end, than the common method of fixing the braces to
the bottom of the body of a carriage. In confequence of
this praétice, the centre of gravity of the fufpended body
is fo high above the centre of its motion, that it is liable to
be continually agitated by the jolting of the carriage, and
its danger of overturning increafed : whereas if, initead of
practifing this method, the body were fufpended as near as
poflible to its centre of gravity, the agitation of the car-
riage, as well as its danger of overturning, would be in a
great meafure avoided. ate
The effe& of the fufpenfion of a carriage on {prings is to
equalize its motion, by caufing every change to be more
gradually communicated to it, by means of the flexibility of
the fprings, and by confuming a certain portion of every
fudden impulfe in generating a degree of rotatory motion.
This rotatory motion depends on the oblique pofition of the
ftraps fufpending the carriage, which prevents its fwinging
in a parallel direction ; fuch a vibration as would take place
if the ftraps were parallel, would be too extenfive, unlefs
they were very fhort, and then the motion would be fome-
what rougher. The obliquity of the ftraps tends alfo in
fome meature to retain the carriage in a horizontal pofition :
for if they were parallel, both being vertical, the lower one
would have to fupport the greater portion of the weight,
at leaft according to the common mode of fixing them to the
bottom of the carriage ; the {pring, therefore, being flexi-
ble, it would be {till further depreffed. But when the {traps
are oblique, the upper one aflumes always the more vertical
polition, and confequently bears more of the load ; for when
a body of any kind is fupported by two oblique forces,
their horizontal thrufts muit be equal, otherwife the body
would move laterally ; and in order that the horizontal por-
tions of the forces may be equal, the more inclined to the
horizon mutt be the greater: the upper {pring will, there-
fore, be a little depreffed, and the carriage will remain more
nearly horizontal than if the {fprings were parallel. The
reafon for dividing the f{prings into feparate plates has
already been explained: the beam of the carriage, that
unites the wheels, fupplies the ftrength neceflary for form-
ing the communication between the axles: if the body of
the carriage itfelf were to perform this office, the {prings
would require to be fo ftrong that they could have little or
no effeét in equalizing the motion, and we fhould have a
waggon inftead of a coach. The eafe with which a carriage
moves, depends not only on the elaiticity of the fprings,
but alfo on the fmall degree of ftability of the equilibrium,
of which we may judge in fome meafure, by tracing the
path which the centre of gravity mult defcribe, when the
carriage fwings. ;
There is an inconvenience which attends the ufual method
of loading carriages ; for when a carriage is loaded equally
heavy on both axles, the fore-axle muft endure as much
more friétion, and confequently wear out as much fooner
than the hind-axle, as the fore-wheels are lefs than the hind
ones. However, the carriers commonly put the heavier part
of the load upon the fore-axle of the waggons; which not
only makes the fri&tion greateft where it ought to be leatt,
but alfo preffeth the fore-wheels deeper into the ground than
the hind-wheels, although the fore-wheels, being lefs than
the hind ones, are with fo much the greater difficulty drawn
out of a hole, or over an obftacle, even fuppofing the weights
on their axles were equal; for the difficulty, es equal
weights, will be as the depth of the hole, or height of the
obftacle, is to the femi-diameter of the wheel. Moreover,
fince a {mall wheel will often fink to the bottom of a hole,
in which a great wheel will go but a very little way, the
{mall wheels ought to be loaded with lefs weight than the
great ones ; and then the heavier part of the load would be
lefs jolted upward and downward, and the horfes tired io
much the lefs, as their draught raifed their load to lefs
heights. When the waggon-road, indeed, is much up-hill,
there may be danger in loading the hind-part much heavier
than the fore-part; for then the weight would over-hang
the hind axle, efpecially if the load be high, and endanger
tilting up the fore-wheels from the ground. In this cafe,
the fafelt way would be to load it equally heavy on both
axles; and then as much more of the weight would be
thrown upon the hind axle than upon the fore one, as the
ound rifes from a level below the carriage. But as this
Feldom happens, a {mall temporary weight might be laid
upon the pole between the horfes, which would overbalance
the danger.
From Mr. Fergufon’s obfervations on the centre of
gravity, it is evident, that if the axle-tree of a two-
wheeled carriage pafles through the centre of gravity of the
load, the carriage will be in equilibrio in every pofition in
which it can be placed with refpect to the axle-tree ; and
in
-WHEEL.
‘in going up and down hill, the whole load will be fuftained
by the wheels, and will have no tendency either to prefs the
‘horfe to the ground, or to raife him from it. But if the
centre of gravity is far above the axle-tree, as it muft ne-
ceflarily be according: to the prefent conftruétion of wheel-
carriages, a great part of the load will be thrown on the
‘back of the horfes from the wheels, when going down a
fteep road, and thus tend to accelerate the motion of the
carriage, which the animal is ftriving to prevent: while in
afcending fteep roads a part of the load will be thrown be-
hind the wheels, and tend to raife the horfe from the ground,
when there is the greateft neceflity for fome weight on his
back, to enable him to fix his feet on the earth, and over-
come the great refiftance which is occafioned by the fteep-
nefs of the road. On the contrary, if the centre of gra-
vity is below the axle, the horfe will be preffed to the ground
in going up-hill, and lifted from it when going down. In
all thefe cafes, therefore, where the centre of gravity is
either in the axle-tree, or dire€tly above or below it, the
horfe will bear no part of the load in level ground. In
fome fituations, the animal will be lifted from the ground
when there is the greateft neceffity for his being prefled to
it, and he will fometimes bear a great proportion of the
load when he fhould rather be relieved from it.
The only way of remedying thefe evils, fays Dr. Brewtter,
is to affign fucha pofition to the centre of gravity, that the horfe
may bear fome portion of the load when he mutt exert great
force againft it, that is, in level ground, and when he is afcend-
ing fteep roads ; for no animal can pull with its greateft effort,
untefs it is prefled to the ground. Now, this may in fome
meafure be effected in the following manner :—Let BC N
( Plate XL. fig. 12.) be the wheel ar acart, A D one of the
fhafts, D that part of it where the cart is fufpended on the
back of the horfe, and A the axle-tree ; then if the centre
of gravity of the load is placed at m, a point equidiftant
from the two wheels, but below the line D A, and before
the axle-tree, the horfe will bear a certain weight on level
ground, a greater weight when he is going up-hill, and has
more occation for it, and a lefs weight when he is going
down-hill, and does not require to be prefled to the ground.
All this will be evident from the figure, when we recolleé
that if the fhaft D A is horizontal, the centre of gravity
will prefs more upon the point of fufpenfion D the nearer it
comes to it; or the preflure upon D, or the horfe’s back,
will be proportional to the diftance of the centre of gravity
from A. If m therefore be the centre of gravity, 4 A will
reprefent its preflure upon D, when the fhaft D A is hori-
zontal. When the cart is afcending a fteep road, A H will
be the pofition of the fhaft, the centre of gravity will be
raifed to a, and a A will be the preflure upon D. But if
the cart is going down hill, A C will be the pofition of the
fhaft, the centre of gravity will be deprefled to m, and cA
will reprefent the preflure upon the horfe’s back. The
weight fuftamed by the horfe, therefore, is properly regu-
lated by placing the centre of gravity at m. We have ftrll,
however, to determine the proper length of 4 a and dm, the
diftance of the centre of gravity from the axle, and from
the horizontal line D A; but as thefe depend upon the na-
ture and inclination of the roads, upon the length of the
fhaft D A, which varies with the fize of the horfe, on the
magnitude of the load, and on other variable circumftances,
it would be impoffible to fix their value. If the load, along
with the cart, weighs four hundred pounds, if the diftance
DA be eight feet, and if the horfe fhould bear fifty pounds
of the weight, then 4 A ought to be one foot, which being
one-eighth of D A, will make the preffure upon D exactly
fifty pounds. If the road flopes four inches in one foot,
6 m mutt be four inches, .or the angle 5 A m fhould be equal
to the inclination of the road, for then the point m will rife
to a when afcending fuch a road, and will prefs with its
greateft force on the back of the horfe.
_ When carts are not conftruéted in this manner, we may,
in fome degree, obtain the fame end by judicioufly difpofing
the load. Let us fuppofe that the centre of gravity is at
O when the cart is loaded with homogeneous materials, fuch
as fand, lime, &c. then if the load is to confift of hetero-
geneous fubftances, or bodies of different weight, we fhould
place the heavieft at the bottom, and neareft the front, which
will not only lower the point O, but will bring it forward,
and nearer the proper pofition m. Part of the load, too,
might be fufpended below the fore-part of the carriage in
dry weather, and the centre of gravity would approach ftill
nearer the point m. When the point m is thus depreffed, the
weight on the horfe is not only judicioufly regulated, but the
cart will be prevented from overturning, and in rugged roads
the weight fuftained by each wheel will be in a great degree
equalized.
In loading four-wheeled carriages, great care fhould be
taken not to throw much of the load upon the fore-wheels,
as they would otherwife be forced deep into the ground, and
require great force to pull them forward. In fome modern
carriages, this is very little attended to. The coachman’s
feat is fometimes enlarged fo as to hold two perfons, and all
the baggage is generally placed in the front, dire@ly above
the wheels. By this means the greateft part of the load is
upon the {mall wheels, and the draught becomes doubly fe-
vere for the poor animals, who muft thus unneceflarily fuffer
for the ignorance and folly of man.
There is another great difadvantage attending {mall fore-
wheels ; viz. that as their axle is below the level of the
horfe’s breafts, the horfes not only have the loaded carriage
to draw along, but alfo part of its weight to bear, which
tires them fooner, and makes them grow much ftiffer in their
hams, than they would be if they drew on a level with the
fore-axle ; and for this reafon, coach-horfes foon become
unfit for riding. So that on all accounts it is plain, that
the fore-wheels of all carriages ought to be fo high as to
have their axles even with the breatts of the horfes; which
would not only give them a fair draught, but likewife caufe
the machine to be drawn by alefs degree of power.
Mr. Beighton difputes the propriety of fixing the line of
traction on a level with the breaft of a horfe, and fays it is
contrary to reafon and experience. Horfes, he fays, have
little or no power to draw, but what they have from their
weight ; otherwife they could take no hold of the ground,
and then they muft flip, and draw nothing. Common ex-
perience alfo teaches, that if a horfe is to convey a certain
weight, he ought, that he may draw the better, to have a
proportional weight on his back or fhoulders. Befides,
when a horfe draws hard, he bends forward, and brings his
breaft near the ground; and then, if the wheels are high, he
is pulling the carriage againft the ground. A horfe tackled
in a waggon will draw two or three ton, becaufe the point or
line of tra€tion is below his breaft, by reafon of the wheels
being low. And it is very common to fee, when one horfe is
drawing a heavy load, his fore-feet will rife from the ground ;
and he will nearly ftand on end; in which cafe it is ufual to
add a weight on his back, to keep his fore-part down, by a
perfon mounting on him, which will enable him to draw that
load, without which he before could not move. The
great ftrefs, or main bufinefs of drawing, fays this ingenious
writer, is to overcome obftacles ; for on level plains the draw-
ing is but little, and then the horfe’s back need be prefled
but with a fmall weight. Mot or all of thefe cbftacles may be
confidered
WHEEL.
confidered as inclined planes. In order to draw the wheel
AB (Plate XL. Mechanics, fig. 13.) over the obftacle
D, M. de Camus, agreeably to the principles above laid
down, would have the horfe draw in the line H C ; where-
as Mr. Beighton fays, fince the obftacle is D, and the tan-
gent of the earth, or line of the floor, is at B, and the line
to be moved in is B D, an inclined plane ; the eafieft pofi-
tion of drawing, to get the wheel over D, is to draw in the
pofition of that inclined plane B T, or its parallel Cd. As
all the radii of a wheel are equal, the pulling at the centre is
the fame as a balance in equilibrio; wiz. there is the fame
force at A as at B. But in the cafe of drawing in the ho-
rizontal line HC, when the obftacle is at D, the whole
force which the horfe has for drawing is by the fhort end of
the brachium = ¢D, againft the force or weight of the
long end of the brachium fD = ¢ C, which mutt be very
difadvantageous ; therefore, he fays, the line of traétion
fhould be 6C. Defag. Exp. Phil. vol.ii. App. p. 542,
&e.
Whilft M. Camus maintained that the line of tration
fhould be an horizontal line, or always parallel to the ground
on which the carriage is moving, becaufe the horfe can exert
his greateft ftrength in this direétion, and becaufe the line of
draught, being perpendicular to the vertical fpoke of the
wheel a&ts with the largeft poffible lever, M. Couplet, confi-
dering that the roads are never perfeétly level, and that
the wheels are conftantly furmounting {mall eminences, even
in the beft roads, recommends the line of traétion to be
oblique to the horizon. It is, however, to M. Depar-
cieux (Sur le Tirage des Chevaux, Mem. Acad. Roy.,
1760.), that we are principally indebted for juft ideas on this
fubje&. He has fhewn in the moft fatisfaGtory manner that
animals draw by their weight, and not by the force of their
mufcles. In four-footed animals, the hinder feet are the
fulcrum of the lever by which their weight aéts againit the
load ; and when the animal pulls hard, it depreffes its cheft,
and thus increafes the lever of its weight, and diminifhes the
lever by which the load refifts its effe€ts. Thus in Plate XL.
Mechanics, fig. 12, let P be the load, D A the line of trac-
tion, and let us fuppofe F C to be the hinder leg of the
horfe, A F part of its body, A its cheft or centre of gra-
vity, and CE the level road. Then A FC will reprefent
the crooked lever by which the horfe aéts, which is equiva-
lent to the ftraight one AC. But when the horfe’s weight
a&ts downwards at A, round C asa centre, fo as to drag
forward the rope A D, and raife the load P, C E will re-
prefent the power of the lever in this pofition, or the lever
of the horfe’s weight, and C F the lever by which it is re-
fifted by the load, or the lever of refiftance. Now, if the
horfe lowers its centre of gravity A, which it always does
when it pulls hard, it is evident that C E, the lever of its
weight, will be increafed, while C F, the lever of its refift-
ance, will be diminifhed, for the line of traétion A D will
approach nearer to CE. Hence we may fee the great be-
nefit which may be derived from large horfes, for the lever
A C neceflarily increafes with their fize, and their power is
always proportioned to the length of this lever, their weight
remaining the fame. Large horfes, therefore, and other
animals, will draw more than {mall ones, even though they
have lefs mufcular force, and are unable to carry fuch a
heavy burden. The force of the mufcles tends only to
make the horfe carry continually forward his centre of gra-
vity ; or, in other words, the weight of the animal produces
the draught, and the play and force of its mufcles ferve to
continue it.
From thefe remarks, then, according to Dr. Brewfter’s
itatement, we may deduce the proper pofition of -the
line of tra€tion. When the line of tration is horizon-
tal, as AD, the lever of refiftance is CF; but if this
line is oblique to the horizon, as Ad, the lever of re-
fiftance is diminifhed to Cf, while the lever of the horfe’s
weight remains the fame. Hence it appears, that inclined
traces are much more advantageous than horizontal ones, as
they uniformly diminifh the refiitance to be overcome. De-
parcieux, however, has inveftigated experimentally the moft
favourable angle of inclination, and found, that when the
angle D A F, made by the trace A d, and a horizontal line,
is fourteen or fifteen degrees, the horfes pulled with the
greateft facility and force. This value of the angle of
draught will require the height of the {pring-tree bar, to
which the traces are attached in four-wheeled carriages, to
be one-half of the height of that part of the horfe’s breait
to that with which the foie end of the tracesis conneéted.
This height is about four feet fix inches, and therefore
the height of the fpring-tree bar fhould be only two feet
three inches, whereas it is generally three feet.
8. The utility of broad wheels, in amending and pre-
ferving the roads, has been fo long and generally acknow-
ledged, as to have occafioned feveralats of the legiflature
to enforce their ufe. See TURNPIKE.
Several excellent and well-devifed experiments have not
long ago been inftituted by Boulard and Margueron, which
have fatisfaGtorily evinced the diftinguifhing advantage of
broad wheels. Seea Memoir prefented to the Academy of
Lyons, in the Journal de Phyiique, tom. xix. p. 424.
Neverthelefs, the proprietors and drivers of pei
feem to be convinced by experience, that a narrow-wheeled
carriage is more eafily and {peedily drawn by the fame num-
ber of horfes than a broad-wheeled one of the fame burthen.
And though government allowed them to draw with more
horfes, and carry greater loads than ufual, they were -
fuaded with difficulty to comply with the requifition of le -
giflature ; and methods have been ufed to evade it. Their
principal objeGtion has been, that as a broad wheel mutt
touch the ground in many more points than a narrow wheel,
the frition muft of courfe be fo much the greater ; not con-
fidering, that if the whole weight of the waggon, and load
in it, bears upon many points, each fuftains a propor-
tionable lefs degree of weight and friétion than when it
bears only upon a few points; fo that what is wanting in
one is made up in the other, and, therefore, will be juft
equal under equal degrees of weight, as appears by the fol-
are plain and eafy experiment propofed by Mr. Fer-
ufon.
Let one end of a piece of packthread be faftened to a
brick, and the other end to a common fcale for holding
weights ; then having laid the brick edgeways on a table,
and letting the feale aay under the edge of the table, put
as much weight into the fcale as will juft draw the brick
along the table. Then taking the brick to its former place, lay
it flat on the table, and leave it to be ated upon by the fame
weight in the fcale as before, which will draw it along with
the fame eafe as when it lay upon its edge. In the Soccer
cafe, the brick may be confidered as a narrow wheel on the
ground ; and in the latter asa broad wheel. And fince the
brick is drawn along with equal eafe, whether its broad fide
or narrow edge touches the table, it fhews that a broad
wheel might be drawn along the ground with the fame eafe
as a narrow one, fuppofing them equally heavy, even though
they fhould drag, and not roll as they go along. Befides,
as narrow wheels are always finking into the ground, efpe-
cially when the heavieft part of the load lies upon them,
they muft be confidered as conftantly going up hill, even on
level ground ; and their edges mutt iin much friétion by
rubbing
WHEEL.
rubbing againft the fides of the ruts made by them. But
both thefe inconveniences are avoided by broad wheels;
which, inftead of cutting and ploughing up the roads, roll
them fmooth, and harden them: though, after all, it mutt
be confeffed, that they will not do in ftiff, clayey crofs roads ;
becaufe they would foon gather up as much clay as would
be almoft equal to the weight of an ordinary load ; and alfo
in pafling along roads abounding with loofe ftones and other
obftacles, which a narrow wheel may avoid pafling over,
and a broad one mutt furmount, the broad-wheel carriage
will certainly be drawn lefs eafily and lefs fpeedily than a
narrow-wheeled one, though not on account of any addi-
tional fri@tion arifing from the preflure of the weight on a
greater quantity of furface. Broad wheels are likewife
more liable to an inequality of preflure between the axle and
box than narrow ones, and confequently to a greater wear
and tear.
Jacob’s Obf. on the Struéture and Draught of Wheel-
Carriages, 1773, p- 81, &c. See on the fubject of the
preceding article, Defag. Ex. Phil. vol. i. p. 201, &c.
Fergufon’s Lett. p. 56, &c. 4to., and Appendix by Brew-
fter. Martin’s Phil. Brit. vol. i. p. 229, &c.
We fhall here fubjoin fome additional remarks on wheels
and axles for carriages. The effential qualities of wheels
are ftrength and durability, and it is defirable that they
fhould be as light as is confiftent with ftrength : for quick
travelling carriages lightnefs is very neceffary.
Wheels to four-wheel carriages fhould be made as near of
a height as the conftruétion and appearance will admit ; and
if not required for heavy work, the lighter they are made the
better. The fixtures from whence the draught is taken
fhould be placed rather above the centre of the largeft wheel,
for advantage of draught.
The members of a wheel are of three defcriptions ; viz. the
nave, or {tock, which is the central piece ; the {pokes, or radii ;
and the fellies, or circumference. The nave or ftock is made
of elm, in which all the {pokes are fixed, and in which the
axletree-box, or wheel-box, is confined, to receive the axle-
arms on which the wheel revolves. The {pokes are ftraight
timbers made of oak, firmly tennoned in the nave, in the
direétion of radials, to fupport the fellies, or wheel-rim. The
fellies are made of afh, or beech, and form the rim of the
wheel; the whole circumference is ufually divided into
fhort lengths, in the proportion of one length to every two
fpokes. When the fellies are fixed on the {pokes, the iron
band, or tire, which maintains the wear, is nailed on in lengths,
and keeps the fellies together. The diameters of wheels
regulate the number of {pokes and fellies they are to con-
tain: for the larger the circumference of the wheel is, the
greater is the number of {pokes required in proportion ; for
they fhould not in any wheel be more than fifteen inches
diftant on the fellies, or circumference.
The ufual height or diameter of wheels for coaches and
travelling carriages extends to five feet eight inches, and
are divided into four proportions. Thofe which contain
from eight to fourteen fpokes, and only half that number
of fellies, are called eights, tens, twelves, or fourteens, which
are the number of fpokes in fuch wheels, or of fellies in a
pair of wheels. The height which regulates the number is,
for an eight-{poke wheel, not to exceed three feet two inches ;
for a ten, four feet fix inches; for a twelve, five feet four
inches ; for a fourteen, five feet eight inches.
Thefe are the extreme heights for the different numbers
of {pokes to each wheel, which fhould be rather more than
lefs, in particular for the fore-wheel of a four-wheel carriage,
which receives more f{trefs than the hind one ; and the coach-
maker’s rule is, when the hind-wheels are of that height to
require fourteen {pokes, the fore one, if under the neceflary
height before ftated, fhould have twelve; never allowing
the fore-wheels to have but two fpokes lefs than what is
needful for the hind ones.
There are three defcriptions of wheels; viz. the ftraked,
the hooped, and the patent rim: the differences of thefe
are only in the rims.
The ftraked wheel is made with the fellies in feparate
lengths or pieces, which are joined together at the ends by
dowels ; that is, a round pin which enters part into one piece
and part into the other, being clofely fitted into holes made
ineach. The iron with which it is plated is called the
ftrake, and is put on in pieces of the fame length as the
pieces of the fellies, and faftened by nails ; the joints of the
iron are made to fall over the middle of the pieces of wood fo
as to unite them firmly together. The hooped wheel is fur-
rounded by a hoop of iron in one entire piece. The patent
wheel is made with a hoop of wood in one entire piece, by
boiling or foftening the wood until it can be bent into a
circle ; this is furrounded by a hoop of iron in an entire
piece, and faftened by nuts and rivets.
According to the ufual method of conftruéting ftraked
wheels, their peripheries are compofed of a number of pieces or
fellies joined together ; but thefe are weak, and fubje& to fe-
veral inconveniences. As the joints are the weakeft parts of
the wheel, they are moft liable to yield inward ; for which rea-
fon the wheelwrights leave them higher than the other parts
of the rim, in confequence of which the wheel is not
exaétly round withinfide the circle of the rim. Befides,
the fellies being fegments of a circle, fawed or hewn out of
ftraight wood, they are on this account rendered fo brittle,
from the crofs direGtion of the grain near the joints, that
they are with difficulty kept together, even though almoft
twice the quantity of timber be employed that would other-
wife be neceffary. The ftrength of fuch a wheel depends
on the thicknefs of the iron tire or rim that furrounds it,
and hence the carriage is loaded with an ufelefs weight, both
of wood and iron. To obviate thefe inconveniences, Mr.
Viny invented the procefs for bending timber into a circular
form, practifed for fome time by Mefirs. Jacob and Viny,
and is now continued by others. In wheels made of tim-
ber thus bent, the rim confifts either of a fingle piece of
wood, or two fellies only, and is cafed with a fingle hoop
of iron. By this mode of conftruétion, the grain of the
wood is kept parallel throughout, fo that the periphery of
the wheel is every where equally {trong ; its thicknefs is
confiderably leffened, infomuch that though little more than
half the ufual quantity of timber is employed, the wheel is
of itfelf ftrong enough to fuftain the common burthen laid
on fuch wheels, without the affiftance of iron tires, which
are only applied to them as‘a fafe-guard, to preferve the
wood from the injuries to which it would otherwife be necef-
farily expofed from the roads; and hence a lefs quantity of
iron is fufficient, and even that will be fairly worn out be-
fore it becomes ufelefs.. Befides, the wheelis rendered much
lighter, and at the fame time much {tronger and more
durable, than wheels conftruéted of detached pieces of
wood and iron, in the ufual manner. Thefe patent wheels
are very fuperior to the common fort, in their neat light
appearance, and in the length of time they wear, as two fets
of the former will wear as long as three of the latter: their
prefervation depends very much on the hoops that the wheels
are rimmed with. Some perfons ftill prefer the common
fort of wheels, on account of their being more eafily repaired
than the hoop-wheel ; but though the repairing of the latter
is more difficult, they are much lefs fubjeé& to need it.
As the rims of wheels wear fooneft at their edges, os
fhould
WHEEL.
fhould be made thinner in the middle, and faftened to the
fellies with nails of fuch a kind, that their heads may not
rife above the furface of the rim. The fellies on which the
rims are fixed fhould, in carriages, be three inches and a
quarter deep, and in waggons four inches. The naves
fhould be thickeft at the place where the {pokes are inferted,
and the holes in which the {pokes are placed fhould not be
bored quite through, as the greafe upon the axle-tree would
infinuate itfelf between the {poke and the nave, and prevent
that clofe adhefion which is neceflary to the ftrength of the
wheel.
The track in which the wheels of every carriage are to
run is generally the fame, except when intended for par-
ticular roads, where waggons and other heavy carriages are
principally ufed, and leave very deep ruts, in which light
carriages muft likewife run, or be liable to accident, and are
alfo fure to be heavy in draught. All four-wheel carriages
fhould have the hind and fore wheels regulated to roll in the
fame track. The ordinary width of the wheels is four feet
eight or ten inches ; that of waggons or carts generally mea-
fure five feet two inches; chaife-wheels, as being princi-
pally intended for the country, are adapted to this width.
It is immaterial to what width wheels are fet if ufed for run-
ning upon ftones ; but on marfhy roads, if their exaétnefs is
not attended to,'the draught is confiderably increafed. We
have feen a carriage of which the iron axle-tree is made in
two pieces, overlapping each other in the middle where they
are joined, and fecured by proper bands to the wood-work of
the carriage, fo as to admit of fliding in the direGtion of the
axle-tree. Thefe parts are cut with teeth like racks, and a
pinion is applied between them ; fo that by turning this pinion
round, the two parts of the axle-tree are made to flide one
upon the other ; and the wheels which are fitted upon the two
extreme ends of the axle-tree can at pleafure be fixed at
greater or lefs diftance, as the roads require.
The different heights of hind and fore wheels make alfo a
difference in the length of their axle-trees, agreeable to
the proportion they bear to one another; the fore-wheel
has the longeft axle-tree by one or two inches between the
fhoulders.
The nave of the wheel is pierced through the centre, with
a large hole to introduce the box, or iron tube, for the axle-
arm, as this tends to weaken the wood. It has been fre-
quently propofed to make metal naves, or centre-pieces for
wheels, which fhould contain the box for the axis, and the
mortifes for the {pokes of the wheel all caft of one piece of
metal. Meffrs. Dodfon and Skidmore had a patent for this
in 1799. The objeétion to it is, that, if the wood of the {pokes
fhrinks, they become loofe in the mortifes, whereas a wooden
nave fhrinks at the fame time with the fpoke. This defe&
has been fince remedied by making the metal wheel-ftock
in two parts; one with receffes, or fockets, to contain the
{pokes, and the other a flat plate to faften againft the former
with fcrew-bolts, and prefs the fpokes into their cavities.
Mr. Plucknet had a patent for a metal wheel-ftock of this
kind in 1805, which anfwered extremely well for carts,
waggons, and artillery. The {pokes were made to fill up
all the {pace in the nave or ftock, fo that each {poke touched
its neighbour. The metal ftock was only a flat circular plate,
or flanch, projecting from the box which received the axle,
and another flat plate fitted upon it, and bound againft the
former by fcrew-bolts, one pafling through each arm ; thefe
rendered the wheel very ftrong.
Mr. Wilks took a patent in 1813 for a metal ftock, in which
there are complete cells for each fpoke, and the cells are
dove-tailed ; that is, they are made larger at the central part
than at the outfide, to prevent them from drawing out, and
7
they are firmly preffed into the dove-tails by the fcrew-bolts
which confine the moveable plate.
Wheels for railway-waggons are made of caft-iron, and
ufually all in one piece ; but this is obje€tionable, becaufe
the unequal contra¢tion of the arms and rim of the wheel in
cooling, after the wheel is caft, puts the different parts on a
ftrain, and they frequently break without any adequate
force. It is better to caft the rim in one piece and the arms
in another, and put them together with {crew-bolts, or rivets.
Mr. Hawks had a patent tr this in 1807. In this way, the:
rims may be replaced when worn out. ‘9
The Axle-trees for Wheels of Carriages.—The ftrong iron
bar which extends acrofs beneath the wood-work of the
carriage, is called the axle-tree ; the round parts at each
end, on which the wheels run, are called the axle-arms ; and:
the part or {tem between them, which is fixed beneath the
wood-work of the carriage, is alfo called the axle-tree. In
the form of the latter parts there are but two forts, the
one made flat, and called’ a bedded axle-tree, it being
funk all its length in the under fide of the timbers of
the carriage ; the other is made of an o¢tagon form, and flat
only at the ends where they are bedded.
The axle-arms on which the wheels turn fhould be made
perfe@ly round, and fomewhat ftronger at the fhoulder than
at the extreme end, which is {crewed to receive a nut,
through which and the axle-tree the linch-pin pafles, to keep
all tight. The nuts are made witha collar at the face ; and
a temporary collar, or wafher, is driven on the back of the
arms, which form two fhoulders for the wheel to wear:
againft, and helps to preferve the greafe from running out,
and to prevent dirt from getting in.
As the axle-trees are the principal or only fupport of the
carriage, every attention and care fhould be fixed in the
fele€tion of good iron ; and to fee that they be well wrought,
and of fufficient ftrength, rather going to the extreme of
ftrength, than rifking the life of the paffenger by the over-
fetting of the carriage, which moftly happens when an axle-
tree breaks.
By the bend of the axle-trees, the wheels are regulated to
any width at bottom, to fuit the track of the roads in which
they are to run, and are confined in the carriage by means
of clips, hoops, and bolts. The fhape of the axle-tree be-
tween the fhoulders varies according to the fituation they
are placed in, or the form of the timber of the carriage with
which they are united ; thofe are the moft firm that are flat,
bedded in the timber. Avxle-tree boxes for wheels are of
various kinds ; thofe which are frequently called long-pipe;
or wheel-boxes, are long tubes fitted accurately to the arms
of the axle-trees, and fecurely fixed in the wheel-ftocks, or
naves; they are ufually made of wrought fheet-iron of a fub-
{tance proportioned to the weight of the carriage ; their ufe
is to contain a fupply of greafe, and to prevent the effeéts of
friction, whereby the wheels are much affifted in their mo-
tion. Thefe are now ufed inftead of the old caft-iron boxes,
which for quick travelling-carriages are totally out of ufe,
being found injurious to the axle-trees, by cutting them at
thofe parts they wear againft, fo as to occafion a frequent
lining of the arms ; but with the wrought metal boxes this
is feldom neceflary.
There are many forts of axle-trees and boxes invented
various ways, with a view of attaining the following ad-
vantages; viz. ‘To contain a longer Farrply of greafe or
oil, to be more durable, to fecure the wheels, and to leffen
the draught. hofe are all certainly great advantages,
and though the expence is great, the utility of either of
them muft be more than adequate to it, and merits more
general notice.
Some
WHEEL.
Some of thefe inventors even pretend that all thefe ad-
vantages are combined in one axle-tree ; but the generality
extend to the advantage only of retaining a fupply of oil,
and remaining perfeét to aconfiderable length of time. The
common fort of axle-tree and box, which is moft generally
ufed, is fimple and cheap in comparifon with the others.
Common Axle-tree.—The arms of the axle-tree are made
round, but rather of a conical form, ftrongeft at the back or
fhoulders, tapering to the linch end, which is ferewed for
a nut, and alfo has a {mall hole for a linch-pin, which
prevents the nut from coming off: at the body-end is
a wafher or collar for the back of the wheel-ftock to wear
againft. The box is made of fheet-iron, proportioned in
fubftance to the weight or fize of the axle-tree, having the
edges of the plate, of which it is formed, welded in a ridge
which proje&ts on the outfide; this fecures the box in the
nave of the wheel, and prevents it turning round therein.
The nut which ferews on the end of the axle-arm has a
broad face to lie flat againft the wheel, and is tapped or
{crewed to receive the fcrew-end of the axle-tree. Each of
thofe nuts muft turn on the fcrew the fame way the wheel
goes, and muft have a notch for the linch-pin to pafs
through, for the purpofe of fecuring the nut from turning
off.
The box is what, of the axle-tree, wears moft, and is fre-
quently obliged to be refitted to the arms; otherwife they
give to the wheel while in ufe an unfteady motion, and foon
exhauft their ftock of greafe.
Thofe that are well fitted will contain their fupply for
about one week with regular ufe, or a journey of one hundred
miles. They wear at the rate of one fet of boxes to every
two fets of wheels, and require in that time to be twice or
thrice taken out of the wheels and refitted to the axle-tree
arms.
Axle-irees with Fridion-Wheels.—Thefe were invented by
Mr. Garnet, at leaft the beft kind, which are made in a very
ingenious manner. The wheel-box is made much larger
than the axle-tree, in fuch manner that the fpace all round
between them may receive a number of rollers which fill it
up. (Seeadefcription in the article Miti-Work.) Mr. Gar-
net had a patent in 1784, and for fome years manufa¢tured
great numbers; but being very expenfive, they fell into
difufe, although very complete. This invention has been
lately revived by Mr. Panter.
The Patent Anti-Attrition Axle-tree and Box.—The pro-
pofed advantages of this axle-tree are, eafe of draft by dimi-
nution of friGtion ; the retention of oil to fupply a month’s
ufe ; the eafe with which it is replenifhed without taking
off the wheels ; the great fecurity for the wheels, which it
prevents from coming off, and the carriage from over-
turning, if even the arm of the axle-tree fhould break ; and
their durability, and even improvement by wear. Thofe
axle-trees, if made with the fecuring-collar, for the wheels
need no nut or linch-pin, as is generally ufed, but the wheel
may be taken off and put on as eafily as thofe on the
common principle.
Thefe axle-arms are reduced at the bottom from a per-
fe& round, and grooved, to receive two {mall rollers, on
which the weight of the carriage is borne, and which greatly
facilitates the motion, in the fame manner as blocks of ftone
or timber, which require to be removed by the affiftance of
rollers. Thefe rollers form the outer circumference of the
axle-trees at bottom, which are reduced to give a bearing
only on them. A circular box or ciftern is provided to con-
tain a fupply of oil; it is clofely fitted to the back of the
inner end of the wheel-ftock, and fixed by three bolts.
The oil is here contained within three circular recefles, and
Vou. XXXVIII.
oozes through fmall channels on the arm of the axle-tree,
which it feeds for a confiderable time. This oil-box is
made of caft-metal, and has a cap projecting behind over
the axle-tree, which prevents the dirt from getting into the
box. This axle-tree is allo provided with what is called
the wheel-fecurity, or ftrap-wafher. It is an iron collar,
fitted on the external part of the wheel-ftock, and confined
between the refervoir and ftock, lying as it were in a groove,
fo that the collar cannot come off. This collar has two
lugs or ftraps extending backwards fome diftance along
that part of the axle-tree which is bedded in the wood-work,
where it is fixed by a nut-fcrew. By means of this ftrap-
wafher, the wheel is fecured to the bedded part of the axle-
tree; and fhould the axle-arm within the wheel break, the
wheel will continue to aé.
The cap of this axle-tree is alfo fixed on the out-
fide part of the wheel-ftocks; by the fame three bolts
which faften the oil-box, and by means of a fcrew-plug in
the cap, the axle-tree and refervoir are replenifhed with oil.
The box is of the fame form as the common box, only
made of a very hard durable metal, of a confiderable
thicknefs, and is made in proportion to the weight of the
carriage.
Collinge’s Patent Cylinder Axle-tree and Box.—Thefe axle-
trees have been a confiderable time in ufe, and their advantages
have been proved in the length of time they wear, in the filent
and {teady motion they preferve to the wheels, in the
advantage of retaining the oil to profecute a journey of two
thoufand miles without being once replenifhed ; and laftly,
they are very durable, and but little fubje& to be out of
order.
The axle-tree arm is made as perfe@ly cylindrical as pof-
fible, and of a peculiar hard fubftance ; the middle of the
cylinder is reduced, to contain the oil neceflary to feed the
axle-trees ; fo that the two bearings are at the two ends of
the axle, which has an internal fhoulder, againft which the
inner end of the wheel-box takes its bearings. Behind this
fhoulder is a deep groove for a wafher to preferve the
oil, and prevent noife in its ufe; alfo a rim, or hollow
box, on the collar of the axle-tree, which overlaps part
of the inner end of the wheel-ftock to keep out dirt,
and anfwer the ufe of a cuttoo. The extreme end of the
arm is double-ferewed, to receive two nuts for fecuring’ the
wheel: the one ferew turns the way of the wheel; the
other the reverfe, and is meant as an additional fecurity.
The box is made of a very hard metal, nicely polifhed,
and fitted to the arms, having a circular recefs all round at
the end neareft the carriage, for containing there a fupply
of oil. The box is longer than the part which bears on
the axle; and the projecting part beyond the bearing at each
end is bored out larger than the arm. The back projection
fits clofe to the rim of the collar, which it covers: the
fore one projets outwards beyond the furface of the wheel-
ftock, and is ferewed on the infide to receive the {crew of
the cap.
There are many other patents for axle-trees to wheels ;
but as few of them have come into ufe, we fhall only notice
Meffrs. Flight and Brook’s patent axles. The axle is fixed
fatt to the nave of the wheel, by pafling through it. This
axle turns round within the wheel-box ; whereas in others
the wheel-box turns round upon the axle. :
The axle is cylindrical, and is received into a cylindrical
box or tube in the end of the iron axle-tree, which is firmly
bolted to the underfide of the timber of the carriage. To
hold the axle in its place, and prevent it from drawing out
of the box, the end of the axle is reduced to a knob or
button, which adheres to the end of the axle by a {mall
3A neck.
WHE
neck. This button is fitted and received into a focket, in
which it can freely turn round, but cannot draw out end-
ways. It is made in a piece of metal, which is cylindrical
on the outfide, and of the fame fize as the axle. It is made in
two halves, which feparate longitudinally to introduce or
take out the button at the end of the axle; but when the
two halves are put together, the focket-piece forms as it
were a continuation of the axle. When the axle is put
into the box with this focket-piece at the end of it, the two
halves of the focket will be confined together, fo that they
cannot feparate ; and to prevent them from drawing out of
the box, a fcrew-bolt is put through the box, and paffes
through both halves of the focket: this holds the focket
and the axle in their places.
Mr. Ackermann has recently obtained a patent (1818)
for a valuable improvement in the application of the fore-
wheels to four-wheeled carriages. In our article Coacu-
Making, vol. viii. we have deferibed thofe methods which
were then known of applying the fore-wheels, fo as to
make a four-wheel carriage turn with fafety, and in a {mall
fpace. See alfo Percn.
Mr. Ackermann’s improvement effeéts this in the moft
perfe& manner. Each of the fore axle-trees is conneéted
with the carriage by means of a vertical axle, formed in the
fame piece with the horizontal axle, and upon which the
wheel turns, the two axles being fituated at right angles to
each other. Thefe vertical axles are fitted into fockets,
formed at the two extremities of a crofs beam of the frame
of the carriage, which is called the fore-{pring tranfom.
Upon thefe axles, as centres of motion, the axle-arms and
wheels can be turned about horizontally, in order to place
them obliquely to the direétion of the hinder-wheels when
the carriage is required to turn; but each axle turns upon
a feparate centre of motion, and thefe centres are very near
to their refpeGtive wheels, being at the extremities of the
crofs-beam or tranfom; hence the fore-wheels do not
change their place upon the ground when they are placed
obliquely.
In a common carriage, the axles of the two fore-wheels are
-both fixed to one piece of timber, called the axle-bed,
which is placed beneath the fore-tranfom, and united to it
by a vertical pin called the perch-bolt, pafling through the
middle of the axle-bed. On this pin, as a centre, the axle-
bed is turned round. When the wheels are to be placed
obliquely, it is evident, that, in fo turning upon a fingle
centre, one wheel mutt advance forwards, and the other mutt
retreat backwards, fo as to diminifh the bearing of the
carriage-wheels on the ground in a lateral direétion, and at
the fame time the horfes are pulling in that direétion which
tends to overturn the carriage. Another inconvenience is,
that one of the wheels will touch the perch of the carriage,
if placed very oblique.
In the new improvement, two feparate centres of motion
being ufed, and thefe being removed from each other as far
as poflible, many defirable properties are attained.
To give the oblique direétion to the wheels, each vertical
axle has a lever proceeding backwards from it ; and thefe
two levers are united together by a conneéting-bar, which
obliges both axles to move at the fame time with a fympa-
thetic a¢tion. The pole of the carriage is united to the
iece, called the futchel, in the ufual manner; and the
Fatchel is united to the {pring-tranfom by a perch-bolt, in
the ufual pofition; alfo the hinder end of the futchel is
jointed to the middle of the conneéting-bar, between the
two levers of the vertical axles. The conne¢ting-bar like-
wife anfwers the purpofe of a {way-bar.
When the hories move to one fide, the pole and futchel
9
WHE
turn upon the perch-bolt, as a lever upon a centre of miotion ;
and the’ extreme end of the futchel aéts upon both vertical
axles at once by means of the conneting-bar, fo as to place
both of the fore-wheels in an oblique direction. This is
a Nag of M. Lankenfperger of Munich.
HEEL, Ariflotle’s. See Rora Ariflotelica.
WueeL, Blowing, a machine contrived by Dr. Defagu-
liers for drawing out the foul air of any place, or for forcing
in frefh, or doing both fucceffively, without opening doors
or windows. See Phil. Tranf. N° 437.
The intention of this machine is the fame as that of
Dr. Hales’s ventilator, but not fo effeétual, nor fo con-
venient. See Defagul. Courfe of Exper. Philof. vol. ii.
p- 563. 568.
This wheel is alfo called a centrifugal wheel, becaufe it
drives the air with a centrifugal force.
Wuee ts, Bufbes or Boxes of, the infide metal linings of
the naves. See WHEEL.
WueEEL, Cutting Roller, in Agriculture, a tool of the
cutting and reducing fort, ufed for the purpofe of working
over crops in fome cafes. In Oxfordfhire a cutting roller
of this fort has been invented, which is compofed of twelve
wheels, two inches and a half in thicknefs; and between
each of them is a {pace of two inches and a half. They are
three feet in diameter. It is a load in working fo as to be
fufficient exertion for a ftrong team to draw it: it is paffed
over wheat after it has been fown, or after it is come up;
and if dry, crofs and crofs. It has alfo been ufed in the
{pring upon wheat ; it leaves the furface rough in a fort of
diamond forms, which is found very beneficial in fome of
the wheat-lands of that diftri@. It is alfo capable of being
ufed in breaking down the furface of {tiff tillage-land in
many other cafes and circumftances.
WueeEt, Draining, a wheel conftruéed for the purpofe
of cutting or making drains. Wheels differently formed
are ufed for this fort of work. In Effex they employ
workmen who make ufe of a caft-iron wheel which weighs
about four hundred weight, and which is four feet in diame-
ter ; the cutting edge or extreme circumference of the wheel
being half an inch in thicknefs, which increafes in this way
as it approaches towards the nave or centre; and will, at
fifteen inches deep, fcour out or cut a drain half an inch
wide at the bottom, and four inches wide at the top. The
wheel is fo placed in a frame, that it may be loaded at plea-
fure, and be made to pafs to a greater or lefs depth, as the
nature of the land may be.
The writer of the Middlefex Report on Agriculture
advifes the ufe of a common fix-inch Fase-plnels on the
felly of which, all round, a fort of ridge-formed addition of
wood is to be fixed, and a rim of iron of a triangular fhape
faftened to the wood. A wheel of this kind put on the
axle of a cart, in the ufual way, will, of courfe, reft on the
edge of the rim of iron; and which, on driving the horfe
forward, will make a {mall indent or Serdion in the
ground merely by the revolution of it; but in order to
make it prefs down to the depth of fix or eight inches, that
fide of the cart fhould be ‘loaded with ftones, iron ballaft,
or any other heavy material that may happen to be at hand,
until the whole of the parts, if neceflary, fink into the foil.
It would however be as well, or better, it is faid, if the rim
parts added to the wheel were in one piece of cait-iron; as
the increafed weight of it would enable it to cut or fink
without the aid of ballaft, or with lefs than ufual. The
cart fhould then be drawn along in fuch a manner, that the
cutting or depreffing wheel may revolve where the drains are
intended to be made. In land that is in ridges and furrows,
it will fometimes be neceflary to draw the wheel along every
urrow.
WHE
furrow. When the ground is without ridge and furrow, the
wheel fhould be drawn over it in parallel lines, five or ten
yards diftant trom each other. The wheel on the other end
of the axle is a common fix-inch wheel, fupporting only the
empty fide of the cart, confequently will not cut or deprefs
the ground.
The advantage of this contrivance is, that it makes an in-
dent or depreffion in the furface foil of foft wet clayey grafs-
lands, fufficient to carry off the water during the fame win-
ter, by prefling down the fward and herbage without de-
ftroying it. In the following fpring, thefe drains will be
nearly grown up, and clothed with grafs; confequently,
there will be nothing taken from the pafturage or the
{cythe. It is neceflary to obferve, that the wheel mutt be
drawn over the ground every year on the approach of
winter. With it, and two old horfes, a ftout boy or man
may, it is faid, drain from ten to twenty acres in eight
hours.
It may be found very ufeful in the grafs and hay land dif-
tri€ts about the metropolis and other places. See SurFACE
Draining.
WueeEr, Meafuring. See PERAMBULATOR.
WHEEL, Orffyreus’s. See ORFFYREUS.
Wuee.,*Perfian. See Persian.
Wueet-Ploughs, in Agriculture, all fuch ploughs as are
conftructed with wheels. See PLouGH.
Wueet, Potter’s, is around board attached to a lathe,
and capable of being moved by it, either rapidly or more
flowly, as occafion may require. ‘This round board moves
in a horizontal pofition ; and when in ufe, the clay which is
to be fafhioned is fixed on the centre of it; and it is put in
motion either by a perfon who conftantly attends it when at
work, or by means of a treadle which is moved by the foot
of the workman himfelf.
‘As the clay revolves upon this machine, the workman
either models it by his fingers, or forms it, by means of an
inftrument which he holds in his hand, into any kind of cir-
cular fhape that he may defire ; and when the object is to
make a number of veffels exaétly fimilar to each other, the
fize is generally determined by a gauge fixed without the
circumference of the revolving wheel, but projecting over
it in fuch a manner that, whenever the yielding clay is
f{pread out until it touch this gauge, the artift knows that
the article which he is making has attained the exa& figure
which he intends.
The potter’s wheel has lately been much improved by
adapting a ftrap to it, which paffes over a large taper cylin-
der of wood, and by means of which the artift is enabled
to increafe or diminifh the rapidity of the motion at plea-
fure. This contrivance is known to mechanics by the name
of the cone pulley. Parkes’s Effays, vol. iii. See Porrrry.
Wueets, Tires of, the iron hoops or bars which are put
round the outfides of the felly-parts of them.
WueeL, Water. See WarTrER.
Wuexex is alfo a name of a kind of punifhment, which
great criminals are put to in divers countries.
In France, their affaffins, parricides, and robbers on the
highway, were condemned to the wheel ; i.e. had their bones
firft broken with an iron bar on a {caffold, and then to be
expofed and left to expire on the circumference of a wheel.
In Germany, they broke their bones firft on the wheel itfelf,
This cruel punifhment was unknown to the ancients; as
is obferved by Cujas. It is not certain who was the inventor,
Its firft introdu€tion was in Germany. It was, indeed, but
rarely practifed any where elfe, till the time of Francis I.
of France; who, by an ediét of the year 1534, appointed
WHE
it to be inflicted on robbers on the highway. Richelet dates
the edict in the year 1538, and quotes Brodzus, Mifcell.
lib. ii. cap. ro.
WuerL, in the Military Art, is the word of command,
when a battalion or {quadron is to alter its front, either one
way, or the other.
Lo wheel to the right, the man in the right angle is to turn
very flowly, and every one to wheel from the left to the
right, regarding him as their centre; and vice verfa, when
they are to wheel to the left.
When a divifion of men are on the march, if the word
be, wheel to the right, or to the left; then the right or left-
hand man keeps his ground, turning only on his heel, and the
reft of the rank move about quick, till they make an even
line with the faid right or left-hand man.
Squadrons of horfe wheel after much the fame manner.
In wheeling, the circle is conceived to be divided into
four parts; whence wheeling to the right or left refpe@s
only a quarter of a circle; and wheeling to the right or left
about, refers to half of the circle. In performing this
motion, each man moves more quickly or flowly, accord-
ing to his diftance from the right to the left. See Bar-
TALION.
WuexL, or Catherine-Wheel, in Archite@ure, frequently
occurs in the upper part of the north and fouth tran-
fepts of our ancient cathedrals, being divided by mul-
lions, like the fpokes of a wheel: it refembles the engine of
torture faid to have been prepared by the tyrant Maximin to
tear the fleth of St. Catherine of Alexandria. The French,
who have generally placed a large wheel of this fort by way
of a weftern window to their cathedrals, call it Rofe du
Portail.
WueEEL-Animals, Brachionus, in Zoology, a genus of ani-
malcules, which have an apparatus of arms for taking their
prey. (See Bracuionus.) This apparatus has been fup-
pofed, by microfcopical writers, to be a kind of wheels.
This is one of the fmaller animalcules ; and is defcribed by
Dr. Hill to be, when at reft, of a plain {mooth body, conic
figure, obtufe at the pofterior extremity, and open at the
anterior, of a dufky olive colour, and femi-tranfparent.
When in motion it protrudes from the open extremity a
part of its naked body, to the whole of which this outer
conic body feems to be but a cafe or fheath; from the end
of this exerted part of the body, it thrufts out two protu-
berances, which give it the appearance of a double head;
and in each of thefe is difcovered an apparatus in continual
motion, appearing to be a rotatory one, though really a vi-
bratory one very quickly repeated. Each of thefe pro-
truded bodies has fix arms inferted into it, which it con-
tinually fhuts and opens over one another. Each of the
arms is furnifhed with a double feries of fibres at its edge,
which, being expanded, caufe it to f{pread to confiderable
breadth. There are feveral fpecies of this genus.
The wheel animal, defcribed by Mr. Baker, has two
feeming wheels, with a great many teeth or notches com-
ing from its head, and turning round as it were on an axis.
On the leaft touch, this animalcule draws its wheel into its
body into the fheath ; but when every thing is quiet, throws
them out and works them again.
In order to find thefe animalcules, choofe fuch roots of
duck-weed as are long, and proceed from {trong old plants,
for the young,roots feldom afford any ; they fhould not be
covered with that rough matter which is frequently found
about them, nor any way tending to decay, as they will
often be.
In the water found remaining in the leaden pipes, or
gutters on the tops of houfes, there are alfo found great
3A2 numbers
WHE
numbers of thefe wheel-ammals. Thefe are of a different
fpecies from the former ; and when the water dries away,
they contract their bodies into a globular or oval figure, and
are then of a reddifh colour, and remain mixed with the dirt,
growing together in a lump as hard as clay. This, when-
ever it 1s put in water, in half an hour’s time difcovers the
animals’ living again, and as brifk as ever; and they have
been found to be living in this manner, after the matter had
been kept dry twenty months.
It fhould feem from this, that as the water dries up, their
pores become fhut in the manner of thofe of fuch animals
as remain torpid for the winter; and that when they find
water come on again from rain, they then unfold them-
felves, and live and feed as long as it lafts. Baker’s Mi-
crofcope.
Wueet-Barometer. See BAROMETER.
Wueet-Boats denote a fort of boats with wheels, to be
ufed alternately on the water and upon inclined planes or
rail-ways.
Wueet-Fire, among Chemifls, a fire ufed for calcining
metallic fubftances ; properly called ignis rote.
It is a fire which only encompaffes the crucible, coppel,
or melting-pot, around the fides, without touching it in
any part.
Wueet-Shaped, in Botany, aterm exclufively appropriated
to the corolla. See Rorara.
WHEELER, among Brickmakers. See Brick.
Wueerer, in Geography, a river of Wales, which runs
into the Clyde, 3 miles N. of Denbigh.
WHEELING, a poft-town of Virginia, at the union
of Wheeling Creek with the Ohio; 54 miles S.W. of Pittf-
burgh.—Alfo, a townfhip of Ohio, in the county of Bel-
mont, with 656 inhabitants.
Wueerine Creek, a river of Virginia, which runs into
the Ohio, N. lat. 39° 56'. W. long. 80° 4}/.
Wueetine Planks are ftout planks which the navi-
gators or workmen upon a canal make ufe of to wheel
upon.
PWHEELOCK, in Geography, a towntfhip of Vermont,
in the county of Caledonia, containing 963 inhabitants ; 60
miles N. of Windfor.—Alfo, a river of Chefhire, which
runs into the Dane.
WHEELWRIGHT Gut, a creek on the north-weft
coaft of the ifland of St. Chriftopher, with a bar before its
entrance.
WHEEZING and BLow1ne, in Animals, a fort of af-
fe€tion in the breathing, efpecially in horfes, in which they
draw their breath with difficulty and noife.
The generality of people make this and purfinefs, in
horfes, the fame diftemper; but the more judicious al-
ways diftinguifh it, as wholly different from that. Pur-
finefs proceeds always from a ftuffing or oppreffion of the
lungs; but this wheezing is only owing to the narrow-
nefs of the paffage between the bones and griftles of the
nofe.
The horfes that are moft of all afliéted with this diftem-
per do not want wind; for notwithftanding that they wheeze
exceflively when they are exercifed, yet all the time their
flanks are not moved, but kept in the fame condition that
they were when the creature ftood ftill. The dealers call
this fort of horfes blowers, and though there is no real
harm in the thing, it is a difagreeable aunty and few
people will choofe them that have much fervice for them.
There are fome horfes which have a natural defeé in their
breathing, which makes it at all times attended with fome
difficulty, but not with the wheezing before mentioned ;
thefe are called thick-winded horfes.
WHE
People who are careful in the buying of horfes, will pur-
chafe neither of thefe kinds; but there is this caution to
be obferved in regard to this defe&t, that it often feems to
be in horfes where it really is not. When a horfe has been
kept a long time in the ftable without exercife, he will at
the firft riding be out of breath, and fetch it in a difficult
and painful manner, though he be neither a blower nor
thick-winded ; but all this will go off with a little exercife.
There are fome temporary wheezers and blowers amon
horfes : thefe at times rattle, and make a great noife ehrbugh
their nofes in taking breath ; but the complaint goes off and
returns. This is only occafioned by a great quantity of
phlegm, for their flanks do not redouble with it at the
worit of times, nor have they any cough with it; fo that
there is no danger of their being purfy,
It is probable, that in thefe cafes there is, for the moft
part, fome fort of fpafm or conftriGtion in the chefts of
the animals, as they are much relieved in moft inftances by
the rs of warm mafhes, and by having their fodder made
moitt.
How far remedies that remove fpafm might be ufeful
has not yet been fully tried, either in thefe or other forts
of animals. ;
WHELDY-AHAD Lakg, in Geography, a lake of
North America. N. lat. 61° 40!. W. long. 103° 30’.
WHELERA, in Botany, was fo named by Schreber,
in memory of the celebrated Englifh traveller and botanift,
fir George Wheler, Bart. F.R.S. who died in 1724, aged
74. His “ Journey into Greece,” however faulty in the
plates, is a book of the firft authority.—Schreb. Gen. 725.
—Clafs and order, Polygamia Monacia, Schreb.; rather
Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Sapote, Jufl.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in five
deep, roundifh, ereét, permanent fegments, fhorter than
the corolla. Cor. of one petal, bell-fhaped, {preading, ‘in
five deep, ovate, acute fegments. Neétary fomewhat pit-
cher-fhaped, in the bottom of the flower. Stam. Fila-
ments five, awl-fhaped, rather longer than the corolla; ‘an-
thers roundifh. There are five other filaments, alternate
with the former, and fimilar to them, but fhorter, and
deftitute of anthers. Pi/?- Germen fuperior, conical, vil-
lous; ityle thread-fhaped, twice the length of the corolla ;
ftigma fimple. eric. Drupa roundifh. Seed. Nut large,
ovate, of one, two, or three cells.
Some flowers, on the fame plant, want the piftil, others
the ftamens.
This is Schreber’s generic defcription, from which we
learny without difficulty, the natural order of the plant,
But it is one of thofe genera, like his Vitraria, (fee that
article, ) which cannot be determined without an examination
of the author’s herbarium. Such alfo are his Meyera, al-
ready defcribed; his Woxrita, and Xysrris, which will
occur hereafter. We truft fome botanift, who may have
the opportunity of clearing up thefe, the only important
ob{curities in Schreber’s claflical work, will favour the
world with an explanation of them. Sparrra is in the
fame predicament, except that profeffor Schrader appears to
be acquainted with it. See that article.
WHELKS, Buccina, in Natural Hiflory. See Suevts,
and Trumpet-Shell.
WHELPS. See Hounp.
Wuex-rs, in a Ship. See Capstan.
WHENNUIA, in Geography, a {mall ifland among
thofe called the Society iflands, near Otaha.
WHERLICOTES, a fort of open chariots, of the an-
cient Britons’ invention, ufed by perfons of quality before
the invention of coaches.
WHERN,
WHE
WHERN, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by fome of
our miners to a kind of ftone found in ftrata, but of the
hardnefs and finenefs of flint. It is called alfo chert and
nicomia.
WHERRY. See VesseEx, Boat, &c. ;
Wuerry, in Rural Economy, a provincial term applied
to a liquor made from the pulp of crabs after the verjuice
is expreffed. It has not unfrequently the name of crab-
wherry. See VeRJUICE. ~
WHERWELL, in Geography, a village of England,
in the county of Hants. Here was formerly a convent of
nuns, founded by Elfrida, widow of king Edgar, to expiate
the murder of her firft hufband, Ethelwolf, and her fon-in-
law, prince Edward; 4 miles S. of Andover.
WHET-SLATE, or Wuerstone-Siate, and Hone,
French novaculite, and /chifle coticule, in Mineralogy, a variety
of flate ufed for fharpening iron and fteel inftruments. (See
State.) The light green coloured variety from the Le-
vant is confidered as the moft valuable. It is brought in
maffes to Marfeilles, and is there cut into pieces of various
fizes, and afterwards ground with fand or fand-ftone, and then
polifhed with pumice and tripoli. Thefe whet-ftones or hones
fhould be kept in damp places, for when much expofed
to the fun, they become too hard and dry for many pur-
pofes. The powder of whet-flate is ufed for cutting and
polifhing metals, und is by artifts confidered as a variety of
emery. It is neceflary to the perfeGtion of hones, that they
fhould contain no intermixed fubftances, fuch as quartz, &c.
(Jamefon’s Mineralogy, fecond edition, vol. i.) Whet-flate,
approaching in appearance to foreign hones, occurs in the
upper part of Long Sleddale, in Weftmoreland; and at
Howth, in Dublin bay.
WHET-STONE, in Rural Economy, the foft ftone
mer made ufe of in fharpening edge-tools of different
inds.
WHEWER, in Ornithology, a name ufed in fome parts
of England for the common wigeon. See Duck.
WHEY, the ferum, or watery part of milk.
In many diforders of the human body, where the {tomach
will not bear milk, or when it is not proper, for other rea-
fons, whey may be given with great fuccefs.
We have a differtation of Fred. Hoffmann on this fubje&,
De Saluberrima feri La@is-Virtute. Oper. tom. vi. p. 9.
This author recommends a particular kind of ferum or
whey, made by evaporating milk to a drynefs, and mixing
the refiduum with water. See Mix.
There are various methods of making whey, vulgarly
known. That with oranges is very agreeable, and much
recommended by Dr. Cheyne, in his Nat. Method of curing
Difeafes. :
Wuey, in Rural Economy, a term applied to the ferous
patt of milk, from which the curd has been feparated.
There are two forts or colours of whey, the green and white ;
the latter is by much the richer, and that which chiefly af-
fords the butter of this kind. See Darryine.
Wuey, Alum, Serum Aluminofum, a whey made with
alum ; in the proportion of two drachms of alum to one
pint of cow’s milk boiled. |
This whey is beneficial in an immoderate flow of the
menfes, and in a diabetes, or exceflive difcharge of urine.
The dofe is two, three, or four ounces, as the fsck will
bear it, three times a day.
Wuey-Buiter, that which is made from the cream of
whey.
triéts after cheefe-making begins. See Darryine.
Wuey-Cream, that which is colle@ed from off the whey
It is commonly made in abundance in the dairy dif-
WHI
and made into butter of this fort. A dairy cow ufually
affords eight or ten ounces of it weekly in fome dairies. See
Darryine.
Wutey, Muffard, is made by boiling of bruifed muftard-
feed, an ounce and a half, in milk and water, of each a pint,
till the curd is perfe€tly feparated, and ftraining the whey
through a cloth. This, fays Dr. Buchan, is the moft ele-
gant, and by no means the leaft efficacious method of ex-
hibiting muttard: it warms and invigorates the habit, and
promotes the different fecretions. Hence, in the low ftate
of nervous fevers, it will often fupply the place of wine: it
is alfo of ufe in the chronic rheumati{m, palfy, dropfy, &c.
The dofe is a tea-cupful four or five times a day, which
may be {weetened with a little fugar.
Wuey, Scalding of, the heating of it and pouring it
over the curd in making cheefe.
Wuey, Scorbutic, is made by boiling half a pint of the
{corbutic juices, in a quart of cow’s milk. The fcorbutic
plants are, bitter oranges, brook-lime, garden fcurvy-grafs,
and water-crefles. :
Wuevy Springy Cheefe, the eyey fpongy cheefe of this
fort, caufed by being improperly made.
Wuey-Tué, the veflel in which the whey ftands for yield-
ing the cream, &c.
WHICHCOTE, Bensamin, in Biography, an eminent
divine of the Englifh church, was born in March 1609-10,
of an ancient family at Whichcote-hall, in Shropshire ; and
having finifhed his education at Emanuel college, Cambridge,
in 1626, he pafled through the common degrees, and be-
came fellow of his college in 1633, and a diftinguifhed tu-
tor. In 1636 he took orders, and eftablifhed a leGture at
Trinity church, in Cambridge, and continued it for nearly
twenty years. It. was his great obje¢t to fubititute a fpirit
of fober and rational piety in the univerfity, inftead of the
enthufiafm and fanaticifm which then prevailed ; nor were
his efforts for this purpofe unavailing, Being married, and
having fettled on a living in Somerfetfhire, his conneétion
with the univerfity was for fome time interrupted ; but in
1644 he returned to it, as the fucceffor of Dr. Samuel Col-
lins, the ejeéted provoft of King’s college, allowing to him
part of the emoluments that belonged to tHis office. In
1649 he took the degree of D.D., and was prefented
to the rectory of Milton, in Cambridgefhire. He is re-
prefented by bifhop Burnet as a friend to liberty of con-
{cience, and in order to promote rational and fublime ideas
of religion, he advifed the ftudents to perufe the ancient
philofophers, efpecially Plato, Cicero, and Plotinus. At
the Reftoration he was deprived of his provoftfhip, and re-
moving to London, he was chofen minifter of St. Anne’s,
Blackfriars, in 1662. Afterwards, when his church was
burnt down, he retired to Milton, but he was recalled to
London to the vicarage of St. Lawrence, Jewry, by pre-
fentation from the crown; and he ferved this church with
great reputation till his death in 1683.
After his death, a volume of his “* Sele& Sermons,’’ 8vo.
1698, was publifhed, with a preface by lord Shaftefbury, au-
thor of the “ Charaéteriftics,””? by whom they were valued,
becaufe the author recognized that fenfe of the beauty of
virtue which is the foundation of his moral fyftem. Two
more volumes were afterwards publifhed by Dr. Jeffery,
archdeacon of Norwich, who, in 1703, prefented to the
public ** Moral and Religious Aphorifms colleéted from Dr.
Whichcote’s MS. Papers.”” A fourth volume was pub-
lifhed by Dr. S. Clarke in 1707, and reprinted in 1753 by
Dr. Salter, with large additions, and eight letters between
the author and fome of his friends on important fubjeGs.
II Thefe
WHI
Thefe feveral publications affigned to Dr. Whichcote a
high rank among the rational divines of this country, and
particularly at the period in which he lived. Biog. Brit.
WHICKS, in Agriculture, a term fometimes applied to
young plants of the white-thorn kind, as well as to couch-
grafs. See Quicks and Coucn.
WHIDAH, in Geography, a kingdom of Africa, on the
Slave Coaft ; extending about ten miles along the coaft, and
about feven miles into the land. Europeans who have been
in Whidah fpeak of the country with rapture, and extol it
as one of the moft beautiful in the world. The trees are
ftraight, tall, and difpofed in the moft regular order, which
prefent to the eye fine long groves and avenues, clear of all
brufh-wood and weeds. The verdure of the meadows, the
richnefs of the fields, clothed with three different kinds of
corn, beans, roots, and fruits, and the multitude of houfes,
form a moft delightful profpeé. A perpetual {pring and
autumn fucceed each other ; for no fooner has the hufband-
man cut his corn, than he again ploughs and fows the
ground ; Mr it is not worn out ; the next crop puts forth
with the fame vigour as the former, asif nature here were
inexhauftible. Certain it is, that the kingdom of Whidah
is fo populous, that one fingle village contains as many in-
habitants as feveral entire kingdoms on the coaft of Guinea ;
and yet they ftand fo clofe, that one is amazed how the
moft fertile land on earth can fupply the number of people
contained in fo fmall a compafs. One may compare the
whole kingdom to a great city, divided by gardens, lawns,
and groves, inftead of ftreets, the villages in Whidah not
being a mufket-fhot diftant from each other. Some are the
king’s, fome the viceroy’s villages, and others are built and
peopled by particular private families. The former are the
largeft and beft built ; but the latter the beft cultivated, if
there be any difference in a country fo uniformly rich and
beautiful. Notwithitanding the {mall extent of this king-
dom, it is divided into twenty-fix provinces, which take
their names from the capital towns. Thofe {mall ftates are
diftributed among the chief lords of the kingdom, and be-
come hereditary in their families. The king of Whidah, who
is only their chief, prefides particularly in the. province of
Sabi, or Xabier, which is the principal province of the
kingdom, as the city of the fame name is the capital of the
whole. Bujis, which the French by corruption call bauges,
pafs frequently for money at their fairs in the country : this
is a {mall white fhell, of the fize and fhape of an olive. In
the kingdom of Whidah and Ardra, thefe bujis ferve equally
for drefs and money, for ornament and ufe. They pierce
cach fhell with an iron made for that purpofe ; forty of them
they ftring upon a cord, which they call /cuze, and the
Portuguefe toguos: five of thefe ftrings compofe what the
Portuguefe call 2 gallinha, and the Negroes a fore. By
thefe the exchange of gold-duft is rated, and the price of
flaves determined. The Europeans, the nobility of Whidah,
and all the rich negroes, are’ carried, when they go abroad,
in hammocs, or palanquins, on the fhoulders of flaves. The
natives of Whidah are in general tall, well made, ftraight,
and robuft. Their complexion is black, but not fo glofly
as that of the people on the Gold Coaft, and ftill lefs than
thofe of Senegal and the river Gambia. They excel all other
negroes in scelalicy and vigilance. Idlenefs is the favourite
vice of the Africans in general ; here, on the contrary, both
fexes are fo laborious and diligent, that they never defift till
they have finifhed their undertaking ; carrying the fame {pi-
rit of perfeverance into every action of their life. Befides
agriculture, from which none but the king and a few per-
fons of the firlt diflinétion are exempted, they employ
WHI
themfelves in feveral kinds of manufa@tures : they {pin cotton-
yarn, weave fine cotton cloths, make calabaffes, wooden
veflels, plates, and difhes ; likewife aflagayes, and f{miths’-
work in greater perfeétion than any other people on the
coaft. Whilft the men are thus employed, the women
brew pito, and drefs provifions, which, with their huf-
bands’ merchandize, they carry for fale to market. As to
rh a: Bofman is of opinion, that the piety of this coun
is founded upon no other principles than thofe of intereh
and fuperftition. In the latter, they exceed all other nations ;
for allowing, fays he, the ancient heathens to value them-
felves upon thirty thoufand deities, I dare venture to affirm
that the natives of Whidah may lay juft claim to four times
that number. However, he’ believes that they have a faint
idea of the one true God, to whom they attribute omnipo-
tence and ubiquity. One of their principal fetiches, or
deities, is the {nake, which they invoke in extreme wet, dry,
or barren feafons, on all occafions relating to their govern-
ment, civil policy, and cattle ; in a word, on all the great
difficulties and occurrences of life. This fnake has a large
round head, beautiful piercing eyes, a fhort pointed tongue,
refembling a dart: its pace flow and folemn, except when
it feizes on its prey, then quick and rapid ; its tail fharp and
fhort, its fkin of an elegant fmoothnefs, adorned with beau-
tiful colours, upon a hght-grey ground. It is amazingly
tame and familiar, permitting itfelf to be appreached, and
even handled: they have a mortal antipathy to all venomous
ferpents : they attack them wherever they find them, as if
they had pleafure in delivering mankind from their poifon.
The Europeans find no difficulty in familiarizing themfelves
to thefe inoffenfive animals, with which they play without
any dread or apprehenfion of danger. There is no fear of
miltaking them for the poifonous ferpents,the colour and fize
fufficiently diftinguifhing them. The negroes entertain a
notion that the firft progenitor of this race of fnakes is ftill
living, and growing to an enormous bulk. - When the
Englifh firft fettled in Whidah, the captain having unfhipped
his goods on fhore, the failors found at night one of thofe
fnakes in their magazine, which they ignorantly killed, and
threw upon the bank, without dreaming of any bad confe-
quences. The negroes, who foon difcovered the facrilege,
and had it confirmed by the acknowledgment of the Eng-
lifh mariners, were not long in avenging the horrid impiety,
by a method no lefs horrible. All the inhabitants of the
province afflembled ; they attacked the Englifh, maflacred
them all to a man, and confumed their bodies and goods in
the fire they had fet to the warehoufe. Asatte of all
kinds are punifhed with death for injuring a fnake. In 1697,
a hog having had the prefumption to deftroy one of thefe
deities, an order was iflued for a general flaughter of {wine
throughout the kingdom, and the deftruction of the whole
race was hardly prevented by the interpofition of the
king.
Wuipau, a town of Africa, in the country of Whidah.
N. lat. 6° 25'. E. long. 1° 24!.
WHIDBY’s Istanp, an ifland in the Gulf of Georgia,
near the weft coaft of America; about 36 miles long, and
from 2 to 6 broad: fo named from Mr. Whidby, an officer
under captain Vancouver. N. lat. 48° 1o/.. E. long. 237°
40!.
WHIDDY, an ifland in Bantry bay, in the county of
Cork, Ireland, about 2 miles from the town of Bantry. It
is a pleafant ifland of a triangular form, and the foil is ex-
cellent.
WHIFF, in Jchthyology, the name of a fort of flounder.
WHIFFLER of a Company, in London, a young free-
man,
WHI
man, who goes before, and waits on the company, on oc-
cafions of public folemnities._
WHIG, in Rural Economy, aterm provincially applied
to acidulated whey, which is fometimes mixed with butter-
milk and {weet herbs, to give it a flavour, when it becomes a
good cooling f{ummer beverage.
WHIGS, a party or faction in England, oppofite to
the Tories.
The origin of the names of thefe two mighty fa€tions is
very obfcure. If fome little trivial cireumftance or adven-
ture, which efcapes the knowledge of mankind, gives name
to aparty, which afterwards becomes famous, potterity la-
bours in vain to find the original of fuch a name : it fearches
the fources, forms conjeétures, invents reafons, and fome-
times, indeed, meets the truth, but always without know-
ing it afluredly.
Thus, in France, the Calvinifts are called Huguenots ;
yet nobody was ever able certainly to aflign the caufe of
that appellation.
Whig is a Scottifh, and, fome fay too, an Irifh word, lite-
rally fignifying whey. Tory is another Irifh word, fignify-
ing a robber or highwayman.
Under the reign of king Charles I1., while his brother,
then duke of York, was obliged to retire into Scotland,
there were two parties formed in that country. That of the
‘duke was ftrongeft, perfecuted the other, and frequently re-
duced them to fly into the mountains and woods; where
thofe unhappy fugitives had often no other fubfiftence for a
long time but cows’ milk. Hence they called thefe their
adverfaries tories, q. d. robbers ; and the tories, upbraiding
them with their unhappinefs, from the milk on which they
lived, called them whigs. From Scotland, the two names
came over with the duke into England.
Others give a different origin and etymology of the two
words, for which fee Torigs.
Bifhop Burnet gives another etymology of the term whigs.
The fouth-weft counties of Scotland, he fays, are fupplied
with corn from Leith; and from a word whiggam, ufed by
the carriers in driving their horfes, all that drove were called
whiggamoors, and by contraction whigs.
He adds, that in the year 1648, after the news of the
defeat of duke Hamilton, who was charged with being a
confederate with the malignants, or royal party, in Eng-
land, the minifters animated their people to rife, and march
to Edinburgh, who came up, marching each at the head of
his parifh, with an unheard-of fury, praying and preaching
all the way as they came. The marquis of Argyle and his
party came and headed them. This was called the whigga-
moor’s inroad ; and ever after, all that oppofed the court were
contemptuoufly called whigs: and from Scotland the term
was brought into England. Burnet’s Hitt. of his Own
Times, vol. i. p. 43.
For the diftinguifhing principles and charaéters of the
whigs, fee Tortzs.
WHIMBRAL. See Scotopax Guarauna, and Pome
OPUS.
WHIMSEY, Water, a machine confilting of a refervoir,
or bucket of water, employed for raifing another bucket,
‘filled with coals or other materials, by means of a rope or
chain, coiled round a cylinder or drum, or two drums of
different fizes. When the bucket of water in this machine
‘has reached the bottom of the pit or well, a valve is opened
by flriking againit a pin, and lets out the water. Ina ma-
chine of this kind, ufed in the duke of Bridgewater’s coal-
works, the water defcends thirty yards, and raifes a {maller
quantity of coals from a depth of fixty. In fuch cafes, fup-
pofing the a€tion to be fingle, and the ftream of water to
WHI
be unemployed during the defcent of the refervoir, a con-
fiderable preponderance may be advantageoufly employed in
giving velocity to the weights, provided that the machinery
be not liable to injury from their impulfe.
WHIN, in Botany. See Gorse.
Wain, in Agriculture, a term fometimes applied to furze ;
which, when cut in the fap and bruifed ina proper way by
flails, or in other modes, makes an excellent green food in
winter for horfes, which eat and thrive on it well. It is
alfo ufeful in fome meafure to fheep-ftock, as well as to
bees. Its encroaches on land may be eafily and readily
prevented by proper means being taken for the purpofe.
See Furze.
Wu, in Gardening. See ULEx.
Wur-Afhes, in Agriculture and Planting, the afhes pro-
duced in burning whins ; which have lately been found of
great benefit in planting young trees, as well as on land for
other purpofes, promoting their growth in a very high de-
gree. Ifthe land to be planted be fuitable, they are ad-
vifed to be carefully {pread and ploughed in, if of quantity
{ufficient, over the whole field, otherwife only on the wet or
colder {pots or parts of it. But if the ground be fuch that
it will not admit of ploughing, the afhes fhould be mixed up
with part of the beft furface mould, to keep them from
blowing abroad ; and in the procefs of pitting, a little of
this compott {hould be intimately mixed with the mould of
each pit ; previoufly diftributing it in {mall heaps at con-
yenient diltances for facilitating the operation : and this extra
trouble will be amply repaid by the progrefs the plants will
make in confequence.
‘ Wuiy-Axe, in Agriculture, an infirument employed for ex-
tirpating whins from land in many cafes. It is an imple-
ment that has one end like a common axe, with four inches
of face; and the other like an adze, alfo with four inches of
face ; whereby the perfon ufing it, continuing in the fame
pofition by fimply turning it in the hand, can make cuts at
right angles with one another, as circumftances may require.
The head of the tool may be about eight inches in length,
weighing from three to four pounds ; and the handle, of ath,
about four feet long.
Wun, Petty, aname given to a fpecies of ononis, or reft-
harrow.
WHIN, Petty, in Gardening. See GENISTA.
WHINCHAT, in Ornithology, the Englifh name of the
motacilla rubetra of Linneus.
It is of the common fize of the water-wagtail. Its head,
neck, and back, are of a reddifh-brown, with regular rows
of black fpots. Over each eye is a narrow white ftroke,
and beneath that a broad bed of black, extending from the
bill to the hind part of the head; the breaft is of a reddifh-
yellow; the belly paler; the quill-feathers are brown,
edged with a yellowifh-brown; the upper part of the wing
is marked with two white {pots ; the lower part of the tail
is white, the two middle feathers excepted, which are
wholly black ; the upper part of the other is of the fame
colour.
The colours are very uncertain in this bird, and it often
much refembles the ftone-chatter ; but may always, by an
accurate obferver, be diitinguifhed from that bird by the
white {pots in its wings, by the whitenefs of the under part
of its tail, and the white lines on its head
The colours of the female are much lefs agreeable than
thofe of the male; in lieu of the white and black marks
on the cheeks is one broad pale brown one; and the white
on the wings is in much lefs quantity than that of the
male.
In the north of England, the whinchat is a bird of paf-
fage ;
WHI
fage ; in the fouth he continues the whole year. Ray and
Pennant.
WHINE, a hunting term, ufed in refpe& of the cry of
an otter.
WHINEBACH, in Geography, a town of Africa, on
the Gold Coaft. N. lat. 5°30’. W. long. 1° 30!.
WHIN-STONE, in Geology, the provincial name given,
in many parts of England and Scotland, to bafaltic rocks ; it
is alfo applied by miners to defignate every kind of dark-
coloured and hard unftratified rock, which refifts the point of
the pick. Many geologifts in this country clafs all bafaltic
or trap rocks under the term whin-ftone. See Trap.
The fubftance which fills very large mineral veins is gene-
rally dark bafalt, or green-ftone ; hence thefe veins are moft
frequently called whin-dykes. Thefe veins being harder
than ‘moft of the rocks which they interfeG&, remain when
the furface on each fide of them is wafhed away, forming
enormous walls extending into the fea, or rifing above the
level of the country in various parts of their courfe, and may
often be traced for many leagues. They occur in the
counties of Northumberland and Durham, and on the coatts
of Scotland ; and when broken down, they form reefs of rock
or iflands. The Farn iflands, off the coaft of Northumber-
land, are parts of a bafaltic dyke. When whin-dykes crofs
rivers, they form ledges of rock conftituting fords ; or, if
very abrupt, they hold up the water on one fide and form
cafeades. The Cleveland bafalt, or whin-dyke, defcribed in
Mr. Bakewell’s Introduétion to Geology, (fee VEINs,
Mineral,) has been traced from the coaft of Yorkfhire fe-
venty miles into the weftern part of Durham.
Under the article Mineral Veins, we have obferved, that
when whin-dykes interfeé coal ftrata, they produce a change
in the fubftance of the coal, and alfo of the other ftrata, fimi-
lar to what might have been expected from a ftream of
melted lava; and we have recently obferved a fimilar effec
produced on primitive rocks of gneifs, in the vicinity of Aber-
deen, by contaé& with a-powerful whin-dyke. ‘The whin-
ftone is alfo changed near its contaét with the gneifs into a
reddifh horn-ftone. In other parts, it is a dark granular
bafalt or green-ftone. The gneifs has loft its charaéteriftic
ftru€ture, and becomes porphyritic when near the whin-
dyke. Between whin-dykes and the rocks which they inter-
fe&t, there is fometimes a feam of foft argillaceous earth in-
terpofed, which is wafhed out when they are near the fea-
_ coaft, leaving the whin-ftone like a wall placed between
two perpendicular precipices. Sometimes the internal part
of a whin-dyke will be compofed of foft iron-clay ; in other
inftances, the dyKe will be compofed of folid blocks or prifms
of bafalt feparated by fimilar clay. In fome whin-dykes,
the fubftance which fills them appears a compaét and
folid mafs of whin-ftone, which, however, will divide into
four, five, or fix-fided prifms, arranged horizontally.
Thefe are perfeétly fimilar to the perpendicular bafaltic
columns in ftruéture, differing only in their pofition. There
is a dyke traverfing the bafaltic ftrata of the Giant’s Caufe-
way, on the coaft of Antrim, in which this peculiarity of
ftru€ture is remarkably difplayed. It interfects beds of
columnar bafalt, in which the columns are arranged with
great regularity, and are perpendicular to the horizon; but
the whole dyke is compofed of {mall prifms of bafalt placed
horizontally, or at right angles with the former. Some of
thefe prifms do not exceed an inch in diameter, others are
much larger : they are for the moft part extremely regular,
and are articulated or jointed.
It has been fuppofed with much probability, that the dif-
ferent arrangement of the columnar ftruéture in the beds
and in the dyke, is to be attributed to the different circum-
WHi
ftances under which they were folidified. If the beds have
once flowed as lava under the furface of. the ocean, the ba-
falt would begin to cool and cryttallize from the upper and
lower furface. That this has probably been the cafe may
be inferred from thefe beds refting on ftrata that contain
marine organic remains, and which muft, therefore, have been
formed under the bed of the ocean.
The perpendicular dykes interfeéting rocks already formed
would begin to cool from the fides with which they were in
contaét, and the procefs would proceed laterally.
In fome inftances, we find whin-dykes principally com-
pofed of globular maffes of ftone feparated by a large quan-
tity of foft clay, and the globular maffes are incrufted with
ochreous clay : probably the whole of the clay in fuch dykes
has been formed from’the decompofition of the bafaltic
mafles by the ation of water percolating them.
Whin-ftone dykes prefent fo many analogies with volcanic
rocks in their compofition, and the effeéts which they pro-
duce on the ftrata that they pafs through, that we are led
to refer their origin to the aétion of fubterranean fire crack-
ing the upper rocks and ftrata, and forcing the melted matter
into the rent. Under the article Voncano, we have ftated
many inftances of vaft rents made in the earth, and filled by
eruptions of lava; thefe rents fo filled with lava may be
confidered as whin-dykes of recent formation. This is fur-
ther confirmed by the obfervations of M. Cordier, (fee Vot-
canic Produds,) who has fhewn that the fubftance which
fills both are effentially the fame, being principally com-
pofed of felfpar and augite, with iron-fand and olivine.
Whin-ftone not only occupies the cavities of perpendicular
dykes ; but it appears to have been, in many inftances, ~
found laterally between the regular ftrata, producing fin-
gular contortions and diflocations, and almoft always effeét-
ing a change in the fubftance of the rock with which it
comes in contaé&t. Sometimes it produces a change in the
form of the bed or ftratum which it has pafled through,
breaking it into diftin& maffes, or bending it in different
dire&tions, or enveloping large parts of it in the bafalt or
whin-ftone. Of this a remarkable inftance is defcribed in
the third volume of the Tranfaétions of the Geological So-
ciety, occurring on the north coaft of Ireland, in the county.
of Antrim. (See Plate lV. fig. 4. Geology.) aaa reprefents
a bed of chalk fingularly bent, and completely enveloped in the
bafalt which forms a part of the bafaltic range extending
from the Giant’s Cauleway.
The beds of chalk and the other ftrata on this coaft are
frequently interfe€&ted by whin-dykes, and a moft remark-
able change is obferved in the flruéture of the chalk in the
vicinity of thefe dykes. In immediate conta& with the
whin-ftone, and to a confiderable diftance. on each fide, the
chalk is converted into marble, having the granular texture
of primitive lime-ttone, or what the French call calcaire fac-
caroide, from its refemblance to the grain of loaf-fugar, (fee
Plate 1V. fig. 5. Geology,) which reprefents two adjoining
whin-dykes a, interfeéting the chalk ccc; the dyke ais
thirty feet in width, the dyke 4 twenty feet, and the inter-
vening mafs of chalk twenty feet. ‘The mafs of chalk be-
tween the two large dykes is interfeéted in a zigzag direc-
tion by a fmaller dyke. To a certain diftance from the
whin-ftone, the chalk is perfe&tly cryftalline, but it gradu-
ally approaches to the charaéter of the chalk at a greater
diftance from the dyke. In various parts of the world we
obferve trap or whin-ftone occurring in apparently regular
beds, either covering {tratified rocks, or interpofed between
them; fuch have been called by the Wernerian geologifts
fleetz trap-rocks, and their occurrence in this pofition has
been urged as an argument for the aqueous fetmasiain of
fuch
WHI
fuch rocks. But it is well known to practical miners, that
thefe beds are much more variable in their thicknefs than the
regular ftrata, fometimes meafuring twenty, thirty, or’forty
feet or more ; and in other parts, the fame bed will diminifh to
a few feet, or entirely terminate. In the ifle of Skye, ac-
cording to the defcriptionof Dr. Maccullock, in the third and
fourth volumes of the Tranfaétions of the Geological So-
ciety, the whin-ftone is fpread over the regular {trata in beds,
or forms detached conical caps. It is alfo to be feen inter-
pofed between the ftrata, and may be traced for more than
a mile in continuous regular beds ; but, fays Dr. Maccullock,
“ there are no inftances but where the alternating beds of
trap detach veins or dykes from the lower to the upper beds ;
or the trap, quitting the interval between two given beds of
lime-ftone or fand-ftone, makes its way acrofs the one im-
mediately above or below, and then proceeds with a regu-
larity as great between fome other pair of proximate {tra-
ta.’ And he adds, “ I have no doubt, could fuch ex-
tenfive expofure of the ftrata be oftener procured, all the
inftances of fuppofed alternating trap with regular ftratified
rocks would prove fimilar to the above.””? Thefe obferva-
tions, which might be confirmed by numerous other in-
ftances, tend to prove, that whin-dykes, and many of the
interpofed ftrata of whin-ftone, are of pofterior formation
to the rocks in which they occur, and have been forced be-
tween the ftrata in a fluid ftate, and fubfequently confoli-
dated. The whin-dykes, or perpendicular veins, are the
channels through which the bafalt owed up; but by fuper-
incumbent preffure, it has been driven laterally at different
elevations. As beds of whin-ftone occur in different rocks,
it is probable, and almoft certain, that they have had differ-
ent epochs of formation ; and of courfe fome of the beds of
whin-ftone, which are covered by ftratified rocks containing
many Organic remains, may have flowed as beds of lava
under the ocean, and have been again covered with other
firata, on which again a fecond torrent of lava burfting from
below may have flown and formed an upper bed. It is well
known that the beds of toad-ftone in Derbyfhire, which are
interpofed between the mountain lime-ftone of that dif-
tri, cut off the metallic veins ; but they are found again on
finking through the toad-ftone into the lower lime-{ftone.
This ftone, which varies from a hard, compaét whin-ftone
or trap, to a foft amygdaloidal wacke, (fee Toap-Stone and
Wackrsg,) is fuppofed, by Mr. Whitehurft, to have flowed
between the beds of lime-ftone after the formation of me-
tallic veins; and, could we admit the hypothefis, it would
fatisfaGtorily explain the caufe of their difappearance in the
toad-ftone. But though there are many inftances of the
vein entirely difappearing in the latter rock, there are
others in which a narrow vein pafles through the toad-ftone,
though it is never productive of ore, being filled with calca-
reous {par, and a few particles only of galine. The occur-
rence of thefe veins in the toad-ftone proves that this rock
was not found between the lime-ftone after the formation of
metallic veins. Some fofter whin-ftone rocks, of the {pecies
called by mineralogifts wacke, (fee WAckKg,) contain cavi-
ties lined, or partly filled with zeolites, agates, or calcareous
{par ; and fome of thefe rocks envelope marine organic re-
mains, particularly a rock of this kind near Berkley in
Gloucefterfhire. The Euganean mountains are compofed of
a fimilar rock, and alfo contain marine remains. Thefe
rocks have probably been formed by muddy eruptions of
fubmarine volcanoes, fimilar to what take place from fome
of the American volcanoes at the prefent time ; and it isnot
improbable but that thefe two modes of formation may have
given rife to that diverfity which we obferve in rocks of this
clafe, the fofter and more earthy being the products of
VoL. XX¥XVI11.
WHI
aqueous and muddy eruptions, and the harder and more
cryftalline the produéts of igneous fufion. See Trap, and
Votcanic Produés.
WHIP, or Wurrp-Srarr, ina Ship, a piece of timber in
form of a ftrong ftaff, faftened into the helm, for the fteerf-
man, in {mall fhips, to hold in his hand ; thereby to move
the rudder, and direé& the fhip.
Wu denotes alfo a fort of {mall tackle, formed by the
communication of a rope either with a fingle immoveable
block, or with two blocks, one of which is fixed, and the
other moveable. It is generally ufed to hoift light bodies,
as empty cafks, &c. out of a fhip’s hold, which is accord-
ingly called whipping them up. Falconer.
To whip is to tie a piece of pack-thread, fpun-yarn, &c.
about the end of a rope, to prevent it from being untwifted
and unloofened.
Wu, in Rural Economy, the lafh attached to flexible
rods or other fubftances and contrivances, for the purpofe of
driving teams.
Wuir-Grafting, in Gardening, a particular mode of per-
forming the operation. A fort of root-whip-grafting is ad-
vifed by Agricola, in which a graft or {cion is taken from a
young tree, and a {mall piece of the root of another tree of
the fame kind, or like it ; or otherwife, pieces of roots cut
off from other trees in tranfplanting ; thefe are whip-grafted
together, taking care that the two but ends of the graft
and root be united, and that the rind of the root join that of
the graft; then plant the root with the part of the fcion
under-ground. See Grarrine, and Srooxs, Apple-grafting
in. .
Wuir-Poor-Will. See Carrimuteus Virginianus.
Wurpe-Rein, in Agriculture, a term ufed to fignify a rein
formed of cord or leather, by which a plough or other fort
of team is direGted in working. See Rein
Wutr-Rein- Plough, a term applied to a fmall plough,
drawn by two horfes, or oxen, which are guided and di-
reéted by proper reins of this fort, and fo made as to ferve
the ploughman in the way of a whip, in driving them while
he holds the plough.
Wuip-Saw. See Whip-Saw.
_ WHIPLADE, in Hufbandry, aterm ufed by the farmers
in fome places for a particular fort of cart, whofe hinder
part is made up of boards after the manner of a dung-cart,
having alfo a head of boards, and fhambles over the thills ;
this head being fo as either to be taken out or left in. The
cart may be indifferently ufed to carry dung or other
thiags ; dung when the head is in, and corn, &c. when it is
taken out.
WHIPPANY, in Geography, a town of New Jerfey ;
20 miles W.N.W. of New York.
WHIPPER. See Fisuina.
WHIPPING, a term ufed by Anglers, when they faften
a line to the hook or rod.
The word is alfo taken for the cafting in of the hook, and
drawing it gently on the water.
Wauirrine, in Law, denotes an ignominious punifhment
infli€ted on perfons guilty of petty larceny, &c.
Wurrrinc Wheat, in Agriculture, a term applied to the
practice in fome of the northern diftri€s, by which the
wheat-crops are lafhed or whipped out on a wooden or wat-
tled frame-work contrived for the purpofe. The former is
conftruéted by nailing two or more thick boards in a flanting
manner, to the height of about two and a half, or three
feet, on a fort of frame of fuitable ftrength, fupported by
legs, having the upper part a little rounded, and made {mooth.
This, which is termed the whipping or lafhing frame, is
3B placed
WHI
placed in fome convenient fituation, fo as to prevent the
grain from flying about during the operation, which is then
begun. Where the latter contrivance is made ufe of, the
frame is woven with ftrong fticks, in the manner of a hurdle,
being placed in the fame fituation when ufed.
The procefs is performed by taking large handfuls of the
corn in the ftraw by the butt end, and ftriking the top or
ear-ends over the upper part of the frame, fo as to force
out the grain from the ears of the top part, without break-
ing the ftraw, which in this way becomes much better for
thatch, and at the fame time the grain is lefs injured than
by the flail method of threfhing it out. The butt parts of
the {traw are fometimes afterwards thrafhed over, in order
to get out any wheat that may have been left in the fhort
ears. This is an excellent mode of providing feed-wheat, as
the fineft grain is chiefly procured.
And it is fuggefted, too, as a particularly good method in
cafes where wheat is infeGted with the {mut, as during the
operation of threfhing, the flail breaks the fmut-balls, and
reduces them to a powdery ftate, which caufes the ta
wheat to have a blacker appearance than would otherwife be
the cafe when ground. It may likewife be ufed to advan-
tage with other forts of grain in fome cafes.
The above is alfo a term fometimes applied in the northern
diftri€ts, to the praétice of ftriking it over a {tone or other
fuch contrivance, in order to get out the grain, and leave the
ftraw in an unbroken ftate. In this way it is, fometimes
termed lafhing. It is an excellent praétice in getting out
this fort of grain in many points of view, when on a {mall
feale, but it is not well fuited to large concerns. See
THRESHING.
WHIPPLE-Trez, a term ufed to fignify the bar or
wooden part of the contrivance by which a horfe or team is
attached to a plough, harrow, or any other fort of imple-
ment of thefe kinds. They are of different fizes and forms,
according to the nature of the teams and other circumftances.
See SwinGLe-77ree, Indented.
WHIPSTITCH, a term not unfrequently ufed in
ploughing to fignify a fort of half-ploughing, or what in
many places is termed raftering. It is principally made ufe
of for keeping the land more dry and healthy in the winter
feafon. See RAFTERING.
WHIPSTITCHING, the praétice of working tillage-
land in fomewhat the raftering manner. It is a method often
employed for turning up ftubbles of the wheat and other
kinds in the winter time, inftead of making a fallow. The
beft mode of doing it in this intention is firft to make what
is called a whipftitch, rafter, or fort of half-ploughing of
the land; and that when come back again to the fame
furrow, to turn them both over ; the top parts of both fur-
rows being thus turned in the middle, which leaves the {pace
of four inches betwixt each furrow: then ploughing the
land acrofs the old furrows. If land lies ever fo wet in win-
ter, by ploughing in this manner, it may be kept dry and in
ahealthy ftate. It is neceflary, too, to {trike up the old fur-
rows every day before leaving the ground ; and to let the
main drains be kept well open to receive the water from the
furrows in the land: by this means, the froft will be ad-
mitted four inches deeper than in the cafe of a flat fallow-
work.
This mode of tillage is that which is fometimes called
double whipftitching in fome diftri&ts and places.
Some prefer it before all other methods for winter-tillage,
as it brings the land into much better condition for cultiva-
tion than twice fallowing.
WHIPT Syuvasus. See SytLanvus.
WHIRL-POOL, an eddy, vortex, or gulf, where the
WHi
water is continually turning round. See Guiry, Enpy;
Vortex, &c.
Thefe in rivers are very common, from various accidents,
and are ufually very trivial, and of little confequence. In
the fea they are more rare, but more dangerous. Sibbald
has related the effects of a remarkable marine whirlpool
among the Oreades, which would prove very dangerous to
ftrangers, though it is of no confequence to the people who
are ufed to it. This is not fixed to any particular place,
but appears in various parts of the limits of the fea among
thofe iflands. Wherever it appears, it is very furious, and
boats, &c. would inevitably be drawn in and perifh with
it; but the people who navigate them are prepared for it,
and always carry an empty veffel, a log of wood, or large
bundle of ftraw, or fome fuch thing, in the boat with them ;
as foon as they perceive the whirlpool, they tofs this within
its vortex, keeping themfelves out ; this fubftance, whatever
it be, isimmediately received in the centre, and carried under
water ; and as foon as this is done, the furface of the place
where the whirl-pool was becomes fmooth, and they row
over it with fafety ; and in about an hour they fee the vortex
begin again in fome other place, ufually at about a mile
diftant from the firft. Sibbald’s Prodr. Hift. Scotl.
WHIRLIGIG, in Military Antiquities, an inftrument of
punifhment formerly much ufed for trifling offences, com-
mitted by petit futlers, Jews, brawling women, and fuch
perfons. ‘This was a kind of circular wooden cage, which
turned on a pivot ; and when fet in motion, whirled round
with fuch an amazing velocity, that the delinquent became
extremely fick, and commonly made difcharges through
every operation of the body.
WHIRLING-Tas gE, a machine contrived for exhibit-
ing and demonttrating the principal laws of gravitation, and
of the planetary motions in curvilinear orbits. A A ( Plate
XXI. fig. 13. dflronomy) is a ftrong frame of wood, Ba
winch fixed on the axis C of the wheel D, round which
is the catgut-flring F, which alfo goes round the {mall
wheels G and K, crofling between them and the great wheel
D. On the upper end of the axis of the wheel G, above
the frame, is fixed the round board d, to which may be
occafionally fixed the bearer MS X. On the axis of the
wheel H is fixed the bearer N T Z, and when the winch B
is turned, the wheels and bearers are put into a whirling
motion. Each bearer has two wires, W X and Y Z, fixed
and {crewed tight into them at the ends by nuts on the out-
fide ; and when the nuts are unfcrewed, the wires may be
drawn out in order to change the balls U, V, which flide
upon the wires by means of brafs loops fixed into the balls,
and preventing their touching the wood below them.
Through each ball there paffes a filk line, which is fixed to.
it at any length from the centre of the bearer to its end by
a nut-{crew at the top of the ball; the thank of the ferew
going into the centre of the ball, and prefling the line againft
the under fide of the hole which it goes through. The line
goes from the ball, and under a {mall pulley fixed in the
middle of the bearer ; then up through a focket in the round
plate (S and T') in the middle of each bearer; then
through a flit in the middle of a fquare top (O and P) of
each tower, and going over a {mall pulley on the top comes
down again the fame way, and is at laft faftened to the
upper end of the focket fixed in the middle of the round
ate above-mentioned. Each of thefe plates, S and T, has
Foor round holes near their edges, by which they flide u
and down upon the wires which make the corner of pre
tower. The balls and plates being thus connected, each
by its particular line, it is plain that if the balls be drawn
outward, or towards the ends M and N of their refpedtive
bearers,
WHIRLING-TABLE.
bearers, the round plates S and 'T' will be drawn up to the
top of their refpeétive towers O and P,
There are feveral brafs weights, fome of two, fome of
three, and others of four ounces, to be occafionally put
within the towers O and P, upon the round plates S and T ;
each weight having a round hole in the middle of it, for
going upon the fockets or axes of the plates, and being flit
from the edge to the hole, that it may flip over the line
which comes from each ball to its ref{peétive plate.
For a fpecimen of the experiments which may be made
with this machine, we fhall fubjoin the following.
1. Removing the bearer M X, put the loop of the line 4,
to which the ivory ball a is faftened, over a pin in the centre
of the board d, and turn the winch B; and -the ball will
not immediately begin to move with the board, but, on ac-
count of its inactivity, endeavour to remain in its ftate of
reft. But when the ball has acquired the fame velocity
with the board, it will remain upon the fame part of the
board, haying no relative motion upon it. However, if the
board be fuddenly ftopped, the ball will continue to revolve
upon it, until the friétion thereof ftops its motion ; fo that
matter refifts every change of flate, from that of reft to that
of motion, and vice ver/a.
2. Put a longer cord to this ball; let it down through
the hollow axis of the bearer M X and wheel G, and fix a
weight to the end of the cord below the machine ; and this
weight, if left at liberty, will draw the ball from the edge
of the whirling-board to its centre. Draw off the ball a
little from its centre, and turn the winch; then the ball will
go round and round with the board, and gradually fly far-
ther from the centre, raifing up the weight below the ma-
chine ; and thus it appears that all bodies revolving in circles,
have a tendency to fly off from thefe circles, and muft be
retained in them by fome power proceeding from or tendin
to the centre of motion. Stop the machine, and the ball
will continue to revolve for fome time upon the board ; but
as the fri€tion gradually flops its motion, the weight aéting
upon it will bring it nearer and nearer to the centre in
every revolution, till it brings it quite thither. Hence
it appears, that if the planets met with any refiftance in
going round the fun, its attraétive power would bring them
nearer and nearer to it in every revolution, till they fell
into it.
3. Take hold of the cord below the machine with one hand,
and with the other throw the ball upon the round board as
it were at right angles to the cord, and it will revolve upon
the board. Then, obferving the velocity of its motion,
pull the cord below the machine, and thus bring the ball
nearer the centre of the board, and the ball will be feen to
revolve with an increafing velocity, as it approaches the
centre: and thus the planets which are neareit the fun per-
form quicker revolutions than thofe which are more remote,
and move with greater velocity in every part of their re-
{petive circles.
4. Remove the ball a, and apply the bearer M X, whofe
centre of motion is in its middle at w, dire€ily over the
centre of the whirling-board d. Then put two balls (V and
U) of equal weights upon their bearing wires, and having
fixed them at equal diftances from their refpective centres
of motion w and x upon their filk cords, by the fcrew-nuts,
put equal weights in the towers O and P. Laftly, put the
catgut-ftrings E and F upon the grooves G and H of the
fmall wheels, which, being of equal diameters, will give
equal velocities to the bearers above, when the winch B is
turned; and the balls U and V will fly off toward M and
N, and raife the weights in the towers at the fame inftant.
This fhews, that when bodies of equal quantities of matter
revolve in equal circles with equal velocities, their centrifu-
gal forces are equal.
5. Take away thefe equal balls, and put a ball of fix
ounces into the bearer M X, at a fixth part of the diftance
w z from the centre, and put a ball of one ounce into the
oppofite bearer, at the whole diftance xy = wx; and fix
the balls at thefe diftances on their cords, by the ferew-nuts
at the top: then the ball U, which is fix times as heavy as
the ball V, will be at only a fixth part of the diftance from
its centre of motion; and confequently will revolve in a
circle of only a fixth part of the circumference of the circle
in which V revolves. Let equal weights be put into the
towers, and the winch be turned; which (as the catgut-
ftring is on equal wheels below) will caufe the balls to re-
volve in equal times: but V will move fix times as faft as
U, becaufe it revolves in a circle of fix times its radius, and
both the weights in the towers will rife at once. Hence it
appears, that the centrifugal forces of revolving bodies are
in dire& proportion to their quantities of matter multiplied
into their re{petive velocities, or into their diftances from
the centres of their refpeétive circles.
If thefe two balls be fixed at equal diftances from their
re{pective centres of motion, they will move with equal
velocities; and if the tower O has fix times as much weight
put into it as the tower P has, the balls will raife their
weights exaGtly at the fame moment: i.e. the ball U,
being fix times as heavy as the ball V, has fix times as much
centrifugal force in defcribing an equal circle with an equal
velocity.
6. Let two balls, U and V, of equal weizhts be fixed on
their cords at equal diftances from their refpeétive centres
of motion w and x; and let the catgut-ftring E be put
round the wheel K (whofe circumference is only half that
of the wheel H or G) and over the pulley s to keep it
tight, and let four times as much weight be put into the
tower P, as in the tower O. Then turn the winch B, and
the ball V will revolve twice as faft as the ball U in a circle
of the fame diameter, becaufe they are equi-diftant from the
centres of the circles in which they revolve ; and the weights
in the towers will both rife at the fame inftant, which fhews
that a double velocity in the fame circle will exaétly balance
a quadruple power of attra€tion in the centre of the circle :
for the weights in the towers may be confidered as the
attractive forces in the centres, aGting upon the revolving
balls; which, moving in equal circles, are as if they both
moved in the fame circle. Whence it appears, that if
bodies of equal weights revolve in equal circles with unequal
velocities, their centrifugal forces are as the {quares of the
velocities.
7. The catgut-ftring remaining as before, let the diftance
of the ball V from the centre x be equal to 2 of the divi-
fions on its bearer ; and the diftance of the ball U from the
centre w be 3 and a fixth part; the balls themfelves being
equally heavy, and V making two revolutions by turning
the winch, whilft U makes one ; fo that if we fuppofe the
ball V to revolve in one moment, the ball U will revolve in
two moments, the fquares of which are 1 and 4: therefore,
the {quare of the period of V is contained 4 times in the
{quare of the period of U. But the diftance of V is 2, the
cube of which is 8, and the diftance of U is 34, the cube
of which is 32 very nearly, in which 8 is contained 4 times :
and therefore the {quares of the periods of V and U are to
one another as the cubes of their diftances from x and w, the
centres of their refpeétive circles. And if the weight in
the tower O be 4 ounces, equal to the fquare of 2, the
diftance of V from the centre x; and the weight in the
tower P be ro ounces, nearly equal to the {quare of 32, the
3B2 diftance
WHIRLING-TABLE.
diftance of U from w ; it will be found, upon turning the
machine by the winch, that the balls U and V will raife
their refpective weights at very nearly the fame inftant of
time. This experiment confirms the famous propofition of
Kepler, viz. that the {quares of the periodical times of the
planets round the fun are in proportion as the cubes of
their diftances from him; and that the fun’s attra¢tion is in-
verfely as the fquare of the diftance from his centre.
8. Take off the ftring E from the wheels D and H, and
let the ftring F remain upon the wheels D and G; take
away alfo the bearer M X from the whirling-board d, and
inftead of it put on the machine A B (Plate XXI. fig. 14.
Aftronomy), fixing it to the centre of the board by the
pins c and d, fo that the end e f may rife above the board
to an angle of 30 or 4p degrees. On the upper part of
this machine, there are two glafs tubes a and J, clofe ftopped
at both ends; each tube being about three-quarters full of
water. Inthe tube a isa little quickfilver, which naturally
falls down to the end a in the water ; and in the tube dis a
{mall cork, floating on the top of the water, and {mall
enough to rife or fall in the tube. While the board é with
this machine upon it continues at reft, the quickfilver lies at
the bottom of the tube a, and the cork floats on the water
near the top of the tube 4. But, upon turning the winch
and moving the machine, the contents of each tube will fly
off towards the uppermott ends, which are fartheft from the
centre of motion: the heavieft with the greateft force.
Confequently, the quickfilver in the tube a will fly off quite
to the end f, occupying its bulk of {pace and excluding the
water, which is lighter than itfelf: but the water in the
tube 4, flying off to its higher end e, will exclude the cork
from that place, and aie it to defcend toward the loweft
end of the tube ; for the heavier body, having the greater
centrifugal force, will poffefs the upper part of the tube,
and the Tetses body will keep between the heavier and the
lower part.
This experiment demonftrates the abfurdity of the Car;
tefian doGtrine of vortices : for, if the planet be more denfe
or heavy than its bulk of the vortex, it will fly off in it far-
ther and farther from the fun; if lefs denfe, it will come
down to the loweft part of the vortex, at the fun: and the
whole vortex itfelf, unlefs prevented by fome obttacle,
would fly quite off, together with the planets.
g. If a body be fo placed upon the whirling-board of the
machine ( fig: 13-) that the centre of gravity of the body
be direétly over the centre of the board, and the board be
moved ever fo rapidly by the winch B, the body will turn
round with the beard, without moving from its middle; for,
as all parts of the body are in equilibrio round its centre of
gravity, and the centre of gravity is at reft in the centre of
motion, the centrifugal force of all parts of the body will be
equal at equal diftances from its centre of motion, and there-
fore the body will remain in its place. But if the centre of
gravity be act ever fo little out of the centre of motion,
and the machine be turned {wiftly round, the body will fly
off towards that fide of the board on which its centre of
vity lies. Then, if the wire C (fg. 15.) with its little
Ball B be taken away from the femi-globe A, and the flat
fide ¢ f of the femi-globe be laid upon the whirling-board,
fo that their centres may coincide; if then the board be
turned ever fo quickly by the winch, the femi-globe will
remain where it was placed: but if the wire C be {crewed
into the femi-globe at d, the whole becomes one body, whofe
centre of gravity is at or near d. Fix the pin c in the centre
of the whirling-board, and let the deep groove b cut in the
flat fide of the femi-globe be put upon the pin, fo that the
pin may be in the centre of A (fee fg. 16. where the
groove is reprefented at 4), and let the board be turned b
the winch, which will carry the little ball B ( fig. 15.) with
its wire C, and the femi-globe A, round the centre pin ci;
and then, the centrifugal force of the little ball B, weighing
one ounce, will be fo great as to draw off the femi-globe
A, weighing two pounds,, until the end of the groove at ¢
ftrikes againft the pin c, and fo prevents A from going any
farther: otherwife, the centrifugal force of B would have
been great enough to have carried A quite off the whirling-
board. Hence we fee, that if the fun were placed in the
centre of the orbits of the planets, it could not poffibly re-
main there ; for the centrifugal forces of the planets would
carry them quite off, and the fun with them; efpecially
when feveral of them happened to be in one quarter of the
heavens. For the fun and planets are as much conneéted
by the mutual attraétion fubfilting between them, as the
bodies A and B are by the wire C fixed into them both.
And even if there were but one planet in the whole heavens
to go round ever fo large a {un in the centre of its orbit, its
centrifugal force would foon carry off both itfelf and the
fun: for the greateft body placed in any part of free fpace
could be eafily moved ; becaufe, if there were no other
body to attract it, it would have no weight or gravity of
itfelf, and confequently, though it could have no tendency
of itfelf to remove from that part of f{pace, yet it might be
very eafily moved by any other fubftance.
10. As the centrifugal force of the light body B will not
allow the heavy body A to remain‘in the centre of motion,
even though it be twenty-four times as heavy as B; let the
ball A (fg. 17.) weighing fix ounces be conneéted by the
wire C with the ball B, weighing one ounce; and let the
fork E be fixed into the centre of the whirling-board; then,
hang the balls upon the fork by the wire C in fuch a man-
ner, that they may exaétly balance each other, which will
be when the centre of gravity between them, in the wire at
d, is fupported by the fork. And this centre of gravity is
as much nearer to the centre of the ball A than to the
centre of B, as A is heavier than B; allowing for the
weight of the wire on each fide of the fork. Then, let the
machine be moved, and the balls A and B will go round
their common centre of gravity d, keeping their balance,
becaufe either will not allow the other to fly off with it.
For, fuppofing the ball B to be only one ounce in weight,
and the ball A to be fix ounces; then, if the wire C were
equally heavy on each fide of the fork, the centre of gravity
d would be fix times as far from the centre of B, as from
the centre of A, and confequently B will revolve with a
velocity fix times as great as A does; which will give B
fix times as much centrifugal force as any fingle ounce of
A has: but then, as B is only one ounce, and A fix ounces,
the whole centrifugal force of A will exaétly balance that
of B; and therefore each body will detain the other, fo as
to make it keep in its circle.
Hence it appears, that the fun and planets muft all move
round the common centre of gravity of the whole fyftem,
in order to preferve that juft balance which takes place
among them.
11. Take away the forks and balls from the whirling-
board, and place the trough A B (fig. 18.) thereon, fix-
ing its centre to that of the board by the pin H. In this
trough are two balls D and E of unequal weights, con-
nected by a wire f, and made to flide ealily upon the wire
C ftretched from end to end of the trough, and made faft
by nut-f{crews on the outfide of the ends. Place thefe balls
on the wire C, fo that their common centre of gravity ¢ may
be dire€tly over the centre of the whirling-board. Then,
turn the machine by the winch ever fo {wiftly, and the
trough
WeET NI
trough and balls will go round their centre of gravity, fo as
neither of them will fly off; becaufe, on account of the equili-
brium, each ball detains the other with an equal force acting
againft it. But if the ball E be drawn a little more towards
the end of the trough at A, it will remove the centre of
gravity towards that end from the centre of motion; and
then, upon turning the machine, the little ball E will fly off,
and ftrike with a confiderable force againft the end A, and
draw the great ball B into the middle of the trough. Or,
if the great ball D be drawn towards the end B of the
trough, fo that the centre of gravity may be a little towards
that end from the centre of motion, and the machine be
turned by the winch, the great ball D will fly off, and
ftrike violently againft the end B of the trough, and will
bring the little ball E into the middle of it. If the
trough be not made very ftrong, the ball D will break
through it.
12. Mr. Fergufon has explained the reafon why the tides
rife at the fame time on oppofite fides of the earth, and con-
fequently in oppofite direétions, by the following new expe-
riment on the whirling-table. For this purpofe, let abcd
(fig. 19.) reprefent the earth, with its fide c turned toward
the moon, which will then attraé& the water fo as to raife
them from ¢ tog: and in order to fhew that they will rife
as high at the fame time on the oppofite fide from a toe;
let a plate A B (fg. 20.) be fixed upon one end of the
flat bar DC, with fuch a circle drawn upon it as abcd
(fig. 19.) to reprefent the round figure of the earth and
fea; and an ellipfe as ef gh to reprefent the fwelling of
the tide at e and g, occafioned by the influence of the moon.
Over this plate A B fufpend the three ivory ballse, f, g,
by the filk lines 4, i, 2, fattened to the tops of the crooked
wires H, I, K, fo that the ball ate may hang freely over
the fide of the circle c, which is fartheft from the moon M
at the other end of the bar ; the ball at f over the centre, and
the ball at g over the fide of the circle g, which is neareft
the moon. The ball f may reprefent the centre of the earth,
the ball g water on the fide next the moon, and the ball ¢
water on the oppofite fide. On the back of the moon M
is fixed a fhort bar N parallel to the horizon, and there
are three holes in it above the little weights p, g,r. A
filk thread o is tied to the line 4, clofe above the ball g,
and pafling by one fide of the moon M goes through a
hole in the bar N, and has the weight ¢ hung to it. Such
another thread a is tied to the line i, clofe above the ball /,
and pafling threugh the centre of the moon M and middle
of the bar N, has the weight g hung to it, which is lighter
than the weight . A third thread m is tied to the line 4,
clofe above the ball e, and paffing by the other fide of the
moon M, through the bar N, has the weight r hung to
it, which is lighter than the weight g. The ufe of thefe
three unequal weights is to reprefent the moon’s unequal
attraGtion at different diftances from her; fo that if they
are left at liberty, they will draw all the three balls to-
wards the moon with different degrees of force, and
caufe them to appear as in fig. 21, in which cafe they
are evidently farther from each other than if they hung
freely by the perpendicular lines 4, 7, 4. Hence it appears,
that as the moon attraéts the fide of the earth which is
neareft her with a greater degree of force than fhe does
the centre of the earth, fhe will draw the water on that
fide more than the centre, and caufe it to rife on that
fide ; and as fhe draws the centre more than the oppofite
fide, the centre will recede farther from the furface of the
water on that oppofite fide, and leave it as high there as
fhe raifed it on the fide next her. For, as the centre will
be in the middle between the tops of the oppofite elevations,
WHI
they muft of courfe be equally high on both fides at the
fame time.
However, upon the fuppofition, the earth and moon
would foon come together; and this would be the cafe, if
they had not a motion round their common centre of gra-~
vity, to produce a degree of centrifugal force, fufficient to
balance their mutual attraétion. Such motion they have ;
for as the moon revolves in her orbit every month at the
diflance of 240,000 miles from the earth’s centre, and of
234,000 miles from the centre of gravity of the earth and
moon, the earth alfo goes round the fame centre of gravity
every month at the diitance of 6000 miles from it, i.e. from
it to the centre of the earth. But the diameter of the
earth being, in round numbers, 8000 miles, its fide next the
moon is only 2000 miles from the common centre of gra-
vity of the earth and moon, its centre 6000 miles from it 5
and its fartheft fide from the moon 10,0@0 miles. Confe-
quently the centrifugal forces of thefe parts are as 2000,
6000, and 10,000 ; 7. ¢. the centrifugal force of any fide of
the earth, when it is turned from the moon, is five times
as great as when it is turned toward the moon. And as
the moon’s attraction, exprefled by the number 6000, at
the earth’s centre, keeps the earth from flying out of this
monthly circle, it muft be greater than the centrifugal
force of the waters on the fide next her; and confe-
quently, her greater degree of attraction on that fide is
fufficient to raife them; but as her attraGtion on the op-
polite fide is lefs than the centrifugal force of the water
there, the excefs of this force is fufficient to raife the water
juit as high on the oppofite fide.
To prove this experimentally, let the bar D C with its
furniture be fixed on the whirling-board of the machine,
(jig. 14.) by puthing the pin P into the centre of the
board; which pin is the centre of gravity of the whole bar
with its three balls e, f, g, and moon M. Now, if the
whirling-board and bar be turned flowly round by the winch,
till the ball f hangs over the centre of the circle, as in
Jig. 22, the ball g will be kept towards the moon by the
heavieft weight p ( fig 20.), and the ball c, on account of
its greater centrifugal force, and the lefs weight +, will fly
off as far to the other fide, as in fig. 22. And thus, whilft
the machine is kept turning, the balls e and g will hang over
the ends of the ellipfe/f#. So that the centrifugal force
of the ball e will exceed the moon’s attraCtion juft as much
as her attraction exceeds the centrifugal force of the ball &>
whilft her attration juft balances the centrifugal force of
the ball f, and makes it keep in its circle. Hence it is evi-
dent, that the tides muft rife to equal heights at the fame
time on oppofite fides of the earth. See Fergufon’s Lec-
a on Mechanics, leé&.2, and Defag. Ex. Phil. vol. i.
ectaly: }
WHIRL-WIND, awind that rifes fuddenly, and is ex-
ceedingly rapid and impetuous when rifen, but is foon fpent.
In this cafe, the gufts of wind proceed from different quar-
ters at the fame time, and meet in a certain place, where the
air acquires a circular, or rotatory, or {crew-like motion,
either afcending or defcending, as it were, round an axis,
which axis is fometimes ftationary, and at other times moves
on in a particular direGtion. ‘This phenomenon, called a
whirl-wind, gives a whirling motion to duft, fand, water,
part of a cloud, and fometimes even to bodies of great
weight and bulk ; carrying them either upwards or down-
wards, and laftly, fcattering them about in different direc-
tions.
There are divers forts of whirl-winds, diftinguifhed by
their peculiar names: as, the prefler, typho, turbo, exhydriay
and cenephias.
The
WHI
The prefer is a violent wind breaking forth with flathes
of lightning. This is rarely obferved ; {carcely.ever with-
out the ecnephias. Seneca fays, it is a typho, or turbo, kindled
or ignited in the air.
The ecnephias is a fudden and impetuous wind, breaking
out of fome cloud; frequent in the Ethiopic fea, particu-
larly about the Cape of Good Hope. The feamen call them
travados.
The exhydria is a wind Lea, out of acloud, with a
great cept of water. This only feems to differ, in de-
gree, from the ecnephias, which is frequently attended with
fhowers. :
A typho, or vortex, moft properly called a whirl-awind, or
hurricane, is an impetuous wind, turning rapidly every way,
and {weeping all round the place. It frequently defcends
from on high. The Indians call it orancan ; the Turks, &c.
oliphant. It is frequent in the Eaftern ocean, chiefly about
Siam, China, &c. and renders the navigation of thofe parts
exceedingly dangerous.
Dr. Franklin, in his Phyfical and Meteorological Ob-
fervations, read to the Royal Society in 1756, fuppofes a
whirl-wind and a water-fpout to proceed from the fame
caufe ; their only difference being, that the latter paffes over
the water and the former over the land. This opinion is
corroborated by the obfervations of M. de la Pryme, and
many others, who have remarked the appearances and effects
of both to be the fame. They have both a progreflive as
well as a circular motion; they generally rife er calms
and great heats, and occur moft frequently in the warmer
latitudes: the wind blows every way from a large furround-
ing {pace both to the water boat and whirl-wind ; and a
water-fpout has, by its progreffive motion, paffed from the
fea to the land, and produced all the phenomena and effects
of a whirl-wind: fo that there is no reafon to doubt their
being, meteors arifing from the fame general caufe, and ex-
plicable upon the fine principles, Firnithed by ele&trical
experiments and difcoveries. See Hurricanr, and Water-
Spout.
For Dr. Franklin’s ingenious method of accounting for
both thefe phenomena, fee his Letters and Papers, &c.
vol. i. p. 191, &c. p. 216, &c.
WHISKET, or Wisxkert, in Rural Economy, a term
often ufed provincially to fignify a bafket, efpecially in the
northern counties. See BAsKET.
WHISKY, aterm fignifying water, and applied in the
Highlands and iflands of Scotland and in Ireland to ftrong
water or diftilled liquor. The fpirit drank in the North is
drawn from barley, and is faid to be preferable to any
Englifh malt-brandy : it is ftrong, but not pungent, and
free from the empyreumatic tafte or fmell.
WHISPERING. See Hearinc, ATTENTION, &c.
Wuisrerinc-Places, fuch as domes and galleries, depend
on this principle, that the voice being applied to one end
of an arch, eafily paffes by repeated reflections to the
other.
Thus, let A BC ( Plate XV. Pneumatics, fig. 8.) reprefent
the fegment of a {phere ; and fuppofe a low voice uttered
at D, the vibrations extending themfelves every way, fome
of them will impinge upon the points E, E, &c. and thence
be refle&ed to the points F, F, &c. thence to G, G, &e.
till at laft they meet in C; where, by their union, they
caufe a much ftronger found than in any part of the feg-
ment whatever, even at D the point whence they firft pro-
ceeded.
Accordingly, all the contrivance in a whifpering-place is,
that near the perfon who whifpers there be a {mooth wall,
arched either cylindrically, or elliptically ; in which eafe he
WHI
will be heard diftin@ly by another perfon, who places his ear
pretty near the wall on the oppofite fide. A circular arch
will do, but not fo well. It is demonftrated by all the wri-
ters on Conics (which fee), that if from any point in the
circumference of an ellipfe two lines be drawn to the foci,
thofe lines make equal angles with one curve at that point.
Confequently, the found which is produced in one focus of
an elliptical chamber, and is refle€ted from the wall to the
other focus, makes all the angles of incidence equal to the
angles of reflection refpeCtively. Hence that focus is the
place where the found is beft heard.
Places famed for the conveyance of whifpers are, the pri-
fon of Dionyfius at Syracufe, which increafed a foft whifper
to a loud noife; the clap of one’s hand to the found of a
cannon, &c.; the aqueduéts of Claudius, which carried a
voice fixteen miles ; and divers others enumerated by Kir-
cher in his Phonurgia.
The moft confiderable in England are, the dome of St.
Paul’s, London, where the ticking of a watch may be heard
from fide to fide ; and a very eafy whifper be fent all round
the dome: this Dr. Derham found to hold not only in the
gallery below, but above upon the fcaffold, where a whif-
per would be carried over one’s head round the top of the
arch, though there be a large opening in the middle of it
into the upper part of the dome: and the famous whifper-
ing-place in Gloucefter cathedral, which is no other than a
gallery at the eaft end of the choir, leading from one fide
of it to the other. It confifts of five angles and fix
fides, the middlemoft of which is a naked window; yet
two whifperers there hear each other at the diftance of
twenty-five yards. See Birch’s Hift. of the Royal Society,
vol. i. p-120. See Ecuo.
WHIST, or Wuisk, a well-known game at cards. Mr.
T. Matthews, one of the laft and moft approved writers on the
game of whift, has publifhed (1816) a tenth edition of his
* Advice to the Young Whift Player, &c.” in which he has
comprifed, under the detail of 108 maxims, fuch inftruétions
as are neceflary to be obferved by thofe who with to play
this game with fkill and fuccefs. It would far exceed our
limits, if we attempted to follow him in this detail ; and an
abridgment, if it were praticable, would be of little ufe ;
nor indeed is it neceffary, as thofe who are defirous of ac-
quiring a knowledge of the minutiz of the game will confult
the author, whofe “* Advice”? may be eafily and cheaply
procured. We fhall, however, fele& fome of thofe inftruc-
tions that are the moft important, and fubjoin thofe laws of
the game that ferve to prevent or fettle difputes among
players.
The following maxims comprehend thofe inftru€tions that
relate to leads, to which we have annexed fome other direc-
tions that are immediately conneéted with them. It is
highly neceffary, fays Mr. M., to be correét in leads. When
a good player plays an eight, and then a feven, it may be
known that he leads from a weak hand; and the contrary,
when he plays the feven firft: the cafe is the fame with a
tray or a deuce.
Good players never
thefe reafons :
1ft. From a fequence up to the king.
2d. From nine, ten, knave, and king.
3d. When the beft of a weak fuit not exceeding three in
number.
1. The fafeft leads are thofe that are furnifhed by fe-
quences of three or more cards ; in which cafe the a Ria
is advifed to lead the higheft, and to put on the loweft to
his partner’s lead, and to put the higheft on his adverfary’s ;
and with a tierce to the king and Eeveral others, to begin
with
lead a nine or ten, but for one of
WHIST.
with the knave. If he has no fequences, he is inftruéted to
lead from his moft numerous fuit ; if ftrong in trumps, to
lead rather from one headed by a king than a queen ; but
with three or four {mall trumps, Mr. Matthews prefers
leading from a fingle card to a long weak fuit. But the
players of the old fchool never lead from a fingle card with-
out fix trumps. In fome cafes, Mr. M. obferves, this may
be occafionally done with very great, though not certain,
advantage ; e. g. when A has four {mall trumps, ace, queen,
&c. of the fecond fuit ; king, knave, &c. of a third ; anda
fingle card of the fourth. To lead from three cards, unlefs in
fequences, is bad play, and only proper when you have
reafon to think it is your partner’s fuit, and then lead off the
highett. Unlefs, fays Mr. M., you have a ftrong fuit your-
felf, or have reafon to fuppofe that your partner has one, do
not trump out unlefs you have fix trumps. It is generally
right to return your partner’s lead in trumps, unlefs he
leads a nine or ten, called an equivocal card, becaufe it is
ied with propriety, both from ftrong and weak fuits.
2. With ace, king, knave, and three {mall trumps, play
the ace and king; with only two, the king, and wait for the
finefle of the knave. In other {uits, without great ftrength
in trumps, or with the hopes of a particular point, do not
wait for the fineffe.
3. Ace, king, and five others, lead the ace in all fuits.
With four or lefs, the loweft, if trumps. In other fuits
always the ace, unlefs all the trumps remaining are with you
and your partner; in this cafe, a {mall one.
Mr. M. advifes not to lead trumps merely becaufe an
honour is turned up on your left, nor to be deterred from
it if on your right-hand ; either, he fays, is proper, if the
circumftances of your hand require trumps to be led; but
neither otherwife.
It is equally advantageous to lead up to anace as through
an ace ; not fo much fo to a king, and difadvantageous to
the queen turned up.
When cards are nearly equal, fays this author, the point
to which all the manceuvres of good whift players tend, is to
eitablifh a long fuit, and to preferve the laft trump, to bring
it into play, and to fruftrate the fame play of their adverfa-
ries. With an honour (or even a ten), with three other
trumps, by well managing them, you have a right to expe&
fuccefs. In this cafe, do not over-trump your right-hand
adverfary early in the hand; but throw away a lofing card,
by which, there remaining but twelve trumps, your own
hand 1s ftrengthened, and your partner has the tenace, in
any fuit that is led; whereas, had you over-ruffed, you
would have given up the whole game, to fecure one trick.
But there are reafons for breaking this rule:—1ft. If your
left-hand adverfary has fhewn a decided great hand in
trumps, (in which cafe make your tricks while you-can, ) or
zd. If your partner decidedly means to force you,—to un-
derftand if this is the cafe, you are to obferve, if your part-
ner plays the winning or lofing card of the fuit you have re-
fufed. Ifthe former, it is by no means clear he means to
force you, and you play your own game. If the latter,
you are to fuppofe him {trong in trumps, and depend on
this, to protect your long fuit: a due refleGtion on this will
convince you of the value of that maxim, which enjoins you
never to play a ftrong game with a weak hand, or vice
ver fae
bie difficult to judge when to lead trumps. The fol-
lowing fituations will affift the beginner to reafon, and in
general dire€&t him properly :
ift. With fix trumps, on fuppofition your partner has a
itrong fuit.
6
2d. If ftrong in other fuits,
yourfelf.
3d. If your adverfaries are playing from weak fuits,
4th. If your adverfaries are at the point of eight, and
bbe have no honour, or probability of making a trump by a
ruff.
With king, queen, ten, &c. in all fuits, lead the king ;
but if it paffes, do not purfue the lead, as certain the ace
is in your partner’s hand, as it is often kept up, but change
your lead, and wait for the return from your partner when
you have the fineffe of the ten, if neceflary.
King, queen, and five others, in all fuits, the king.
With four or lefs in trumps, lead the loweft. In other
fuits, always the king, unlefs you have the two only re-
maining trumps, if fo you may play a {mall one.
King, knave, ten, &c. in all fuits, lead the ten.
knave, and two or more {mall ones, the lowelt.
You fhould not lead from king, knave, and a {mall one,
unlefs it is clearly your partner’s fuit, in which cafes
play off your king and knave.
Queen, knave, nine, and others, lead the queen. Queen,
knaye, with one other, the queen. Queen, knave, with two
more, the loweft. Queen, ten, and two others, the loweft.
Queen, and three {mall ones, the loweft. Queen, or knave,
with only two, the queen, or knave.
The trump card fometimes occafions a deviation from
thefe rules. A has the ace or king, with fequence from the
ten downwards, of the fuit of which his left-hand adverfary
turns up knave, or queen—A fhould lead the ten. If the
knave or queen be put on, you have a fineffe on the return
with the nine ; if not, your partner, with an honour, will pats
it, and it is either way advantageous. é
That which is denominated under-play, is returning the
loweft of your left-hand adverfary’s lead, though you have
the higheft in your hand, with a view of your partner’s
making the third beft, if he has it, and ftill retaining the
commanding card in your hand.
To explain this further, fuppofe A fourth player, has ace
and king of his left-hand adverfary’s lead ; to under-play,
he wins the trick with the ace, and returns the {mall one,
which will generally fucceed, if the leader has not the fecond
and third in his own hand. You will fee by this, if you
lead from a king, &c. and your right-hand adverfary, after
winning with a ten or knave, return it, you have no chance
to make your king, but by putting it on.
The following is another fituation to under-play ; A re-
mains with the firft, third, and fourth cards of a fuit, of
which he has reafon to fuppofe his left-hand adverfary has
the fecond guarded; by playing the fourth, itis often paffed,
and A makes every trick in the fuit.
When it is at your option to be 8 or 9, it is material
always to choofe the former feore. When at eight, with
two honours, look at your adverfary’s {core, and confider if
there is a probability they fhould fave their lurch, or win
the game, notwithftanding your partner holds a third
honour ; if not you fhould not call, as it gives a decided
advantage againft you in playing for tricks.
Laws of Whif.—t. If a card is turned up in dealing,
the adverfe party on naming it may call a new deal, unlefs
they have looked at or touched the cards, fo as to have oc-
cafioned it ; but if any card except the latt is faced, it is
undoubtedly a new deal.
2. Should any card-player have but twelve cards, and
the others their proper number, the deal is good, and-he
who has the twelve cards pays for any renounce he ed
ave
though weak in trumps
King,
WHIST.
have made; but if either have fourteen cards, the deal is
lott.
. If the dealer does not turn up the laft card, the deal
is ibe. But if the card is fhewn, and falls on its face
by accident afterwards, the deal in this cafe fhall ftand
‘ood.
: 4- The dealer fhould leave the laft card on the table till
he has played ; after which nobody can afk for it, though
they may inquire what is trumps at any time. Should he
leave it on the table after the firit round, it may be called,
as if fhewn by accident.
5- Every perfon has a right before he plays to call on
the players to place their cards before them, which is,
in other words, to afk who played them. It is therefore
a quibble to fay they have no right to make that
demand.
6. The partner who reminds his partner to call after
the trump is turned up, forfeits a point.
7. If one of the players omit. playing to a trick, and
remains with a card too many, it is at the option of the
adverfaries to call a new deal.
8. If A plays out of his turn to his partner’s lead,
the laft player may play before the firft: if to his adver-
fary’s, his partner may be compelled to, or prevented from
winning the trick at their option.
g. Miftakes relative to tricks may be reétified at any
time during the game, whether called or not. Alfo ho-
nours, if proved to have been called in time, though not
fcored; but they cannot be claimed after the trump is
turned up.
to. If one party calls at any fcore but eight, the ad-
serfaries may, after confulting, call a new deal; the fame,
if one calls without two, or the other an{wers without one
honour.
11. If any player calls after he has played, the adver-
faries may call a new deal ; but not confult together.
12. Whoever calls, having only one honour in his hand,
fhould forfeit in proportion to any advantage that aétually
does or may poflibly accrue from the fault. If it fhould
prevent the adverfaries from calling, after the hand is played
out, the honours fhall take place of the tricks.
13. If any perfon plays out of his turn, the adverfaries
have the option to call that card at any time, or di-
re& the player whofe turn it was, to play any fuit they
choofe.
14. If A, fuppofing that he has won a trick, leads again
before his partner has played to it, the adverfaries may
oblige his partner to win it, if he can.
15. Any player may call a card from his adverfary,
if he names it, and proves the feparation. Should he name
a wrong one, he may have his beft or worft card called of
any fuit played during the deal.
16. Cards thrown down cannot be taken up again; but
may be called by the adverfaries. They may be fhewn down
by the player, if fure of every trick.
17. There are in fa& four penalties on a revoke, which
take place of every other {core. The adverfaries may take
three tricks from the party revoking, or three from their
{eore, or add three to their own; and if there {till fhould
remain enough to make the party revoking game, they can-
not win it, but remain at nine.
There is often judgment required in taking the penalties
of arevoke. Before the {core is advanced, if the party re-
voking has won nine tricks, the leaft confideration will thew,
that the adverfaries fhould take three of them, for if they add
three to their own fcore, they ftill leave the odd trick to the
2
former ; but if the revoking party be at eight, it is better
for the adverfary to fcore three points, as the odd trick
leaves the former at nine, which is in every refpe& a worfe
point thaneight. On other occafions, it is only to calculate
how the different {cores will remain after each mode of
taking the penalty ; and it will be obvious which will be
the moft advantageous—never lofing fight of the points of
the game; i. ¢. Porin eight or five yourfelf, or prevent
g 3 7 P
your adverfary from doing fo.
18. A revoke is not eftablifhed before the party revoking
has played again, or the trick been turned and quitted ;
but the adverfaries, at their option, may call from the
higheft or loweft of the fuit at the time, or the card fhewn
at any time during the deal.
19. If a revoke is claimed, the adverfaries forfeit the
penalties of a revoke, if they mix the cards before it is
determined.
zo. No revoke can be claimed after the cards are cut for
the next deal.
21. A cafe having occurred in which A played out of
his turn, and B, his partner, was directed to play a trump ;
but B had another fuit, and three or four cards were played
before it was difcovered that B had a trump in his hand; it
was decided, that the cards fhould be taken up again, and a
trump led by B as directed.
22. Acafe occurred in which A called at eight, but his
partner did not anfwer, though he had an honour, becaufe
he had a bet on the oddtrick. The adverfaries contended
that the deal fhould not ftand ; and reference being made
to Mr. M., he decided that the game was fairly won, be-
caufe there could be no poffible advantage made of the cir-
cumftanee as far as related to the game, though it might as
to the trick, if that had been the cafe referred ; and their
cafe produced the following law : viz. No one is obliged to
anfwer to his partner’s call, even though he has the other
two honours in his hand.
23. No player, having three honours in his hand, can be
precluded from taking advantage of them at any time pre-
vious to his playing a card. This law was grounded on
the following cafe ; viz. A at the fcore of eight, on gra-
dually opening his hand, faw two honours in it immediately,
and told his partner of it, who did not anfwer : but A con-
tinuing to look over his cards found a third honour, and
fhewed them down. It was contended that he had no right
to do this, as Mr. M. thought improperly, upon which he
propofed the above-mentioned law. We here fubjoin a
maxim conneéted with this cafe.
When at eight, with two honours, look at your adver-
fary’s {core, and confider if there is a probability they fhould
fave their lurch, or win the game, notwithftanding your
partner holds a third honour; if not you fhould not call,
— gives a decided advantage again{t you in playing for
tricks.
24. Whoever fhall by word or gefture manifeftly dif-
cover his approval or difapprobation of his partner’s mode
of play, or afk any queftions but fuch as are fpecifically al-
lowed by the exifting laws of whift, the adverfary fhall either
add a point to his own fcore, or deduét one from the party
fo tranfgrefling, at his option.
25. Itis now fettled, that either of the players may infift
on the cards being placed at any time previous to their
being put together. It is alfo fettled, that where a bet is
made, that either of the parties fcores two, the bet is won
by honours, though the adyerfary has won the game by
cards—fuppofing it betted that A makes two points, if B,
his
WHIST.
his adverfary, being at feven, makes three by cards, if A has
two by honours, he {till wins his bet.
The odds of this game are calculated according to the
points, and with the deal, in the following manner :
1 love - -
2 love - -
&c. &c.
Except that 9 is confidered as fomething worfe than 8.
It is 3 to 1 in favour of the firft game. The odd trick has
been always fuppofed in favour of the leader ; but Mr. M.
‘is of opinion, that this is an error, as the dealer has the ad-
vantage in this, as in every other fcore. :
We fhall here fubjoin an explanation of two terms that
are univerfally ufed, but not generally underftood,. viz.
tenace and fineffe.
“ The principle of the fenace is fimple. If A has the ace
and queen of a fuit, and B, his adverfary, has the king and
knave, the leaft confideration will fhew that if A leads, B
wins a trick, and vice verfa of courfe ; in every fituation it is
the mutual plan of players by leading a lofing card to put
it into the adverfary’s hand to oblige him to lead that fuit,
whereby you preferve the tenace. So far is'eafily compre-
hended ; but it requires attention with practice to apply the
principle, fo obvious in the fuperior, to the inferior cards, or
fee that the fame tenace operates occafionally with the feven
and five, as the ace and queen, and is produ¢tive of the fame
advantage. A, laft player, remains with the ace and queen
of a fuit not played, the laft trump, and a lofing card: B,
his left-hand adverfary, leads a forcing card. Query—How
is A to play? Anfwer—If three tricks win the game, or
any particular point, he is not to ruff, but. throw away his
lofing card, becaufe his left-hand adverfary being then
obliged to lead to his fuit, he remains tenace, and mu{t make
his ace and queen. But upon a fuppofition that making
the four tricks gains him the rubber, he fhould then take
the force, as in thefe fituations you are juftified in giving up
the tenacé far an equal chance of making any material
point.
‘ The fineffe has a near affinity to the tenace, except that
the latter is equally the object where two, and the former
only where there are four players. A has the ace and queen
of a fuit led by his partner, now the dulleft beginner will
fee it proper to put on the queen ; and this is called fineffing
it, and the intention is obvioufly to prevent the king from
making, if in the hand of his right-hand adverfary. Should
it not be there, it is evident you neither gain nor lofe by
making the finefle ; but few players carry this idea down to
the inferior cards, or fee that a trick might be made by a
judicious finefle, againft an eight, as a king ; but to know
exatly when this fhould be done, requires more {kill than
in the more obvious cafes, united with memory and ob-
fervation. Another cafe of finefle even again{t two cards
frequently occurs, and the reafon on refletion is felf-
evident. 3
s¢ A leads the ten of a fuit, of which his partner has the ace,
knave, and a {mall one ; B fhould finefle or let the ten pafs,
even though he knows the king or queen are in his left-hand
adverfary’s hand, becaufe he preferves the tenace and pro-
bably makes two tricks; whereas, had he put on his ace,
he could make but one—in fhort, tenace is the game of po-
fition, and finefle, the art of placing yourfelf in the moft
advantageous one.’? Matthews’s Advice, &c. ed. 10. 1816.
M. de Moivre has folved this problem: To find the odds
that any two of the partners, that are pitched upon, have
,not the four honours? M. de Moivre concludes from this
folution, “eM Bae Yio
VoL. XXXVIII.
10 to g
10 to 8
1. That it is 27 to 2, nearly, that the dealers have not
the four honours.
2. That it is 23 to 1, nearly, that the eldeft have not the
four honours.
3. That it is 8 to 1, nearly, that neither one fide nor the
other have the four honours.
4- That it is 13 to 7, nearly, that the two dealers do not
reckon honours.
5. That it is 20 to 7, nearly, that the two eldeft do not
reckon honours.
6. That it is 25 to 16, nearly, that either one fide or the
other do reckon honours, or that the honours are not equally
divided.
The fame learned author alfo determines, that the odds
for the partners who have eight of the game, if dealers,
againft thofe who have nine, is nearly as 17 to 11. But
if thofe who have eight of the game are eldeft, the odds
will be nearly as g5 to 77. And that without confider-
ing whether thofe who have eight are dealers, or eldett,
there is one time with another the odds of fomewhat lefs
than 7 to 5 ; and very nearly that of 25 to 18.
It is a queftion likewife belonging to this game, what the
probability is that a player has a given number of trumps
dealt him ; particularly, it has been often taken as an equal
wager, that the dealer has at leaft four trumps. M. de.
Moivre has computed the following tables; fhewing for
the dealer, as well as the other gametters, what the pro-
bability is of taking precifely any afligned number of
trumps in one deal. And thence by a continual addition
of the numbers, or of fuch part of them as is neceflary, it
is eafily found what the probability is of taking at leaft
that number.
Chances of the Dealer to Chances of any other~
have befides the Card Trumps.| Gamefter to have pre-
turned up. cifely.
3910797436 | o 8122425444
20112672528 | I. | 46929569232
41959196136 | II. |110619698904
46621329040 | III. |139863987120
30454255260 | IV. |104897990340
12181702104 | V. | 48726808416
3014663652 | VI. | 14211985788
455999544 | VII. | 2583997416
Tab. I 40714245 | VIII 284999715 Tab. II.
zo10580 | IX. 18095220
48906 | X. 603174
468 | XI. 8892
ra || eI 39
476260169700= fum,
is the common de-
nominator ; being
the combinations of
13 in 51.
Sum = 158753389900
is the common de-
nominator ; being
the combinations of
12 cards in 51.
By the help of thefe tables feveral ufeful queftions may
be refolved; as, 1. If it is afked, what is the probabi-
lity that the dealer has precifely III trumps, befides the
trump card? The anfwer, by Table I., is mee and the
. 2 15875
probability of his having fome other number of trumps is
3C 11213
WHI
11213
15875
bability that fome other gamefter, the eldeft hand for in-
ftance, has precifely IV trumps? The anfwer, Table II., is
104898
476260
2. To find the chance of the dealer’s not having fewer
than IV trumps: add his chances to take o, I, I, which
are 39108, 201127, 4195923 and their fum 659827
taken from the denominator 1587534, and the remainder
made its numerator, the probability of the dealer having
pat a i 379 a little above
1587534 563
1. The wager, therefore, that the dealer has not IV
12
But if the queftion had been, what is the pro-
IV or more trumps will be
trumps, is fo far from equal, that whoever lays it throws
away above = of his ftake.
But if the wager is that the dealer has not V trumps»
then 466213 (the chances of his having III befides the
trump card) is to be added to the chances for o, I, II;
which will make the chance of him who lays this wager to
317 | and that of his adverf: 338)
Bean 495 7 ADS
And hence, if wagers are laid that the dealer has not
IV trumps, and has not V trumps, alternately ; the ad-
vantage of him who lays in this manner will be nearly 1 1}
per cent. of his ftakes.
3. To find the odds of laying that the eldeft hand has at
leaft III, and at leaft IV trumps, alternately; the nu-
merator of the one expeétation is (by Table II.) 31501119,
and of the other 17514720, to the denominator 47626017 ;
whence the advantage of the bet will be ait or three per
cent. nearly.
Again, if it is laid that the trumps in the dealer’s hand
thall be either I, II, III, or VI; the difadvantage of this
bet will be only 15s. 4d. or about 3 per cent.
In like manner, the odds of any propofed bet of this
kind may be computed: and from the numbers in the
tables, and their combinations, different bets may be
found which fhall approach to the ratio of equality ; or
if they differ from it, other bets may be afligned, which,
repeated a certain number of times, fhall balance that
difference.
4. And if the bet includes any other condition befides
the number of trumps, fuch as the quality of one or
more of them; then proper regard is to be had to that
reftriction.
Let the wager be that the eldeft has IV trumps dealt
him; and that two of them fhall be the ace and king.
The probability of his having IV trumps precifely is, by
Table II., pe na and the different fours in 12 cards
476200
are~> x = ee x 2. But becaufe 2 out of the 12
2
trumps are fpecified, all the combinations of 4 in 12 that
are favourable to. the wager, are reduced to the different
twos that are found in the remaining to ecards, which
ae s Gn
10 9
welts x $e And this number is to the former as 1 to
11: the probability, therefore, is reduced by this reftric-
tion to ~ of what elfe it had been: that is, it is re-
I I
duced from near — to about —.
; 5 52
De Moivre’s Doétrine
of Chances, p. 172, &c. ed. 3d.
WHISTLE, Boatswatn’s. See Carr.
WuistLe-Fi/h, a name given by the people of Cornwall
to a fpecies of gadus, with only two fins on the back,
otherwife called muflela fluviatilis. See Gapus, and
MusteELa.
WHISTON, Wirt1am, M.A. in Biography, an Englifh
divine and mathematician, was the fon i 3 the retor of
Norton near T'wycrofs, in Leicefterfhire, and born in the
year 1667. He finifhed his education as a fizer at Clare-
hall, Cambridge, applying with great diligence to the ftudy
of mathematics, and compofing devout meditations corre-
{ponding to the early bent of his difpofition. Having alfo
received the degree of B.A. in 1690, and being eleéted
fellow of his collages he took pupils; and in 1693 became
M.A. and entered into holy orders. Soon afterwards he
declined the office of tutor, and was appointed chaplain
to Dr. More, bifhop of Norwich. His acquaintance
with fir Ifaac Newton commenced in 1694, and produced
a change in his philofophical fyftem, from that of Des
Cartes to that of Newton. On the principles of this phi-
lofophy, he publifhed, in 1696, his “* Theory of the Earth,’
which was refuted by Keill. Having been prefented by
his patron, the bifhop, to the living of Loweftofft in Suffolk,
he refigned his chaplainfhip, and in order fully to difcharge
his religious duties procured the affiftance of a curate. Of
his invincible and moral fcrupulous integrity, he gave an
early initance by refufing his vote to a perfon who folicited
a fellowfhip of Clare-hall, and who had abandoned the bac-
chanalian party with which he was conneéted, and which
he apprehended to be the moft powerful, and promifed
future fobriety; and giving this reafon for his refufal :
‘¢ Sir, you have confeffed that you facrificed your integrity
to your preferment, and thereby have made it impoflible
for me to ferve you.”? Being obliged to vacate his fellow-
fhip by marriage, fir Ifaac Newton nominated him his
deputy as profeffor of mathematics, allowing him all the
profits of the office ; and in 1703 he furrendered to him the
profefforfhip itfelf. Upon this acceffion, he refigned his
living, fettled at Cambridge, and was appointed by Dr.
More, bifhop of Ely, catechetical le@urer of St. Clements.
Having already publifhed ** A Short View of the Chrono-
logy of the Old Teftament, and the Harmony of the Four
Evangelifts,”” and ‘ Tacquet’s Euclid,” he prefented to the
public in 1706 his “ Effay on the Revelation of St. John;’
and in the following year he preached the Boyle’s lec-
ture fermon on the Fabjeet of the * Accomplifhment of
Scripture Prophecies.’”? In the year 1706 he began to enter-
tain doubts concerning the divinity of Chrift, ait in the pro-
fecution of his inquiries he was led to adopt Arian opinions,
which were further confirmed by the perufal of the ** Apof-
tolical Conftitutions,”” reckoned fpurious by moft writers,
but pronounced by Whifton to be “ the moft facred of the
canonical books of the New Teftament.”? In 1708 he
offered an ‘* Effay on the Apoftolical Conftitutions’’ to be
printed at the Univerfity prefs, but it was rejected; how-
ever, in 1709, he publithed fermons and effays fupporting
thefe opinions. His invincible perfeverance caufed him to be
deprived
Witt
deprived of the catechetical leGure, and at the fame time
he declined receiving the falary which the bifhop wifhed
to continue. His fituation at the Univerfity became very
precarious, and in O@tober 1710 he was expelled from it,
in conformity to a ftatute againft maintaining doétrines
contrary to the eftablifhed religion. In the following year
he alfo loft his profefforfhip; and having no further em-
ployment at Cambridge, he removed to London, and pub-
‘lifhed an account of the proceedings again{t him, and alfo
books in defence of his fentiments, which he retained with-
out regarding any worldly confiderations. His purpofes
were fixed, and he declared to two friends, who wifhed him
to pay fome attention to his prefent welfare, ‘* you may as
well perfuade the fun to come down from the firmament, as
turn me from this my refolution.”? Hoadly and Clarke
remonttrated ; but all their pleas were unavailing. All his
future profpeéts feemed now to depend on his knowledge
of mathematics, and accordingly in 1710 he publifhed his
“ Preleétiones Phyfice-Mathematice ; five Philofophia
Clariffimi Newtoni Mathematica illuftrata.’’? At this time
Addifon and Steele, and feveral other perfons, exerted
themfelves in procuring a fubfcription to his aftronomical
le&tures. But at the clofe of this year he publifhed the
« Hiftorical Preface”? to a propofed work on Primitive
Chriftianity, which fubje&ted him to the inquifitorial ani-
madverfion of the lower houfe of convocation. Efcaping,
however, the apprehended confequences of their interference,
he perfifted in his courfe, and in 1711 printed this work
which he had announced, and which had occafioned an alarm,
in 4 vols. 8vo. The convocation, not fufficiently informed
with regard to the extent of their power in cafes of herefy,
addreffed the queen in order to obtain the opinion of the
judges, who difagreed upon the fubje&, and no further
meafures were purfued by this body. However, in 1713,
Whitton was profecuted in the fpiritual court; and as he
did not appear to its citation, he was declared contuma-
cious. Difficulties occurring on the part of the lay-judges,
the bufinefs was deferred, and the profecution was,termi-
nated by an act of grace in 1715. Whifton was at this
time a profefled member of the eftablifhed church, and
attended its worfhip, till at length he was refufed admiffion
to the facrament ; and therefore he opened an aflembly for
worfhip at his own houfe, and ufed a liturgy of his own
compofing. He alfo eftablifhed a weekly meeting for the
promotion of primitive Chriftianity, which fubfifted for two
years. Whilft he was thus occafionally engaged, he devoted
himfelf to mathematical and philofophical purfuits ; and in
concert with Mr. Ditton, who was his colleague in his lec-
tures, publifhed a projeét for difcovering the longitude at
fea. But as their fpeculations were of no ufe, it will be
fufficient to obferve, that he publifhed at laft a method of
afcertaining the longitude by obfervations of the eclipfes of
Jupiter’s fatellites, with tables of fuch eclipfes for four
years from the year 1738.
His zeal in religious difcuffions and projeé&ts remained
unabated; and, among other’ publications in 1716 and
the two following years, appeared feveral pieces founded
on the fuppofed genuinenefs and authority of the apof-
tolical conititutions. In 1719 he publifhed a letter ad-
dreffed to Finch, earl of Nottingham, on the ‘ Eter-
nity of the Son of God and his Holy Spirit,’? which
received an anfwer from his lordfhip, that induced the
clergy and univerfities to return him public thanks, and
which caufed Whifton’s exclufion from the Royal Society,
when he was propofed as a candidate in 1720. Sir Ifaac
Newton, it is faid, who was of a very timid temper, took
meafures for defeating his eleGtion. As he was of opinion
WHT
that the Jews would be {peedily reftored'to their native land,
he procured models of the tabernacle of Mofes and the tem-
ple of Jerufalem, upon which he read public leftures. In
1741 he undertook a furvey of the coafts of England, m
order to fix the longitude of places, and a chart to this pur-
pofe was publifhed in 1745. It wasin the year 1747 that he
difcontinued his attendance on the fervice of the church of
England, and joined a Baptift church, in which conne@tion he
continued. In 1749 he publifhed two volumes of memoirs of
his own life, to which a third was added in 1750. Having
attained to the 85th year of his age, he died at London in
1752, and was interred at Lyndon, where his daughter was
married, and where a handfome tomb was ereéted in honour
of his memory. ‘ Fancy,’’ fays one of his biographers,
“‘ predominating over judgment, a warm head and honeft
heart, enthufiaftic fervour, and difregard to common forms
and worldly confequences, were the leading features of his
charaéter.”” He never hefitated in giving his opinion to all
perfons on all fubje¢ts, freely and without difcrimination.
Being once afked, in the prefence of Addifon, Pope, Wal-
pole, Craggs, and others, ‘¢ whether a fecretary of ftate
could be an honeft man confiftently with the duties of his
{tation ??? He gave his opinion that it would be of advan-
tage to fuch an officer to {peak openly what he knew, and
declare his intentions without difguife. Mr. Craggs re-
plied, “ It might anfwer for a fortnight, but no longer.”’
“Did you never, Mr. Secretary’? returned Whitton,
“try it for a fortnight ?? When queen Caroline, who
honoured Whitton’s integrity, and was fond of his converfa-
tion, defired him to acquaint her what was particularly
found fault with by cenfurers on her conduét ; he replied,
that her habit of talking at chapel was mentioned with dif-
approbation. She promifed amendment, and wifhed him
to point out any other faults. ‘ When your majefty,’?
faid he, ‘* has amended this, I will tell you of the next.”
A catalogue is given of Whifton’s writings, which are very
numerous, at the clofe of his ‘* Memoirs of Dr. Clarke.??
He has alfo given a valuable “* Englifh Tranflation of Jofe-
phus,”’ with plans, notes, and illuftrations, to which are pree
fixed eight differtations. Biog. Brit. Memoirs of his Own
Life.
WHITAKER, Joun, B.D. a divine of the eftablifhed
church, was born at Manchefter, about the year 1735, and
educated at Oxford, where he became fellow of Corpus-
Chrifti college, taking the degree of M.A. in 1759, and of
B.D. in 1767. His firft work, viz. ‘* The Hiftory of
Manchetter,”’ appeared in 1771, 4to., in which he takes
occafion to give a view of the ftate of the kingdom in
general. ‘This work, abounding in literary refearch and
ingenious conjecture, gave reputation to the writer, and was
followed in the fame year by ‘* The Genuine Hiftory of
the Britons afferted.’? However, it is faid that Mr. Whit-
aker’s imagination in the progrefs of his years mifled his
judgment, of which he gave evidence in the fecond volume
of his «* Hiftory of Manchefter,’’ printed in 1775, though
he itill maintained his character for deep and learned inyef-
tigation. As a clergyman, he became morning-preacher of
Berkeley chapel, London, in 1773, from which fituation he
was foon after removed ; and he refented his removal with
the natural warmth of his temper, Such was his orthodoxy,
that he declined accepting a valuable living that was offered
to him by an Unitarian patron. In 1778 he fucceeded, as
fellow of his college, to the re&tory of Ruan-Lanyhorne in
Cornwall, where his conteft about tithes was the occafion of
much uneafinefs to him. When mutual conciliation took
place between him and his parifhioners, he publifhed in
1783 a courfe of Sermons on Death, Judgment, Heaven,
3C2 and
WHI
and Hell, which were rendered peculiarly impreflive by the
fervid eloquence with which hg-treated the fubje&t, naturally
awful and interefting. In 1787 he publifhed his «* Mary
Queen of Scots vindicated,” 3 vols. 8vo., in which he: fur-
paffed former writers in the zeal with which he vindicated
this unfortunate queen, and criminated her enemies, Eliza-
beth, Cecil, Morton, and Murray. He alfo prefented to
the public the fruit of his learned refearch in “ The Courfe
of Hannibal over the Alps afcertained,’’ 2 vols. 8vo. 17945
and in 1795 he advanced the higheft monarchical principles
in-his work, entitled «* The real Origin of Government,”
and alfo his orthodoxy in his *¢ Origin of Arianifm,’”’ zea-
loufly defending his fentiments in both thefe refpeéts by
contributions to the Englifh and Jacobin Reviews, and
Britifh Critic. At length a paralytic ftroke warned him
of his approaching end, and after a gradual decline he im-
perceptibly clofed life at his rectory in Oftober 1808, at
the age of 73, leaving a widow and two daughters. Gen.
Biog. ‘
: WHITBREAD, SAMUEL, an eminent brewer, claims
a place in a work’ devoted to the record and promotion
of the arts and fciences, on account of the talents which
he difplayed and the charaéter which he maintained in his
advancement from {mall beginnings, to the poffeffion of a
fortune, that fet him on a level with fome of the firft no-
bility of the country. The family from which he fprung
belonged to the clafs of yeomanry, in the county of Bed-
ford,. which poffeffed fome fmall property, and affociated
with that defcription of moderate diffenters, who occafionally
conformed to the Church of England. Born in the village
of Cardington near Bedford, about the year 1720, and edu-
cated probably with a view to trade, for which his family
defigned him, he was bound apprentice at a fuitable age, for
the term of feven years, to.an opulent brewer in London ;
and after the expiration of that period, he remained for
fome time unfettled, as he was cautious in commencing bufi-
nefs'on his own account. At length, however, actuated by
the laudable ambition of tracing the footfteps of thofe,
who, in a fimilar department, had rifen to opulence and
rank, he determined to make trial.for himfelf, how far in-
duftry and attivity, aided by economy, would avail to his
fuccefs. Having difpofed of his own patrimony, which
could not have been very confiderable, and deriving affift-
ance from perfons of opulence, who were encouraged to re-
pofe confidence in him by his known difpofition and habits,
he laid the foundation of a fuperftruéture of fortune and
reputation, which has had few parallels in the hiftory of
commerce. Simple in his manners, he was accuftomed to
appear at the corn-market in Mark-lane with a white apron,
as the emblem of his occupation ; and liberal in his difpofi-
tion, he contrived to fecure the attachment and aétive fer-
vices of thofe with whom he was conneéted in his domeftic
arrangements, and in the condu& of his bufinefs. He well
knew that by making thofe whom he employed partakers
of his bounty, he gave them a kind of intereft in his pro-
fperity; and therefore on fettling the annual balance of his
accounts, he diftributed among{t them donations, correfpond-
ing to their refpeétive ranks and fervices. Whilft he gave
gsool. ta a confidential clerk, he extended his bounty even
to the horfe-feeders, to each of whom he ufually gave 5/.
Advancing with fure, but rapid progrefs, his brew-houfe
in Chifwell-ftrect became a fpacious quadrangle, confifting
of an ample dwelling-houfe, work-houfes, aly cellars,
and every other kind of convenience both for habitation and
bufinefs; while the flock, the plant, the dray-horfes that
would have mounted a regiment of cayalry, the cafks, &c.
might in-procefs of time be eftimated at nearly half a mil-
WHI
lion of pounds fterling. To this immenfe property, we
might add a floating capital amounting to from 80 to
100,000/. ferving to Rinply the demand of malt, hops, oats,
&c. as well as the payment of clerks and fervants. Thus
by the direétion and fuperintendance of a fingle individual,
with the co-operation of a number of coadjutors in various
ranks of fubordination, the brew-houfe in Chifwell-ftreet
became the firft eftablifhment of the kind, not only in Lon-
don, but in Europe, depending for its fubfiftence and fingu-
lar profperity on the approved quality of the article which
it furnifhed. To the founder and principal proprietor, it
became a mine of wealth, and an immenfe fource of fupply
for purchafes of land and houfes, donations and bequetts,
that have given diftinguifhed celebrity to the name of Whit-
bread. It is needlefs to recount the various eftates which
he purchafed in his native county; we fhall content our-
felves with mentioning merely the Torrington manors and
eftates, for which he paid the fum of 120,000/., befides
5000/. as a prefent to alderman Skinner the auétioneer,
when the negotiation refpeGting it was completed. Of
his benefaGtions and bequefts to various objects of public
utility and of private charity, it will be fufficient to fay, that
they indicated the liberality of his difpofition, and the am-
plitude of the means which he derived from his fingular
profperity. Mr. Whitbread was twice married ; by his firft
wife he had feveral children: but his fecond wife, who was
daughter of the firft earl, and filter of the firft marquis
Cornwallis, and to whom he was married Auguit 12,
1769, died December 27, 1770. He was for fome years
one of the reprefentatives of the town of Bedford, and
afterwards returned for the borough of Steyning. For
the abolition of the flave-trade, he was a fteady and ardent
advocate; and as fuch he generoufly undertook from his
private purfe to make good all injuries that might be fuf-
fered by thofe who attended to give their teflimony for this
purpofe. With this expreffion of benevolence he clofed a
life, during the progrefs of which he had amafled landed
-and chattel property to an immenfe amount, without any
of thofe penurious habits, which have been in many inftances
the means of accumulating large fortunes, and of enabling
thofe to die rich who have lived meanly and miferably. His
death happened June 11th, 1796.
In 1799 his fon, the fubjeé of the next article, erected
a {plendid monument to his father’s memory, in the church
of Cardington ; which monument was the laft, and has been
thought by fome perfons to be the beft work of the late
J. Bacon, R.A. The principal figure reprefents a dying
man, fupported by religion, in the form of a female, who
points to the glory of heaven as a reward for his good ac-
tions ; while the figure of benevolence, in a reclining pof-
ture, is weeping at his feet. )
Wuirpereap, SAMUEL, a diftinguifhed fenator, was the
fon of the preceding by-his firft wife, and born in the year
1758. Deitined to the inheritance of a large fortune, and
pofleffing talents which by due cultivation would qualify
him for a confpicuous dtation in public life, his father ipared
no expence in his education. At a proper age he was fent to
Eton, where he alfo enjoyed the benefit of private tuition,
and where he commenced an intimate acquaintance with
Mr. W.H. Lambton, afterwards M.P. for the city. of
Durham, and Mr. now earl Grey, with whofe family he
became conneéted by a double alliance. From Eton he
removed to Chriftchurch college, Oxford, and from thence
to St. John’s college, Cambridge, where he finifhed his edu-
cation, and.was graduated B. A. Mr. Whitbread fenior, fa-
gacious in difcerning the early dawnings of his fon’s future
celebrity, liberally offered him all the advantages which might
b
WHITBREAD.
be derived from foreign travel, and feleted for his tutor
and companion the prefent archdeacon Coxe, well known
by a variety of valuable publications. Having travelled to-
gether through France, Germany, and Switzerland, they
afterwards feparated with profeffions of mutual regard.
Mr. Whitbread, foon after his return, formed, in 1788, a
matrimonial conneétion with Mifs Grey, the filter of his
Eton affociate, who afterwards, by the advancement of her
father, general fir Charles Grey, to an earldom, became
lady Elizabeth Whitbread: his fifter alfo, in procefs of
time, married the prefent fir George Grey, bart. then a
captain in the navy. Having acquired every neceflary qua-
lification for occupying a feat in the great council of the
nation, and interefted by an ample fortune either in poffef-
fion or in profpeét, as well as by genuine fentiments of pa-
trioti{m, in its deliberations and refolutions, Mr. Whitbread
offered himfelf, on the diffolution of parliament in 1790, as
a candidate for Bedford, a borough which had been repre-
fented by his father, who at the fame time offered himfelf
for the borough of Steyning.- Both eleétions were contefted ;
but both father and fon finally obtained their refpeétive
feats. Mr. Whitbread, junior, commenced his political
career in parliament with an animated fpeech againft the
unconttitutional doGtrine of ‘* confidence,’’ aflumed on the
part of minifters, who claimed an entire reliance on their
wifdom and integrity. The occafion of this claim was a
propofed war againft Ruffia, for which the minifter (Mr.
Pitt) urged the houfe of commons to vote money, without
previous and fatisfactory information of the neceflity, and
much lefs of the juftice or policy of this war, the objeét of
which was the reftoration of Oczakow to the Turks. The
meafure was unpopular ; and though the minifter obtained
a majority, when the queftion was debated, he thought it
moft prudent to give up his objeét, and a pacification en-
fued, which prevented much calamity to the nation. About
this time the abolition of the flave-trade occupied the public
attention, and this was a meafure to which the member for
Bedford had always avowed himfelf a fteady and zealous
friend. In parliament he fupported it not only by his vote,
but by a difplay of eloquence which commanded univerfal
applaufe. As an ative magiltrate, he direfted his particular
attention to the occurrences that took place in confequence
of the fearcity in the year 1795; and in devifing means of
relief, he propofed that as the magiftrates were empowered
to fix a maximum of wages, fo far as ref{peéts the hufband-
man, a minimum should be alfo preferved by law, in order
thus to eftablifh a more accurate proportion between the price
of labour and that of the means of fubfiftence. With this
view he introduced into the houfe a bill, which was ap-
proved by Mr. Fox and many other members ; but as it
was oppofed by Mr. Pitt, his efforts were unavailing. ‘The
minifter was no lefs unfuccefsful in his plan for amending
the poor laws, and meliorating the condition of the peafan-
try and working clafs. His plan indeed was much more
extenfive and complicated. than that of Mr. Whitbread,
which was fimply calculated to enable the labourer to main-
tain himfelf by his wages, without the degrading as well as
difpiriting neceflity of feeking parochial relief.
The fubje& of this article was an undifguifed and uniform
oppofer of the French war in 1793, becaufe he thought it
to be unneceflary and unjuft; and yet he was a zealous ad-
vocate for meafures of felf-defence againft the fecret ma-
chinations and open attacks of a powerful and vindictive
enemy. Accordingly he condemned the negligence of mi-
nifters, on occafion of the French attempt at invafion in
1797» by means-of a fquadron which appeared off Bantry
bay, and moved the houfe for a committee of inquiry into
3
their condu@. His motion was evaded by the previous quef=
tion. In every ftage of the conteft with France, and under
every varying form of its government, he was anxious for
peace, and an advocate for treating with its rulers in order
to terminate hoftilities, and to put a ftop to the watte of na-
tional treafure and the effufion of human blood. His opi-
nion on the condué of minifters in the profecution of this
war, and their reluétance to enter into treaty for terminating
it, was explicitly avowed in an eloquent fpeech, which he
delivered on occafion of a motion by Mr. Dundas (then fecre-
tary of f{tate) for an addrefs to the throne in 1800, for the
purpofe of approving the condu@ of his majefty’s govern-
ment. Anxious, however, as he was for peace, becaufe
he difapproved the war from its commencement, and becaufe
he thought it effential to the true intereft of the country, he
was no lefs folicitous to maintain the honour of the nation
in obtaining it. No man in this refpe&t was a more noble-
minded patriot than himfelf; and if he confented to make
any facrifice, it was becaufe he thought it abfolutely necef-
fary to the permanent profperity of his native country.
Whilft he claimed and exercifed the privilege of pronounc-
ing his own opinion of public men and political meafures,
he was a zealous advocate for the liberty of others, and in-
terpofed with his moft vigorous exertions for the refcue of
thofe who fuffered imprifonment at home or exile to Botany
bay, for too freely and imprudently divulging their opinions.
During the fhort interval of the adminiftration of Mr. Ad-
dington, (the prefent lord Sidmouth, ) who fucceeded Mr.
Pitt in the year 1801, and made peace with Buonaparte,
feveral popular meafures were adopted, in which Mr. Whit-
bread cordially concurred ; and in the year 1805 he diftin-
guifhed himfelf as the public accufer of Mr. Dundas
(created lord Melville) for malverfations that had occurred,
whilft he had occupied the poft of treafurer of the navy.
His charges againft this nobleman were founded on a report
of the commiffioners of public accounts, from which it ap-
peared that, during the exercife of his office, this noble lord
had violated the law, by conniving at mal-praétices and par-
ticipating in unwarrantable emoluments; and that he was
refponfible for deficiencies amounting to 697,500/. Thefe
charges alfo implicated Meff. Trotter, Wilfon, and Sprott 5
and the former in particular, who was paymatter of the navy
department under lord Melville, and had taken out large
fums of money on his own private account. In the inveiti-
gation of this bufinefs, it was difcovered, that the fums
officially depofited in the Bank had been withdrawn, lodged
with private bankers, and applied to other purpofes befides
thofe that were properly naval. Mr. Whitbread founded on
feveral faéts which he ftated, a variety of refolutions which
impeached the fidelity and honour of his lordfhip. _ To his
motion relative to this bufinefs, Mr. Pitt moved an amend-
ment, which was negatived by a majority of one (217 to
216), in confequence of the vote of the fpeaker. In confe-
quence of thefe proceedings, the vifcount refigned his office
at the Admiralty-Board, and his name was expunged from
the lift of privy-counfellors. Upon the fudden demife of
the premier, and a coalition between lord Grenville and Mr.
Fox, the two latter came into office; and Mr. Erfkine, being
raifed to the peerage, and appointed lord high chancellor,
was deflined to prefide at lord Melville’s trial. This noble-
man having made his defence within the bar of the houfe of
commons was replied to by the member for Bedford ; and
an impeachment being agreed upon, proceedings com-
menced in Weftminfter-hall, April 29th, 1806. The refult,
after a fhort trial, was the acquittal of his lordfhip by a ma-
jority, from all the charges alleged againft him. Notwith-
{tanding the unexpeéted termination of this trial, neither the
friends
WHITBREAD.
friends nor the enemies of the fuppofed delinquent attached
any blame to the public aceufer; but he was allowed to
have conduéted the bufinefs affigned to him with a dignity
and propriety fuitable to its delicacy and importance. In
the cafe of lord Melville, as well as in that of Mr. Pitt, he
knew how to diftinguifh between the man and the minifter ;
and to pay a juit tribute to the talents and difpofitions of
the former, whilft he criminated and condemned the latter.
Having differed with Mr. Pitt with regard to his political
meafures almoft through the whole of his public life,
he took the opportunity which the trial of lord Melville
afforded him of paying a juft tribute of refpe& to his abili-
ties and virtues, when his premature death muft have vin-
dicated the eulogift from the flighteft fufpicion of infincerity
and adulation.
Of the new adminiftration, he was a fteady fupporter ; but
though he had at an early period enlifted himfelf under the
banners of Mr. Fox, and the earl Grey, his fchool-affociate
and brother-in-law, who was one of its diftinguifhed members :
he was their friend as minifters, not from perfonal and felfifh
motives, but from a conviction of his judgment that their
principles and views were moft favourable to the liberty and
welfare of the Britifh empire. Indeed he was regarded by
many as an impraéticable man, becaufe in all great queftions
he was influenced by principle more than by any private and
party attachment. What were his fentiments of the coali-
tion miniftry, and what were the grounds of the fupport
which he afforded them, he had an opportunity of ftating in
the moft explicit manner. At this time fir Francis Burdett
offered himfelf a candidate for the county of Middlefex, and
tran{mitted a circular letter to Mr. W., who had voted for
him twice before, foliciting his fupport. This letter con-
tained refleGtions on the coalition miniftry, which led the
fubje& of this article to decline giving«his vote for fir
Francis, and alfo to exprefs his fentiments of the coalefcing
parties, which had been feverely cenfured. ‘I have fup-
ported the prefent adminiftration,”’ fays Mr. W., ‘from a
conviction that they were united upon principles of real
public utility, and for the purpofe of carrying into execu-
tion plans of great national improvement, both in our
foreign and domettic circumftances ; and I cannot abandon
them, becaufe ina fituation more difficult than that in which
any of their predeceffors have ever ftood, they have not been
able to effeét what I believe to have been neareft the hearts
of them all—I mean a peace with France ; feeing fuch a
peace could not have been obtained on terms confiftent with
national honour, and becaufe time has not fufficed to mature
and execute the fchemes of internal improvement, which they
have manifefted their determination to purfue,’’ &c. Having
ftated fome other opinions with regard to the union of
parties, in which he feemis to have difagreed with fir Francis,
he concludes: ‘'Thefe radical differences render it impof-
fible for me to affift you in becoming a member of parlia-
ment. Different opinions may be maintained confiftently
with mutual and entire perfonal refpe& ; fuch as I un-
feignedly profefs towards you. The determination you
have taken to avoid the expence of conveyance and deco-
rations fo confpicuous at your former eleétions, does you
honour ; and I wifh fuch an example could be followed by
all other candidates,” &c. The publication of this corref-
pondence threatened a very undefirable termination ; but it
was happily prevented by the interpofition of friends.
During this period, Mr. Whitbread took an aétive part
in public affairs, and diftinguifhed himfelf on a variety of
occafions, guarding on the one hand with vigilant jealoufy
againft an undue exertion of the royal prerogative, and on
the other againtt its infringement by the democratical part
!
of the conftitution. In February 1807, he renewed his at-
tention to the exifting fyftem of poor laws, as it was his with
and inceflant endeavour to improve it, and in fo doing to
render the peafantry happier, better, and lefs dependent.
It was alfo an objeét, which he conceived to be of effential
importance, to controul the feveral branches of public
expenditure, and thus to relieve the diftrefles of the country.
Much depended, he well knew, on peace with France, and
to this defideratum his views and efforts were conftantly di-
rected. But he was almoft ready to defpair of this defirable
event, ‘ from the awful moment that death clofed the feene
upon the enlightened ftatefman (Mr. Fox) who had firit
commenced the negociation.”” When the Grenville admi-
niftration was obliged to retire, and a new parliament was
convoked by their fucceffors, he publifhed a {pirited addrefs
to his conftituents, in which he {tated the meafures which
had been proje&ted and wholly completed or commenced
during the exiftence of the late miniftry, and the part which
he had taken in the deliberations of the preceding parliament,
clofing with thefe memorable words: “I court your in-
quiry, and if you are fatisfied in the refult of it, I hope for
your votes in the prefent eleGtion. If you do me the honour
again to return me, I fhall indeed be proud of it, and I will
again endeavour to do my duty.’? The next important ob-
je&t of his attention was the education of the poor, as inti-
mately conneéted with their morals and religion ; but unable
to obtain a legiflative fanétion to his plan, he was under a
néceflity of recurring to individual exertions and private fub-
{cription. During the important debates that occurred in
1809, with regard to the orders in council, he concurred
with thofe who condemned this meafure, and contributed
firft to their fufpenfion, and at length to their utter difcon-
tinuance. With regard to the fituation of Spain, he was
one of thofe who cenfured the condu& of the French
government, and who wifhed the natives to be ftimulated to
new exertions in behalf of the independence of their native
country. ‘In 1809,” fays one of his biographers, ‘he
took an ative part in the inquiry and examination into the
conduct of the royal duke who prefided over the army, and
although he found much to blame on that occafion, yet, at
a future feafon, he feized the firft opportunity to afford his
teftimony in behalf of his royal highnefs, whofe adminiftra-
tion as commander-in-chief had contributed not a little to
the happy and glorious termination of the late conteft.
That event did not prevent him, however, after the over-
throw of Buonaparte’s government, from blaming the con-
du&t of the Congrefs, and expofing the ambitious views of
fome of the fovereigns, particularly in refpeét to Saxony.
On the return of the emperor from his exile in the ifland
of Elba, the member for Bedford ftrongly and emphatically
cenfured the declaration of the allies, more efpecially that
part of it which feemed to recommend the deteftable princi-
ple of affaffination. He alfo loudly infifted both on the im-
policy and injuftice of a new war, on the ground that the
executive power of the enemy was vefted in the hands of
any. one particular perfon. But above all things he pro-
tefted againft the forcible reftoration of the Bourbons by a
foreign force, and the aflumed right of diétating a govern-
ment to France. Yet he moft cordially joined in a vote of
national gratitude to the duke of Wellington, for the me-
morable victory at Waterloo, although he at the fame time
boldly avowed that events had not altered his fentiments in
refpec to the pretended juftice of the original conteft.””
In the variety of his perfonal and domeftic concerns,
in his attendance on parliamentary duties, and in his
efforts for eftablifhing and promoting inftitutions of pub-
lic utility, and more efpecially fuch as pertained to the
inftruction
WHITBREAD.
inflruétion of the poor, Mr. Whitbread was affiduous
and indefatigable ; and whilft he was overwhelmed by a
multiplicity of occupations, he voluntarily undertook a more
Herculean labour than any other, which was the arrange-
ment of the perplexed concerns of Drury-lane theatre.
With every moment of his time thus occupied, and his
mental powers unremittingly exerted, it is no wonder that
his health fhould decline, and that his mind itfelf, though
naturally vigorous and ardent, fhould be impaired by excefs
and intenfenefs of application. The confequence that might
have been apprehended -unhappily occurred, and the world
was prematurely deprived of the benefit of his valuable fer-
vices. ‘His countenance changed; he became drowfy,
lethargic, and irritable ; and he even fuppofed himfelf to
have fallen into contempt.”? Thefe indications of corporeal
and mental decay were alas! too foon fucceeded by that fatal
cataftrophe, which occurred on Thurfday, July 6, 1815.
«* An inqueft having been fummoned by Mr. Gell, the coro-
ner, met at eight o’clock the fame evening, at the houfe of
the deceafed, No. 35, Dover-ftreet, Piccadilly, and having
entered his ftudy; beheld Mr. Whitbread lying on his back,
his arms and legs extended, with a deep incifion on his throat
from ear to ear, a {mall part in the front of the throat ex-
cepted. A looking-glafs was oppofite to him; his apparel
and the floor were covered with blood ; and the fatal razor
was found at fome dittance !””
The verdi&t of the jury was as follows :—* That the
deceafed Samuel Whitbread, efq. died by his own hand ;
but that he was in a deranged ftate of mind at the time the
fatal a€t was committed.’”? His principles and charaéter
have been juftly delineated by one of his biographers, and
we fhall fele& fuch particulars as are confiftent with our
contracted limits. ‘In politics he was a whig ; yet a whig
of the old fchool ; one who wifhed to balance the royal
power, by means of a due influence of the popular branch :
but at the fame time firmly and ftedfaftly to uphold both.
Accordingly, he was always a ftrenuous, conftant, and uni-
form advocate for a reform of the houfe of commons: but
this great meafure was grounded on the ancient and acknow-
ledged bafes ; not on the vifionary plans of annual parlia-
ments and univerfal fuffrage! As a patriot, he wifhed for
the happinefs and prafperity of his country; but thefe, he
deemed moft likely to be acquired, and moft permanently
enjoyed by cultivating the arts of peace ; advancing the
commerce ; cherifhing the manufaétures ; and encouraging
the agriculture of his native land. Wars might indeed be
papular: fuccefsful, glorious ; but it was alfo incumbent and
imperative that they fhould be both juft and neceflary. It
was his firm opinion, that economy was to the full as proper
for a ftate as for a private family : he was always, therefore,
a decided friend of order, regularity, and good management.
He hated jobs; he viewed placemen, courtiers, and con-
tractors, with a jealous eye; and he difliked both unneceflary
and exceffive penfions, not only on account of the fums thus
perverted from the public revenue ; but alfo from their ob-
vious tendency to produce meannefs, fycophancy, and
dependance. P
‘Mr. Whitbread was a ftrenuous advocate for national
education, or inftru@tion on a great fcale. But finding him-
felf unable to obtain a national fanGion to this meafure, he
contented himfelf with his affiftance and fupport as a private
individual.
‘* He was an encourager of the fine arts; and always de-
firousthat they fhould enjoy protection and applaufe.”—“ To
agriculture, as a fcience calculated to advance the beft in-
terefts of the nation, he paid particular attention.””—“ Horti-
culture alfo engaged his notice, and the gardens, and lawns,
and groves of Southwell, might have all been exhibited
as fo many perfeét fpecimens of care, neatnefs, and pro-
riety. ¥
“A Ithough always doubtful of the juftice of the late war,
he never hefitated for a fingle moment as to the propriety of
arming and defending his native country againit the menaces
and attacks of her enemies. He himfelf raifed and com-
manded a body of fturdy yeomanry ; and while he thus ex-
cited a martial ardour in his neighbourhood, he forgot not
to enforce his favourite plan of fitting men, by means of
education, for their refpeGtive fituations in life, On this
occafion, he inftituted a fchool for the benefit of the non-
commiffioned officers; and contributed by all the means in
his power to render it effeGtual.
“ Anonly fon, born and matured with the expe@tations of
great opulence ; it is but little furprifing if he occafionally
difplayed a certain degree of haughtinefs in his demeanour.
Indeed it cannot be denied, that at times he appeared
fomewhat harfh and overbearing ; but on the other hand,
he mutt be allowed to have been admirably fitted for com-
mand ; and was feldom known to exceed the bounds of
moderation, but when he combated the injuftice of power,
affailed the infolence of office, or endeavoured to expofe fuc-
cefsful guilt to fhame and to punifhment.
_“ His heart conftantly glowed with all the focial affeAions.
He was zealous in his friendfhips; while his enmities were
tranfient and fhort-lived. His ear was ever ready to liften
to the tale of the oppreffed: his purfe always open to fuc-
cour thofe who had been reduced to diftrefs by unexpe@ed
calamities. At length, after having lived and a&ted during
the ftormy politics of the French revolutionary conteft, he
was fuddenly cut off, at a period when his fervices might
have proved highly advantageous to his country ; when the de-
ceitful calm of peace feemed pregnant with greater and more
formidable dangers than thofe arifing out of a long, wide-
{preading, expenfive, and deftruétive warfare !
“ On the 11th July, 1815, when the marquis of Taviftock,
on moving for a new writ for the borough of Bedford, de-
feanted on the charaéter, worth, and talents of the late
member, his encomium was liftened to amidft the loud
cheerings of both fides of the houfe of commons:
‘*¢ Accuftomed to defend his opinions with warmth and
earneftnefs,’ faid he, ‘the energies of his ample and com-
prehenfive mind, would never permit the leaft approach to
tamenefs or indifference. But no particle of animofity ever
found a place in his breaft, and he never carried his political
enmities beyond the threfhold of this houfe. It was his
uniform praétice to do jultice to the motives of his politi-
cal opponents ; and I am happy to feel, that the fame juttice
is done to his motives by them. ‘To thofe who were more
immediately acquainted with his exalted chara@er ; who
knew the direétnefs of his mind, his zeal for truth, his un-
fhaken love of his country, the ardour and holdnefs of a dif-
pofition incapable of difmay, his unaffected humanity, and
his other various and excellent qualities, his lofs is irreparable.
But moft of all, will it be felt by the indigent in his neigh-
bourhood. Truly might he be called the poor man’s friend.
Only thofe who, like myfelf, have had the Opportunity of
obferving his condué nearly can be aware of his unabated
zeal, in promoting the happinefs of all around him. His
eloquent appeals to the houfe in favour of the unfortunate,
will adorn the pages of the future hiftorian ; while at the
prefent moment, they afford a fubjeé&t of melancholy retro-
{pe&t to thofe who have formerly dwelt with delight on the
benevolence of a heart that always beat, and on the vigour
of an intelleé&t which was always employed for the benefit of
hie fellow-creatures !? ”
He
WHI J
He left behind him by lady Elizabeth, his mourning
widow, two fons and two daughters.
‘The following memorandum of Mr. Whitbread’s fudden
death was written immediately after the lamentable event
was afcertained, in the title-page of a very ancient edition
of Cicero’s “ Paradoxa,” by a friend who highly refpect-
ed the ftern virtues both of his public and his private
character :—
Samuet WHITBREAD, armiger ;
Vir illuftris ifte, quem omnes liberales brevi in tempore
appellabunt
_AnctLicum CATONEM,
E terra fuit ereptus die fexto Julii, anno Chrifti 1815.
Ann. Biog. and Obit. for 1817.
WHITBURN, in Geography, a townfhip of England,
in the county of Durham; 4 miles N. of Sunderland.
WHITBY, Daniet, a learned divine of the church
of England, was born at Rufhden, in Northamptonfhire,
in 1638, and admitted to Trinity college, Oxford, in
1653, where he took the degree of M.A. in 1660, and
became fellow of his college in 1664, in which year he firft
appeared as a writer againit popery. In 1668 he was
appointed chaplain to Dr. Seth Ward, bifhop of Salif-
bury, and collated to a prebend in his church. In
1672 he took the degree of D.D., and about this time
was made rector of St. Edmund’s parifh in Salifbury.
From this time he became a confiderable writer in the
popifh controverfy, publifhing ** A Difcourfe concerning
the Idolatry of the Church of Rome,’ 1674; ‘ The
Abfurdity and Idolatry of Hoft-Worfhip proved,” 16793;
“ The Fallibility of the Roman Church demonftrated,”
1687; and “ A Treatife of . Traditions,” in two parts,
1689. He alfo expreffed, in common with feveral other
liberal perfons at this period, his wifhes for an union of all
Proteftants, in a piece publifhed in 1683, and intitled
«The Proteftant Reconciler ; humbly pleading for Con-
efcenfion to Diffenting Brethren in Things indifferent and
unneceflary, for the Sake of Peace, &c.’? This publica-
tion was too liberal for the times, and called forth a hoft of
adverfaries. But the moft formidable attack was that of
the famous Oxford decree, which paffed a cenfure on the
following propofitions contained in it; wiz. ‘It is not
lawful for fuperiors to impofe any thing in the worfhip of
God that is not antecedently neceflary ;”’—* The duty of
not offending a weak brother is inconfiftent with all human
authority of making laws concerning indifferent things ;”’
which propofitions were denominated in the decree falfe,
impious and feditious dotrines; and the book was burnt
in the quadrangle of the univerfity fchools. But it was
ftill more humiliating to the author to be required by his
patron, the bifhop, to declare his forrow for having written
the work, and to renounce by name the two preceding pro-
pofitions. This condué was very unworthy of a Chriftian
bifhop, and fixes a permanent ftigma on the memory of
Ward. It reminds us of the Inquifition and Galileo. (See
CAlaLxe. } Dr. Whitby, a€tuated probably by a defire to
conciliate his adverfaries, or urged to adopt this meafure,
publifhed in the fame year a fecond part of the book, in
which he ftrongly elite the diffenting laity to join in full
communion with the eftablifhed church, and replies to all
the objections of the Non-conformifts againft the lawfulnefs
of their complying with its rites and ceremonies.
‘ No man could more fincerely rejoice in the Revolution
than Whitby, nor more cordially welcome the emancipation
wt :
of Britith fubje&s from all kinds of tyranny. Accordingly’
he publifhed two tra&ts in favour of the oath of allegiance
required on the acceffion of king William; and in one of
thefe traéts he maintains the principle in the Englifh govern-
ment of an original contraét between the prince ‘and the
people.
His capital work, however, was the refult of fifteen years’
ftudy, and is intitled ** A Paraphrafe and Commentary on
the New Teftament,”’ 2 vols. fol. printed in 1703, feveral
* times reprinted, and held in high eftimation .by biblical
ftudents. To the edition of 1710 he annexed a Latin
appendix, containing an examination of Dr. Mill’s various
readings, under an apprehenfion that they might prove in-
jurious to the authority of Scripture. This great work of
Dr. Whitby was followed by feveral traéts on theological
f{ubje&ts, in which he feems to value himfelf on that freedom
of difcuffion which, with new times, he was allowed to in-’
dulge, more efpecially as he occafionally flrays beyond the
fixed boundaries of what has been called orthodoxy.
Among thefe traéts were, “* The Neceffity and Ufefulnefs’
of the Chriftian Revelation ;”.** A Difcourfe concerning»
the true Import of the Words EleGtion and Reprobation ;’”
«The Extent of Chrift’s Redemption ;”? “* The Grace of
God ;’’- “ The Liberty of the Will;”” “* The Perfeverance
or Defeétibility of the Saints;’? ‘ Four Difcourfes on
EleGtion and Reprobation ;” ‘ A Treatife on Original
Sin,” in Latin, in which he denies that the imputation of
Adam’s fin to his potterity has any fair ground in Scripture.
Upon the publication of Dr. Clarke’s “ Scripture Doc-
trine of the Trinity,’? Dr. Whitby. adopted his opinion, and
wrote a Latin treatife, intended to prove that the contro-
verfies refpeéting the Trinity could not with certainty ‘be
determined from fathers, councils, or Catholic tradition.
In conneGtion with this fubje& of controverfy, he publifhed
“ A Diffuafive from Inquiry into the Doétrine of the
Trinity ; or, the Difficulties and Difcouragements which
attend the Study of that’ Do@rine.” In the Bangorian
controverfy, he was one of the auxiliaries of Dr. Hoadly,
and printed feveral traéts. He alfo publifhed feveral fer-
mons. But his laft work, which did not appear till after
his death, was “ The laft Thoughts of Dr. Whitby, con-
taining his Corre&tions of feveral Paffages in his Commen-
tary on the New Teftament ; to which are added Five
Difcourfes ; publifhed by his exprefs Order.’’ In the pre-
_ face to this work, written at the clofe of a long life of
learned and laborious inquiry, the author fays, ‘ when
he wrote his Commentaries, he went on too hattily in the
common beaten road of other reputed orthodox divines ;
conceiving firft, that the Father, Son, and Holy Ghoft, in
one complex notion, were one and the fame God, by virtue
of the fame individual effence communicated from the Father ;
which confufed notion (he adds) he is now fully convinced
to be a thing impoffible, and full of grofs abfurdities.” A
fhort illnefs clofed the life of this eminent biblical fcholar,
on March 24, 1725-6, at the age of 88. He is reprefented
by a biographer as a man of great fimplicity of charaéter,
fingularly idborant of worldly affairs, entirely devoted to his
ftudies, but affable, pious, and charitable. He preferved a
tenacious memory to the laft, but through a defeét of fight
was obliged to employ an amanuenfis. Biog. Brit.
Wuirtsy, in (each apy, is a confiderable fea-port town
of the North-Riding of Yorkthire, England, fituated be-
tween Flamborough-head. and the entrance of the river
Tees. Confidering the ruins of the ancient abbey as the
principal object of the town, the latitude of Whitby is 54°
29! 24". N., and the longitude 0° 35! 59! W. from the
meridian of Greenwich. It is 47 miles NE. of York, and
246
ey
WHITBY.
246 miles fom Loudon. The town is placed at the mouth of
~ the fmall river Efls, which divides it into two unequal parts.
‘The direGtion of the river, running nearly due north towards
the fea, determines that of the town, which extends along
‘its banks. Thefe banks rife almoft fuddenly from the river
on both fides ; particularly on the eaft, fo as to leave but a
very narrow itretch of level ground at the bottom, of
which, indeed, a great part has, at different times, been
gained from the bed of the river. This narrow fpace is
literally covered with houfes; but the town afeends the
fteep banks on both fides, and thus prefents a romantic
appearance, efpecially when viewed from the fea; the
whole furmgunted by the old weather-beaten church, on the
verge of the eaftern cliff, and the venerable remains of the
abbey behind. . The eaftérn half of the town extends about
three-quarters of a mile; but the breadth where greatelt
does not exceed 150 yards. The weftern divifion ig the
largelt, the moft compact, and the moft elegant. Although
now of importance, Whitby was but inconfiderable in trade
and population, until towards the beginning of the laft cen-
tury. Its origin may, however, be carried back to the
foundation of the celebrated monaftery in the feventh cen-
tury. That the Romans, or the original Britons, had any
eftablifhment at Whitby, we have no grounds to affirm ; al-
though the opening of the river-into the fea muft have
afforded a convenient {tation for fifhing and navigation ; of
which, had the Romans been a commercial people, they
would donbtlefs have availed themfelves, efpecially on a
tra& of coaft fo little furnifhed with harbours adapted to
their fhipping. On this part of the coaft may, perhaps, be
placed the bay mentioned by Ptolemy, under the romanized
name Dunum Sinus, of which the moft commodious inlet
was the mouth of the river, now, by a peculiar appro-
priation of a generic Britifh name for water, called the Efk.
After the eftablifhment of the monaftery of St. Hilda in
the feventh century, the. vicinity began to be inhabited.
Under her fucceflor Ailfleda, daughter of Ofwy, the port
had fome fhare of thipping ; for, in 684, the abbefs took
a voyage, with fome monks of the abbey, to the ifle of
Coquet, on the coaft of modern Northumberland, to have
an interview with St. Cuthbert. Suffering and again re-
ftored with the abbey, after the devaftation by the Danes.
in 867, Whitby obtained its prefent name, fignifying the
White town. It was alfo from the monaftery occafionally
called Prefteby, or Priefttown. Although unnoticed in
Domefday-book, Whitby, prior to 1189, had become of
fuch importance, that the abbot ere¢ted it into a borough,
with the cuttomary privileges. Thofe privileges were foon
after confirmed bya royal charter ; and had no unfair means
been employed to fet them afide, Whitby might now
have been a royal borough. But the liberties of Whitby
were of fhort duration: the monks repented of their libera-
lity to the town, and Peter, the fucceeding abbot, in 1200,
procured from king John a repeal of the charter of his pre-
deceflor. About the year 1538, Whitby is defcribed by
Leland as a “great fifchar toune ;” and nothing more is
added by Camden, who mentions the place fifty years later.
For many years after the diffolution of the abbey, the
veffels of the port were few-and fmall; and the trade was
inconfiderable until the eftablifhment of the alum-works at
Guifborongh, at the clofe. of Elizabeth’s reign. A {pirit
of emulation being excited by .the fuccefs of thofe works,
a fimilar eftablifhment was formed in 1615 at Sand’s-end,
within three miles of the town. The vicinity of Whitby
abounding with the alum-mineral, other undertakings of the
fame kind were begun. Hence two important branches of in-
duftry were formed in the town; the one to fupply tke |
Vou. XXXVITI.
Printed by A. Strahan, —
eee Se a ee ee +
alum-works with coal, the other to export the alum to
diftant parts. From’ thefe beginnings, the trade of Whitby
inereafed; the fchemes of the inhabitants were enlarged ;
the number, of thipping was augmented; and new fhips
were conftru€ted, for which timber was drawn from the
oak-woods of the vicinity, In this manner, the trade and
navigation of the town grew up to fuch a height, that,
in the beginning of the prefent century, Whitby was the
feventh in rank for tonnage among the ports of England.
In 1816, the number of veffels belonging to the town was
280, carrying 46,341 tons, and navigated by 2674 feamen.
Befides the carrying of coal, with the alum trade, and a
fhare of foreign commerce, the number of veffels fitted out
from Whitby for the Greenland whale-fifhery, begun in 1753,
was, in 1800, next to that of thofe failing from London.
As early as the middle of the 16th century, {mall wooden
piers were conftru@ed at the mouth of the Efk, for the
protection of the fifhing-craft : but in 1632 ftone piers were
begun, through the exertions of fir Hugh Cholmley, who,
by the favour of the earl of Strafford, his relation, obtained
a general contribution over England in aid of the work,
when nearly 500/. were colleéted. The navigation of
Whitby becoming of importance, aéts of parliament were
obtained, in 1702 and 1723, for conftruGting a pier, which
now extends above two hundred yards from the cliff on
the ea{t fide of the harbour, weftward to the channel of
the Efk. By this work, fecurity was obtained for the
town as well as the fhipping, both of which were greatly
expofed to north-eafterly winds. Another pier, on the
weft fide, was afterwards added, running out about an
equal diftance towards the fea. By fubfequent additions
and improvements, the harbour has been effentially bene-
fited. The weit pier, now carried out to the length of
three hundred and forty yards, is con{tru@ted with large
blocks of f{quared ftone, and terminates in a circular head,
with embrafures for a battery. Within the piers, veffels to
the number of five hundred may lie, but all on the ground
at low water. The harbour is divided into the outer and
the inner by a drawbridge, fo conftru€@ted as to allow
fhips of two hundred tons to pafs through. In the latter,
which is capacious and fecure, on both fides of the river
are conftruéted feveral dry docks, and other accommoda-
tions for fhip-building. The veffels built for the coal-trade
are particularly valued for their ftrength and durability.
One built in 1724 was loft on the Lincolnfhire coaft in
1810, but did not go to pieces: another, wrecked a few
years ago, was above one hundred years old. In neap-tides
the water rifes from.ten to twelve feet at the entrance of
the harbour; but in ordinary fpring-tides the depth ex-
tends from fifteen to eighteen feet. In the equinoétial
gales, the depth of water is fometimes increafed to twenty-
three or twenty-four feet. The trade of the port of
Whitby is but {mall in proportion to its fhipping, as many
of the largeft veffels are employed ‘in time of war as
tran{ports, and at other times by the merchants of London,
and of other ports. The trade of the town is, however,
confiderable for its fituation, in a country abounding with
moors, where few manufaétures are carried on. The alum-
works in the environs.are of great antiquity, and may not
improbably be carried back to the Roman times. But
the firft work eftablifhed. in Britain, in later times, was
begun by fir Thomas Chaloner in 1595, on his eftate at
Belman-rock, near Guifborough, twenty miles to the welt-
ward of Whitby. Since that period, alum-mineral has been
extracted in various other places, particularly at Sand’s-end,
three miles weft from Whitby, where the work is ftill in
a profperous flate. Until the year 1789, the alkaline lees
3D employed
WHITBY.
employed in the manufa€ture were prepared from kelp, or
fea-weed, burnt on the fhore; but fince that period kelp
has been gradually fuperfeded by black-afhes, made from
the refufe of foap-boilers’ lees. ‘The average annual quan-
tity of alum manufactured in the Whitby diftri&, for the
laft twelve years, was 2840 tons; but in 1816 the quan-
tity was 3155 tons. Little alum is now exported, nearly
the whole being fent to London. The number of perfons,
including artificers and boys, belonging to the works, is
about Goo. (See Arum.) Thin feams of coal have, for
upwards of feventy years, been wrought in the environs of
Whitby, but of a very inferior quality, and ufed only in
the interior parts of the country.
Whitby contains no public building of note. The town-
hall, ere&ted by the late Mr. Cholmley, isa heavy pile of
the Tufcan order. The poor-houfe, extenfive, and judi-
cioufly managed, affords a comfortable refuge for the dif-
trefled, and tends to diminifh the heavy burthen of the
parifh-rates. A difpenfary, liberally fupported, for diftri-
buting advice and medicines to the poor, was eftablifhed in
1780. The parifh-church ftands near the top of a hill,
on the ealt fide of the town, a little to the northward of
_ the ruins of the abbey, acceffible from the bottom by an
inconvenient afcent of 190 ftone fteps. The architeéture
of the edifice was originally what is abfurdly ftyled Gothic ;
but it has gone through fo many alterations, that little of
its ancient appearance now remains. The church-yard is
exceflively crowded with grave-ftones ; but the fea-air of
Whitby is fo deftruétive of ftones, that infcriptions are
foon effaced. For the ufe of the numerous inhabitants, a
{pacious chapel of eafe has been ereéted in the lower part
of the town ; and for the country part of the parifh, which
is of great extent, three others have been built. That
at Sleights, four miles from the town, is a handfome edifice.
Roman Catholics, Quakers, and various other claffes of
diffenters, have their refpe€tive places of worfhip in the
town. According to the parliamentary returns of 1811,
the houfes of this town were 1393, and the inhabitants
6969: but in the fpring of 1816, the population was
found, by a careful inquiry, to have increafed to 10,203.
The inhabitants of the country part of the parifh were then
eftimated at 1477 perfons.
The town of Whitby is clofe, irregular, and unpleafant ;
but the environs are romantic and beautiful. Thefe are
embellifhed with the country-refidences of the opulent in-
habitants, moftly erected on commanding fituations: the
moft interefting objet of all, however, is the celebrated
Abbey,
in the year 655. Before the fanguinary but decifive battle
of Leeds, on the banks of the Oire, in which he utterly
overthrew and flew his invading foe, Penda, king of the
Mercians, Ofwy, king of the Northumbrians, vowed, if
fuecefsful, to ereét and endow a monattery, and to confe-
crate to the fervice of religion in it his daughter Aélfleda,
then fearcely a year old. In difcharge of this engagement,
he founded the monaftery of Streonefhalh, of the Benedic-
tine order; with this peculiarity, that it was to contain
both monks and nuns, all under the government of St.
Hilda, the firft abbefs. It is, nevextlislets, probable, that
the introdu@tion of the monks, by which the inflitution
became in all refpeéts fimilar to that of the celebrated abbey
of Fontevraud, in the weft of France, did not take place
till feveral years after its eftablifhment. The monattery
was began in 657, and dedicated to St. Peter ; but fuch
was the veneration entertained for St. Hilda, that it was
always called by her name, and to her was the foundation
ufually afcribed. While Hilda was abbefs, the fynod of
of great antiquity, having been originally founded |
Whitby was held in 664, in which, notwithftanding her
oppofition, ftrengthened by that of Colman, the feftival of
Eafter was direéted to be celebrated at the time adopted by
the fovereign pontiff, inftead of that which had been in
general obfervance in Britain. Dying in 680, Hilda’s place
as abbefs was filled by Ofwy’s daughter, Ailfieda. Till
the year 867, the abbey continued to profper ; but it was
then overthrown by the fons of Lodbrog the Dane. In
this ftate it remained until after the Norman Conqueft: the
lands in the neighbourhood were granted to Hugh, the firft
earl of Chefter, from whom they pafled to William de
Percy, anceftor of the Percys of Northumberland. By him
the monaftery was reftored from its ruins under a prior ;
but in the reign of Henry I. it was again raifed to the rank
of an abbey. Although pillaged by a Norwegian fleet in
the time of abbot Richard, who died in 1175, its revenues
at the diffolution, under Henry VILI., amounted to sos/.
gs. 1d. At this epoch, the {cite and lands, partly by grant
and partly by purchafe, became the property of fir Richard
Cholmley, a defcendant of the family of Cholmondeley, in
Chefhire. *
Of Whitby-abbey, the ruins of the church alone remain ;
but by thefe, which are {till confiderable and confpicuoufly
picturefque, it appears to have been a magnificent ftruture.
The exterior length of the church, which is built in the
ufual form of a crofs, is 310 feet ; the breadth at the weft
end, including the buttrefles, is 84 feet ; the length of the
crofs 153 feet. The church probably occupies the fcite of
the Saxon building ere¢ted before the Conqueft ; but of it,
nor even of the edifice conftruéted immediately after the
revival of the monaftery, no veftige now remains. ‘The pre-
fent ftruéture is of different ages, and exhibits different
ftyles of architeéture. The eaftern part, or choir, evidently
the oldeft, was probably built by Richard de Burgh,
who was abbot from 1148 to 1175, and who rebuilt the
chapter-houfe. The lower part of the tower, and moft of
the pillars, which are all cluftered, were perhaps ereéted at
the fame time: but the north tranfept and the upper part
of the tower are of a later date. ‘The ornaments of the
windows in thofe parts, the beautiful range of niches on the
walls within, the tracery of the circular window in the north
end, &c. feem to indicate the work of the clofe of the 13th
or the beginning of the 14th century. The weit front is the
lateft part of the whole, probably of the time of Edward III.,
or in the end of the 14th century.
The alum-rocks in the vicinity of Whitby are not lefs
curious than valuable, from the variety of petrified fub-
{tances they contain. Befides the ufual petrifactions of
fhells and other marine bodies, parts of the human fkeleton
have been occafionally difcovered. In the early part of the
laft century, Dr. Woodward, the celebrated naturalift, dug
up on the fear, or cliff, on the eait fide of the harbour, the
petrified arm and hand of a man, having all the bones and
joints very vifible. About 1743 was found, in the alum-
rock, the complete fkeleton of a man; but it was broken
to pieces by taking from the bed. A fimilar difcovery is
faid to have been made about nine years ago; but the
fkeleton was broken without any {cientific perfon having
examined it. In 1758, the bones of a crocodile, as they
were imagined to be, were drawn from the rock, and tran{-
mitted to the Royal Society, by whom an account of them
was publifhed in the soth volume of the Philofophical
Tranfactions. About four years afterwards, the fkeleton
of a horfe was found in the alum-works at Salt-wick, thirty
yards under the furface. Ammonites, or cornua-ammonis,
vulgarly called {nake-ftones, abound, with other teftaceous
petrifaétions, in the aluminous fchiftus in the vicinity of
Whitby ;
WHI
Whitby ; on which account, probably, the town has chofen
three ammonites for its arms.
Robin-Hood’s Bay, fix miles fouth-eaft from Whitby, is a
noted fifhing-ftation, frequented for protection by many a
veffel paffing along that extended tra& of inhofpitable fhore.
Among the country-feats in the vicinity of Whitby, which
are hot numerous, is Mulgrave caftle, the manfion of the
earl of Mulgrave, fituated five miles weftward from the
town, on a lofty eminence, commanding a moit extenfive
profpe& both by land and fea. Near io the fouthward
itand the remains of the ancient baronial caftle of Mulgrave.
Manifeft evidences of Roman occupation are to be feen
in various parts of the furrounding country. The Roman
road from Eboracum (York), northwards by the vicinity of
New Malton, (perhaps the Derventio of Antonine,) and
apparently terminating at Durnfley, near the fea, three miles
W. from Whitby, is in many places very perceptible.
Along its courfe ftill remain traces of Roman encampments,
of which the camps at Cawthorn, 19 miles S.W. from
Whitby, fuppofed to be the Delgovitia of Antonine, are
very perfe&t. . Thefe works are noticed in general Roy’s
« Military Antiquities of the Romans in Britain ;’? but
much more particularly in “ The Hiftory of Whitby and
Streonefhalh-abbey, with a Statiftical Survey of the Vici-
nity,’’ by the Rev. George Young, in 2 vols. Svo. Whitby,
i817.
WHITCHURCH, a populous market-town in the
north part of the hundred of North Bradford, and county of
Salop, England, at the northern extremity of the county, is
fituated 20 miles N. by E. from Shrewfbury, and 160 miles
N.W. by N. from London. The church, the chief object of
notice, feated on the top of the hill over the town, is a {pa-
cious modern ftruéture, ereéted in 1722, with a fquare tower
108 feet in height. ‘Two recumbent ftone figures are pre-
ferved from the ruins of the old church ; of which one re-
prefents the celebrated John Talbot, the firft earl of
Shrewfbury, and marfhal of the realm of France in the
veign of Henry VI.: he was called the Englifh Achilles,
and was greatly renowned in the wars of France. Shak-
{peare, in his play of Henry VI., defcribes Talbot as a moft
formidable and magnificent charaéter: “ the terror of the
French :—the fcare-crow that affrights their children :—
whofe grifly countenance made others fly:—none durlt
come near him for fear of fudden death.”” Another effigy
reprefents Chriftopher Talbot, fourth fon of John Talbot,
fecond earl of Shrewfbury, and who was rector of Whit-
church and archdeacon of Chefter. The reGtory of this
parifh is one of the richeft in the county. The caitle has
long been in ruins. Whitchurch has a very refpeétable
free-{chool, in which many perfons of eminence have been
educated. Here are alfo meeting-houfes for Proteftant
diffenters, a charity-fchool for children of both fexes, and
fix alms-houfes for aged women, endowed by Mr. Samuel
Higginfon, A. weekly market is held on Friday ; and
here are two annual fairs. The town is a place of much
public refort during the horfe-races which are occafionally
held here. Among the natives of Whitchurch, was dif-
tinguifhed the celebrated linguift Abraham Whelock, who
tranflated the New Teflament into Perfian, and affifted
Dr. Brian Walton in the compilation of his polyglot Bible.
Whelock publifhed alfo an edition of the writings of the
venerable Bede. He died in 1654. The population return
of the year 1811 ftates the town of Whitchurch to con-
tain 552 houfes, and 2589 inhabitants: but the parifh com-
prehends, befides the town, thirteen townfhips. The whole
population is returned as 53323 the number of houfes as
1107.
WHI
About nine miles to the northward of Whitchurch is
Hawkftone-park, long the refidence of the ancient family
of the Hills, and a place celebrated for its natural and ar-
tificial beauties and curiofities. The manfion, an elegant
modern building fituated on the north fide of a romantic
hill, is adorned with a lofty portico of the Compofite order.
With the beauty of the exterior of the edifice, the interior
fully correfponds: the chapel and the faloon are particularly
elegant, and the latter is ornamented with valuable paintings.
The ee around the manfion are particularly intereft-
ing for their aflemblage of naturally romantic fcenes, to
which art has greatly contributed. The grotto, the view
from the cliff, called Paoli’s-point, the retreat, or hermitage,
St. Francis’s cave, the Swifs bridge, the terrace, the obelifk,
and the widely-extended profpeét it prefents over the fur-
rounding country, the tower, the artificial river, the cottage,
or whim, are among the many attractive features of Hawk-
flone-park, which owes much of its embellifhment to the tafte
and munificence of the late fir Richard Hill, bart. The
beautiful and romantic fcenery of this noble place is fully
detailed in T. Rodenhurit’s * Defcription of Hawkftone.””
—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiii. Shropfhire ;
by R. Rylance, 1811.
Wuircuurcu, a {mall but ancient borough and market-
town in the upper half hundred of Evingar, Kingfclere
divifion of Hampfhire, England, is fituated on the borders
of Chute Foreft, at the diftance of 13 miles N. from Win-
chefter, 24 miles N. by E. from Southampton, and 57
miles W.S.W. from London. It poffefles the rights of a
borough by prefcription ; and has fent two members to
parliament fince the twenty-feventh year of queen Eliza-
beth. The borough is the joint property of lord Sidney
and lord Middleton; the freeholds, which give the right of
voting, being conveyed by them to their refpe¢tive friends
for the purpofe of performing the ceremony of an eleétion.
The freeholders are nominally about feventy, but the real
electors are faid to be appointed and influenced by the noble-
men before-mentioned. The government of the town is vefted
in a mayor, annually chofen at the court-leet of the dean
and chapter of Winchelfter, to whom the manor belongs.
The town, though {mall, is remarkable for a variety of re-
ligious feéts; there being, befides the church, places of
worfhip for the Independents, Anabaptilts, Quakers, Me-
thodifts, and Sandimanians. A market is held weekly on
Friday, and three fairs annually. The population of the
parifh, as afcertained by the return of the year 1811, was
1407 ; the number of houfes 281: the labouring claffes are
chiefly employed in woollen manufa€tures, and in agriculture.
Adjoining to the weftern end of Whitchurch is one of
the entrances to the earl of Portfmouth’s diftinguifhed refi-
dence, Huritbourne-park. Of late years the park has been
much enlarged. -The grounds contain confiderable diverfity
of furface and {cenery ; and the converfion of a {mall ftream
into a broad piece of water, has tended very much to im-
prove the place. In the old part of the park, trees have
attained a fize much beyond what might be expected from
the chalk and flint which conftitute fo great a portion of
the foil of North Hampfhire. An old manfion-houfe ftood
in the bottom near the prefent parifh-church and village :
but the late lord Portfmouth pulled it down and ereéted
the prefent building in a much more eligible and healthy
fituation. It ftands on elevated ground, commanding ex-
tended and varied profpe@ts, particularly to the fouth and
the north. -This manfion, erected by Mr. Meadows from
the defigns of James Wyatt, efq. confifts of a centre and
two correfpondent wings conne@ted to it by colonnades.
The eaftern wing contains the library and a chapel, and in
3D2 the
WHI
the weftern are apartments for fervants. In the library
were preferved a confiderable body of the MSS. on various
matters, philofophical and theological, of the illuftrious
Newton. They came into the poffeffion of this family in
confequence of the marriage of John, vifcount Lymington,
(fon of the firft earl of Portfmouth, ) in 1740, with Catharine
Conduit, great niece and coheirefs of fir Ifaac. Thofe
papers were examined by the late learned bifhop (then
doétor) Horfley, while preparing his edition of Newton’s
works. See NewTon, Sir [/aac.
A little to the eaftward of Whitchurch, near the London
road, is’ Freefolk, noted for the paper-mills belonging to
John Portal Bridges, efq. where the paper for the notes of
the bank of England has been manufactured ever fince the
reign of George I. At Laveritock is the feat of William
Portal, efq.; and in the adjoining parifh of Overton is a
handfome new houfe, the feat of Jarvis, efq. In the
village a filk-mill has been eftablifhed. In various fpots at
no great diftance from Whitchurch, are {till vifible evidences
of Roman occupation. The great fofs-way, a Roman
road leading from Sorbiodunum, or Old Sarum, to Vindo-
num, or Silchefter, paffes acrofs the downs two miles to the
northward of the town. Near the courfe of this way, at
Egbury, a Roman encampment, forming an irregular qua-
drangle, may be eafily traced, the rampart in moit parts is
ftill lofty ; the longeft fide meafures about 300 yards. On
feveral eminences within the extent of a few miles from
Whitchurch are circular or ring-pofts, commonly called
beacons ; but evidently military flations of the ancient in-
habitants of the country, to which they could refort, and on
which they could fecure their families and property, in the
event of hoftile aflault from domeftic or foreign foes.—
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. vi. Hampfhire; by
J. Britton, F.S.A. and E. W. Brayley.
WHITE, Girzert, M.A. in Biography, an agreeable
writer of natural hiftory, was born at Selborne in Hamp-
fhire in 1720, and completed his education at Oriel college,
Oxford, of which he was eleéted fellow in 1744. In 1746
he took the degree of M.A., and in 1752 became one of
the fenior proétors of the Univerfity. Unambitious in his
temper, and fond of rural feenery, he fixed his refidence in
his native village, and devoted his time to literary purfuits,
and particularly to the inveftigation of thofe fubjeéts of
natural hiftory, which furnifhed him with leffons of piety
and benevolence. The refult of his obfervations was com-
municated to the public in his ** Natural Hiftory and An-
tiquities of Selborne,’’ 1789, 4to.; the firft and principal
part of which confifted of letters addreffed to Mr. Pennant,
and affords a variety of remarks, chiefly in the zoological
departments, peculiarly amufing and no lefs inflructive :
and the fecond part treats of the antiquities of the place.
Highly efteemed by all who knew him, he died in 1793 ;
but after his deceafe, the natural hiftory of his work was
publifhed feparately in 2 vols. 8vo. 1802, with the addition
of mifcellaneous obfervations, and a Naturalift’s Calendar,
extracted from his papers, and of parallel remarks com-
municated by W. Markwick, efq-, an accurate obferver of
nature in the county of Suffex. Gen. Biog.
Wuire, Josepu, Regius profeffor of Hebrew, and Lau-
dian profeffor of Arabic, in the univerfity of Oxford, was
born in Gloucefterfhire in 1746, and being of humble origin,
but devoted to reading whilft he was purfuing his father’s
occupation as a weaver, attraéted the notice of aneighbour-
ing gentleman, who fent him to Wadham college, Oxford.
Having graduated M.A. in 1773, and chofen fellow of his
college, he direfted the main bent of his ftudies to the
oriental languages, under the advice of Dr, Moore, after-
WHI
wards archbifhop of Canterbury. Such was his proficiency
in this department of literature, that in 1775 he was ele@ted
Laudian profeffor of Arabic, on which occafion he
delivered and printed an oration on the utility of that lan-
guage in theological ftudies. By the recommendation of
bifhop Lowth, he was appointed editor of the Philoxenian
Syriac verfion of the four gofpels, which he publifhed in
1778. About this time he was nominated one of the king’s
preachers at Whitehall ; and in a fermon preached before the
univerfity of Oxford, he recommended a revifal of the Eng-
lifh tranflation of the Old Teitament. In 1780 he publifhed a
‘© Speeimen of the Civil and Military Inftitutes of Timour,”’
tranflated from a Perfian verfion of the Mogul original, -
written by the conqueror himfelf. He alfo added a feck.
men of Perfian poetry, and recommended the ftudy of this
language. Thefe Inftitutes having been tranflated entire by
major Davy, were publifhed from the Clarendon prefs in
1783, under the infpeCtion of profeflor White, who annexed
a preface, indexes, and geographical notes.
As Bampton lecturer, to which office he was appointed
in 1781, he preached a courfe of fermons before the univer-
fity, which were printed in 1784, and much admired for
their learning and eloquence. The general defign of thefe
fermons was to evince the excellence of the Chriftian reli-
gion, on acomparifon with that of Mahomet. (See Ar-
CORAN.) It was difcovered, however, fomewhat to the dif-
grace of the profeffor, that he had derived very confider-
able affiftance in the compofition of thefe fermons from the
matterly pen of Mr. Badcock, who had been a diffenting
minifter at South Molton, and afterwards conformed to the
church, and that feveral of them were actually written by
him. It was alfo known, that Dr. Parr, from his ample
ftore of Greek literature, had furnifhed the materials that
had been wrought up into two of thefe fermons. Thefe
fa&ts were inveftigated and afcertained; and the charge
againft the profile was fufficiently fubftantiated, and it
was founded, not fo much on his want of ability for fuch
productions, as on his indolence, and on certain habits un-
favourable to ftudy. His reputation, however, as a de-
fender of Chriftianity was acknowledged, and he was pre-
fented to a prebend of Gloucefter, and foon after was gra-
duated D.D. About the year 1790 he married, and ac-
cepted a college-living in Suffolk. In this fituation he pro-
fecuted his ftudies, and having fet up a prefs in his houfe,
and furnifhed himfelf with oriental types, he and his wife
performed the bufinefs of compofitors, and a man and maid-
fervant that of the préfs. Hence originated his “ /Egyp-
tiaca,’’ relating to the antiquities of Egypt ; and an edition,
with a verfion, of an account of that country by an Ara-
bian writer named Abdollatif. In 1799 Dr. White pub-
kithed from the Clarendon prefs his ‘‘ Diateflaron,” or the
harmony of the four evangelifts, in Greek, a work ufeful to
biblical ftudents. He died in 1814, at the age of 68. Gen.
Biog.
Wuirte, one of the colours of natural bodies.
White is not fo properly faid to be any one colour, as a
compofition of all the colours; it being demonftrated by
fir Ifaac Newton, that thofe bodies only appear white, which
refle& all the kinds of coloured rays alike, and that the
light of the fun is only white, becaufe it confifts of all
colours.
From the multitude of rings of colours, which appear
upon comprefling two prifms, or objeét-glafles of telefcopes
together, itis manifeét, that thefe do fo interfere and mingle
with one another at lait, as, after eight or nine refle&tions, to
dilute one another wholly and conftitute an even and uni-
form whitenefs : whence, as well as from other experiments,
10 it
WHI
it appears that whitenefs is certainly a mixture of all co-
lours ; and that the light which conveys it to the eye is
a mixture of rays endued with all thofe colours.
The fame author fhews, that whitenefs, if it be moft
ftrong and luminous, is to be reckoned of the firft order of
colours; but if lefs, as a mixture of the colours of feveral
orders : of the former fort, he reckons white metals ; and of
the latter, the whitenefs of froth, paper, linen, and moft
other white fubftances. And as the white of the firft order
is the ftrongeft that can be made by plates of tran{parent
fubftances, ‘it ought to be ftronger in the denfer fub-
{tances of metals, than in the rarer ones of air, water, and
lafs.
: Gold or copper mixed either by fufion or amalgamation
with a very little mercury, with filver, tin, or regulus of
antimony, become white ; which fhews, both that the par-
ticles of white metals have much more furface, and there-
fore are {maller than thofe of gold or copper ; and alfo, that
they are fo opake, as not to fuffer the particles of gold or
copper to fhine through them. And as that author doubts
not, but that the colours of gold and copper are of the fe-
cond or third order, therefore the particles of white metals
caanot be much bigger than is requifite to make them
refleét the white of the firft order. See Corour, and Co-
lours from MeETALs.
Hevelius affirms it as a thing moft certain, that, in the
northern countries, animals, as Fre, foxes, bears, &c. be-
come white in the winter time ; and in fummer refume their
natural colours.
Black bodies are found to take heat fooner than white
ones ; by reafon the former abforb or imbibe rays of all
kinds and colours, and the latter refle& all.
Thus, black paper is fooner put into a flame, by a burn-
ing glafs, than white ; and hence black cloths, hung up by
the dyers in the fun, dry fooner than white ones. See
BLack.
WuiteE of the Eye, denotes the firft tunic or coat of
the eye, called albuginea and conjundiva, becaufe it ferves
to bind together or inclofe the reft. See ApnaTa, and
EYE.
WuiteE Ale,in Rural Economy, a liquor of the malt kind,
which is faid to be prepared fomewhat in the following man-
ner. Twenty gallons of malt are mafhed with the fame
quantity of boiling water ; when after ftanding the ufual
time, the wort is drawn off, and_fix eggs, four pounds of
flour, a quarter of a pound of falt, and a quart of grout, are
well beaten up together, and mixed with the above quantity
of wort, which, after ftanding twelve hours, is put into a
cafk, and is ready for ufe the day afterwards.
It is obferved by the writer of the Devonfhire Corrected
Report on Agriculture, who has fupplied the above account,
that this liquor is almoit exclufively confined to the neigh-
bourhood of Kingfbridge, in that county ; and that it is a
beverage which poffeffes a very intoxicating quality, and
which is much admired by thofe who drink not merely to
quench thirft. A myftery, it is faid, hangs over the ingre-
dient called grout, and the fecret is faid to be confined
to one family in the above diftri& only. No difficulty,
however, it is fuppofed, could arife in afcertaining its com-
ponent parts, by fubmitting a certain portion of it to the
teft of chemical examination. It is plain, it is faid, that
this liquor is of confiderable antiquity, from the terrier of
the advowfon of Dodbrook, which exprefsly calls for the
tithe of white ale.
This mild pleafant liquor may eafily be made in other
places.
Wuite Antimony Ore, in Mineralogy, Antimoine Osydé,
Wind
Hauy, generally occurs diffeminated and cry ftallized in veins
along with other ores of antimony on primitive rocks. See
ANTIMONY.
Waite Arfenic, and Afbes. See the fubftantives.
Waite Bait, in Ichthyology. See CLupea.
Waite Beam. See CRaTxcus.
Wuirte Bear. See Porar Bear.
Wuire Brant, the Anas Hyperborea. See Ducx.
Wuire Bug, in Gardening, an infeQ of the bug kind,
which is often very troublefome and hurtful in vineries,
peach-houfes, and other fuch forts of houfes for fruit-
trees.
It is obferved in the firft volume of the “ Memoirs of the
Caledonian Horticultural Society,” that the caufe of this
infe&t fo frequently making its appearance in thefe houfes, is
much owing to the neglect in not wafhing the trees pro-
perly every day with the engine in many cafes. That when
a vinery is much overrun with it, in order to its removal, all
the old bark fhould be ftript from off the vines, and all the
fhoots and trellis be properly {ponged over with black foap
and warm water. The writer always makes it a rule, at the
time of the winter-pruning, to take off the outer bark,
whether infefted with them or not, a3 thefe bugs lodge be-
tween the old and new bark. ‘That in regard to peach-
trees, which are infefted in this way with the white bug,
they fhould be fponged all over in the fame manner in the
winter feafon ; and if any bugs fhould appear in the fpring,
it is a good way, it is faid, to tie pieces of mat round the
ftems and large branches of the trees; as about thefe parts
thefe infe€is take fhelter from the’heat of the fun. Once
every day thefe portions of mat fhould be taken off, and
thrown away outof the houfes. ‘That foon after forcing is
begun, the female of thefe bugs will be obferved to be much
larger than the male, at which time fhe conftantly goes into
fome hollow of the trees or bark, and depofits her ova or
eggs moftly in fome thoufands. Thefe are eafily capable
of being difcovered, and may be picked out of fuch hollows
or crevices by means of a large pin, or {mall piece of
fharpened ftick ; whichis an effe€tual way of getting quit of
them, and of preventing their future increafe. See WaAsn-
ING Fruit-Trees.
Waite Campion, in Agriculture, a pernicious perennial
weed in corn Jands, paftures, and hedges, which is often
difficult to deftroy, except by good fummer tillage of the
ground. See Weep, and WEEDING.
WHITE Canispillars or Borer, in Gardening, a very de-
ftru€tive fort of infe& of this kind, but which is not fo
numerous as thofe of the other kinds, nor does it attack and
deftroy the fame parts of goofeberry-buthes, though equally
injurious on others. It is of comparatively a {mall fize too,
in relation to thofe of the other forts, the black and green,
that infeft thefe bufhes ; the former of which, the large or
black, may be obferved, it is faid in a paper in the Horti-
cultural TranfaGions of Scotland, lying during the winter
months in large clufters on the under parts, and in the cre-
vices of the bufhes of thefe forts; and that even in the
month of February they have been found in that ftate.
But that in the courfe of eight or ten days after that, if the
weather be favourable, they will creep up the bufhes in the
day-time, feed on the young buds, and return to their neft
during the night. That whenever leaves appear upon the
bufhes, they feed upon them until they arrive at maturity,
which is generally about the month of June ; after which
they creep down upon the under fides of the branches, where
they lodge until the cruft or fhell is formed over them.
That in July they become moths, and lay their ova or eggs
on the under fides of the leaves andof the bark. That the
produce
WHI
produce of thefe ova or eggs, which come into life during
the month of September, feed on the leaves fo long as they
continue green, and afterwards colleé& and gather together
in clufters on the under fides of the branches, and in the
cracks and openings of the bark, where they abide all the
winter, as has been already feen. Confequently that winter
is the moft proper time for attacking and deftroying this
fort of thefe infe&ts with fuccefs, as their deftruétion is then
moft effeétually and completely accomplifhed by merely the
fimple operation of {prinkling and pouring a quantity of
boiling hot water over and upon them, from a watering-pan
or pot, by which no injury, it is faid, will thereby be done
to the buthes or goofeberry fruit-fhrubs.
That the latter or green fort are in the fhelly ftate in Fe-
bruary, when they lie about an inch under the ground.
That in the following month they come out {mall flies, and
immediately lay their ova or eggs on the veins and under
fides of the leaves. That thefe ova or eggs produce young
caterpillars in the month of May, which feed on the leaves
of the bufhes until June or the fucceeding month, when
they caft off a blackith kind of fkin, and afterwards crawl
down from the bufhes into the earth, where a fort of cruft
or fhell grows over them, and in that ftate they continue
until the following April.
The only method which this writer has hitherto found
effe€tual in deftroying this fort of thefe goofeberry-caterpil-
lars, is firft to dig the ground all around the bufhes very
deep during the winter feafon, by which means the greater
part of them are either deftroyed, or buried too deep ever
to rife to the furface : or, fecondly, in the month of April,
when the flies make their appearance, to pick off all the
leaves on which any ova or eggs are to be difcovered, which
is a tedious operation, but may be performed by children.
If any of the infeéts fhould efcape both thefe operations,
they will, it is faid, be difcernible as foon as they come into
life, by their eating holes through the leaves, and may then
e eafily deftroyed, without the leaft injury to the bufhes or
ruit.
That this white kind bores the berry, and caufes it to drop
off from the bufh. That they preferve themfelves during
the winter feafon in the chryfalis ftate, about an inch under
ground, and become flies nearly at the fame time with the
atter of the above kinds. That they lay their ova or eggs
on the bloffoms, and that thefe eggs produce young cater-
pillars in May, which feed on the berries until they are full
grown, and then creep down into the earth, where they re-
main for the winter in the fhell ftate.
This fort of thefe caterpillars, too, may be beft deftroyed
in the winter feafon, by having the land well and deeply dug
all about the goofeberry-buthes at that time of the year, and
by preventing them from climbing up the ftems of the plants
in the early {pring feafon, for the purpofe of laying their
eggs, by every poflible means that can be devifed and reforted
to by the gardener.
hefe are the beft and moft effeftual methods that have
yet been difcovered by this writer, for the deftruction of this
and the two other forts of goofeberry-caterpillars. For
though many other modes of doing it have been tried, none
have been found fo certain and complete as thefe ; and they
have this advantage and confideration to recommend them,
that they injure neither the bufh nor the fruit. That the
fame thing cannot be faid either of tobacco-liquor, fnuff, or
foap-fuds, all which render the fruit conftantly bitter and
ill-tafted ; and which, whatever may be the effeét that they
may have upon the {maller kind of caterpillars, it is certain,
the writer thinks, that they have none upon the larger kinds,
and that foot, lime, and lime-water, do not affeét any fort
WHI
of caterpillar whatever, as the writer has fufficiently proved
by repeated experiments with fuch fubftances.
Wuite Centaury, in Agriculture, an annual weed in woods
and other fuch places ; of which animals in general are not
fond. It is faid to form the bafis of the famous Portland
powder for the gout. Sce Weep.
Wuite Cinnamon. See Cinnamon.
Wuite Clover, in Agriculture, a well-known plant of the
clover kind, which is perennial, and confequently lafts a
number of years in the foil or land. It is faid to require a
deep free foil to bring it to any degree of luxuriant growth.
Confequently but little of the land in many diftri&s fits cts
but it is fometimes fown with the common clover in about
half the quantity. In the Berkfhire Report on Agricul-
ture, it is ftated, that it is frequently confounded with the
Dutch clover, that it affeéts a light Oil, that itis much im-
proved by rolling, and that it yields a very {weet hay when
mixed with red clover, rye-grafs, and nonfuch. ‘That
fheep are not very fond of it; and this is, probably, one
reafon why it is lefs cultivated than it deferves to be. It ap-
pears, it is faid, to be the Irifh fhamrock ; and that the
powdered flowers of this clover being made into bread,
were eaten by the natives of the fifter ifland before the intro-
duétion of potatoes. It may be noticed, too, that it is ca-
pable of bearing flooding, which the red clover is not, and
this is a very great advantage in its favour.
It is remarked alfo, that the real Dutch clover is not un-
frequently fown with other graffes, in a larger or {maller pro-
portion, as the farmer may think proper. That in fome
places of the above county it is the common praétice to fow
of broad clover eight pounds, yellow trefoil, or hop clover,
four pounds, and of Dutch or white clover, two pounds,
to the acre. If it be fown alone, about eight or nine
pounds will be fufficient. It is getting into high eftimation
in the neighbourhood of Bray, in the above diitri€&, and in
other places, and is fometimes called honey-fuckle grafs,
from the {weetnefs of its fmell. That to all forts of cattle
it forms an agreeable pafture, and efpecially to fheep, which
thrive on it prodigioufly. Even fwine will fatten on this
gral, the feed of which was imported from Flanders for
ome time after it began to be cultivated in this country,
though it appears to be an indigenous plant. It has the ex-
cellent property of never wearing out by being clofe fed. °
See Trirotium Repens, and Hysripum. Alfo CLover.
White clover is faid, in the Gloucetterfhire Agricultural
Report, to be injurious to cow-ftock, by hoving them when
in abundance after rain in paftures.
Wuite Colours, in Painting, comprehend the following ;
viz. FLAKE-White, White-Leap or Crrussk, calcined or
burnt Haris-Horn, the perfe&tion of which depends upon
its whitenefs and firmnefs, diftinguifhable both by fight and
touch, PearL-White, Troy-White, and Eac-Shell White.
(See the feveral articles.) The moft delicate and perfeé
white in ufe, in its application to the purpofes of painting
in water-colours, is the artificial fulphate of barytes. Ac-
cording to Mr. Parkes ( Eff. vol. ae it was firlt recom-
mended and brought forward by Mr. Hume, of Long-
Acre, who has long fupplied the public with it under the
name of * Permanent White.’”? The fame ingenious prac-
tical chemift fays, that he knows of nothing fo" well calcu-
lated as this for marking bottles in a chemical laboratory,
where the gafes foon dettroy the ink of common labels, and
render them illegible. It is equally ufeful for marking jars,
bottles, or boxes, which mult be kept in a damp cellar,
for it is not only imperifhable in fuch fituations, but pre-
ferves its extreme whitenefs, and confequently the diflin@-
nefs of the characters. We learn alfo from fir Humphrey
II Davy’s
Wii
Davy’s * Elements of Chemical Philofophy,”? that the
combination of barytes and carbonic acid, made artificially
by pouring a folution of carbonate of ammonia into a folu-
tion of nitrate of barytes, forms alfo a pigment of a very
white colour.
Wuire Colours, in Dyeing. See CoLour. |.
Wuirre Copper Ore, in Mineralogy, is one of the rarett
ores of topper, and has frequently been confounded with
copper pyrites, and other ores of that metal. (See Coprer
Ores.) Its colour is between filver-white and bronze-
yellow ; it occurs maffive and difleminated ; it has a metal-
lic luftre. The frature is fine-grained and uneven ; it yields
eafily to the knife. The {pecific gravity of this ore is 4.5.
It contains about 40 fer cent. of copper mixed with iron,
arfenic, and fulphur.
WuiteE Copperas, Cordage, Eagle, and Egg-Shell. See
the fubftantives.
Waite Cofs-Lettuce for Hogs, in Agriculture, the ufe of
it in feeding thefe animals. A trial of it in this way is ftated
to have been made in Suffex, which is particularly deferving
of attention: the weaning of young pigs, without much
milk and fome corn, is often a difficult bufinefs ; but if this
fort of lettuce will do it, which feems to be the cafe, no
farmer fhould ever be without a rood, or half an acre of this
fort of crop for this ufe. ‘
In this trial, four ounces of this fort of lettuce-feed were
fown very thick over two perches of ground in the beginning
of March. A crop of potatoes was in rows at three feet
diftance ; between which a double row of thefe lettuces was
planted in May ; both crops being afterwards kept clean by
hand-hoeing. In the June following, they were begun to be
ufed for three fows with little pigs, which were kept on
thefe lettuces for fix weeks; but thefe fows had wafh in ad-
dition: the pigs were then weaned a fortnight earlier than
ufual ; and after the weaning, the great ufe of the lettuces
was found, for the pigs did admirably well upon them,
until they all were gone in the middle of Auguit. They
were then fed as ufual, with cabbage, turnip-tops, and other
fuch vegetable matters, but fell off at once for want of the
lettuces. See Lactuca, and Letruce. f
Wuite Crops, aterm applied to all forts of grain-crops,
as wheat, rye, barley, oats, and fome others, in contra-
diftinGtion to thofe of the green and culmiferous kinds, fuch
as cabbages, turnips, rape, tares, beans, and fome others
of a fimilar nature.
Waite Darnel, a very troublefome and prolific weed
among corn-crops, efpecially of the wheat kind. See
WEED, &c.
Wuite Enamel. See ENAMEL, and ENAMELLING.
Wuite Face, or Blaze, in the Manege, a white mark
upon a horfe, defcending from the forehead almoft to the
nofe. It is called in French chanfrin blanc.
Waite Film, or Blindnefs, a difeafe in fheep, which is oc-
cafioned by a white film growing over their eyes, in confe-
quence of fome fort of inflammation, as arifing from dif-
ferent caufes, taking place in them.
The appearances by which it is fhewn to be prefent are,
according to fome, that the animal cannot bear the light,
that the white part of the eye is red and inflamed, and that
it waters a great deal. That this ftate is fucceeded by a fort
of membrane or coat formed by the inflamed veffels, which
firft covers the white, but gradually extends over the eye,
until total blindnefs is the confequence. That this is noticed
to be the cafe, when in folding, the fheep run againit dykes,
or any other fuch obftacles, and ftart when they approach
them; that they do not follow the flock, and that they fre-
quently ftumble. That when the eye is infpected, it is ge-
Wider
nerally found, that a blue flough covers the whole of the
eye, without any intermixture of red veffels. That in the
wort cafes, the coloured and tranfparent part of the eye
becomes of a reddifh-white; by which time, the film on the
eye has acquired confiderable thicknefs and hardnefs. That
the inflammation is produced in various ways, and by various
means; as during the fummer feafon by the reflection of
heat and light in very funny and dry weather, as it is found
to be more frequent when the hilly fheep-walks become
fcorched, and on hard rocky foils, than on the dark-coloured
hills which are covered with heather. Others fuppofe, that
the difeafe is fometimes caufed by the"pollen or duft of
flowers irritating the eyes of the fheep, when blown into
them, in confiderable quantities, by the wind. That in the
winter, the blindnefs is caufed and occurs when the days are
very funny, and the evenings frofty and cold; or when the
fheep have been long buried under {now, and the ground is
ftill white and glaring when they get out.
But by ftill others, the blindnefs in fheep is believed to
arife from a caufe wholly different from any of thefe. That
it is induced by a continued fatigue for a length of time,
which is capable of bringing it on at any feafon of the year.
Thus, fheep that are long and hard driven, or fuch as are
daily dragged from one part of the ground to another, ewes
that are cid, or old, and roughly handled and ufed by the
women in milking, during the operation, where that prac-
tice is in ufe, and hog-fheep which are tired by driving
through fnow, in order to preferve their fubfiftence, are all
liable to this affeGtion of the eyes. ‘That their eyes at firft
become fore, and emit a fort of ropy humour; after which
a white film fettles over them, and if they continue to be
fatigued, it grows thicker, the eyes appearing perfeétly
white ; in which cafes, they are faid to be proportionably
longer in getting better. The difeafe, too, may proceed
from many other caufes of different kinds, as all fuch as
tend to caufe local inflammation in the parts, as cold, moif-
ture, and many others of the fame fort.
In the cure of the difeafe, where it is fufpe&ted to arife
from the irritating powdery matter of flowers, the fheep
fhould be immediately removed to other proper paftures for
atime, until the danger from that caufe is over; and in
cafes of {now-blindnefs of this kind, it is always proper
to bring them down, as foon as poffible, from the high
rms! walks, where they occupy them, to the bare grounds
elow.
The inflamed veffels on the white of the eye, efpecially
thofe next the nofe, are alfo fometimes advifed to be cut with
a lancet or fharp penknife every fecond morning ; while the
eyes are to be kept defended againft the light, by a fhade
tied over the head, or a piece of crape over the eyes. The
eyes may likewife be bathed two or three times a-day, with
a folution of half a drachm of fugar of lead, or of two
drachms of alum, and the fame quantity of white vitriol, in
a pint of foft-water. At the fame time purgatives may be
given internally, fuch as two ounces of fome purging falts,
or, what is better, a {cruple of calomel, once a day for four
or five times. When, by thefe means, the inflammation is
got the better of, but the flough ftill remains, a little oint-
ment, compofed of eight parts of fome mild un@uous fub-
ftance, and one of red precipitate of mercury, made fine
by rubbing, may be infinuated into the eyes every morning ;
or a little finely powdered cryftal and ioaf fugar be blown
into them twice in the day.
With fome, it is at firft the praétice to bleed the fheep
below the eyes, and to let fome of the blood run into each
of them ; but it is fuppofed that care will infallibly cure the
difeafe in a {pace of time proportioned to the debility He
as
WHI
has induced the complaint without any thing elfe. The beft
and moft proper means of cure in thefe cafes are, in the firft
place, local or general bleeding, then the ufe of fome fuch
folutions ard internal remedies as the above, after fome time
having recourfe to ftronger wafhes and powders of the fame
nature, with fmall quantities of opium, and keeping the
animals all the while as much as poffible from the light, and
the glare of the ground. (See a paper in the third volume
of the TranfaGions of the Highland Society of Scotland. )
It is obferved, that certain parcels of fheep are very liable to
blindnefs of this fort, and that although it is not a fatal dif-
eafe in itfelf, it frequently occafions confiderable lofs by the
theep drowning themfelves, or breaking their necks in fall-
ing down precipices and other fuch places.
Wuite Flag, Flake, and Froft. See the fub{tantives.
Wurre Foot, in the Manege, called in French da/zana,
is a white mark that happens in the feet of a great many
horfes, both before and behind, from the fetlock to the
coffin. The horfes thus marked are either tramelled, crofs-
tramelled, or white all four. Some horfemen place an un-
lucky fatality in the white of the far foot behind. See
Cuausse! Trop haut, and TRAMELLED.
Waite Friars, a name common to feveral orders of
monks, from their being clothed in a white habit.
Such are, the regular canons of St. Auguftine, the Pre-
monitratenfes, and Bernardines. Sce CARMELITES.
Wuite Glafs. See Grass. :
Wuire-Hart Silver, candidi cervi argentum, a tribute or
mulé& paid into the exchequer, out of certain lands in or
near the foreft of White-hart, in Dorfetthire ; which was
continued from Henry III.’s time, who firft impofed it upon
Thomas de la Linde, and others, for killing a beautiful
white hart, which that king had purpofely fpared in
hunting.
Wuite Hellebore. See HELLEBORE.
Wuite Honeyfuckle, in Agriculture, a term often applied
to the white clover. It is ftated, in the Agricultural Report
for the County of Gloucefter, to be a plant which is brought
forward by manure and fheep-ftock, and a proof of good
land, at leait of land in a high ftate of cultivation; and
that, on this account, it has, when it abounds in dairy
paitures, a tendency to raife the quality of the milk, and
make the cheefe hove or heave which is made from it. See
Dairyine, and WuiTeE Clover.
Wuite Horfe-Fifh, in Ichthyology, a common Englifh
name for the raia afpera no{tras of Willughby, and the raia
fullonica of Rondeletius and Linnzus. Its back is rough
and fpiny; the nofe is fhort and fharp; at the corner of
each eye afte a few fpines; the niétitating membrane is
fringed ; the teeth are {mall and fharp: on the upper part
of the peétoral fins are three rows of {pines pointing to-
ward the back, and crooked, like thofe of the fuller’s in-
ftrument ; whence its name fullonica and fuller. On the tail
are three rows of {trong f{pines: the tail is flender, and
rather longer than the body. The colour of the upper
part of the body is cinereous, ufually marked with many
black fpots; the lower part white. This fifth grows to a
fize equal to that of the fkate. Pennant.
WuiteE Ja/per, in Mineralogy, or agate jafper, has a pale
yellowifh-white colour, and fometimes occurs reddifh-white.
It is opaque, and has {mall imperfe@ly conchoidal fractures.
See Jasper.
Wuire Land, in Agriculture, a tough clayey foil, natu-
rally of a fomewhat whitifh hue when dry, efpecially when
it has lain fome time untilled, but becoming blackish after
rain: this appears of a light greyifh colour when turned
up by the plough, and Slides off from the plough-fhare with
WHI
eafe, and with a {mooth gloffy furface. It has often a yel-
lowifh hue with the grey, and is often veined with large par-
cels of a blue marly earth. See Clay Sort.
Wuite Lead is a fort of ruft of lead, or lead diffolved
with vinegar; much ufed by painters. See Leap, and
CERUSSE.
Wuire Leaf. See CRATRGus.
Wuite Line, among Printers, a void {pace, greater than
ufual, left between two lines. See Printinc.
Wuirte Line, in Anatomy. See Linea Alba.
Wuite Linen is cloth of hemp, or flax, bleached by
divers leys, and waterings on the ground.
Wuite Manganefe, in Mineralogy, manganefe oxydé car-
bonaté, Hauy. Red manganefe ore of fome mineralogitts.
This ore occurs of various colours, from yellowifh-white to
rofe-red. See Ores of MANGANESE.
Wuire Meats include milk, butter, cheefe, white pots,
cuftards, and other foods confifting of milk, or eggs. Some
add, alfo, fifh, veal, and chickens.
Waite Mortar. See Morrar.
Wuirte Muft-Apple, in Rural Economy, a very fine cider-
fruit in field fruit-grounds, This, with the fox-whelp, red-
ftreak, and fome others, are fine old fruits, but which are
now going off, and afford the beft cider, when mixed in the
mill; the proportions in which they are to be ufed have
never, however, been defined, but depend probably a good
deal on the quantity to be ground at the fame time.
Wauire Muflard, in Agriculture, a fort of plant which is
often cultivated in the field for the ufe of the feed in dif-
ferent places.
The beft fort of foil for it is that of the light loam,
which fhould be well broken down and reduced by plough-
ing and harrowing. Some, on frefh broken up land, make
a winter fallow for this crop.
It is moftly put in after a wheat-crop, but may fucceed
others where the land is clean and well prepared. In Kent,
they {trike furrows about eleven or twelve inches apart, and
then fow the feed, two or three gallons to the acre, in the
month of March.
The culture of it while growing is to hoe it, and keep it
free from weeds, to fet it out in the way of turnips, not too
thick on the ground, as that draws up the plants weak.
The crop is reaped about July. In fome cafes, it is laid in
gavels or handfuls upon the ftubble, in the fame manner as
cole-feed. It is ufually threfhed out on a fail-cloth in the
field.
The produce differs from eight to twenty bufhels the
acre.
It is a ticklifh fart of crop, as one frofty morning will
kill it, and it is liable to be injured and eaten by the black
caterpillar ; but when it turns out well is very profitable.
It is faid not to exhauft the land much, which is greatly
in its favour.
Wuire Nebbed-Crow, a term provincially applied to the
rook in fome cafes.
Wuite Order. See OrpER.)
Wuite Paper is that intended for writing, printing, &c,
in contradiftin@tion to brown paper, marbled paper, blotting
paper, Ke.
Wuire, Pearl. See PEARL.
Wuirte Pepper. See Perper.
Wuite Poplar, in Agriculture, a tree of the poplar kind,
in which the wood is foft, but convertible to varions ufes in
hufbandry, as it grows quickly and bears cropping well. It
is beft grown in low fituations, where the foil is of a clayey
nature. It is fometimes called the abele tree.
Wuirs
WH I
Wuire Poppy, a plant fometimes cultivated in the garden
and the field for the ufe of the opium which is obtained from
its juice by means of evaporation. It might be largely cul-
tivated in many fituations with great advantage, as it con-
tains this fubftance or principle in great abundance. See
Papaver Album.
Wuite Porcelain. See PorceLain.
Wuite Pot, denotes milk or cream baked with the yolks
of eggs, fine bread, fugar, and fpice, in an earthen pot.
The cooks furnifh us with a variety of difhes under this
form and denomination ; fuch are, Norfolk white-pot, Weft-
minfter white-pot, rice white-pot, &c.
Wuite Pottery. See Potrery.
Wuirte Precipitate. See Carbonate of Mercury.
Wurte Pyrites, in Mineralogy; Fr. fulfuré blanc, Hauy.
The colour of this ore when pure is of a tin-white colour,
pafling into brafs-yellow and fteel-grey. It occurs in fmall
otohedral cryftals varioufly modified, alfo ftala¢titical and
botryoidal. It is hard, brittle, and eafily frangible. It
melts before the blow-pipe, giving out a fulphureous vapour ;
it then aéts on the magnetic needle. It decompofes much
eafier than common pyrites. It contains 46 parts of iron and
54 of fulphur. See Pyrires.
Wuire Rent, in Rural Economy, a rent or duty of 8d.
payable yearly, by every tinner in the counties of Devon
and Cornwall, to the duke of the latter, as lord of the foil.
See Brancu Ferme.
Wuite Salt is common or fea-falt dried and calcined by
the fire, fo as not to leave any moifture therein. The che-
mitts call it decrepitated falt.
There are fome falts naturally white, and others that need
to be whitened, either by diffolving and purifying them in
fair water, which is afterwards evaporated ; or by means of
fire; or by the fun. See Sarr.
Wuite Salt, a term applied to the fine purified falt, in
contradiftin@ion to that of the rock kind. The former is
faid in Chefhire to form a much more important objet in
the way of commerce than the latter. See Sart.
Wuite Sauce, a fort of fauce made of blanched almonds,
and the breaft of a capon, pounded together with cloves,
cinnamon, &c. We alfo hear of white broth, which is a
fort of broth enriched with fack and fpices, having blanched
almonds fcraped into it, and the whole thickened with the
yolks of eggs, &c.
Wuite Scour. See Scour.
WuiteE Silver Ore, in Mineralogy, an ore of filver always
affociated with lead and antimony. (See Srrver Ores.)
Dark white filver contains, according to Klaproth, 9.25
parts in the hundred of filver. Light white filver ore con-
tains 20.40, aflociated with the fame minerals as the dark
ore, but in different proportions.
White Soap. See Soap.
WuitE, Spanifb, is a kind of fucus ufed by the ladies to
whiten their complexion, and hide the defeéts of it, called
alfo magiftery of bif/muth.
st oe as well as of ceruffes, is pernicious ; and
fhould be particularly ayoided during the taking of any
fulphureous water, which may change the complexion quite
black. Indeed, all phlogiftic vapours, and even the fun
itfelf, tend to give both the magiftery of bifmuth and ceruffe
a yellow colour: an obfervation which ferves to explain a
pallage in Martial, where a cerufed lady is faid to fear the
un.
* Cretata timet Fabulla, nimbum,
Cerufata timet Sabella,' folem.
Ep. lib. ii. Ep. 41.
Vor. XX XVIII.
WHI
Wuire, Spani/h, is alfo a name given to troy white.
Wuire Spurs. See Spur, and Esquire.
Wuite Star, and Sugar. See the fubftantives.
Wuite Stone, in Geology; Weifs flein, Werner; Eurite
of fome French geologifts; a rock enumerated by Werner
as a diftiné&t {pecies among the primary rocks. It is effen-
tially compofed of felfpar, but contains mica and other mi-
nerals. We think it may fairly be doubted whether white-
{tone ought to be confidered as a diftin® {pecies of rock, or
only as an occafional mode in which gneifs and granite fome-
times occur. According to the account given by M. Bon-
nard of the Saxon Erzgeberge, in the Journal des Mines,
1815, the gneifs of that diftriG@ often lofes its mica, and
paffes into a rock effentially the fame as white-ftone or eurite.
In other inftances, the granite, by lofing a great part of its
mica and quartz, paffes into the fame rock, {till retainin
the geological pofition of granite, and including aamaede
beds of granite within it. The north-weftern acclivity of
the Saxon Erzgeberge is almoft entirely compofed of white-
ftone, including mafles of granite, from a few feet to fome
miles in extent. This rock forms the bafis on which the other
rocks are placed. Bonnard gives the following defcription
of white-ftone or eurite in the above diftri@ :—It is compofed
of very fine granular felfpar, which is fometimes compa&, of
a whitifh-grey or yellowifh-grey colour ; the mica is brownith.
It occurs in layers, and is fometimes fiffile when the mica is
abundant. In this cafe, the felfpar is almoft as friable as
dolomite. When the felfpar is compaét, and the mica more
rare, the rock nearly lofes its fiffile property. This rock
contains fappare and other minerals difleminated. The rock
on which it refts is unknown, as the white-ftone ferves as a
bafis for the gneifs and other rocks. In the greater part of
the diftri& a granitic rock occurs in the white-ftone, which
is fometimes a true granite and fometimes a granular eurite.
This granite is compofed of felfpar, which is rarely of a
red colour, but often brown, which is alfo generally the
colour of the mica; the proportion of the quartz is variable,
and fometimes is entirely wanting. In the few places where
the two rocks can be feen together, the granite appears not
only to alternate with the eurite, but to pafs into it; or
rather the two rocks may be faid to pafs infenfibly into each
other, both in the {mall and large maffes. The grain of the
granite is often very fine; but near Penig it contains cryttals
of felfpar of a foot in cubic fize. The only beds which
occur in the white-ftone are of ferpentine ; thefe are in the
upper part of it, and dip to the north. There have been no
metallic veins difcovered in the white-ftone rock. From the
above defcription, there can be little doubt that white-ftone
ought, when viewed geologically on a large fcale, to be
confidered only as a particular form of granite arifing from
the diminution of the quartz and mica. The circumftances,
whatever they may have been, which firft difpofed the gra-
nite to folidify, permitted the conftituent parts to arrange
themfelves in different proportions in various parts of the
mafs. Thus in extenfive granite formations, nothing is more
frequent than to fee the quartz and felfpar colleéted in large
maffes nearly pure, or with a very {mall admixture of the
other component parts; and in the white-ftone of Saxony
precifely the fame faéts are exhibited on a larger fcale. See
Rocks, Strata, and Systems of Geology.
Waite Styre Apple, in Rural Economy, a rich cider-fruit
in field orchards. It is faid to be the boaft of the foreft
diftri& in Gloucefterfhire, and that under proper manage-
ment, it affords a cider fo rich and ftrong, that it is often
valued equally with foreign wine, and fold at extravagant
prices.
3E Wuite-
WHITE-SWELLING.
Wuire-Swelling, in Surgery. When a difeafe is attended
with great varieties, not only with regard to its progrefs and
fymptoms, but alfo its caufe, and the diforder which it pro-
uces in the parts which are the feat of it, there is as much
difficulty in ae upon a name that will convey an exact
idea of it, as in offering a definition or defcription of it appli-
cable to all the cafes which may prefent themfelves to the at-
tentive obferver. Such are the circumftances of the difeafe
of which we are about to {peak in the prefent article. Sur-
ns have given it a variety of appellations, derived from
fime one particular fymptom with which it is accompanied.
Thus, it has been called qwhite-/welling, (a name which is
fill moft geneeally adopted,) becaufe the fkin which covers
it retains its natural on and exhibits no appearance of
inflammation. Itis alfo fometimes termed fungus articuli, on
account of its foftnefs and elafticity, which allow it readily
to yield to preffure, but make it rife up again econ
when the compreffion is difcontinued, like the fungous excref-
cences which grow upon the oak. The diforder is likewife
often named by foreign writers the lymphatic tumour, or
ferrous fwelling of the articulations, in confequence of the great
quantity of thick lymph which appears to be effufed in the
cellular fubftance around the ligaments, and upon the liga-
ments themfelves. Sometimes the difeafe is called /pina
ventofa. (See that article.) The cafe is occafionally deno-
minated a fal/e anchylofis, becaufe the difeafe caufes more
or lefs interruption of the motions of the joint. Laftly,
the diftemper is often called a rheumatic, or /crofulous difeafe
of a joint, according as rheumatifm, or {crofula, is fufpected
of being concerned in its origin.
White-fwellings are ufually defined to be chronic enlarge-
‘ments of the joints; circum{fcribed; without any alteration
in the colour of the fkin ; fometimes hard, and refifting the
preflure of the fingers ; fometimes lefs firm, elattic, yielding to
preflure, and afterwards rifing up again in the manner of a
fungus, which grows upon certain trees ; fometimes fo foft
as to prefent a Seecitful feel of flu€tuation, although there
is no fluid in the part. In particular inftances, thefe fwell-
ings are indolent ; but, molt frequently, they are attended
with great pain, efpecially when the joint is moved, fo that
the patient either cannot exercife the limb at all, or does it
at the expence of confiderable fuffering, and with imper-
feGtion and difficulty. The difeafe has its feat in the liga-
ments, cellular fubftance, fynovial glands, cartilages, and
even the bones. All thefe parts, however, are not affected
in every inflance ; and fometimes the diflemper commences
in the bones; fometimes in the cartilages and ligaments,
according to the peculiarity in the nature of the cafe. The
foregoing definition is obvioufly merely an enumeration of
the principal fymptoms of white-fwellings, and is far from
giving an reef idea of a difeafe which prefents fo many
varieties in different individuals, that there are fearcely two
patients to be met with in whom the complaint follows
precifely the fame courfe, or exhibits altogether fimilar phe-
nomena.
There is no joint which may not be attacked by this inve-
terate difeafe ; but experience proves, that the ginglymoid
articulations are more frequently affected than the orbicular.
We are, however, to except from this remark the articu-
lation between the femur and os innominatum, in which the
difeafe is very common, and often called by the French
furgeons /pontancous diflocation of the femur, becaufe the cafe
enerally terminates in a difplacement of the head of the
pie de hey (See Hip-Joint, Difeafe of.) Amongft the
ginglymoid joints, the knee is oftener affeéted than any other,
Then come the joints of the elbow, foot, and hand. White-
{wellings attack the {mall joints, like thofe of the fingers and
toes, with far lefs frequency. ; ¥
White-{fwellings may occur at every period of life ; but
they are more common in infancy and youth than in adults
and old fubjeéts. It is conceived alfo by fome writers, that
thefe cafes begin more frequently in autumn and winter, or
when the atmofphere is damp and variable, than in the other
feafons. But the difeafe is on the whole fo common in this
climate, that it muft be difficult to eftablith the truth of the
foregoing conjecture.
e difeafe fometimes begins with a more or lefs acute
pain in the articulation, ufually extending along the fafcie and
tendons of the neighbouring mufcles. Sometimes the pain is
of a dull kind, being fuperficial, feated in the foft parts, and
reaching all round the joint. On other occafions, it is acute,
deeply fituated, and confined to a {mall fpace, which is
moftly the very centre of the articulation. In particular
examples, the {welling of the joint fucceeds a pain which has
been experienced in another part of the body, and fuddenly
ceafed. Sometimes the difeafe begins in fo unexpeéted a
manner, that the patient, who went to bed perfeGly well,
rifes in the morning with a {tiff painful knee. Cafes of the
latter kind are generally rheumatic.
Whatever may be the manner in which the complaint ori-
ginates, and whatever the circumitances which precede the
attack, it always comes on in the form of a tumour, which
prefents the following charaéters:—The fwelling feldom
reaches all round the articulation; but is almoft always
limited to a more or lefs extenfive portion of the circumference
of the part. In the knee, it occurs above the patella, and
alfo below this bone, at the fides of the ligament, which con-
neéts it with the tibia. In the elbow, it chiefly occupies the
fides of the joint, efpecially the inner fide. In the ankle, it
takes place below and behind the malleoli. Liaitly, in the
fingers, it commonly affe€ts the whole circumference of the
difeafed joint. Such {welling is circumfcribed, immoveable,
and more or lefs hard and elaltic, not retaining the impref-
fion of the finger, as in cedema (fee GEnema), but ge-
nerally communicating, when handled, a fenfation of foft-
nefs, which leads to a fufpicion of the prefence of a fluid,
when none in reality exifts. The {welling is more or lefs
painful, efpecially when compreffed. Sometimes, however,
it is indolent ; the heat of the part is not increafed, and the
integuments continue of their natural colour. The motion
of the joint is impeded, and if the patient will not abftain
from moving the part, he is put to excruciating pain. There
are fome white-{wellings of the knee, in which the leg is
fixed in the extended pofture; but, moft commonly, the
limb is bent, even in aconfiderable degree, and when an
endeavour is made to ftraighten it, great fuffering is excited.
In white-{wellings of the elbow, the fore-arm is conftantly
obferved in a ftate of flexion. In thofe of the wrift, the
hand has a {trong propenfity to fall into the bent pofition ;
and in order to prevent this occurrence, and hinder an in-
complete luxation of the carpus from taking place back-
wards, the furgeon is fometimes obliged to fupport the hand
upon a fplint.
The conftant flexion of the limb, produces a confiderable
retraction of the flexor mufcles and their tendons, together
with a rigidity which can be felt through the integuments,
which are raifed up by the finews fo affeéted. The total
lofs of exercife always arifing from this {tate of the mufcles
and tendons, generally foon renders the joint itiff and mo-
tionlefs, fo that it frequently has the appearance of being
in a ftate of real re, complete anchylofis. See An-
CHYLOSIS.
The
WHITE-SWELLING.
The {welling may remain a long while in the condition
which has been defcribed ; it may even ceafe to be painful ;
and it may caufe only a ferious weaknefs of the knee, and
more or lefs difficulty in walking. But moft commonly it
continues to make uninterrupted progrefs; or, if its ad-
vances fhould happen to be checked, and the difeafe be for
atime ftationary, it frequently occurs, that, in confequence
of a fall, a bruife, or even without any external caufe, and,
as it were {pontaneoufly, the complaint afterwards increafes
again. ‘The articulation {wells more and more, and, if it be
the knee which is affected, the hollow of the ham alfo {wells
up and becomes effaced. The pain likewife augments, being
felt fometimes at one point of the circumference of the joint,
fometimes at another; occafionally in the ham, and, in
other examples, in the very cavity of the articulation. There
are, however, fome patients who feem to fuffer little or no
pain of any confequence. The hardnefs of the tumour is
fubje& to great variety. The older the difeafe is, the more
confiderable is in general the degree of induration. Yet
there are certain white-fwellings which are extremely hard,
although they have not exifted a long while; and other
cafes which are very foft, notwithftanding they are of long
ftanding. Boyer thinks, that this difference depends upon
the feat of the difeafe, which is fometimes in the bones ;
fometimes in the ligaments and furrounding cellular mem-
brane. The fkin which covers the fwelling grows thin,
pale, and fhining ; the cutaneous veins become dilated and
varicofe ; and the mufcles of the leg wafte and dwindle
away, fo that the fize of this part of the limb is ftrikingly
diminifhed. Sometimes, however, it is affe@ted with cedema,
and has the appearance of being enlarged. The lower part
of the thigh alfo frequently undergoes a very confiderable
diminution. This wafting of the limb above and below the
difeafe, makes the joint alfo feem much more {welled than it
is in reality. Sometimes the lymphatic glands in the groin
become enlarged and hardened ; and when the difeafe makes
much progrefs, the bones are frequently foftened and carious,
and the cartilages deftroyed. Laftly, abfceffes, more or lefs
confiderable, are formed in different parts of the tumour ; and
their formation is attended with a great deal of acute pain,
inflammation, and fever. 'Thefe abfceffes are more or lefs
deeply fituated, and often communicate with the interior of
the joint. When they burft, or are opened, a large quantity
of matter is difcharged, which is hardly ever of healthy con-
fiftence, being moftly a fero-purulent yellowifh fluid, fome-
what refembling turbid whey, and containing flakes of albu-
men. Sometimes, however, it prefents very nearly the ap-
pearances of healthy pus; but it foon changes into a thin
fetid fanies of very bad quality. Its difcharge, although
very confiderable, is followed by fearcely any perceptible
diminution in the fize of the fwelling. ‘The openings by
which it efcapes fometimes foon clofe, and frefh colleétions
of matter enfue which burft of themfelves, and then heal
up like the former ; but, in general, the apertures, inftead
of healing, become converted into incurable fiftulz.
Mr. Brodie has paid confiderable attention to the feveral
difeafes of the joints, which ufually go under the name of
white-fwelling. In particular, he has carefully examined
the morbid appearances which are found upon diffeAion ;
and his obfervations have led him to propofe a claffification
of thefe difeafes. ,
1. The firft cafe which Mr. Brodie defcribes is, inflamma-
tion of the fynovial membrane, which may occur as a fymptom
of a conititutional difeafe, where the fyftem is affected with
rheumatifm ; where mercury has been improperly exhibited,
or in large quantities; or where there is general debility
from any other caufe. But, in thefe cafes, the inflammation
is feldom fevere ; it occafions an effufion of fluid into the
joint, but rarely terminates in the extravafation of coagulat-
ing lymph, or thickening of the inflamed membrane. Some-
times it leaves one joint to attack another; or, it fuddenly
fubfides without another joint becoming affeéted.
At other times, fays Mr. Brodie, the inflammation occurs
as a local affeétion produced by a fprain, the application of
cold, or arifing from no evident caufe. It is then, for the
moft part, more fevere, and of longer duration ; it leaves the
joint with its fun@tions more or lefs impaired, and occafion-
ally terminates in its total deftru€tion. In itfelf, it is a
ferious difeafe ; but it is often confounded, under the general
name of white-{welling, with other difeafes {till more a
In fome cafes, it affumes the form of an acute; but in the
greater number of inftances, it has that of a chronic inflam-
mation.
When the cafe is acute, the fin is in general red, and the
joint tender and painful. The pain, which is not confined
to any particular point, and aggravated by motion of the
limb, is foon followed by fwelling. The patient is alfo
affe&ted with inflammatory fever. In a few days, the
difeafe either fubfides altogether, or aflumes the chronic
form.
According to Mr. Brodie, when the inflammation is chro-
nic, the pain and tendernefs are lefs, fo that the patient is
able to walk about, and often without experiencing any
fevere diftrefs. There is no fever, and the fkin retains its
natural colour. The {welling alfo increafes lefs rapidly
than in acute cafes. "Thefe fymptoms are generally rendered
worfe by expofure to cold and exertions. In the firft in-
ftance, the {welling of the joint arifes entirely from a preter-
natural quantity of fynovia. But when the inflammation
has exifted fome time, the fluid is not fo plainly perceptible,
becaufe the fynovial membrane is now thickened, which like-
wife augments the ftiffnefs of the articulation. The fhape
of the {welling is not that of the articulating ends of the .
bones, but arifes chiefly from the diftended ftate of the
fynovial membrane, and hence depends in a great meafure on
the fituation of the ligaments and tendons, which refift it in
certain directions. ‘Thus, when the knee is affe€ted, the
{welling is principally obfervable in the fame places where it
occurs in cafes of hydrops articuli.
After the inflammation of the fynovial membrane has fub-
fided, the fluid is abforbed, and, in fome inftances, the joint
recovers its natural figure and mobility ; but in the majo-
rity of cafes, the ftiffnefs and {welling continue. Whenever
the patient is expofed to cold, or exercifes the limb much,
the pain returns, and the {welling is increafed. Such cafes
are of frequent occurrence, and, as Mr. Brodie obferves,
they form a large proportion of thofe difeafes which are
called white-f{wellings.
Long-continued and negleéted inflammation of the fyno-
vial membrane fometimes terminates in the formation of an
abfcefs in the joint, in ulceration of the cartilages, and de-
ftruétion of the articular furfaces. Medico-Chir. ‘Tranf.
vol. v. p. 240, &c.
2. The fame gentleman has favoured the public with a
very circumftantial hiftory of another defcription of cafes,
where the difeafe originates in the fynovial membrane, which
lofes its natural organization, and becomes converted into a
thick pulpy fubftance of a light brown colour, interfeéted
by white membranous lines, and from one-fourth to one-
half of an inch, or more, in thicknefs. As this difeafe ad-
vances, it involves all the parts of which the joint is com-
pofed, producing ulceration of the cartilages, caries of the
Que bones,
WHITE-SWELLING.
bones, wailing of the ligaments, and abfceffes in different
places. The complaint has invariably proved flow in its
progrefs, and fometimes has remained nearly in an indolent
ftate for many months, or even for one or two years ; but
Mr. Brodie informs us, that he has never met with an in-
ftance in which a real amendment was produced, much
lefsacure. (See Medico-Chir. Tranf. vol. iv. p. 220, &c.)
Mr. Brodie alfo remarks, that the above-defcribed affection
of the fynovial membrane is rarely met with, except in the
knee, and that it generally takes place in young perfons
under, or not much above the age of puberty. In the origin
of this difeafe, there is a flight degree of ftiffnefs and tume-
faGtion, without pain, and producing only the moftt trifling
inconvenience. Thefefymptoms gradually increafe, fo that,
at laft, the joint fearcely admits of the {malleft motion, the
ftiffnefs being greater than what is the ufual refult of com-
mon inflammation. The form of the {welling bears fome
refemblance to that in cafes of inflammation mi fynovial
membrane ; but it is lefs regular. he {welling is foft and
elaftic, and gives to the hand a fenfation as if it contained
fluid. If oii one hand be employed in making the exa-
mination, the deception may be complete, and the moft ex-
perienced furgeon may be led to fuppofe that there is fluid
in the joint when there is none ; but if both hands be em-
ployed, one on each fide, the abfence of fluid is diftinguifhed
by the want of fluétuation.
“ The patient experiences little or no pain, until abfceffes
begin to form, and the cartilages ulcerate ; and even then
the pain is not fo fevere as where the ulceration of the carti-
lages occurs as a primary difeafe, and the abfceffes heal more
readily, and difcharge a {maller quantity of pus than in cafes
of this laft defcription. At this period, the patient becomes
affected with he@ic fever, lofes his flefh, and gradually
finks, unlefs the limb be removed by an operation.”? See
Brodie’s Obf. in Medico-Chir, Tranf, vol. v. p. 251,
&c.
3. Another form of white-fwelling defcribed by the fame
writer, is that which is more particularly characterized by
ulceration of the articular cartilages. This change occurs
in the advanced ftage of feveral difeafes of the joints, and it
alfo exifts in’ many inftances as a primary affeétion, in the
early ftage of which the bones, fynovial membrane, and liga-
ments, are in a natural ftate; but which, if negleéted, ulti-
mately occafions the entire deftruétion of the articulation.
When ulceration of the cartilages occurs in the fuper-
ficial joints, it conftitutes one of the difeafes which have been
known by the name of white-fwelling. From cafes which
Mr. Brodie has feen, he is led to conclude, that when it
takes place in the hip it is this difeafe, which has been vari-
oufly defignated by writers, the “ morbus coxarius,’’ the
* difeafe of the hip-joint,’’ the * ferofulous hip,” the “ fero-
fulous caries of the hip-joint”’ &c. At leait, Mr. Brodie
conceives, that it is to this difeafe fuch names have been
principally applied, though he acknowledges that there are
probably other morbid affections which have been confounded
with it. (Op. Cit. vol. iv. p. 236.) The ulceration of the
articular cartilages takes place as a primary difeafe, chiefly
in children or adults under the middle age. “ Of fixty-
eight perfons affe€ted with this difeafe, fifty-fix (accordin
to Mr. Brodie) were under thirty years of age: the seed
was an infant of about twelve months; the oldeft was a
woman of fixty.”” As the knee is more frequently affected
with inflammation of the fynovial membrane, fo 1s the hip
more liable than other joints to ulceration of the cartilaginous
furfaces. In general, the difeafe is confined to a fingle
joint ; but it is not very unufual to find two or three joints
affe@ed in the fame individual, either at the fame time or ia
fucceffion. Sometimes the patient traces the beginning of
his fymptoms to a local injury, or to his having been expofed
to cold; but, for the moft part, no caufe can be aff
for the complaint. See Medico-Chir. Tranf. vol. vi.
- 319.
For a defcription of the diforder as it occurs in the
hip, the reader is referred to the article Hip-Joint, Difea/e
of. At prefent, we fhall merely notice the fymptoms which,
according to the inveltigations of Mr. Brodie, particularly
charaGterize ulceration of the cartilages of the knee. The
differ from the fymptoms of inflammation of the fynovial
membrane, by the pain being flight in the beginning, and
gradually becoming very intenfe, which is the reverfe of
what happens in the latter affeétion. The pain alfo in
the commencement is unattended with any evident fwelling,
which never comes on in lefs than four or five weeks, and
often not till after feveral months. It is not to be inferred,
however, that every flight pain of the joint unaccompanied
with ore mult of courfe arife from ulceration of the
cartilages. ut, fays Mr. Brodie, when the pain continues
to increafe, and at laft is very fevere ; when it is aggravated
by the motion of the bones on each other ; and when, after a
time, a flight tumefaction of the joint takes place, we may
conclude that the difeafe confifts in fuch ulceration. The
{welling arifes from a flight inflammation of the cellular
membrane on the outfide of the joint ; it has the form of the
articulating ends of the bones; and for the moft part it
appears greater than it really is, in confequence of the
mufcles being wafted. No fiu€tuation is perceptible, as
where the fynovial membrane is inflamed; nor is there
the peculiar elafticity, which exifts, where the fynovial
membrane has undergone a morbid alteration of its ftruc-
ture.
Mr. Brodie, however, has explained, that, in fome cafes,
the {welling has a different fhape, and communicates the
feel of a flutuation. This happens when inflammation of
the fynovial membrane, attended with a colle&tion of the
fynovia of the joint, or abfceffes in the furrounding foft
parts, or in the articulation itfelf, occur as fecondary dif-
eafes. When there has been confiderable deftruCtion of the
foft parts from abfceffes and ulceration, the head of the tibia
may become diflocated and drawn towards the ham. See
Medico-Chir. Tranf. vol. vi. p. 326, &c.
4- There is another fpecies of white-{welling which is
peculiarly different from others, in being attended with ulcer-
ation of the fynovial membrane. As, however, it does not
appear to us to need a defcription in a work not exprefsly
devoted to furgery, we fhall only add, that the reader may
find Mr. Brodie’s account of the cafe in the Medico-Chir.
Tranfa@tions. Thofe white-fwellings which are reputed to
be fcrofulous, form a fubjeé&, however, on which we cannot
be filent. In the fcrofulous difeafes of the joints, the
bones are primarily affected, in confequence of which ulcer-
ation takes place in the cartilages covering their articular
furfaces. The cartilages being ulcerated, the fubfequent
progrefs of the difeate is, according to Mr. Brodie, the
fame as where this ulceration takes place in the firit in-
ftance.
It has been a very prevalent opinion, that, in cafes of
white-fwelling, the heads of the bones are always enlarged.
Mr. Ruffell is, perhaps, the firft writer who exprefled an
oppofite fentiment, and he abfolutely declares, that he had
never heard nor known of an inftance, in which the tibia was
enlarged from an attack of white-fwelling. (On Difeafes
of the Knee, p. 37.) We believe, that a regular expanfion’
of
WHITE-SWELLING.
of the heads of the bones, in cafes of white-{welling, is far
from being an ufual occurrence, although it may fometimes
happen. It is frequent, however, to meet with a fort of
enlargement, which arifes from fpicule of bony matter,
depofited on the outfide of the tibia, ulna, &c., which
alteration is materially different from a regular expanfion of
the heads of thofe bones. We have, however, lately feen
an inftance, in which the upper head of the ulna is confider-
ably increafed in fize by a regular kind of expanfion. The
preparation is in Mr. Abernethy’s mufeum ; and a few other
fpecimens have, we believe, been occafionally noticed. Yet,
as a general faét, we may full remark, that an enlargement
of the heads of the bones in the difeafes called white-fwelling,
is far from being the ufual ftate of things. The change
which the head of the tibia undergoes in many cafes, is firlt
a partial abforption of the phofphate of lime throughout its
texture, while a foft kind of matter is fecreted into its fub-
ftance. In amore advanced ftage, and, indeed, in that ftage
which moft frequently takes place before the limb is ampu-
tated, there are deep excavations in the head of the bone,
arifing from caries, and its ftruéture is now fo foftened, that
when a probe is preffed againft the carious part, it readily
penetrates deeply into the bone.
Mr. Brodie alfo joins in the opinion, that the morbid
affeGtion has its origin in the bones, ‘ which,”’ he fays,
“ become preternaturally vafcular, and contain a lefs than
ufual quantity of earth, while, at firft, a tranfparent fluid, and
afterwards a yellowifh cheefy fubftance, is depofited in their
cancelli. From the difeafed bone, veffels, carrying red
blood, fhoot into the cartilage, which afterwards ulcerates
in fpots, the ulceration beginning on that furface which
is conneéted to the bone.’? Med. Chir. Tranf. vol. iv.
p- 272.
With refpe& to the expanfion of the heads of the bones,
we ought to have mentioned,’ that the late Mr. Crowther
entirely difbelieved the reality of the occurrence, and every
body knows, that he paid very confiderable attention to the
fubje&t. (See Praé&. Obf. on White-Swelling, &c. edit. 2.
p- 14.) The event, however, fhould have been defcribed
as unufual, and not as never happening, fince, as we have
already ftated, a few fpecimens of fuch a change have now
been collected.
Mr. Ruffell has particularly noticed how much the foft
parts frequently contribute to the {welling : ‘¢ the great mafs
of the {welling,”’ he obferves, * appears to arife from an
affection of the parts exterior to the cavity of the joint, and
which, befides an enlargement in fize, {eem alfo to have
undergone a material change in ftru€ture. There is a larger
than natural proportion of a vifcid fluid, intermixed with the
cellular fubftance ; and the cellular fubftance itfelf has
become thicker, fofter, and of a lefs firm confillence than in
a ftate of health.””? (On the Morbid A ffe@tions of the Knee,
p- 30.) The manner in which the foft parts are affected
is alfo defcribed by Mr. Brodie. ‘* Inflammation takes
place of the cellular membrane, external to the joint. Se-
rum, and afterwards coagulable lymph, are effufed ; and hence
arifes a puffy elaftic {welling in the early and an cedematous
fwelling in an advanced itage of the difeafe. Scrofula
attacks only thofe bones, or portions of bones, which have
a fpongy texture, as the extremities of the cylindrical bones,
and the bones of the carpus and tarfus; and hence the
joints become affected from their contiguity to the parts
which are the original feat of the difeafe.”? Med. Chir.
Tranf. vol. iv. p. 273.
All white-{wellings which make confiderable progrefs,
and occafion fevere pain, long confinement, abfcefles, &c.
unavoidably bring on that impairment of the general
health, which is well known by the name of he@ic fevers
The patient gradually lofes his appetite and natural rett
and fleep; his pulfe is fmall and frequent ; an obftinate
debilitating diarrhcea, and profufe noéturnal fweats, enfue.
Such complaints are fooner or later followed by diffolution,
unlefs the conftitution be relieved in time, either by the
amendment or removal of the difeafed part. In different
patients, however, the courfe of the difeafe, and its effects
upon the fy{tem, vary confiderably in relation to the rapi-
dity with which they occur.
Rheumatic white-fwellings are very diftin& difeafes from
the {crofulous diftemper of the large joints. In the firft,
the pain is {aid never to occur without being attended with
fwelling. Scrofulous white-{wellings, on the other hand,
are always preceded by a pain, which is particularly con-
fined to one point of the articulation. In rheumatic cafes,
the pain is more general and diffufed over the whole joint.
It feems probable, that all cafes in which the ftruéture of
the bones is found quite undifeafed, and in which all the
mafs of difeafe appears to be confined to the foft parts, are not
{crofulous white-{wellings. Few perfons who have at-
tained the age of five-and-twenty, without having had the
leaft fymptom of {crofula, ever experience, after this period
of life, a firft attack of the white-fwelling of the ftrumous
kind. All cafes, in which the internal ftru€ture of the
heads of the bones becomes foftened, are probably fero-
fulous.
Mr. Ruffell has noticed the frequent enlargement of the
lymphatic glands in the groin, in confequence of the irrita-
tion of the difeafe when in the knee; but, he juftly adds,
eet this fecondary affection never proves long trouble-
ome. .
When the bones are difeafed, the head of the tibia always
fuffers more than the condyles of the thigh-bone. (Ru/éll.)
The articular furface of the femur fometimes has not a
fingle rough or carious point, notwithitanding that of the
tibia may have fuffered a great deal. The cartilaginous
coverings of the heads of the bones are generally eroded
firft at their edges; and in the knee, the cartilage of the
tibia is always more affe¢ted than that covering the condyles
of the thigh-bone. Indeed, when white-fwellings have their
origin in the bones, and the knee is the feat of the diforder,
there 1s fome ground for fuppofing that it is in the tibia
that the morbid mifchief firft commences.
The ligaments of. the knee are occafionally fo much
weakened or deftroyed by this terrible malady, that the
tibia and fibula become more or lefs diflocated backward,
and drawn towards the tuberofity of the ifchium, by the
powerful aétion of the flexor mufcles of the leg.
We have feen a curious fpecies of white-fwelling, in
which the leg could be moved to each fide a very confider-
able diftance, both when the knee was extended and bent.
Such a ftate implies a preternatural loofenefs of the liga-
ments of the articulation.
Scrofulous white-{wellings, no doubt, are under the
influence of a particular kind of conftitution, termed a {cro-
fulous or ftrumous habit. In this fort of temperament,
every caufe capable of exciting inflammation, or any morbid
and irritable ftate of a large joint, may bring on fuch dif-
order as may end in the fevere difeafe of which we are now
{peaking.
In a manof a found conftitution, an irritation of the kind
alluded to might only induce common healthy inflammation
of the affeGed joint.
In fcrofulous habits, it alfo feems probable, that irrita-
tion
WHITE-SWELLING.
tion of a joint is much more eafily produced than in other
conftitutions ; and no one can doubt, that when once ex-
cited in the former clafs of fubjeéts, it is much more dan-
gerous and difficult of removal than in other patients.
The doétrine of particular white-fwellings being fcro-
fulous difeafes, is fupported by many weighty reafons, the
opinions of the moft accurate obfervers, pt the evidence of
daily experience. Wifeman (book iv. ch. 4.) calls the
{pina ventofa a fpecies of fcrofula, and tells us, that in-
fants and children are generally the fubjeéts of this difeafe.
The diforder is faid by Severinus to be exceedingly frequent
in young fubje&ts. Petrus de Marchettis has obferved both
bs and female fubjeéts affeGted with what are called ftru-
mous difeafes of the joints, as late as the age of five-and-
twenty ; but not afterwards, unlefs they had fuffered from
{crofula before that period of life, and had not been com-
pletely cured. R. Lowerus alfo entertains a fimilar opinion.
Even though a few perfons may have {crofulous difeafes of
the joints, for the firft time, after the age of twenty-five,
this occurrence, like the firft attack of fcrofula after this
period, muft be confidered as extremely uncommon.
Another argument in favour of the doétrine, which {ets
down particular kinds of white-fwellings as {crofulous, is
founded on the hereditary nature of fach forms of dif-
eafe.
Numerous continental furgeons, particularly Petit and
Brambilla, have noticed how very fubje& the Englifh are
both to ferofula and white-fwellings of the joints. We
every day fee, that young perfons affli€ted with the prefent
difeafe, are generally manifeftly fcrofulous, or have once
been fo. Very often enlarged lymphatic glands in the neck
denote this fatal peculiarity of conftitution; very often the
patients are known to have defcended from parents who
had ftrumous diforders. Crowther.
Befides the general emblems of a f{crofulous conftitution,
we may often obferve a fhining, coagulated flaky fubftance,
like white of egg, blended with the contents of fuch ab-
{ceffes as occur in the progrefs of the difeafe. This kind
of matter is almoft peculiar to ferofulous abfceffes, and
forms another argument in fupport of the foregoing obfer-
vations relative to the fhare which fcrofula frequently has
in the origin and courfe of many white-{wellings. Cooper’s
Did&. of Praétical Surgery.
The caufes of white-fwellings are divided by furgical
writers into external and internal. Amongft the former
are reckoned mechanical injuries of the joints, fuch as
wounds, contufions, {prains, immoderate exercife in cold
damp weather, refiding continually in a low humid fitua-
tion, &c. It is certain, however, that thefe tumours are
feldom produced altogether by external caufes; and even
when their formation has been preceded by fome external
violence, this is rather to be regarded only as the determin-
ing caufe of the difeafe, while the real caufe in this, as well
as in other cafes where the complaint begins fpontaneoufly,
is of an internal kind. Rheumatifm and ferofula are the
ordinary caufes of white-{wellings ; and it may be alleged,
without rifk of error, that more than three-fourths of thefe
tumours are owing to thefe conftitutional difeafes. Thofe
white-fwellings which attack ftrong plethoric fubje&ts of
adult age, commonly depend upon rheumatif{m ; while other
cafes which happen in children, are almoft always caufed by
ferofula. It is well known that rheumatifm is particu-
larly difpofed to make its attack upon the large joints, and
that it efpecially affeéts the ligaments and neighbouring
cellular fubitance, which it thickens and hirdienay caufing
an effufion of coagulable lymph. Hence, fays Boyer, in
4
fuch white-fwellings as arife from rheumatifm, thefe parts
alone are found difeafed in the early ftage of the cieutent,
Traité des Mal. Chir. t. iv. p. 501.
With refpe& to ferofula, every furgeon is aware that it
frequently attacks the heads of the bones, particularly in
children, occafioning thofe morbid changes which we .
already endeavoured to defcribe. We have likewife men-
tioned what is now generally admitted, that in white-
{wellings originating from {crofula, the difeafe commences in
the bones, the foft parts becoming affected only fecondarily.
The contrary is faid to happen in all rheumatic cafes, the
difeafe beginning in the foft parts, and only affeéting the
bones in a fubfequent advanced ftage of the complaint.
The prognofis in cafes of white-{welling is, generally
fpeaking, ‘unfavourable ; but it is more or lefs fo, accord-
ing to the caufe of the difeafe, its duration, the accompany-
ing fymptoms, the patient’s conftitution, &c. ite-
{wellings arifing from rheumatifm are the leatt alarming,
efpecially when they are recent. ‘The progrefs of the com-
plaint may then be often ftopped, and fometimes a perfe&
cure accomplifhed. In this kind of cafe, the joint fome-
times returns to its natural ftate, and regains the power of
freely performing every motion; while in other inftances,
it continues affected with a greater or leffer degree of ftiffnefs.
White-fwellings, which appear to depend altogether upon
an external caufe, in pak A in other refpeéts healthy and
found, may terminate well. "The worft white-fwellings of
all are thofe which originate from fcrofula; for they are
very feldom cured, and when they do admit of amendment,
the joint is always left in a ftate of anchylofis.
Whatever may be the caufe of white-fwellings, when
they are of long Gasiting, feverely painful, the bones foftened
and rendered carious, the cartilages ulcerated, the articu-
lation filled with fanious matter, and abfceffes have formed,
the openings of which continue fiftulous, ‘and emit a more
or lefs abundant quantity of a thin fetid difcharge, the
difeafe is in general incurable. In this cafe, the violence of
the pain, the heétic fever, the profufe fweats, and colliqua-
tive diarrhoea, plunge the patient into a ftate of marafmus,
and foon carry him off, unlefs an attempt be made to fave
him by the timely performance of amputation. Yet, as
Boyer obferves, in fome few cafes of this hopelefs defcrip-
tion, nature, fkilfully affifted by art, has been known to
fubdue the difeafe. The fuppuration then gradually
diminifhes and affumes a better quality, the flow fever,
noéturnal perfpirations, and weakening diarrhoea, en-
tirely ceafe, the appetite returns, di efibn is well per-
formed, the ftrength is reftored, and the patient gets well
with an anchylofis. But fuch fortunate cafes are extremel
uncommon, and they do not juftify us in leaving the dileale
to nature, inftead of amputating the limb. Traité. des
Mal. Chir. t. iv. p. $05. 507-
Of all the difeafes which fall under the care of the fur-
on, there is not one in which a greater variety of remedies
as been propofed than in white-f{wellings, Yet, not-
withftanding the numerous means which are occafionally
tried, the praétitioner frequently has the mortification of
finding, not only that he cannot accomplifh a radical cure,
but that he cannot even palliate the complaint, moderate its
violence, or retard its progrefs.
The furgeon, in order to be methodical, fhould adapt
the treatment to the particular form of the difeafe
and its different ftates. But, in every inftance, perfect reft
of the limb is abfolutely indifpenfable, as exercife always has
the effeé&t of keeping up pain and irritation, and doing harm,
whatever may be the {pecies of the difeafe. a
eus
WHITE-SWELLING.
Rheumatic white-fwellings being invariably accompanied,
at their commencement, with an inflammatory character,
there can be no doubt, that, at this period of the complaint,
the great indication is to take fuch meafures as are belt cal-
culated to leffen and fubdue inflammation; and bleeding is
what fhould firft be practifed. When the patient is ftrong,
robuft, and much fever exifts, he may be bled once or
twice in the arm; but, in other cafes, we are to be content
with drawing blood from the part affected with leeches, or
by cupping. If leeches be ufed, they fhould be applied to
both fides of the joint, and eight or ten ounces of blood
ought to be thus taken away. The application of thefe
animals fhould alfo be repeated at proper intervals, more or
lefs frequently, according to the violence of the fymptoms,
and the ftrength of the patient. In cafes of this defcrip-
tion, drawing blood from the difeafed part itfelf is found to
be much more efficacious than general blood-letting, which
weakens the patient without proportionately leflening the
{welling of the joint.
Blifters are another means, as efficacious as topical bleed-
ing. Boyer recommends beginning with the application of
a {mall one to the front of the joint, where the leeches have
not been put; and he fays, that it fhould be kept open,
until the bites of the leeches are healed on one fide of the
articulation, where a fecond blifter is then to be applied.
As foon as this is nearly healed, we are next advifed to lay
a third blifter on the oppofite fide of the joint. By thus
continually eats the fituation of the blifter from one
fide of the articulation to another, a permanent counter-irri-
tation is kept up, which, fays Boyer, in all deeply-feated
inflammations, efpecially thofe which proceed from rheuma-
tifm, is much more effeétual, than carefully maintaining a
difcharge from a fingle blifter.
Tn conjunétion with the foregoing means, the limb fhould
be kept moderately and uniformly warm by covering it with
flannel; a low diet is to be obferved, cooling beverages
prefcribed, and the aétion of the bowels regulated by
clyfters. Thus, the feverity of the pain may generally be
-leffened, and the inflammation diminifhed. If the pain,
however, fhould ftill continue to be violent, Boyer recom-
mends the ufe of topical anodyne and narcotic applications.
He ftates, that, in this circumiftance, he has often employed
with fuccefs opiate and camphorated liniments; fomenta-
tions compofed of a folution of the extract of opium in
water; a ftrong decoétion of poppies, &c. He thinks,
however, that fuch applications fhould never be ufed, unlefs
the pain be very fevere.
When the inflammatory ftage is over, topical refolvent
remedies are to be employed, and their effeét is to be pro-
moted by exhibiting mild opening medicines at fuitable in-
tervals. The moft effeGual refolvent applications, and
thofe which are moft commonly tried in thefe cafes, are, dry
friétions with a piece of flannel, impregnated with the
vapour of benzoin, liniments containing ammonia and
camphor, ammoniacal plafters, foap-liniment, lotions of
vinegar, fpirit of wine, and the muriate of ammonia, &c.
Mr. B. Bell had a very high opinion of the good effe&ts of
rubbing the joint with camphorated mercurial ointment ;
but Boyer affirms, that he has often tried the laft applica-
tion, and that his experience leads him to. impute whatever
benefit arifes from its employment, chiefly to the friGtions,
which redden and promote the circulation in the fkin.
By a perfeverance in the judicious ufe of the means
above fpecified, rheumatic white-{wellings may fometimes
be cured; but it often happens, that, after the pain and
fwelling have fubfided, the joint remains quite ftiff and
motionlefs, and every attempt to move it caufes confider-
able fuffering. In the majority of cafes, fuch ftiffnefs de-
pends almoit entirely upon the retraétion of the mufcles,
tendons, and ligaments, and demands the fame treatment as
a falfe anchylofis. See ANcuHyYLosIs.
When the difeafe refifts the foregoing treatment, and is
of long ftanding, the cure is more difficult, inafmuch as the
thickening of the ligaments, and the effufion of a fero-albu-
minous fluid into the cellular fubftance around them, are
more confiderable, and the bones and cartilages are likewife
at the fame time affeéted. In this circumftance, if there be
any hope of cure, the furgeon muft have recourfe to more
powerful means, which we {hall mention in {peaking of the
treatment of other defcriptions of white-{welling.
In white-fwellings, arifing from an external caufe, fuch
as blows, falls, &c. we mutt firft leffen the inflammation by
general and local bleeding, low diet, cooling aperient beve-
rages, fomentations, and emollient anodyne poultices. Af-
terwards, when the pain and tenfion have fubfided, refolvent
applications are to be ufed, and the patient is not to be
allowed to move the limb, as long as there is any danger of
a renewal of the pain and irritation by exercife.
Scrofulous white-fwellings in an early ftage prefent
different indications, according to the circumftances with
which they are accompanied. A fall, or blow upon a
joint, being fometimes the exciting caufe of thefe tumours,
any accident of this kind in a perfon evidently difpofed to
{crofula demands the utmoft attention and care. No
means fhould be negleéted which are at all likely to leffen
the pain and irritation in the affeGed joint, and in particular
the limb ought to be kept perfeétly quiet for a long time.
Scrofulous white-fwellings frequently come on, as it were,
{pontaneoufly, without the concurrence of any external
accident, and their attack is attended with a dull, fometimes
an acute pain in the very cavity of the joint, which at firft is
not affected with any manifeft degree of {welling. In this
circumftance, the furgeon muft endeavour to prevent the
progrefs of the difeafe by enjoining the patient to refrain
from moving the joint, and by dire¢ting the employment of
foothing local applications, which are afterwards to be fuc-
ceeded by blifters, or an iffue.
In the cafes of white-{welling, which appear from Mr.
Brodie’s account to depend principally upon inflammation
of the fynovial membrane, the acute ftage of the difeafe is
to be treated by general and local bleeding, aperient medi-
cines, cold topical applications, or fomentations, and emol-
lient poultices. When the affeétion has become chronic,
this gentleman recommends perfe& reft, and leeches, or
cupping, followed by the application of a large blifter.
Under this treatment, he fays, “ the pain is relieved, and,
in a few days, the fwelling, as far as it depends upon the
fluid colleGed in the cavity of the joint, is much diminifhed.
Eyen where the tumour is folid, arifing from the effufion of
coagulating lymph, it will in a great meafure fubfide, and
fometimes be entirely difperfed, provided the lymph has
not yet become organized. A {ingle blifter often produces
marked good effeéts ; but, it is generally neceflary to repeat
both the blifter and the blood-letting feveral times.’?
Mr. Brodie confiders the repeated application of blifters
more efficacious, than a fingle blifter kept open with the
avine cerate. When the inflammation has been much fub-
dued, he thinks moderate exercife of the joint rather bene-
ficial, and commends the ufe of a ftimulating liniment, com-
pofed of Zifs of olive oil, and 2{s of fulphuric acid. This
application, when too irritating, is to be weakened by an
additional quantity of oil, and it is not to be ufed before in-
flammation
WHITE-SWELLING.
fiammation is fubdued, left it aggravate the difeafe. Ifues
and fetons, which are ufeful in ulceration of the cartilages,
Mr. Brodie deems ufelefs in the prefent difeafe. Platters
of gum ammoniac, and others of a fimilar nature, are of
little efficacy while inflammation exifts, but afterwards they
are of ufe in guarding the joint from the influence of exter-
nal cold, and preventing a relapfe. For the removal of a
moderate degree of {welling and ftiffnefs, left by the patt
inflammation, Mr. Brodie entertains a favourable opinion of
exercife of the limb, and friétion with camphorated mercu-
rial ointment, or by the hand with finely powdered ftarch.
When the friction, however, produces inflammation again, itis
to be difcontinued, and leeches applied. When the {welling
and {tiffnefs are confiderable, Mr. Brodie has never feen fri€tion
do much good, and, as it is in fuch cafes particularly apt to
bring on inflammation again, it is to be employed with much
caution. According to the fame author, frition is more
efficacious, where the ftiffnefs of a joint depends on a con-
traéted ftate of the mufcles, or tendons of the limb, or on
thefe being glued to each other, or the f{urrounding parts,
than where it is the confequence of difeafe of the joint itfelf.
In fome cafes, the pumping of warm water on the part,
from a height of feveral feet, as praétifed at fome of the
watering Es is beneficial; but in this plan, the fame
cautions are neceflary, as in the employment of fri€tion.
With regard to the cafes which Mr. Brodie defcribes as
depending upon a total lofs of the natural ftruéture of the
fynovial membrane, which is conyerted into a pulpy fub-
ftance, one-quarter, or one-half, of an inch in thicknefs, are,
according to this gentleman, quite incurable, and they at
length terminate in ulceration of the cartilages, abfcefles,
&c. Hence, when the health begins to fuffer, he confiders
amputation proper. See Medico-Chir. Tranf. vol. v.
When white-fwellings are accompanied with ulceration of
the cartilages, all motion of the joint is extremely hurtful.
Indeed, as Mr. Brodie well obferves, keeping the limb in a
ftate of perfeét quietude is a very important, if not the moft
important circumftance to be attended to in the treatment.
According to the fame writer, it is in thefe cafes, in which
ulceration of the cartilage occurs as a primary difeafe, that
cauftic iffues are ufually produétive of fingular benefit ;
but he deems them of little ufe in any other difeafes of the
joints. He thinks fetons, and blifters kept open with the
favine cerate, may alfo be ufed with advantage in the fame
defcription of cafes. Bleeding can only be proper, when,
from the bad effeéts of exercife, the articular furfaces are
inflamed, and pain and fever prevail. Mr. Brodie aflures
us, that the warm-bath relieves the fymptoms in the early
ftage, if it does not ftop the progrefs of the difeafe ; but
he condemns plafters of gum ammoniac, embrocations,
liniments, and fri€tions, as either ufelefs or hurtful. Op.
Cit. vol. vi.
The pumping of warm water upon difeafed joints is a
method which is at prefent very frequently adopted, as
fome conceive, with decidedly beneficial effects. The plan
is not altogether modern. Le Dran, and feveral other old
practitioners, recommend throwing warm water upon dif-
eafed joints, and they prove the advantages of this treatment
by a relation of many fuccefsful cafes. In order to derive
the greateft poflible good from the plan, the water fhould
as warm as the patient can bear it, and it ought to fall
upon the part from a height of feven or eight feet. The
fize of the ftream muft alfo vary according to the degree of
fenfibility in the tumour. When the pain is acute, the end
of the Pipe mutt be clofed with a piece of tin, perforated by
many holes, like the {pout of a watering-pot. But when
9
‘the pain is inconfiderable, the pipe tay terminate in a fingle
opening, the diameter of which fhould vary from half an
inch to an inch, according to circumftances. The applica-
tion is fometimes to be continued nearly an hour, and when
it is finifhed, the patient ought to to bed, and the joint
be covered with bladders filled with water as hot as the
patient can bear. Boyer recommends the application of
the bladders to be perfevered in for the {pace of two hours,
after which they are to be removed, and perfpiration from
the part promoted by covering it with warm cloths, or
flannels. In the evening, the bladders are to be repeated for
fome hours. The dafhing of warm water againft the dif-
eafed joint is to be praétifed every day, or every other day,
according as the patient can bear the plan, without too
much fatigue or inconvenience. This treatment, fays
baron Boyer, is proper in all kinds of white-fwellings, and
in every ftage of the difeafe ; but it is much the moft ufe-
ful in thofe cafes'in which the foft parts alone are affeéted,
and at an early period, before the complaint has made great -
progrefs. Favourable effets may be expected from this
method, when, after each application of the water, the part
affeGted perfpires copioufly, when it grows gradually
fofter, and when, after a certain number of trials, the
{welling begins to diminifh. Under thefe circumftances,
the plan is to be continued and repeated very often, as a
long perfeverance in it has frequently produced extraor-
dinary cures. When none of the above-defcribed changes
happen, little benefit can be hoped for from the method ;
but ftill the patient fhould not abandon it, before its ineffi-
cacy has been proved by adequate trials.
When there is no fuitable apparatus for applyin
warm water, it may be injeéted againft the part with a
fyringe, which has a pipe about half an inch in diameter,
made with four or five holes, for the difcharge of the fluid.
The injeétions may be rendered more or lefs a¢tive, by pro-
pelling the water with more or lefs force.
Thefe affufions operate only by the heat and ftrength of
the current of water. Boyer ftates, that their aGtivity may
be augmented by adding to the fluid a quantity of the
muriate of foda or muriate of ammonia, or fome potafla or
{éda; and he thinks it ftill better to employ a fulphuretted
mineral water, either natural or faétitious. The activity
of the affufions may alfo be increafed by heating the water
to a high temperature, letting it fall from a confiderable
height, and making the ftream large. It is a plan, fays
baron Boyer, adapted to thofe white-{wellings which are
fituated in the foft parts on the outfide of the joints; and
which are indolent, and unattended with much pain. When
thefe ative affufions are applied to white-{wellings
which are painful, and which affe&t the bones, they
often increafe the patient’s fufferings, and accelerate the
progrefs of the difeafe. See Traite des Mal. Chir. tom. iv.
p- 512, &c.
Of late years, furgeons have frequently made trial of dry-
rubbing, as it is termed, or friétion of the joint, performed
with the hand, for feveral hours a day, with the mere appli-
cation of a little powdered ftarch, or hair-powder, in order
to prevent the part from being chafed. It is a method
which was firft praétifed to a confiderable extent at Oxford,
and with great fuccefs. Many poor women there earned
a livelihood by rubbing difeafed joints at the rate of fixpence
per hour. Indeed, there can be no doubt, that, in indolent
rheumatic white-fwellings, fimple fri€tion often removes the
{welling in an expeditious manner, as well as the ftiffnefs of
the affected joint. The plan, however, will not effe& a cure
in f{crofulous cafes; nor can it be adopted without manifeit
, harm
the
WHI
harm in any examples, in which the difeafe is either in an
infiamed or-irritable ftate.
In chronic cafes, the {welling may alfo be leflened, and
the complaint fometimes much benefited by preffure, made
either with ftrips of adhefive plafter, or with bandages,
This method will not do much good in inflances where the
bones are difeafed, nor is it applicable to cafes which are
irritable, or attended with heat and inflammation.
For fcrofulous. white-fwellings, furgery cannot yet be
- faid to have difcovered any effegtual or certain means of
relief ; and thefe melancholy difeafes frequently compel the
, patient to fubmit to amputation, as the only thing by which
2 long train of fufferings can be arrefted, and the term of
life extended. The common plan of treating fcrofulous
white-fwellings is, by topical bleeding, fomentations, and
cold applications, when they are attended with much pain,
heat, and irritation; and iby iffues, fetons, and blifters, in
other periods of the difeafe. The cautery and moxa have
alfo been much employed abroad ; and, as every body knows,
they were favourite and powerful remedies in the hands of
the ancients. In this country, the ufe of a€tual fire in fur-
gery is nearly, if not quite, exploded, on the ground that its
employment is attended with an appearance of cruelty, and
that iffues, made with cauftic, are equally efficacious.
Pouteau, an eminent French furgeon, will ever be famous
for having revived in his own country all the ancient par-
tiality to burning irons. He recommended their ufe for all
white-{wellings without difcrimination ; and the accounts
which he has left of the fuccefs of the pra€tice are fur-
prifing, if not incredible. In fa, they are in all proba-
bility great exaggerations; for we find that baron Boyer,
one of the moft eminent furgeons at Paris at the prefent
time, decidedly declares his opinion, that Pouteau’s defcrip-
tions of the efficacy of the aétual cautery in the cure of
white-{wellings do not correfpond with the refults of mo-
dern experience. Boyer himfelf gives a preference to the
moxa, which is a cone of cotton, burnt upon the difeafed
part, fo as to produce an efchar. We confefs, that to us
this plan feems to have no material difference from the
cautery ; and, what is it but the application of aétual fire
in another form? Indeed, one cannot help ‘thinking, that
Boyer decries the cautery, only for the purpofe of after-
wards recommending the moxa, which is now a more
fafhionable means employed in French furgery. It is
curious to find Boyer particularly forbidding the ufe of
ifflues, and the moxa in cafes of white-{welling, where the
bones and cartilages are difeafed; the very cafes in which
Mr. Brodie, in common with the generality of furgeons in
England, exprefsly recommends either iffues or perpetual
blifters. Boyer has never feen much good arife from iffues
in any cafes, although, as he affirms, he has made extenfive
trial of them. The time alfo when he thinks the moxa
ufeful, is in that ftage of the complaint. which intervenes
between the prevalence of inflammatory fymptoms, and the
commencement of difeafe in the bones and cartilages.
Sometimes, however, the diforder certainly has its very
origin in the bones themfelves.
The late Mr. Crowther introduced the plan of keeping
open blifters with the favine cerate, which is a method fre-
quently attended with great fuccefs in chronic white-
fwellings, and fometimes appears to check the progrefs of
the ferofulous form of the difeafe. Blifters may be kept
open with this ointment along time, and with lefs pain,
than what proceeds from the ufe of the unguentum lytte,
and other ftimulating dreffings. It alfo occafions no rifk of
bringing on ftrangury, or inflammation of the bladder and
urinary organs, like the ufe of ointments containing can-
Vou. XXXVIII.
WHI
tharides. In our opinion, Mr. Crowther had much merit
in making known the eligible qualities of the favine cerate ;
and, we believe, no better application for keeping up a dif-
charge from blifters. will ever be found out. Sometimes,
however, the repeated application of blifters has more effe&
upon white-{wellings, than a fingle blifter kept open. This
is a circumftance which the praétical furgeon ought con-
ftantly to remember.
We might eglarge this article with obfervations on iflues
and fetons, which are frequently employed in thefe eafes ;
but it would be fuperfluous, as they have been already
defcribed in other parts of the work. See Issuz, and
SETON. :
It may be fuppofed, that ferofulous white-fwellings
will require the exhibition of the remedies ufually
adminiftered in cafes of ferofula. (See Scroruxa.)
Boyer, and fome other writers declare, that this is actually
the cafe. We have never feen thefe remedies, however, do
any good to difeafed joints, if we except fea-air, fea-bathing,
and the ufe of fea-water lotions and poultices, which fome-
times prove ufeful.
After all, wé muft acknowledge that white-{wellings, we
mean particularly the inftances accompanied with ulceration
of the cartilages, and difeafe of the heads of the bones, are
cafes which too generally baffle the utmoft fkill, and render
a formidable operation unavoidable.
Wuire Tail. See Moracitya Gnanthe.
Wuite Tariar. See Tartar.
Wuite Thorn. See Craramcus.
Wuits Thorn, or Hawthorn. See Hepcs, and Quick-
sET-Hedge.
Wuite Thorn Layer, a term applied to fuch plants of
the white thorn kind as are laid down in kedges to grow, in
the operation of plafhing. Alfo to the young roots of this
thorn ufed in raifing this fort of hedges. See PLASHING
Hedges. * :
Wuire-Throat, in Ornithology, the name of a {mall bird,
véry common in our gardens and hedges, and feeming to
have been defcribed under the name of /pipola by Aldro-
vandus and fome others, though moft approaching to the
Jficedula clafs.
Its beak is black above, and whitifh below ; its feet of a
yellowifh-brown ; itsneck and back are of a brownifh-grey ;
its head more grey than either, and the upper part of the
throat white, the reft reddifh ; its breaft and belly are alfo
a little reddifh ; but in the female, the breaft is perfetly
white. The edges of the long wing-feathers are fome
whitifh and others brownifh, and the tail is variegated with
black and white, and fome grey or afh-colour intermixed.
It is extremely common-in our gardens and orchards in
fummer, and feeds on flies, fpiders, and other infeéts, but
leaves us in winter. It builds in bufhes, at a {mall height
from the ground, with ftibble and horfe-hair, and lays five
brownifh-green eggs, with black fpots. Its note is con-
tinually repeated, and often attended with odd motions of
the wings: it is harfh and difpleafing. ‘This bird is thy
and wild, and feems of a pugnacious difpofition. Ray and
Pennant. See Moracitxa Sylvia. ;
Waite Trefoil, in Agriculture, is faid, in the third volume
of the Effays of the Highland Society of Scotland, to be a
humble but {weet plant, which delights in a dry found field,
properly cleaned and limed ; and is alone the delight of
fheep. But that a mixture of it, and of the feeds of rye
and rib grafs, conftitutes one of the beft fheep-paftures
that can be formed by the induftry of man. That this fort
of grafs is likewife perennial, and that it enriches inftead of
impoverifhing the foil or land. This has generally been
3 F noticed
WHI
noticed to be the moft abundant plant in fuch rich im-
proved paftures; but that it has feldom been feen in lands
remarkable for inducing the rot among fheep. See Ror,
Sueep, and Wuite Clover.
Wuire, Troy. See Troy-White.
Waite Varnifh, and Vitriol. See the fubftantives.
Wuite Vitriol, in Mineralogy, a natural falt or ore of
zinc. (See Zinc, and Zinc Ores.) This _ a fulphate of
that metal, but is frequently combined with’’ {mall portion
of manganefe. It is fuppofed to be formed naturally by
the decompofition of blende or fulphuret of zinc.
Wuire-Wafbing, Roughcaft. See Wasu for, &c.
Wuite Water, a difeafe in Sheep, of the dangerous fto-
machic kind. It is faid to be caufed by their feeding on
rich fucculent food in cold frofty feafons, or at other times,
and by many other fuch caufes ; and is probably an affeétion
of the inflammatory kind.
It is remarked in the Gloucefter Report on Agriculture,
that the white water is a deftru€tive diforder on the Cotf-
wolds ; ufually comes on with rapidity, and fometimes ter-
minates with death in three hours. It is fuppofed to be
owing to their licking up the white froft on their green
food in fpring and autumn. Folding at night on bare
ground, giving them dry meat in the morning, and keeping
them from the turnips till the froft is gone, is the obvious
mode of prevention, if the foregoing caufe be well founded.
If, however, the diforder be owing to gorging themfelves
with watery food, fuch as turnips, it is probable that to
keep them moving, without fuffering them to reft long, nor
{well with what they have eaten, will carry off the begin-
ning complaint ; and even if the white froft has been the oc-
cafion, this is the beft remedy that reafoning fuggefts ; and
it is faid to be the praétice of the fhepherds in Northumber-
land, in the management of fheep under this complaint.
It is probable that f{peedy evacuation, both by bleeding
and purging, may be found ufeful in this difeafe, and after-
wards the ule of ftomachic remedies.
It is found to chiefly attack the young healthy fheep. See
Water, Red and Black.
Waite Water-Lily, in Gardening, a moft beautiful plant
of this country, which is capable of being propagated in
artificial and ornamental pieces of water in gardens and plea-
fure-grounds, merely by tranfplanting the bulbous roots of
it in the winter feafon. It is perennial in its nature.
Wuirte Wax is yellow wax blanched, and purified by
the fun and dew. See Wax.
Wuite upon White, in the Porcelain Manufadory, a name
given by the Englifh merchants to a particular china-ware,
which is formed of three different white fubftances, the body
being of one, the flowers of another, and the varnifh which
covers thefe of a third. See Hoacue.
Wuite Wine is that of a clear, bright, tranfparent colour,
bordering on white. It is thus called to diftinguifh it from
the red wines, or clarets.
The generality of white wines are made from white
grapes ; though there are fome from black ones, only the
ikins are carefully kept from tinging them. » See Wine.
Wuites, the popular name of a diforder incident to
women. Sce Fivor Albus.
Waits, in Geography, acounty of Weft Tennaffee, with
4028 inhabitants, including 283 flaves.
Wuire Bay, a bay on the eaft coaft of Newfoundland.
N. lat. 50° 10'. W. long. 56° 25'.—Alfo, a bay on the
eaft coatt of Kerguelen’s Land, fouth of Point Pringle, fo
called from fome white {pots of land or rocks. in the
.W Hi
bottom are feveral fmaller bays or coves. S. lat. 47° 53/.
E. long. 69° 15'.
Waite Bear Lake, a lake of North America, faid to
be the moft northerly of thofe lakes which fupply the
Miffifippi. It is about 60 miles in circumference. N. lat.
46° so'. W. long. 95° 30’.
Wuite Clif, or Culver Cliff, a cape of the eaft coaft of
the Ifle of Wight. North of it is a bay called White Cliff
Bay. N. lat. 50°39'. W. long. 0° 56’.
Wuite Deer, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in North Cum-
berland county, on the Sufquehanna, with 1132 in-
habitants.
Wuite Flag Bay, a bay on the weft coaft of the ifland
of St. Chriftopher ; 2 miles N. of Sandy Point.
Wuite Head, a cape of Ireland, on the coaft of Antrim,
at the entrance into Belfaft Lough, a little to the fouth of
Black Head.
Wuite Hills, a fihhing-town of Scotland, in the county
of Bamff, fituated in acreek ; 2 miles N. of Bamff.
Wuute-Horfe Vale, a vale of Berkfhire, fo called from
the figure of a horfe in a galloping pofture, cut in the fide
of a chalky hill, as is fuppofed in memory of a great victory
are by Alfred over the Danes in the year 871. The
couring the horfe is an annual feftival, and celebrated by
rural games. On the top of the hill is a large Roman in-
trenchment, called Uffington caftle, or Woolfton caftle.
There is likewife another camp in the neighbourhood, with
the burial place of the Danith chief, inclofed by {tones fet
on edge, a cromlech, and feveral barrows.
Wuite Horfes, cliffs on the fouth coaft of Jamaica; 20
miles E.S.E. of Kingfton.
Wuite-Houfe Bay, a bay on the weft coaft of the ifland
of St. Chriftopher, a little to the north of Guana Point.
Wuite ZJnilet, or Boca de Ratones, an inlet on the eaft
coaft of Eaft Florida. N. lat. 26°. W. long. 80° 2o!.
Wuire Jfland, an ifland in the South Pacific ocean, near
the eaft coait of New Zealand, north of Cape Run-away-
S. lat. 37° 31'. W. long. 182° 36.—Alfo, a fmall ifland
in the Atlantic, near the S.E. coaft of Nova Scotia. Ne
lat. 44° 55’. W. long. 61° 56!.
Wuirte Jfland, or Burnt Ifland, a {mall ifland in the
Arabian Gulf, near the coaft of Adel. N. lat. 11° 8/.
E. long. 64° 55!.
Waite, Jfle of. See D/le of Wicut.
Wuite Keys River, a river of Africa, which runs into
the Indian fea, S. lat. 30° 35’.
Wuirr Mountains, mountains of New Hamphhire, pecu-
liarly applied to the higheft part of a ridge, which extends
N.E. and S.W.: the whole circumference at leait fifty
miles. The height of thefe mountains above an adjacent
meadow is reckoned, from obfervations made by the Rey.
Mr. Cutler, of Ipfwich, in 1784, to be about 5500 feet,
and the meadow 3500 feet above the level of the fea. The
{now and ice cover them nine or ten months in the year,
during which time they exhibit that bright appearance from
which they are denominated the White Mountains. From
this fummit, in clear weather, is exhibited a view extending
fixty or feventy miles in every direétion: although they are
more than feventy miles within land, they are feen many
leagues off at fea, and appear like an exceedingly bright
cloud in the horizon. Thefe immenfe heights, being co-
pioufly replenifhed with water, afford a variety of cafcades.
Three of the largeft rivers in New England receive a great
part of their waters from thefe mountains. Amanoofuck
and Ifrael rivers, two principal branches of the Conneéticut,
fall from their weltern fides. Peabody river, a branch of
the Amorifcogen, falls from the north-eaft fide, and almoft
the .
WHI
the whole of the Saco defcends from the fouthern fide.
The higheft fummit of thefe mountains is in about 44° N. lat.
Wuire Oak Creek, a river of North Carolina, which runs
into the Atlantic, N. lat. 34° 39’. W. long. 77° 26’.
Wuirte Oak Mountains, mountains in the weft part of
North Carolina. N. lat. 36° 10!. W. long. 82° 30!.
Wuite Point, a cape on the coaft of Cape Breton, near
Louifburg.—Alfo, a cape on the fouth coaft of Jamaica ;
zo miles E. of Port Royal.—Alfo, a cape on the north
coaft of the ifland of Cumbava. S. lat. 8° 15’. E. long.
LED eG Ds
Wuite River, a river of Louifiana, formerly thought to
be a ftream of inconfiderable magnitude, but now known to
be one of the moft confiderable in the weftern country, and
likely to become of ftill greater importance. It rifes in the
Black Mountains, which feparate the waters of the Ar-
kanfas from thofe of the Miffouri and Miffiflippi. Several
of its branches interlock with thofe of the Ofage river, the
Maramak, and the St. Francis. Itis navigable about 1200
miles, without any confiderable interruption ; 800 of which
may be made with barges, and the reft with canoes or
{maller boats. Its waters are clear and limpid, its current
gentle, and even in the drieft feafon, plentifully fupplied
from the numerous and excellent fprings which are every
where found. It alfo receives many confiderable rivers in
its courfe, the largeft of which is Black river. The country
which it waters is defcribed by thofe who have traverfed it
as generally well wooded, and abounding in fprings and
rivulets : the foil is rich, though hilly ; and it is faid, that
on the borders of this river a country may be chofen, at
leaft 100 miles fquare, not furpafled by the beft parts of
Kentucky, and one of the beft for fettlements in the weft-
ern world. This river is*fituated on the S.W. fide of
the Miffouri, and is 300 miles wide at its mouth.
Wuire River, a river of Guadaloupe.—Alfo, a river of
America, which runs into the Conneéticut, 4 miles eaft
of Norwich.—Alfo, a river of Jamaica, which runs into the
fea, 4 miles W. of Morant bay.—Alfo, a river of Indiana,
in the county of Koog, which rifes about N. lat. 40° 45',
and W. long. 85° 5', and runs into the Wababh, N. lat. 38°
19/, and W. long. 88° 20!.—Alfo, a river of America, which
runs into lake Michigan, N. lat. 43° 40! W. long. 85° 35/.
—Alfo, a river of Vermont, which runs into the Conneéti-
cut, N. lat. 43°38'. W. long. 72° 16/.
Wuite Rock, a rocky iflet in the Eaft Indian fea, near
the fouth coaft of Java.
WuiteE Rocks, a range of buildings, accommodated for
f{melting-houfes, about a mile from Swanfea, in the county
of Glamorgan, fituated on the river.
Wuite’s Bay, a bay on the coait of Newfoundland. N.
lat. 50° 17’. W. long. 56° 15!.
WHITEBURN, a town of Scotland, in the county of
Linlithgow ; 21 miles W. of Edinburgh.
WHITECLAY Creek, a hundred of Delaware, in
Newcaftle county, with 1701 inhabitants.
WHITEFIELD, George, in Biography, one of the
founders of Methodifm, (fee Meruontsts, ) was the fon of
an innkeeper at Gloucefter, where he was born in 1714,
and where he received the rudiments of literature, fo as to
be fufficiently qualified for his father’s bufinefs, for which
he was defigned. Accordingly he commenced it as drawer
at the Bell-inn. At fchool he is faid to have been diftin-
guifhed by a retentive memory and good elocution. Of his
early years, he gives a very unfavourable account, fo that
there was nothing about him but a fitnefs to be damned,
with occafional gleams of grace that afforded fome indica-
tion of his future deftination, About the age of 18,
WHiI
he was admitted a fervitor at Pembroke college, Oxford,
and affociated with thofe young perfons whofe difpofitions
and habits refembled his own, and whofe converfation and
manners contributed to cherifh that religious enthufiafm to
which he was ftrongly addi€@ted. As foon as Dr. Benfon,
bifhop of Gloucetter, received information concerning the
{tate of his mind and the courfe of his general condu&, he
made him an offer of ordination, when he was about 21
years of age, and he was accordingly ordained a deacon in
1736. Upon his return to Oxford, after preaching his firft
fermon at Gloucefter, he took the degree of bachelor, and
diligently employed himfelf in communicating inftruétion to
the poor and the prifoners. During the two following
years, he acquired a great degree of popularity by his pub-
lic fervices in London, Bath, Briftol, and other places ; col-
leCting large auditories, and interefting the attention of his
hearers. His voice was ftrong and mufical, his pronun-
ciation clear and diftin@, his imagination was lively, and his
feelings were warm ; and to thefe natural powers of elo-
quence we may add his feletion of fubjeéts, which were
adapted to roufe the inconfiderate, and to comfort thofe
that were awakened to a fenfe of their guilt and danger: fo
that we need not wonder that he fhould command a nu-
merous audience. Upon receiving information that the pro-
vince of Georgia was likely to open to him an extenfive field
of ufefulnefs, he determined to vifit it,and in May 1738,
arrived at Savannah. Here he met with much greater fuc-
cefs than his predeceffor Wefley ; and in order to fupply the
defe& of education which he was concerned to obferve in
this province, he refolved to found an orphan-houfe, and in
1739 returned to England in order to colle& money for this
purpofe. In England few of his clerical brethren were dif-
pofed to take much notice of him ; neverthelefs, his original
patron, the bifhop of Gloucefter, gave him prie(t’s orders :
but upon afterwards vifiting London, none of the churches
into which he obtained admiffion were large enough to ac-
commodate the crowds of people that affembled to hear him.
It was about this. time that he commenced his praétice of
preaching in the open fields, and the firft {cene of his exhi-
bition in this way feems to have been Kingfwood, near
Briftol, where he colleéted thoufands, chiefly of colliers, who
without doubt derived benefit from his difcourfes. He alfo
preached at Briftol in the open air, when he was refufed ac-
cefs to the pulpits of the churches ; and he likewife purfued
the fame praétice in Moorfields and Kennington-common,
near London, where, amidft the immenfe multitude that at-
tended him, fome perfons occafionally treated him with rude-
nefs, but the greater number were commanded by his pecu-
liar power of addrefs into refpeétful attention. Having
fucceeded beyond his expetations in foliciting contribu-
tions for his projected orphan-houfe in Geonae returned
to America in Auguft 1739; and in the following January
laid the foundation of the building at Savannah. He then
extended his tour as far as Bofton, preaching to immenfe
crowds, and colleéting confiderable fums for the completion
of his defign; and upon his return to Savannah he found
his orphan family comfortably fettled in their houfe ; and in
January 1741, he embarked for England. His abfence had
occafioned a declenfion among his followers ; fome other
circumftances, befides the intermiffion of his perfonal labours
amongtft them, might probably have contributed to produce
this effe&. Whilft he was in America he had written, as he
himfelf acknowledges, “two well-meant but injudicious
letters peu England’s two great favourites, the Whole
Duty of Man, and archbifhop Tillotfon, who, I faid, knew
no more of religion than Mahomet,”? His fociety had fuf-
fered from the influence of the Moravians. Mr. Wefley
Ss .ra2 had
WHI
par saa and printed in favour of perfeétion and uni-
redemption, and againft the dottrine of eleGtion. He
had written a reply, but he acknowledges that he had ufed
expreffions that were too ftrong in reference to abfolute repro-
bation, which had offended numbers of his fpiritual children.
His worldly circumftances were embarraffed, and he owed
zoco/, for the orphan-houfe, and fome of his bills were re-
turned. He had fome enemies who circulated reflections on
his integrity in the contra& of this bufinefs ; but they were
never juttified, and his {tate of fecular affairs at his death
affords a ftrong prefumption that they were groundlefs.
Dr. Franklin, who lived upon the fpot, bears teitimony to
his honefty. At this time, a feparation had taken place
between him and Wefley, and this had occafioned a decreafe
of his auditors. However, his zeal and perfeverance over-
came thefe difficulties. In order to counteract Wefley’s
popularity, he built a fhed near his chapel in Moorfields,
which he called the Tabernacle ; and in procefs of time this
rofe from a mean beginning to be a {pacious edifice ; and he
alfo renewed his field-preaching. At this time, he paid his
firft yifit to Scotland ; and though he was a clergyman of
the church of England, which excited fome prejudice
again{t him, he was invited into the churches, and preached
to large congregations, and made colleétions for his orphans.
On his return by Wales, he married a Mrs. James, a widow
lady of Abergavenny. His zeal for doing good, and for
me hie profelytes, induced him, in the {pring of 1742, to
engage in a conteft with the idle people who had booths in
Moorfields, and where they frequented for thei amufement
on helidays. On Whitmonday he colle&ted a party of his
attendants, and reforted to the fpot with a vtew of con-
du@ting a religious fervice. Although he was much dif-
turbed in this effufion of his piety and zeal, the refult, as he
fays, was fo much in his favour, that he received 1000 notes
from perfons under conviGtion ; and foon after more than
300 were admitted into the fociety in one day. In 1748 he
returned from a third voyage to America; and then com-
menced his acquaintance with the countefs of Huntingdon,
who appointed him her chaplain, and excited the curiofity
of fome perfons of rank to hear him: among thefe were the
earl of Chefterfield and lord Bolingbroke. About this pe-
riod, it is faid, his fentiments became more rational ; for on
his third vifit to Scotland, it was announced toa fynod affem-
bled at Glafgow to inveftigate certain charges againft his opi-
nions, that with regard to cértain points which were con-
fidered as objedtionable, his fentiments had been altered for
upwards of two years ; and that he now feldom preached a
fermon without guarding his hearers a ainft impreffions, and
admonifhing them that a holy life is the beft evidence of a
ftate of grace. From this time, he was fully employed by a
vifit to Ireland, two more voyages to America, and_his
Englifh circuits, till the year 1756, when his chapel in '‘Fot-
tenham-court-road was ere@ted. His labours were inceffant
for many years ; but at length, on a feventh vifit to America,
he was feized with an althmatic complaint at Newbury-
port, New England, which terminated his life in September
1770, near the completion of his fifty-fixth year. :
With regard to his general charaéter, we thall clofe this
article with the refleétions of a judicious and candid bio-
grapher. ‘That he had much enthufiafm and fanaticifm in
his compofition is fufficiently evident from his own journal
and letters ; but whether thefe were accompanied, as they
not unfrequently are, with craft and artifice, is a difputable
point. There are, in his narratives, obvious marks of a dif-
pofition to reprefent himfelf as under the fpecial protection of
Providence, and to magnify trifling incidents into little lefs
than miracles in his favour ; and much of what is com-
12
WHE
monly called cant is apparent in his confeffions and humili<
ations. Yet that he was a hypocrite aGting a part will
{carcely be believed by any one who looks at his courfe of
life during 34 years. He has been chiarged with difhoneity
and immorality ; yet as it is certain that he obtained the
eiteem of many perfons of worth, it, may be concluded that
fuch accufations were deftitute of proof. His intelle@tual
qualities were well fuited to the tafk he undertook ; and if
in the pulpit he occafionally intermixed buffoonery with his
vehemence, the latter was not lefs effectual on that account.
His learning and literary talents were mean, and he is a writer
only for his own fe&.”? He publithed, at intervals, fermons,
tracts, and letters, which, after his death, were colleéted in
fix vols. 8vo. Middleton’s Biog. Evangel. Moth. Eccl.
Hitt. Gen. Biog.
WHiTErIELD, in Geography, a town of America, in the
diftri& of Maine, and county of Lincoln, having 995 in-
habitants. —Alfo, a town of New Hampfhire, in the county -
of Cowes, having 51 inhabitants—Alfo, a town of No
Carolina; 40 miles W. of Newbern.
Wuiterietp, or Wheatfield, a townthip of Pennfylvania ;
156 miles W. of Philadelphia.
WHITEHALL, formerly. called Skenefborough, a
pott-townfhip of Wafhington county, in the ftate of New
York, at the head of lake Champlain, about 65 miles N.E.
from Albany: in medial length about 10 miles from N.
to S., and 7 wide; firft erected in 1788, with its prefent
limits. The foil is a ftiff clay, and adapted to grafs. Wood-
creek and Pawlet river unite in this town, and afford facility
to navigation and trade, as well as mill-feats. Marble, lime-
ftone, and iron-ore, and alfo a mineral {pring, are found in
this townfhip. It has 1 Congregational, 1 Prefbyterian, 1
Baptift, and 1 Methodift congregation, and a competent
number of common {chools; 2 grift-mills, 2 faw-mills, a
fulling-mill, and carding-machine.— Alfo, an incorporated
poit-village at the N. end, with confiderable trade, fituated
principally on the W. bank of Wood-creek, at its entrance
into lake Champlain ; 71 miles N.E. from Albany. About
a quarter of a mile from the village is a handfome Prefby-
terian church, founded by the donation of John Williams,
efq. of Salem, who endowed it with a parfonage of 60 acres
of land. The whole population, by the cenfus of 1810, was
2119, with 178 ele€tors. —Alfo, atownfhip of Pennfylvania,
in Northampton county, with 2551 inhabitants ; 61. miles
N. of Philadelphia. :
WHITEHAVEN, a fea-port and market-town in
Allerdale ward, in the county of Cumberland, England,
is fituated between two hills at the northern extremity of a
narrow vale, at the diftance of 40 miles S.W. from Carlifle,
and 305 miles N.W. from London. The rife, progrefs,
and increafing importance of this now rich and. flourifhin
town, ftrikingly difplay the effe€&ts of trade, indultry, a
enterprife. From an obfcure hamlet, it has advanced,
within lefs than two centuries, to confiderable magnitude
and commercial importance; and, both in extent and po-
pulation, by far exceeds the capital of the county. In the
year 1566, it confifted only of fix fifhermen’s cabins ; in
1633, of nine or ten thatched cottages; but in 1693, its
buildings were fufficiently numerous for 2222 inhabitants,
and have been progreflively increafing ; till, in the year 1811,
the population was returned to parliament as 10,106, oc-~
cupying 1940 houfes. The increafe of fhipping has been
a. pape in 1685, the whole number of veflels be-
onging to this port was 46, carrying 1871 tons; they have
fince gradually increafed to 230; the quantity of tonnage is
nearly 74,000 tons. The honour of raifing this town to its
prefent importance muft be attributed to the Lowther
family.
WHI
family. Sir John Lowther, about the beginning of the
reign of Charles I., purchafed the lands of the diffolved
monattery of St. Bees for his fecond fon, fir Chriftopher,
who, as coals about that period came into general ufe, con-
ceived the idea of improving his poffeflions by opening fome
collieries. No effeétual progrefs was, however, made till
after the Reftoration, when another fir John Lowther, who
had fucceeded to the eftate, formed a plan for working the
mines on a very extenfive fcale. To obviate all oppofition
to his operations, he procured a gift of all the ungranted
lands within the diftri@, and alfo of the whole fea-coaft for
two miles northward, between high and low water mark.
He then dire&ted his attention to the port, which was {mall
and inconvenient ; and, by his judicious fchemes, laid the
foundation of the prefent haven. Subfequent improvements
have been made, particularly during the reign of George II.,
when an aét was pafled to perfe& and keep it in repair, by
a tonnage on fhipping. The mines are faid to be the deepett
in England, and extend a confiderable way under the fea:
one has been carried 1000 yards out from the fhore, at the
depth of 112 fathoms under the water. Moft of the coal
exported from this haven is conveyed to Ireland; the quan-
tity raifed annually, on the average, is about go,000 chal-
drons. (See Coat.) The creek on which Whitehaven is
built is fo deeply feated, that the adjacent lands overlook it
on every fide. The approach from the north is fingular, as
the heights are fo much above the town, that only the roofs
of the houfes can be feen till near the entrance, which, on this
point, is through an archway of red free-ftone. The town it-
felf is one of the moft refpeétable in all the northern counties ;
the ftreets being regular and fpacious, arfd crofling each
other at right angles; the houfes in general are well built,
and even the tradef{men’s fhops exhibit a degree of elegance.
Here are three chapels, plain convenient {tructures: they
were all erected by fubfcription of the inhabitants, aided by
the benevolence of the Lowther family. St. Nicholas’s
chapel was built in 1693; Trinity, in 1715; St. James’s,
in 1752. The latter is neatly fitted up; the roof and gal-
leries are {upported by ranges of pillars. Befides the efta-
blifhed chapels, here are three meeting-houfes for Methodilts,
two for Prefbyterians, and one for each of the following
fe&ts, Anabaptifts, Roman Catholics, Glaffites, and Sande-
manians. ‘The principal manufaCtures are thofe of cordage
and fail-cloth ; the latter was only eftablifhed in 1786, but
already gives employment to feveral hundred workmen,
though much of the bufinefs is executed by machinery of
great power. A fair is held annually, and there are three
weekly markets. The cattle, asit is called, adjoining the eait
fide of the town, one of the feats of the earl of Lonfdale,
is a large quadrangular building, chiefly ereéted by the late
earl, and containing fome good paintings.
St. Bees, in which parifh Whitehaven is fituated, derives
its origin from a religious houfe founded here by Bega, an
Irifh faint, about the year 650. On her death, a church
was ereGted to her honour; but both thefe eftablifhments
having been deftroyed by the Danes, they were replaced, in
the reign of Henry I., by a new foundation for BenediGine
monks. ‘The church built at this period had the form of a
crofs, and great part of it yet remains. The eaft end is
unroofed, and in ruins; the nave is fitted up as the parifh
church; and the crofs-aifle is ufed as a burial-place. The
whole is of a red free-ftone. In this village a free-fchool
was founded by a bequeft of archbifhop Grindall, in the
year 1587, under a charter of queen Elizabeth. The en-
dowments were increafed by James I., and “have been fince
further augmented by various benefaGtions.—Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. iii, Cumberland, by J. Britton
WHI
and E. W. Brayley, 1802. Magna Britannia, Cumberland,
by Meffrs. Lyfons, ato. 1816.
WHITEHEAD, Wrtu1am, in Biography, an Englith
poet, was born at Cambridge in 1714-5, educated at Win-
chefter {chool, where from his talent in writing verfe he ac-
quired the notice of Pope; and upon his return to Cam-
bridge, obtained a fcholarfhip of Clare-hall. As a poet,
Whitehead’s higheft ambition was to refemble the manner
of Pope; and of his proficiency he gave a fpecimen in hig
« Epiitle on the Danger of writing Verfe,” 1741. In the
following year he was eleéted fellow of Clare-hall, and pur-
fued his ftudies with a view to the church; but his poetical
talents produced a change in his cireumftances and in his
purpofe. Being recommended to the earl of Jerfey as a
proper tutor for his eldeft fon, he removed in 1745 to the
earl’s houfe in London, where his treatment was in the
higheft degree liberal. Having leifure for indulging his
tafte for literary purfuits, he turned his attention to dramatic
compofition, and produced a tragedy, entitled ‘“* The Ro-
man Father,’ which was exhibited with applaufe upon the
ftage in Drury-lane in 1750. In 1754 he publifhed another,
the title of which was ‘ Creufa,”? which was alfo favourably
received, With the profits arifing from thefe two perform-
ances he very honourably difcharged the debts of his father,
who had died infolvent. In this year he accompanied his
pupil, vifcount Villiers, and vifcount Nuneham, {fon of earl
Harcourt, on their travels, which continued more than two
years; and on his return he publifhed an ‘“ Ode to’ the
Tiber,” and fix elegiac epiftles, which were much ap-
plauded. Lady Jerfey, during his abfence, had procured
for him the appointment of fecretary and regifter to the
order of the Bath; and in 1757, on the death of Cibber,
he fucceeded to the laureat, which he rendered refpeétable ;
though in the difcharge of the cuflomary duties of the
office, he did not efcape abufe, and efpecially that of
Churchill, whofe popular fatire almoft overwhelmed the re-
putation of the laureat. Lady Jerfey, in confideration of
his fervices as governor to her fon, invited him to take up
his refidence in her houfe, where he paffed fourteen years,
frequently vifiting lord Harcourt, much refpected by his
noble hofts and his former pupils. He ftill amufed himfelf
by prefenting to the public oceafional produétions, one of
which was a comedy of the moral or fentimental clafs, en-
titled “ The School for Lovers.” After pafling through
life tranquilly and pleafantly, and maintaining an eftimable
charaéter, he died fuddenly, April 1785, in his 7oth year.
Of his works two volumes were publifhed by himfelf, and to
thefe a third was added by Mr. Mafon, who prefixed me-
moirs of his life and writings, to which we refer. Gen.
Biog.
WuiTEHEAD, GEORGE, an eminent perfon among the
Quakers, was born in 1636 at Sunbigg, in Weftmoreland.
Attaching himfelf early in life to this fociety, and engaging
in the propagation of its doétrine, he partook of the fuffer-
ings which, in that age, were the ordinary lot of its active
members; and was once, fimply for having preached at
Nayland, in Suffolk, feverely whipped by order of two
juftices as a vagabond ; a proceeding which ferved, as might
have been expected, to increafe the difpofition of the people
to hear him, Soon after the Reftoration of the monarchy,
the Quakers were made the exprefs fubjeéts of a law, the
precurfor of others of like nature, which impofed on their
profeffion and worfhip penalties extending to banifhiment.
In the progrefs of the bill through the houfe of commons,
Whitehead, with three other Quakers, was admitted to the
bar of the houfe, and heard in defence of the fociety.
They pleaded its caufe with the freedom of confcious inno-
cence,
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cence, and the meeknefs of men prepared to fuffer, but
pleaded in vain :—the bill paffed, and two out of the four,
who had thus advocated the rights of confcience, prefently
fell victims to the force by which confcience was deliberately
opprefled, dying in a crowded unhealthy prifon, to which
they were dragged from their peaceable religious meetings.
Whitehead, who was imprifoned with them, furvived to be
liberated.
In the year 1672, when Charles II. iffued his declaration
for fufpending the penal ftatutes againft non-conformitts,
Whitehead folicited and obtained an order under the great
feal for the difcharge of about four hundred Quakers,
many of whom had been for years under clofe confinement.
He records, with expreffions of fatisfaction, the circum-
ftance that fome other diffenters alfo partdok at this time of
the benefit of his exertions. On feveral other occafions he
was concerned in applications on the Quakers’ behalf to
Charles II. and James II. And after the Revolution, when
the Toleration Bill was before parliament, he was parti-
cularly ferviceable to his friends in that matter; as likewife
in taking a part in thofe reprefentations, which procured the
acceptance of their affirmation in lieu of an oath. A pro-
feffion of faith being propofed for infertion in the above
a&, in terms which to the Quakers would not have been
quite fatisfactory, Whitehead and his coadjutors propofed
the following, as their own belief on the points to which it
relates, and which was adopted as a teft for the fociety ac-
cordingly, viz. “I profefs faith in God the Father, and
in Jefus Chrift his Eternal Son the true God, and in the
Holy Spirit, one God, bleffed for evermore; and do
acknowledge the holy {criptures of the Old and New Telta-
ment to be given by divine infpiration.”’
Whitehead lived the greater part of his time in or near
London, which accounts for his being one of thofe Quakers
ufually concerned in applications to the government. He
was well efteemed by his brethren, whom he continued to
edify by his miniftry and example to the end, dying, after a
fhort confinement, by infirmity, at the age of 86. Befides
feveral writings chiefly controverfial, heleft fome memoirs
of his life, which were printed in one volume, 8vo. in
1725.
WHITEHEAD, in Geography, an ifland in the Atlantic,
near the coaft of Maine. N. lat. 44° 43'. W. long.
67° 40'.—Alfo, a cape of Ireland, at the north-ealt of the
bay of Carrickfergus, in the county of Antrim.
WHITEHORN, a royal borough and market-town in
the diftri& of Machers, and fhire of Wigtown, Scotland,
is fituated on the weftern fide of the bay of Wigtown, at
the diftance of 116 miles S.S.W. from Edinburgh. It is a
place of great antiquity, having been the Roman ftation
Leucophibia, or Candida-Cafa of Bede, and the capital of
the Novantes, who poffeffed all Galloway beyond the river
Dee ; and it was fo early the feat of religion, that, accord-
ing to Pinkerton, the bifhopric of Galloway, or Whitehorn,
is the oldeft in’ Scotland. The cathedral, of which there
are now f{carcely any remains, was founded in the fourth
century by St. Ninian. A priory of the Premonftratenfian
order was alfo early founded here, and richly endowed by
Fergus, lord of Galloway. ‘The borough now confilts
chiefly of one large well-built ftreet, extending from north
to fouth, interfeéted by feveral fmaller. A rivulet, over
which is a neat bridge, runs acrofs the main ftreet. Near
the centre of the town is a re{pedtable hall for public meet-
ings, adorned with turrets and a fpire, and furnifhed with
a fee of bells. Whitehorn is governed by a provolt, two
baillies, and fifteen counfellors; and unites with the bo-
roughs of New Galloway, Wigtown, and Stranraer, in
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fending a reprefentative to the imperial parliament. A
weekly market is well fupplied. The tanning of leather
has been carried on en years to a confiderable extent,
and fome cotton manufaétures have been commenced. The
parifh of Whitehorn extends eight miles in length and four
in breadth, and occupies that extremity of the peninfula of
the fhire of Wigtown which is formed by the bays of Wig-
town and Luce. The foil is in general fertile, and the farms _
well cultivated. Here are many extenfive plantations in a
flourifhing condition; confiderable quarries of variegated
marble and ftrong flate ; and promifing appearances of lead
and copper mines, but none have as yet been worked. The
extent of fea-coa{t is about nine miles. The ifle of White-
horn, included in the parifh, has a fafe harbour, and a vil-
lage containing 350 inhabitants. According to the return
F the year 1811, the population of the whole parifh was
1935-—Beauties of Scotland, vol. ii. Wigtownfhire. Car-
lifle’s Topographical Diétionary of Scotland, vol. ii.
1813.
Vigan a {mall ifland of Scotland, near the fouth-
eaft coaft of the county of Wigtown. N. lat. 54° 46’. W.
long. 4° 27. ‘
WHITEHURST, Jouy, in Biography, was born at
Congleton, in Chefhire, in 1713, and brought up to the
trade of his father, who was a watch-maker. At the age
of 21 years he vifited Dublin, in order to acquaint himfe
with the conftru€tion of a curious clock ; but being difap-
pointed, he engaged in bufinefs for himfelf at Derby, about
two or three years after his return, ‘where he diltinguifhed
himfelf by a variety of ingenious pieces of mechanifm; and
he thus eftablifhed a reputation, which caufed him to be
confulted by all perfons who wifhed to avail themfelves of
{uperior fkill in mechanics, pneumatics, and hydraulics. In
1775 he was appointed, without any folicitation on his own
part, ftamper of the money weights ; which office required
his removal to London, where he {pent the remainder of his
days, and where his houfe was the refort of {cientific men
of various defcriptions. In 1778 he publifhed his “* Inquiry
into the original State and Formation of the Earth,” of
which an enlarged and improved edition appeared in 1786,
and a third in 1792. In May 1779 he was eleéted a fellow
of the Royal Society. In 1783 he vifited Ireland, to ex-
amine the Giant’s Caufeway, and the northern parts of the
ifland; and the refult of his inquiries was annexed to his
work above-mentioned. In the courfe of his journey he
ereéted an engine for raifing water from a well to the fummit
of a hill, in a bleaching-ground at Tullidoi, in the county
of Tyrone. It is worked by a current of water, and is of
very curious conftruction. In 1787 he publifhed * An
Attempt towards obtaining inyariable Meafures of Length,
Capacity, and Weight, from the Menfuration of Time.’’
(See Sranparp.) Mr. Whitehurft, having been for fome
time fubjeét to the gout, was at seein carried off by a
paroxy{m of it in the ftomach, in February 1788, in the
75th year of his age, at his houfe in Bolt-court, Fleet-
ftreet. Asa man of {cience, he was much refpeéted by all
who knew him ; but he was ftill more eftimable on account of
his moral qualities. In his drefs he was plain, temperate in
his diet, and in his general intercourfe with mankind eafy of
accefs, benevolent in his difpofition, and obliging in his
manners. His papers on Chimneys, Ventilation, and Gar-
den-ftoves, were collected and publifhed in 1794 by Dr.
Willan. His papers in the Philofophical ‘Tranfactions,
printed afterwards in the collection of his works in 1792,
were the following : viz. ‘* Thermometrical Obfervations at
Derby,” in vol. lvii.s; ‘* An Account of a Machine for
raifing Water at Oulton in Chefhire,”’ vol. Ixv.; and “ Ex-
periments
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eriments on ignited Subftances,’’ vol. Ixvi.
Math. Did.
WHITEKIRK, in Geography, a parifh and village of
Scotland, in the county of Haddington; 4 miles S.E. of
North Berwick.
WHITELAND, West. See West Whiteland.
WHITELICK, a town of the ftate of Kentucky; 13
miles S. of Stamford.
WHITELOCK, Butsrropr, in Biography, a lawyer
and ftatefman, was born in London in the year 1605, and
finifhed his education as a gentleman-commoner of St. John’s
college, Oxford. Being deftined for the profeffion of the
law, he purfued the ftudy of it under the direétion of his
father, fir James Whitelock, who was one of the juftices of
the King’s Bench. As he had a tafte for the fine arts, he
was nominated as one of the chief managers of the royal
mafque prefented by the inns of court to Charles I. and his
queen in 1633, of which he has given a florid defcription.
He became {oon diftinguifhed in his profeffion at the bar,
and was frequently confulted by Hampden, when he was
under profecution tor refifting the impofition of fhip-money.
In 1640 he. was eleéted as a reprefentative for Marlow in
the Long parliament ; and though his principles were favour-
able to the meafures which then engaged the public atten-
tion, he concurred with Selden and others in deprecating a
refort to arms; but when the houfe had determined for war,
he accepted the poft of deputy-lieutenant for the counties of
Oxford and Buckingham, and appeared at the head of a
allant company of horfe raifed among his neighbours.
Resertbelety he was always averfe from a civil conteft ; and
in January 1642-3, he was one of the commiffioners ap-
pointed to treat of peace with the king at Oxford; and in
1644 he was one of thofe who prefented to the ne pro-
pofitions of peace agreed upon in parliament ; and the king’s
anfwer was, at his majefty’s requeft, drawn up by him and
Holles; for which they were accufed of high treafon by
parliament, but extricated themfelves with honour. As a
member of the aflembly at Weftminfter for fettling the form
of church government, he avowed himfelf in oppofition to
the divine right of prefbytery. He alfo oppofed the power
of excommunication aflumed by the Prefbyterians ; being
always, like Selden, an enemy to violent exertions of church
power by any party; and he was an invariable advocate of
legal rights, and an oppofer of arbitrary power, affumed or
exercifed in either houfe of parliament. When he became
fufpe&ted by the parliamentary leaders, he joined the army-
party, and oppofed the meafure of difbanding the troops,
which was propofed by fome of his former affociates.
‘When it was determined to bring the king to trial, he was
nominated as one of the committee for drawing up the
charge; but this was a bufinefs in which he did not choofe
to engage. However, he had no objeétion againft taking
an active part under the new government, and he was nomi-
nated in February 1648-9 one of the council of ftate. In
fome other inftances he incurred the charge of inconfiftency,
as he complied with meafures which he did not approve.
To Cromwell he was fo agreeable, that he was one of the
four members of parliament appointed to meet him after his
famous viétory at Worcefter in 1651. Whitelock avowed
himfelf fteadily attached to monarchy, as a part of the ftate
which could not be difpenfed with, and as interwoven with
the laws of the country ; and he therefore fuggefted, that
the late king’s eldeft or fecond fon fhould be fent for, and
enter into terms for fecuring the liberties of the nation.
Upon the diffolution of parliament by Cromwell, though he
had previonfly refifted the attempts of the army to govern
without the parliament, he obfequioufly performed the
Hutton’s
Weore Tt
funétions of his office under the new eftablifhment. ‘The
ufurper, however, regarded him with diftruft, and would
not admit him into his firft or little parliament. His com-
miffion of the feals was fuperfeded by the fuppreffion of the
court of chancery ; and he was therefore glad to be occupied
in a ftation which would not require his interference in party
contefls, which was that of ambaflador from England to
queen Chriftina of Sweden. Upon his departure, Crom-
well affumed the title and authority of lord prote&or, and
iffued his inftrument of government, which Mr. Whitelock
had concurred in preparing, and which was afterwards
found by Cromwell incompatible with his ufurpation.
Having concluded an advantageous treaty with queen Chrif-
tina, who received him in November 1653 with diftin@tion,
he returned to his own country, and refumed the office of
commiffioner of the gréat feal, upon the reftoration of the
court of chancery ; and he was returned as a reprefentative
for three counties in Cromwell’s fecond parliament. Upon
Cromwell’s regulation and limitation of the court of chan-
cery, he again refigned the cuftody of the feal; and as fome
compenfation for his lofs, he was appointed a commiffioner
of the treafury. He was free and faithful in giving falutary
advice to the Proteftor, and neverthelefs retained his confi-
dence. Declining the office of ambaflador to Sweden, which
was offered him, he aéted as one of the commiffioners to treat
with the Swedifh ambaffador in England. He was returned
for Buckinghamfhire in Cromwell’s third parliament, and
officiated for fome time as fpeaker. Although he would not
prefent to parliament the ‘* Humble Petition and Advice,”
which was intended to empower Cromwell to afflume a higher
title than that of Proteétor, he was chairman of the com-
mittee for conferring with him about it ; and he concurred
in the requeft that ke would adopt the royal title. White-
lock contraéted fo decidedly in Cromwell’s intereft, that
he was one of thofe who were called by him to the upper
houfe ; but he declined being governor of Dunkirk, and
alfo the honour of being created a vifcount. During the
fhort proteGtorate of Richard, Whitelock aéted as one of
the keepers of the great feal; and when the army fet up a
republican government, he was nominated one of the council
of ftate ; and as its prefident, he joined in all the meafures
that were adopted for upholding the tottering frame of go-
vernment, on the principle that if no legal authority was
acknowledged, the fword alone would probably govern.
When Monk propofed to reftore the remains of the Long
parliament, Whitelock took ‘a commiffion from the com-
mittee of fafety for raifing a regiment of horfe, and urged
Lambert to march again{ft that leader. But the defign
failing, and the parliament meeting, he juft appeared in
purfuance of the {peaker’s fummons; and as he had reafon
for fufpe€ting a defign to apprehend him, he returned to a
friend’s houfe in the country, and fent the great feal by his
wife to the fpeaker ;—and thus terminated his public life.
Upon the Reftoration, he had the good fortune to efcape a
bill of pains and penalties in the houfe of commons, only by
the negative of a{mall majority. After having paffed fifteen
years in retirement, chiefly at Chilton-park in Wiltfhire, he
there died in January 1676; leaving a numerous family, after
having been twice married.
Poffefled of confiderable abilities, and of diftinguifhed
talents for bufinefs, he would have claimed a more general
and cordial refpe&t, if he had not been a temporizer in his
public condué&. His principles of government appear,
however, to have been good, and in his temper he was averfe
from every kind of violence and injuftice. He was a well-
wifher to the law and conftitution, and fupported them as
far as it was confiftent with his intereft and fafety. In all
private
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private concerns he maintained an eftimable charaéter for
probity and honour. After his death an anonymous edi-
or, in 1682, publifhed his ‘ Memorials of the Englith
A ffairs ; or, an hiftorical Account of what paffed from the
Be ginning of the Reign of King Charles I. to King
Charles II. his happy Reftoration,’’ fol. ; an improved edi-
tion of which appeared in 1732. From his MSS. were
publifhed in 1709, ‘ Memorials of the Englifh Affairs from
the fuppofed Expedition of Brute to this Ifland, to the End
of the Reign of King James I.,” a chronological epitome
of hiftory for his own ufe. In 1766 Dr. Charles Morton,
fecretary to the Royal Society, publifhed ‘ Whitelock’s
Notes upon the King’s Writ for choofing Members of Par-
liament, 13 Car. II. being Difquifitions on the Govern-
ment of England by King, Lords, and Commons,’? 2 vols.
gto. The fod editor alfo publifhed in 1772, “* A Journal
of the Swedifh Embafly in the Years 1653 and 1654, from
the Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland ;
written by the Ambaflador the Lord Commiffioner White-
lock ; with an Appendix of original Papers,’’ 2 vols. 4to.
Biog. Brit. Gen. Biog. y
The commiffioner, amid all his grave affairs, found leifure
to cultivate mufic, of which he was very fond; and feems
to have interefted himfelf in all the remarkable performances
of his time. During the happy days of Charles I., mafques
were fo frequent at court and elfewhere, that in 1633 no
lefs than five mafques were performed at different places
before the king and queen. See Masque.
- A very circumftantial account of one of thefe, “ The
Triumphs: of Peace,’’ has been left to his family by the
commiffioner himfelf, which was in the poffeffion of the late
Dr. Morton of the Britifh Mufeum. The mufical part of
this performance feems to have been wholly affigned by the
benchers at the Temple to commiffioner Whitelock.. For
in his narrative he fay} “IT made choice of Mr. Symon
Ives, an honeft and able mufician, of excellent fkill in the
art, and of Mr. Lawes, to compofe all the aiers, leffons,
and fongs for the mafque, and to be matters of all the
muficke under me.”?. See Ives, and Lawes, WiLLIAM.
The commiffioner, befides being a performer, was a bit
of a compofer ; as he fays with great triumph at the latter
end of his narrative: ‘“* I was fo converfant with the mufi-
tians, and fo willing to gaine their favour, efpecially at
this time, that I compofed an aier myfelfe, with the affift-
ance of Mr. Ives, and called it ‘ Whitelocke’s Coranto ;’
which being cried up, was firft played publiquely, by the
Blackefryar’s muficke, who were then efteemed the beft of
common mufitians in London. Whenever I came to that
houfe (as I did fometimes im thofe dayes), though not
often, to fee a play, the mufitians would prefently play
¢ Whitelocke’s Coranto ;’ and it was fo often called for,
that they would have it played twice or thrice in an after-
noon. The queen hearing it, would not be perfuaded that
it was made by an Englifhman, bicaufe fhe faid it was fuller
of life and fpirit than the Englifh aiers ufe to be ; butt fhe
honoured the ‘ Coranto’ and the maker of it with her
majeftyes royall commendation. It grew to that requett,
that all the common mufitians in this towne, and all over
the kingdome, gott the compofition of it, and played it
publiquely in all places, for above thirtie years after.”’
Among other moral reflections, addreffed to his family,
on fuch vanities as he had been deferibing, lord commiffioner
Whitelock adds: “« Yet I am farre from difcommending
the knowledge of this art (mufic), and exercife of this re-
creation for a diverfion, and fo as you {pend not too much
of your time in it, that I advife you in this as in other ac-
complifhments, that you indeavour to gett to fome per-
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fe&tion, as I did, and it will be the more ornament aud
delight to you.”
The lord commiffioner inferts his aier, in order to pre-
ferve it for the ufe of his family, if any of them fhould
delight in it. This ‘ Coranto’? may e feen in Burney’s
Hiit. Muf. vol. iii.; and the whole narrative of the mafque,
entitled ** The Triumph of Peace,’? from “ Whitelock’s
Labours remembered in the Annales of his Life, written
for the Ufe of his Children,’? MS.
WHITEMARSH, in Geography, a townfhip of Penn-
fylvania, in the county of Montgomery, with 1328 inha-
bitants ; ay miles N.W. of Philadelphia.
WHITEN Heap, a cape on the north coaft of Scot-
land. N. lat. 58° 37’. W. long. 4° 22!.
WHITENESS, a town of the ifland of Shetland ;
6 miles N.W. of Lerwick.
WHITENING of Bones, for a fkeleton.
Wurrentne of Cloth. See BLEAcuInG.
WuitenineG of Hair. See Hair.
Wuirentnc of Wax. See Wax.
WHITEPAINE, in Geography, a town of Pennfylvania,
in the county of Montgomery, with 955 inhabitants; 20
miles N.W. of Philadelphia.
WHITE-PLAINS, a poft-townfhip and half-fhire town
of Welt Chefter county, in New York; 30 miles from New
York, and 140 S. of Albany. The whole area of this
town is about 82 fquare miles ; and its population, in 1810,
was 693, with 68 eleétors, and rog taxable inhabitants.
The village of White-plains is pleafantly fituated on’ a fine
plain, three-quarters of a mile E. of Bronx creek, and con-
tains a court-houfe, prifon, and a handfome colle&tion of
houfes. The American troops were defeated in this place,
by the Britifh under general Howe, in the year 1776.
WHITESAND Bay, a bay on the W. coaft of Eng-
land, in the county of Cornwall, a little to the N. of the
Land’s End. N, lat. 50°6'. W. long. 5° 34.—Alfo, a
bay on.the W. coaft of Wales; 1 mile N.W. of St.
David's. sii}
WHITESEA, a large gulf of the North Frozen fea,
on the N, coaft of Ruffia, bounded on the N.E. and S. by
the government of Olonetz, in the vicinity of Archangel, ex-
tending from N. to S. within the land, from 69° to 63° of
N. lat., and containing a number of {mall iflands.
WHITESTOWN, the principal town and half fhire of
the county of Oneida; in the ftate of New York, fituated
on the Mohawk river, 95 miles N.W. of Albany ; includ-
ing Utica, and having three poft-offices. Its form is irre-
gular, and area about 40 {quare miles. In January, 1785,
Mr. Hugh White, from Conneéticut, with a young family,
became the firft fettler. In 1788 the town of German
Flats was divided, and a new town ereéted, and: named
Whiteftown, in honour of Mr. White. In 1798 the county
of Oneida was eftablifhed, by a fubdivifion of Herkimer,
and Whiteftown included within this county. By fubfe-.
ae divifions, Whiteftown was reduced to a medial mea-
ure of g miles by 8. It is fituated immediately on the
great thoroughfare between Albany and the Wetftern lakes ;
between Canada and the principal commercial fea-ports of
the American ftates on the Atlantic ocean, This town
contains three large poft-villages, Utica incorporated,
Whitefborotigh, and New Hartford. Whiteftown, includ-
ing thefe villages, is unrivalled, in the United States, with
regard to wealth, population, trade, and improvements,
among inland towns of fuch recent fettlement ; and none ‘in
this ftate, of the fame area, affords fo great a population.
It has feven principal churches ; one Epifcopal, three Pref-
byterian, two Baptift, in one of which the fervice - per-
ormed
See Bong.
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formed in the Welfh language, and one of Welfh Inde-
pendents, befides fome {maller houfes dedicated to the
fame purpofe. Here are three grammar-fchools, one in
each village, and many common fchools. It has alfo a cot-
ton manufaftory. This town has been gradually enlarged
and embellifned. Its population, by the cenfus of 1810, is
4912, with 533 fenatorial electors.
WHITEWATER, a townfhip of Ohio, in Henieton
county, with gio inhabitants——Alfo, a river of Scotland,
which runs into the Eff, in the county of Forfar.
WHITGIFT, Joun, in Biography, an Englith prelate,
was born at Great Grimfby, Lincolnfhire, in 1530, and in
1548 entered at Queen’s college, Cambridge, from which
he removed to Pembroke-hall, where he enjoyed the tui-
tion of John Bradford, afterwards one of the Proteftant
martyrs. - In 1555 he became a fellow of Peter-houfe, and
in 1557 commenced M.A. Upon the vifitation of the uni-
verfity by cardinal Pole, about this time, for the purpofe of
purging it of reputed heretics, Whitgift dreaded the fearch;
but by favour of the vice-chancellor efcaped, and remained
in the univerfity. Upon the acceffion of queen Elizabeth,
he entered into orders in 1560, and obtained preferment
from Dr. Cox, bifhop of Ely. In 1563 he was appointed
Margaret profeffor of divinity, and chaplain to the queen in
1565. Continuing in the univerfity, and maintaining the
charaéter of a good preacher and vigorous difciplinarian,
his falary as profeflor was advanced, and a licence was granted
him to preach in any part of the realm. In 1567 he was
made matter of Pembroke-hall, and foon after regius pro-
feffor of divinity. He next became mafter of Trinity
college, and graduated D.D.; and on his appointment to
keep the commencement-aét, he chofe for his thefis “ The
Pope is the Antichrift.”” In 1570 he formed a body of
flatutes for the univerfity ; in confequence of which the
heads of houfes gained new powers, by the exercife of which
he deprived Cartwright, an eminent Calviniftic divine, of his
Margaret profefforfhip. In 1571 he was vice-chancellor of
the univerfity, in the exercife of which office he manifefted
fo much zeal for the eftablifhed church, that the queen con-
ferred upon him the deanery of Lincoln, befides other dig-
nities and honours. He alfo expelled Cartwright from his
fellowfhip, and carried on a controverfy with that divine and
other Puritans in general. In 1577 he was advanced to the fee
of Worcefter, and the office of vice-prefident of the council for
the marches of Wales. Upon his advancement to the prelacy,
he refigned his mafterfhip of Trinity college, and devoted
himfelf to the duties of his new office, taking care to improve
its revenues ; and in the exercife of a power, which he ob-
tained from the crown by the intereft of lord Burleigh, to
beftow the prebends of his church on his own friends ac-
cording to his own feletion. His zeal, however, againi{t
popifh recufants, which was thus recompenfed, and which
he exercifed without due difcrimination in the execution of
his office as vice-prefident of Wales, involved him in dif-
putes with the other judges, and offended the prefident, fir
Henry Sydney, fo that on his return from Ireland, where
he was lord-deputy, he difcharged Whitgift from his polt.
As he occupied new ftations, his reputation as a man of
bufinefs increafed ; and in 1582 he was nominated by the
archbifhop of Canterbury, Grindal, chief commiffioner for
fettling difputes in the diocefes of Lichfield and of Here-
ford. Grindal’s remiffnefs in executing the laws againit the
non-conforming clergy difpleafed the queen, and caufed her
to fufpend him from his fun@tions; and on his death in 1583,
Whitgift, who had fecured her favour by his zeal for the
church and hoftility to the Puritans, was appointed to fuc-
ceed him. He did not difappoint her expeétations; but
Voi. XXXVIII.
WHI
engaged her to iffue a new ecclefiaftical commiffion, more
arbitrary and poffefling more extenfive authority than any
former one. _ Its jurifdiétion extended over the whole king-
dom, and comprehended all orders of men; and as Hume de-
{cribes it, ‘‘ every circumftance of its authority, and all its
methods of proceeding, were contrary to the cleareft prin-
ciples of law and natural equity.”? «In a word,” fays he,
“‘ this court was a real inguifition, attended with all the ini-
quities, as well as cruelties, infeparable from that tribunal.”
The meafures of Whitgift were in unifon with the conftitu-
tion and {pirit of this commiffion; and the council itfelf in-
terpofed to moderate them. In reply to the remonftrance
of the council in favour of fome minifters of Ely, who had
been fufpended for refufing to anfwer interrogatories, he
faid, ** Rather than grant them liberty to preach, he would
choofe to die, or live in prifon all the days of his life.2? To
the queen he recommended “ fupprefling’’ the difcipline pro-
pofed by the Puritans, ‘rather than con uting it by writing ;”’
and he advifed that a reftraint fhould be laid upon the liberty
of the prefs at Cambridge. It is no-wonder that by fuch
conduct he fhould become the obje& of great averfion to
the puritanical party. Accordingly he was very acrinioni-
oufly attacked in a pamphlet, entitled « Martyn Marpre-
late,”? in which he was compared to the moft ambitious and
tyrannical churchmen of former times. Whitgift, however,
blended with the violence of his temper fome degree of
kindnefs and good humour. This was manifefted in his
conduét towards Cartwright. In his charities he was mu-
nificent, and in his mode of living hofpitable, as well as
{plendid and oftentatious. In 1595 he laid the foundation
of a hofpital at Croydon, on which very large fums were
expended. He maintained feveral ftudents at the univerfity,
and entertained for many years at his palace feveral refugee
divines, that had been recommended to him by Beza and
others. His houfe, it is faid, was as much an academy for
martial exercifes as a {chool for letters. ‘ On his progrefles
he was attended by a numerous and fplendid train; and at
his firft journey into Kent he rode into Dover with one hun-
dred of his own fervants in livery, of whom forty were
gentlemen wearing gold chains. On feftival days he was
ferved with great folemnity, fometimes on the knee; and
public worfhip in his cliatels was performed with every cir-
cumftance of religious pomp. This external grandeur ex-
alted the church of England in the eyes of foreigners, who
had been led to imagine that the Reformation in this country
had degraded the ecclefiaftical eftablifhment as much as it
had done in fome others.”’
Upon the acceffion of king James, Whitgift felt fome
alarm under the apprehenfion of fome changes in the li-
turgy; and it has been fuppofed that his agitated ftate of
mind concurred with the debility of age, and the operation of
fome other caufes, in producing the paralytic attack which
terminated his life in February 1603-4. A monument was
ere€ted to his memory at Croydon, where he was interred.
Whitgift was neither a man of learning, the Latin language
bounding his claffical literature, nor a profound theologian.
He was principally diftinguifhed by his vigour and aétivity
as a man of bufinefs. Asa preacher he was popular; and
this talent in which he excelled laid the foundation of his
advancement. Biog. Brit. Hume’s Hift. Gen. Biog.
WHITING, in Ichthyology, the Englifh name of a com-
mon fifh of the afellus kind, commonly diftinguifhed by the
writers in ichthyology by the name of afellus mollis, though
by fome cailed a/ellus albus and merlangus.
The whiting, or gadus merlangus of Linnzus, is a fifh
of an elegant form; the upper jaw is the longeit ; the eyes
are large, the nofe fharp, and the teeth of the upper jaw
3G long,
WHI
long, appéaring above the lower when clofed: the firit dor-
fal fin has fifteen rays, the fecond eighteen, and the laft
twenty. The colour of the head and back is a pale brown ;
the lateral line white and crooked ; the belly and fides fil-
very ; the laft ftreaked lengthways with yellow.
itings appear in 1 gi fhoals in our feas in the fpring,
keeping at the diftance of about half a mile to that of three
miles from the fhore. They are the moft delicate and whole-
fome of any of the genus; and feldom grow to more than
ten or twelve inches in length. Pennant.
' No whiting is to be taken in the Thames or Medway of
lefs fize than fix inches from the eye to the end of the tail,
or at any time except from Michaelmas-day to Ember week.
(30 Geo. II. cap. 21.) Nor under fix inches any where
elfe. 1 Geo. I. ftat. 2. cap. 18.
Wuitinc-Pollack. See Ganus Pollachius, and Pou-
LACK.
Wuitinc-Pout. See Pourine, and Gapus Barbatus.
Wauitine, in Geography, atownfhip of Vermont, in the
county of Addifon, with 565 inhabitants; 25 miles N. of
Rutland.
Wuitine Bay, a {mall bay of the county of Waterford,
Ireland, a little E. of Youghal bay.
WHITLEY, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in Greene
county, with 1264 inhabitants.
WHITLOW, in Surgery, called alfo by furgeons
paronychia, panaritium, onychia, Kc. is an inflammation af-
fe€ting one or more of the phalanges of the fingers, and ge-
nerally terminating in an abfcefs. Thefe are the parts
which are the ufual fituation of the complaint ; but fome-
times a difeafe, which is precifely fimilar, makes its attack
upon the toes. It is likewife to be underftood, that in fevere
cafes, the diforder extends itfelf to many other parts befides
the finger, the matter making its way upward higher than
the wrift. Thus, as Callifen juftly obferves, the fkin, cel-
lular fubftance, fheath of the flexor tendons, and lefs com-
monly that of the extenfors, the tendons themfelves, the an-
nular and capfular ligaments, the periofteum, the very tex-
ture of the finger-bones, and the pulpy fubitance under-
neath the nail, are all parts to which a whitlow may extend
its mifchievous confequences.
From what has been already obferved, it muft be plain
that whitlows differ very much in their degree of violence,
and in their depth and extent. Hence, furgical authors
ufually deferibe four or five varicties of the complaint.
The divifion adopted by Callifen comprehends five cafes ;
namely, the cutaneous or fuperficial paronychia, the fubcutaneous
paronychia, the paronychia of the tendons, ox theca, the parony-
chia of the periofleum, and the fubungual paronychia, or that
Situated underneath the nail.
The cutaneous paronychia begins with a fuperficial inflam-
matory rednefs of the finger, and, as early as the fecond or
third day from the commencement of the attack, the cuticle
of the part affefted becomes raifed in the form of veficles,
which contain a limpid ferum, but fometimes a bloody fluid.
(Callifen, vol. i, p. 294.) Mr. Pearfon defcribes the cu-
taneous paronychia as being feated at the end of the finger,
immediately below the epee: and as fometimes furrounding
the finger and root of the nail. The fkin, he fays, is very
little difcoloured. The cafe {peedily advances to fuppura-
tion ; and when this procefs is completed, the cuticle ap-
pears almoft tranfparent. After the contents of this little
abfeefs are evacuated, the ulcer feldom demands any par-
ticular attention. Principles of Surgery, p. 88. edit. 2.
The * aiarree paronychia makes its appearance in the
form of an inflammatory tumour, attended with a greatdeal
of acute pain. The fymptoms, however, are not alarming,
6
-with pain and tenfion, and uneafinefs is felt all
WHI
nor do they generally extend nd the inflamed finger.
In fevere sass: the whole ms is more or lefs
the arm.
The feverity of the pain, in fuch » frequently prevents
fleep, and the whole fyftem is t | into fome diforder.
The attack of this kind of whitlow is attended with a more
acute and throbbing pain than that of the cutaneous paro-
nychia, fuppuration proceeds more flowly, and matter is
frequently formed under the nail. The difeafe is particu-
larly fituated in the cellular membrane under the cutis.
The more deeply-feated kinds of whitlow are thofe affe€tin,
the fheath of the flexor tendons and the periofteum, whi
parts, indeed, by reafon of their vicinity to each other, are
often both attacked together. The difeafe commences
with an intenfe, burning, fhooting, throbbing pain in the
finger, accompanied with fevere febrile fymptoms. At firft,
no {welling whatfoever can be perceived in the part affected ;
but afterwards a flight edematous tumour follows, which
gradually affumes an inflammatory appearance, and the tu-
mefaction fpreads from the finger to the hand, and fore-
arm, and even to the axilla. On the inner fide of the arm,
red hard ftreaks may alfo frequently be obferved, which are
inflamed abforbent veffels tending to the axillary glands,
which are themfelves fometimes enlarged and very painful.
The pain of the whitlow is particularly felt fhooting up
from the affeGted finger to the inner condyle of the hume-
rus, and thence to the arm-pit. Delirium, and other alarm-
ing fymptoms, occafionally attend thefe worit deferiptions of
whitlows, which are alleged to have proved fometimes fatal.
The matter, which is {mall in quantity, is either colleéted
within the fheath of one of the tendons, or it is under the pe-
riofteum in contaé with the bone, which is generally found in
a carious ftate ; and fometimes the fuperincumbent integu-
ments fuffer {fphacelation. See Pearfon’s Principles, p. go.
The /ubungual paronychia, or that which efpecially occurs
under the nail, commences with inflammatory fymptoms,
which are, however, much lefs urgent and dangerous than
thofe of the preceding cafe ; and the fituation of the difeafe
renders its nature quite obvious.
The ufual exciting caufes of whitlows are various external
injuries, as pricks, contufions, &c. The lodgement of a
thorn or f{plinter in the part, is another frequent caufe of
thefe abfceffes. ‘They are, howeyer, much more common
in young healthy perfons than in others ; and they appear
in many inftances to occur fpontaneoufly, that is to fay,
without our being able to ailign any manifeft caufe for them.
There is one particular fort of whitlow, which Mr. Pearfon
has thought proper to call venereal, as will be prefently
noticed.
With regard 'to the prognofis in ordinary examples of the
complaint, it may be laid down that the cutaneous and fub-
cutaneous paronychie are in general unattended ‘with
danger. But thofe whitlows which are formed within the
theca of the flexor tendon, if they be not relieved by the
timely interference of furgery, very often produce abfceffes,
extending up the hand and arm, in the courfe of the corre-
{ponding tendon and mufcle, which parts become fo altered
and difeafed, that their fun€tions are permanently injured,
and the bones of the finger deftroyed by necrofis. en
alfo the periofteum is affeéted, the matter lying underneath,
or clofely upon it, the neighbouring phalanx of the finger
generally perifhes. Whitlows beneath the nail frequently
occafion a lofs and feparation of the part.
The indications in the treatment of whitlows are ;
1. To endeavour to produce an early refolution of the in-
flammation ; but as this attempt feldom fucceeds, and the
cafe almoft proceeds to fuppuration,
2. The
WHITLOW.
2, The great defideratum is to difcharge the matter as
foon after its formation as pofflible.
3. The laft thing is to heal the wound.
With refpe& to the firft indication, experience proves,
that the inflammation, ina very early ftage of the complaint,
may fometimes be difperfed by the adoption of ordinary
antiphlogiftic treatment. Here topical bleeding, efpecially
the prompt and repeated application of leeches to the painful
part feveral times in the day, is highly commendable ; and the
inflamed finger and hand may be covered with a cold, dif-
cutient, faturnine lotion, together with which means fome
writers advife the whole limb to be bound with a circular
roller. Others fpeak highly of the good effeéts of an early
immerfion of the affefted finger in very warm water, or in
lotions made of alcohol, vinegar, oil of turpentine, &c. and
ufed as hot as can be borne. Callifen ftates, that he has
alfo frequently obferved great benefit arife from the affufion
of fuch lotions on the part. He even afferts, that the pain
and more deeply-feated inflammation of the finger may be
fometimes checked by applying cauftic or a blifter to the
integuments.. When the patient’s fufferings are very great,
the exhibition of opium is indifpenfable after bleeding has
been duly practifed. The fame writer alfo affirms, that
eleGtricity has been found ufeful at the very commencement
of a whitlow.
When two days elapfe without any probability of refolu-
tion taking place, fuppuration ought to be promoted by
the immediate and continued ufe of emollient poultices and
fomentations. Nor fhould the furgeon wait for the abfeefs
to point, but make an opening with lefs lofs of time, in
proportion as the cafe becomes worfe. In examples where
the’ pain is exceedingly violent, the incifion fhould not be
deferred beyond the fourth day from the beginning of the
pain. The opening ought alfo to be made at the part
which was firft painful, and thence the cut fhould be con-
tinued longitudinally, and as deeply as the fituation of the
matter. The lancet, indeed, if requifite, muft be intro-
duced down to the bone, by which means a {mall quantity
of deeply-feated confined matter may frequently be voided,
and the pain and progrefs of the difeafe at once fkopped.
Even when no matter is difcharged from the opening, an
early incifion fometimes {peedily relieves very fevere cafes of
whitlow ;. probably (as Callifen obferves) on the principle
of removing tenfion, and occafioning hemorrhage from the
part. In thofe inftances, in which an incifion has not been
praGtifed in due time, and the matter under the tendinous
theca has fpread extenfively up the hand and arm, it is
fometimes neceflary to make the opening, free and ample,
without injuring, however, the annular ligament. The dif-
charge of the abfcefs, and the evacuation of blood from the
incifion, are followed by almoft immediate relief. When
the matter is lodged under the periofteum, the bone is
moftly found affeéted with necrofis. In cafes of this de-
{cription, there are fome pra¢titioners who prefer the re-
moval of the difeafed phalanx, to awaiting a tedious and un-
certain cure by the proceffes of nature. Callifen, however,
informs us, that he has often feen the dead portion of the
bone exfoliate, leaving the reft in a ftate of prefervation.
When a whitlow under the nail cannot be difperfed, the
matter fhould be let out by an opening, practifed through
the tranfparent part of the nail, or by the fide of it. Some
furgeons adopt the plan of fcraping the nail, fo as to render
it as thin as poffible, before they cut through it, which is
an ingenious and commendable method. See Callifen’s Syft.
Chir. Hod. t. i. p. 293. 295.
In the fifth volume of the Medico-Chirurgical Tranfac-
tions, Mr. Wardrop has defcribed a very inveterate and
troublefome fpecies of whitlow, which, from its malignant
charaéter, he has called the onychia maligna. ‘*'The com-
mencement of this difeafe is marked by a degree of {well-
ing, of adeep red colour, in the foft parts at the root of the
nail. An oozing of a thin ichor afterwards takes place at
the cleft, formed between the root of the nail and foft parts,
and at laft the foft parts begin to ulcerate. The ulcer ap-
pears on the circular edge of the foft parts at the root of
the nail ; it is accompanied with a good deal of {welling, and
the fkin, particularly that adjacent to the ulcer, has a deep
purple colour. The appearance of the ulcer is very un-
healthy, the edges being thin and acute, and its furface
covered with a dull yellow, or brown-coloured lymph, and
attended with an ichorous and very fetid difcharge. The
growth of the nail is interrupted, it lofes its natural colour,
and at fome places appears to have but little conneétion
with the foft parts. In this ftate (fays Mr. Wardrop), I
have feen the difeafe continue for feveral years, fo that the
toe or finger became a deformed bulbous mafs. The ‘pain
is fometimes very acute; but the difeafe is more commonly
indolent, and accompanied with little uneafinefs. This
difeafe affe&ts both the toes and the fingers. I have only
obferved it on the great toe, and more frequently on the
thumb, than any of the fingers. It occurs, too, chiefly in
young people; but I have alfo feen adults affected
with it.”
With regard to the treatment of the fpecies of whitlow
named by Mr. Wardrop onychia maligna, all local applica-
tions have in many inftances proved quite ineffeétual, and the
part been amputated. The only local treatment which Mr.
Wardrop has ever feen relieve this complaint has been the
evulfion of the nail, and afterwards the occafional application
of efcharotics to the ulcerated furface. We have feen a
fimilar plan occafionally fucceed, and the applications which -
appeared to anfwer) beft were, arfenical lotions, Plunket’s
cauitic, or a very ftrong folution of the nitrate of filver.
Nothing, however, will avail till the nail is removed, and its
total feparation fometimes takes up a good deal of time, un-
lefs the patient fubmit to the great pain of having it cut
away. '
Mr. Wardrop tried with fuccefs the exhibition of
mercury in four cafes of the onychia maligna. The medi-
cine was given in fmall dofes at firft, and afterwards in-
creafed, fo as to affect the gums in about twelve or fourteen
days. The fores in general foon affumed a healing ap-
pearance when the fy{ftem was in this ftate, and the bulbous
{welling gradually difappeared. Wardrop in Medico-Chir.
Tranf, vol. v. p. 135, &c.
Mr. Pearfon has publifhed an account of a peculiar fort of
whitlow, to which he affixes the epithet venereal. He ob-
ferves, that it generally appears in the form of a {mooth,
foft, unrefifting tumour, of a dark red colour, and is
fituated in the cellular membrane about the root of the nail.
It is attended with an inconfiderable degree of pain in the
incipient {tate ; but as fuppuration advances, the pain in-
creafes in feverity. The progrefs of the ab{cefs to matura-
tion is generally flow, and is feldom completed.
When the matter is evacuated, the nail is generally found
to be loofe, and a very foul but exquifitely fenfible ulcer is
expofed ; and confiderable floughs of cellular membrane, &c.
come away, fo as to render the fore fometimes very deep.
The difcoloured and tumid ftate of the fkin commonly ex-
tends along the finger, confiderably beyond the margin of
the ulcer. In fuch cafes, the integuments of the finger be-
come remarkably thickened, and the cellular membrane is fo
3 G2 firmly
WHI
firmly condenfed, as not to permit the fkin to glide over
the fubjacent parts. The bone is not ufually found in a
carious {tate.
According to the fame author, this fpecies of whitlow
is more frequently feen among the lower clafs of people,
when they labour under lues venerea, than in the higher
ranks of life. It does not appear to be connected with any
particular ftate of the difeafe, nor is it confined to one fex
more than the other. In the Lock Hofpital, it is faid to
occur in the proportion of one patient in five hundred.
In adopting the name of venereal paronychia, Mr. Pearfon
informs us, that it is not with the defign of implying that
the cafe is a true venereal abfcefs, the matter of which is
capable of communicating fyphilis to a found perfon. Its
progrefs and cure, he obferves, feem to be unconneéted with
the increafed or diminifhed ation of the venereal poifon in
the con{titution, and to be alfo uninfluenced by the opera-
tion of mercury.. Mr. Pearfon confiders the venereal
difeafe as a remote caufe, which gives occafion to the ap-
pearance of this as well as of feveral other difeafes, which
are widely different from its own fpecific nature.
In the incipient ftate of the venereal whitlow, when no
fevere fymptoms are prefent, Mr. Pearfon thinks it beft
to ufe no external applications, and merely cover the part
with a bit of fine rag. The difeafe will then often gra-
dually difappear of itfelf, without coming to fuppuration.
When matter is formed, Mr. Pearfon fays, the ab{cefs may
be permitted to burft {pontaneoufly. Every fpecies of
drefling will frequently be found to give great pain, and dif-
agree with the fore. The fame writer, however, ftates,
that one application, compofed of equal parts of the balfam
of copaiva and tinétura thebaica, may fometimes be ufed
with a good effe&. The principal objeé is to keep the
patient as eafy as poflible, by the internal ufe of opium,
until the floughs are feparated, and the ulcer becomes clean.
It may then be treated as a common fore: Peruvian bark
will alfo be generally proper. In the thickened difeafed
ftate of the integuments, Mr. Pearfon condemns amputation,
as being likely to produce a ftump, which will change into
afore, refembling that for which the operation was per-
formed. See Pearfon’s Principles of Surgery, edit. 2.
It is not at allclear to us, that Mr. Wardrop’s cafe, which
he terms the onychia maligna, is not atually the fame
difeafe as what Mr. Pearfon has named the venereal whit-
low. The only doubt arifes from the former gentleman’s re-
commending the exhibition of mercury as a means of cure 3
while the latter declares, that the complaint is quite unin-
fluenced by the operation of this medicine. We confefs,
that although fome hundreds of cafes of very bad whitlows
have fallen under our obfervation, we have never met with
any inftance in which the cure feemed to require mercury.
Wuittow in the Feet of Sheep, in Rural Economy, a dif-
eafe that takes place in the latter end of fummer, and which
is more frequent among the long than the fhort fort of fheep.
It but feldom happens in clean fheep-walks, though it 1s
very troublefome on foft, dirty, pafture-lands. It is fre-
quently occafioned in the milking feafon, by the boughts
or folds being dirty, and by the fheep being confined in the
old houfes. It is of the inflammatory nature, and com-
monly affeéts the fore-feet, but fometimes all four. The
outer part of the hoof is ‘the ufual feat of the difeafe, and
from the cleft a fharp fetid humour exudes, fometimes en-
gendering maggots, and corroding the flefh, nay even the
bone. All around the hoof there is an inflammation, which
turns black, and this part fometimes drops off. It is a very’
painful affe€tion, fo much fo, that the animal often crawls.
WHI
As the weather gets more cold, it commonly becomes better,
but it {till walks in a lame manner.
On the appearance of the difeafe the foot is to be exa-
mined, and the difeafed part opened to let out the acrid
matter. It is then to be wafhed well, and dreffed with mer-
curial ointment and fulphur in mixture, or tar with red pre-
cipitate, binding it up with a flannel bandage, to preferve it
warm and clean. In cafe it does not take on fuppuration,
but degenerates into a foul and tedious ulcer, fuch applica-
tions as f{pirit of turpentine and fulphuric acid may be pro-
per. And in all cafes the fheep fhould be kept in a clean,
eafy, dry pafture, until it becomes well. “See Foor-Rot.
Wuirtow-Gra/s, or Mountain Knot-Graft, in Botany.
See PaRonycHIA, or ILLECEBRUM. .
Wuittow-Gra/s is alfo a name given to fome fpecies
of draba.
Wuittow-Grafs, Rue-leaved, a {pecies of faxifrage.
WHITSTABLE, in Geography, a village and fea-port of
England, in Kent, near the mouth of the Swale. Here is
a confiderable oyfter-fifhery, which employs upwards of
70 boats. Some colliers likewife bring hither coals for Can-
terbury and the neighbourhood; 7 miles N. of Canter-
bury. N. lat. 51° 22!. E. long. 1° 2/.
WHITSUN Isranp, an ifland in the South Pacific
ocean, difcovered by captain Wallis on Whitfun-eve, in the
year 1767, about four mileslong and three wide, furround-
ed by areef. ‘The boat’s crew got fome cocoa-nuts, and
fome fcurvy-grafs: they met with none of the inhabitants,
but fome huts and feveral canoes building. No“anchoring
place for the fhip could be difcovered. S. lat. 19° 26’.
W. long. 137° 56!.
Wuirsun, or Whitfunday Ifland, or Pentecof, one of the
New Hebrides, in the South Pacific ocean, about thirty
miles in length, and eight in breadth. S. lat. 15° 44’. E.
long. 168° 20’. See New HEBRIDES. .
Wuirtsun Farthings. See PENTECOSTALS.
WHITSUNDAY’s Passage, in Geography, a {trait
fo called by captain Cook, from the day on which he failed
through it, in 1770; ween Cumberland ifland and the
coaft of New Holland.
WHITSUNTIDE, the fiftieth day after Eafter.
The feafon properly called Penteco/t, is popularly called
Whitfuntide ; fome fay, becaufe in the primitive church,
thofe who were newly baptized came to church between
Ealter and Pentecoft, in qhite garments.
Wuirsuntipe Bay, in Geography, a bay on the north
coalt of the ifland of Kodiack, weft of Cape Whitfunday.
WHIT-TAWER, in Rural Economy, a provincial
term applied to a collar-maker for team-horfes.
WHITTINGHAM, in Geography, atown of Vermont,
in the county of Windham, with 1248 inhabitants ; 16 miles
E. of Bennington.
WHITTLE, a provincial name applied to a fort of
pocket or fheathed knife.
WHITTLEBURY Fonrtst, in Geography, a royal foreft
of England, in Northamptonhhire.
WHITTLESEA Meng, a lake of England, in the
county of Huntingdon, formed by a branch of the river
Nen, fituated to the S.E. of Peterborough.
WHITTLESEY, or Wuirrtvesea, a townin the north
part of the hundred of Witchford, Ifle of Ely, and county
of Cambridge, England, is fituated on the confines of
Northamptonfhire and Lincolnfhire, at the diftance of 10
miles W.S.W. from the town of March, and 5 miles E. by
N. from Peterborough. It contains two parifhes, St.
Mary’s and St. Andrew’s ; but their boundaries cannot be
II diftin@ly
WHO
diftin@ly afcertained, and they are fo far confolidated,
that, though in feparate patronage, the two livings are ge-
nerally held by the fame perfon ; and only one regifter of
births and burials is kept for both. Whittlefey formerly
had a market ; but when or by whom granted, there are no
exifting records. The market-day was Friday ; but it has
long been gradually falling into difufe, and fince the year
1788 has been wholly difcontinued. An annual fair for horfes
is ftill held. Each parifh has a church, in which are various
fepulchral memorials of ancient families. St. Andrew’s
church was given to the monks of Ely in the twelfth cen-
tury, by Nigellus, fecond bifhop of that fee, for the purpofe
of augmenting their library, or, as it is expreffed by an hif-
torian of that time, ‘¢ making books for the library.” At
the weft end of St. Mary’s church is a very handfome tower,
furmounted by a tall and elegant {pire, which from its height
conftitutes a very confpicuous object from diftant parts of
this flat country. The tower is much ornamented with
niches, pinnacles, and quaterfoils; and each angle of the
otangular fpire, which conneéts with the angular pinnacles
of the tower by flying buttreffes, is adorned with foliated
crockets. There is in the town a charity-fchool for the
inftru@tion of twenty-feven children, and feveral alms-
houfes. . ~ . A
Whittlefey, exclufive of the town, is divided into five dif-
tris, named Eitry, Cotes, Eldernal, Willow-hall, and
Glaffmoor. At Eldernal was a chapel, confecrated in
1525, but long fince dilapidated. At Glaffmoor were found,
about the year 1742, feveral Roman lamps made of the red
ware: The population of the whole, in the return of the
year 1811, is ftated to be 4248, occupying 729 houfes.
Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, vol. 1. Cambridgethire, 1808.
WHITTON, a town of England, in Lincolnfhire, on
the fide of the Humber; 15 miles N.N.W. of Glamford
Briggs.
WHOLAGUNGE, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ;
izmiles N.E. of Fyzabad.
WHOLDYACHUCK, alake of North America. N.
lat. 60° 20’. W. long. 109° 30'.
WHOLE, Torum, in Arithmetic, &c.
VISION, PARTITION, &c.
Wuots, in Logic, is diftinguifhed into four kinds; viz.
a metaphy/ical, when the eflence of a thing is faid to confift
of two parts, the genus and the difference ; mathematical or
integral, when the feveral parts which go to make up the
whole are really diftin from one another, and each of them
may fubfift apart ; phyfical or effential, ufually denoting and
including the two effential parts of man, body and foul, but
more properly including all the effential modes, attributes,
or properties, contained in the comprehenfion of any idea ;
and /ogical, called alfo univerfal, the parts of which are all
the particular ideas to which this univerfal nature extends.
Watts’s Logic, p. 117.
Wuote Blood, Meafure, Number, and Sine.
fubftantives.
Wuotr Milk-Cheefe, in Rural Economy, a term ufed to
fignify fuch cheefes as are made from the whole meal of
milk, in contradiftin@tion to thofe which are made from a
part of it only. It is obferved in the Gloucefter Re-
port on Agriculture, that coward-cheefe ought to be made
of the whole meal of milk; but in a dairy of twenty cows,
it is not unufual to fet by a pan, of about feven or eight
gallons, till the next milking, which is then fkimmed, and
added to the new meal, from which a fimilar quantity is
taken as before. The cream thus laid by is made into
milk-butter. Coward-cheefes are either thin, about eight
See Part, Di-
See the
WHO
to the hundred ; or thick, generally called double Gloucef-
ter, about four to the hundred, or even larger. The latter
are made in May, June, and July, principally, and even as
long as grafs continues good in fome dairies.
It is noticed, too, in the fame fort of report for the
county of Peebles, in Scotland, that in the fheep-farms
there, where fheep’s-milk cheefe is made, the whole of that
fort of milk is feldom employed ; but that the whole of the
cow’s milk upon the farm is mixed with the fheep’s milk.
That the butter, during this period, being ill-tatted, is kept
for mixing with the tar for fmearing the fheep; and the
milk is afterwards made into cheefe. There are, in confe-
quence, very few farms where cheefe is made of entire
fheep’s milk ; and that, from the various proportions of the
admixture of cow’s milk, there are few articles in commerce
pafling under one common denomination, of which the qua-
lities are fo various as thofe of fheep’s-milk cheefe. See
DarryinG, and CHEEse.
Wuote-Moulding. The impropriety of continuing
whole-moulding in the conftruétion of fhips, has been
pointed out in the article SHip-BuILpING: but as it is at pre-
fent continued in the formation of boats; therefore, how
far whole-moulding may be ufed in the conftruction of
boats, we fhall endeavour to explain by introducing a boat,
which might be whole-moulded from the ftem to the ftern-
poft, if part of the midfhip-bend was approved of for the
fhape of the tranfom ; but as there can be no neceflity
that it fhould be fo far whole-moulded, we fhall omit
¥ to the ftern-poft, but extend it quite forward to the
em.
The length, ftem, and ftern-poft, being determined on
in Plate Ship, fig. 1, the next thing is the ftation of the
midfhip-frame, which is not of material confequence, only
let it be before the middle of the boat. Then fet off
all the ftations of the timbers afore and abaft the midfhip-
bend.
The height in the midfhips being given, draw the fheer-
line, or top of the gunwale, fo that it may have an agreeable
appearance. The line below it fhews the breadth of the
fheer-{trake, and the ticked line above it fhews the upper
edge of the wafh-board.
The next thing is the rifing-line, which requires fome ex-
perience to determine at once, fo as to anfwer every
purpofe; for not only the form of the midfhip-bend, but
likewife the defign of the boat muft be kept in mind, to
know how far we may venture to lift the rifing-line
afore and abaft, without occafioning any hindrance to her
ftowage.
Having determined the height of the rifing-line, dif-
pofe of the main height of breadth-line at the midfhip-
bend, at fuch height as will beft fuit the intended form of
the midfhip-bend, and continue it from thence forward and
aft, parallel to the rifing-line; for fo far as the boat is
to be whole-moulded, the main height-of-breadth and rifing-
line muft be parallel to each other in the dire€tion of the
f{quare timbers.
In the half-breadth plan, fig. 2, fquare down frgm
the fheer-plan, fg. 1, when the height-of-breadth line
croffes the fore part of the rabbet of the ftem, and the aft
part of the rabbet of the ftern-poft, or aft-fide of the
tranfom. But as this line rifes above the tranfom abaft,
obferve where the top of the fide croffes the aft part of
the tranfom, and draw it parallel down from any of the
{tations of the timbers. Alfo {quare down the {tation of the
midfhip-bend.
Set off from the middle-line, A B, fig. 2, the half-
thicknefs of the ftem, and from thence {weep an arch to the
thicknefs
WHOLE-MOULDING.
thicknefs of the board ufed for the bottom, the back of
which arch will give the ending of the fore part of the
main-half-breadth line. Then fet off the half-breadth to the
outfide of the timber at the:midfhip-bend, and draw C D
parallel to A B. Determine the breadth of the tranfom at
the top of the fide, aad fet off the half-breadth on the line
for the aft-fideof thetranfom. _
Thus we have three fpots, one at the aft-fide of the
tranfom, one at the midfhip-bend, and one at the ftem,
through which draw an unlimited curve; obferving to
make it faint about half the length of the boat in mid-
fhips, and to form the bow by part of a circle.
To form the Midjbip-bend.—Draw the horizontal line AB
(fig. 3-), and ere&t a perpendicular in the middle ; then
take the half-breadth of the boat at the midfhip-bend, in
fig. 2, and fet it off on each fide the middle-line, and
ereét the perpendicular CD. Take the height from the
line A B, fig. 1. (which is the upper edge of the rabbet of
the keel) to the rifing-line, and to the height-of-breadth line
at the midfhip-bend ; and fet off above the line A B on the
perpendicular C D, fig. 2, and draw the lines marked
M B, and “ Rifing.””
The diftance from the rifing-line to the height-of-breadth
line, is the radius of the circle intended for the midfhip-
bend; which diftance, fet off from the point where the
half-breadth line interfe€ts the fide perpendicular, c, on
the height-of-breadth line, will give the centre for the
{weep of the midfhip-bend; then fweep an arch from
the interfetion of the perpendicular c to the interfeétion of
the rifing-line.
From the middle-line fet off the half-breadth of the keel
on the line A B, and draw a ftraight line from the fide
of the keel to the back of the arch of the midfhip-bend :
let the top of the fide above the height-of-breadth line be
rpendicular, complete the other fide-of the middle-line the
ame from perpendicular D.
To form the fquare Timbers of the Fore-Body-—Take the
diftance from the line A B, fig. 1. to the rifing-line at timber
A B, &c. as far forward as timber I, and fet them off,
and draw lines parallel to the line A B, fig. 3, from the
middle-line towards the line c.
Then take the diftance from the line A B, fg. 1, to
- the height-of-breadth line at each feparate timber, and draw
them as before in fig. 3. parallelto A B.
Then take the half readth of each timber, A B, &c.
in fig. 2, and apply each feparate diftance from the middle-
line in fig. 3, on the lines of their corre{ponding names for
the height-of-breadth, and there make a fpot.
Make a mould agreeable to the fhape of the midfhip-
bend, the lower part to agree with the rifing-line of the
midfhip-bend, and extend as far beyond the middle-line as is
neceflary.
Crofs the height-of-breadth on the mould, and the
middle-line, when it lies well with the midfhip-bend.
Take the diftance from the line C D, fig. 2. to the main-
breadth line at timber A B, &c. and fet them off from the
middle-line on the lower fide of the mould, towards perpen-
dicular c, which fhews the narrowing of each timber more
than the midfhip-bend.
From the height-of-breadth line in fig. 1. take the dif-
tance to the top of the theer-ftrake at each of the above
timbers, and fet them off aboye the main-breadth, on the
mould, which gives the heads of all the timbers in the fore-
The lower edge of the mould is fuppofed to be the height
of the rifing-line from the timbers.
Then apply the lower edge of the mould on each rifing-
line, fig. 3, and move it till each letter on the lower edge
of the mould agrees: with the middle-line, and the main-
breadth on the mould agrees with its correfponding height-
of-breadth line. Then draw the form of the mould
the head of the timber to the middle-line, as ticked in fig. 3,
and draw a ftraight line from:the fide of the keel, at the
upper edge of the rabbet, to touch the ontfide of the curve
formed by the mould, except where the rabbet of the keel
and ftem rifes, as at F, G, H, I. ©
Set off the half-thicknefs of the keel from the middle-
line, fig. 3, and take the height from the line A B, fig. 1.
to the lower edge of the rabbet at each timber, and fet it
from the line A B, jig. 3, on the line for the half-thicknefs
of the keel or ftem ; then with compatfles fet to the thicknefs
of the bottom plank, {weep an arch; from the upper fide
of which draw a ftraight line to the back of each curve of
the mould, which will finifh completely the heels of the
timbers. ' ;
The fame method muft be obferved in the after-body
towards perpendicular D, fig. 3, applying the midfhip-
bend mould in the fame manner as direéted in the fore-body,
making ufe of the mould as far aft as timber 12.
The after-fquare timber is 9; therefore, to 9 may be
finifhed the heels of the timbers, by drawing a ftraight line
from the back of the whole-moulding curve to the back of
the {weep at the rabbet of the keel.
In whole-moulding, but few moulds are neceflary to be
made to mould all the timbers. Thus the floor-mould is
to be made to the midfhip-bend in fg. 3, a little above
the diagonal line, a 6 or ac, which is to be the heads of the
floors, and let the lower part of the mould correfpond
well with the rifing of the midfhip-bend, as is fhewn in
Sg. 4.
When the mould lies well, as in fig. 3, mark the middle-
line on the lower edge of the mould, and the head of the
floor on the outer edge. Make the infide of the mould to
its proper f{cantling, and let the upper edge correfpond well
with the cutting-down of the infide of the midfhip-floors ;
which cutting-down is fo marked in fig. 1.
Then in fig. 2. take the diftance of each timber from
the line C D to the main-half-breadth line, and fet them off
on the lower edge of the mould, from the middle-line of
the midfhip-bend towards the outer end of the mould, which
is the middle-line for each floor.
Now fix the lower edge of the mould in fig. 3. on each
rifing-height, in the fame manner as the timbers were
got in by whole-moulding ; and when each mark on the
mould is well with the middle-line, and on its proper rifing,
defcribe on the outer edge of the mould the heads of the
floors, or the diagonal line a 4, or ac.
Or, as in fig. 4, fquare the middle-lines of each timber,
and then take the half-breadths of each floor from jig. 3.
and fet them off {quare from each middle-line in fig. 4, to
interfeét the edge of the mould.
The lower Futtock- Mould, fig. 5, is made to the rifing-height
of the midfhip-bend, and from thence to the top of the fheer ;
but need not be made fo long at the heel asthe floor-mould.
The infide is made to the fcantling, and the crofling of the
middle-line and the floor-head, on the lower futtock-mould,
is done in the fame manner as on the floor-mould; or the
beft way is to lay the floor-mould on the lower futtock-
mould, and crofs it by the floor-mould. When the lower
futtock-mould is laid in its p to the gt eaneer: in
ig- 3, then mark the main-breadth on the mould, which is the
main-breadth for all the timbers. ‘Then take the diftance
in fig. 1. from the main-breadth line to the top of the fheer
at each timber, and fet it off on the mould, fromthe _—
breadt
WHOLE-MOULDING.
breadthjupward, which is the heads of all the timbers ; and
then the croffing of the lower futtock-mould is finifhed.
To crofs the rifing Square-—When the beat is whole-
moulded, the floors and lower futtocksare generally moulded
by the ufe of the rifing-fquare ; which is fo called, becaufe
when the {quare is properly placed to mould any timber, one
fide of the {quare correfponds with the rifing of that tim-
ber. When the timbers are moulded by the outfide of the
mould, and the heels by the rifing-fquare, (which gives the
upper edge of the rabbet of the keel, or bearding-line, )
then there is a batton, called a cutting-down batton, with
the heights of all the floors, from the upper edge of the
rabbet of the keel to the cutting-down line ; which gives
the cutting-down or infide of all the floors.
To make the rifing-fquare, let one fide of the {quare be
of fufficient breadth to receive the rifing and the cutting-
down, as may be feen by the fquare E.
When moulding the floors, or lower futtocks, the lower
fide of the mould is the rifing of the timber; and confe-
quently the edge of the fquare, which is to be applied to the
under dide of the mould, is alfo the fame.
~Then to mark or crofs the f{quare, take the diftance
from, the rifing-line in figs 1. to the upper edge of the
rabbet of the keel, or bearding-line, at each timber ; and
fet them off from that edge of the fquare which is to
be applied to the mould, on the other edge of the fquare,
and clofe to the edge, drawing a margin’ to put the
letters or figures under them. Then take the diftance in
Jig: 1. from the rifing-line to the cutting-down line, at the
timbers, where the cutting-down is below the rifing, and
fet them off from the edge of the {quare that is to be ap-
plied to the mould on the other edge of the fquare, but
within the rifings, as may be feen on the fquare. ‘The other
timbers, from 3 to B, where the cutting-down is above the
rifing, may be marked on the moulds.
From the edge of the fquare where the rifings are placed,
fet off on the other edge of the {quare the half-thicknefs of
the keel, which call the middle-line ; and then the fquare is
ready for moulding.
To mould the Floors.—The beft way for moulding the
floors for a whole-moulded boat, is to make two moulds,
agreeable to the former direétions, made and crofled both
alike, but the fides reverfed. Then lay one on the other,
the fame as in fig. 4, keeping the lower edges in a ftraight
line, and mooring them till the correfponding middle-lines
on the moulds agree. The moulds in fg. 4. are fixed at 9,
but the middle-lines on the lower mould cannot be feen ;
therefore, before the moulds are put together, it is beft to
mark (in chalk) on the edges of the mould the middle-
lines of the timber. When the moulds are placed, fix the
middle-line, marked on the edge of the fquare, to the mid-
dle-line on the mould of the timber, and the other edge of
the fquare will reprefent the fide of the keel.
Then apply a ftraight batton to the rifing of g, on the edge
of the fquare, and alfo to the outfide of the floor-mould.
This will give the moulding of the outfide of the floors,
except timber 9, which is fomewhat hollow. Then fquare
the cutting-down for g, acrofs to the edge of the fquare,
and draw a ftraight line to touch the infide of the
mould.
Inthe fame manner mould the other arm of the floor, by
canting the {quare. But the rifing and cutting-down fhould
be marked on both fides.
Before the moulds are moved, mark the heads and fir-
marks, if any, as a guide to fix the lower futtock when put
in its place, if it should not run down to the fide of the
keel.
To mould the lower Futiocks.—T he lower futtock-mould is
jig. 5, which is made in the fame manner as the floor-
mould, but continued as high as the top of the fheer. The
upper part being ftraight and perpendicular, and the mould
made to the feantling, there is no difference between mould-
ing one fide of the floors and moulding the lower futtocks.
The fame method of fixing the fquare for the moulding of
the floors will ferve to mould the lower futtocks, as on the
{quare in the plate, where the middle-line on the fquare is
put to the middle-line on the lower futtock-mould for G. A
{traight batton applied to the rifing for G, on the fquare,
and to the back of the lower futtock-mould, gives the
moulding of the outfide of the lower futtock; and the
cutting-down for G on the fquare brought to the edge of
the fquare, a ftraight batton from thence to the infide of
the mould will alfo be the infide of the lower futtock.
Mark the firmark, or floor-head, in the fame manner as
the floors, in order to place the lower futtock to its proper
height at the fide of the floors, in cafe they fhould not be
required to run down to the fide of the keel.
Likewife mark the main-breadth, and the head for G, be-
fore the mould is moved.
That there is no difference between the floors and the
lower futtocks in ufing the rifing-fquare, may be feen
more clearly in fig. 4, where the floor-mould is continued
up to the top of the fide, which makes the lower futtock-
mould; fo that the form of the lower futtock is feen, as
well as the floor.
The two floor-moulds may be made to ferve for all the
floors, by putting the fore-body on one fide of the mould,
and the after-body on the other ; but obferve to crofs one
mould oppofite to the other, fo that when it is canted
over, it fhall then be proper to mould with.
Two rifing-{quares are fometimés ufed ; one for the fore-
body, and the other for the after-body ; becaufe the fquares
mutt be croffed alike on both fides, to mould thé arms of the
floors, and likewife to mould the lower futtock for both
fides of the boat. Or, inftead of this, the fore-body may
be put on one fide of the fquare, and the after-body on
the other. When the f{quare is wanted on the oppofite fide,
chalk on the edge of the fquare the rifing and the cutting-
down for the timber to be moulded, and then cant the
f{quare.
Two lower futtock-moulds may alfo be made, or crofs the
fore-body on one fide of the mould, and the after-body on
the other. In order to mould a timber for that fide of the
fhip where the firmarks are at the under fide of the mould,
chalk the firmarks for the timber wanted on the edge of the
mould ; or make two margins on the edge of the mould, re-
ferving one for the fore-body, and the other for the after-
body, and reverfed on the oppofite fide.
The lower futtocks for boats generally run about half way
between the floor-head and the fide of the keel; but if it
were a hoy, or {mall veflel that was whole-moulded, the
lower futtocks might then be required to run to the fide of
the keel, or dead-wood ; wherefore, it is proper to fhew
the moulding of them down to the fide of the keel.
Various are the methods ufed by different artificers
in moulding the lower futtocks; and it is evident that
the method which has been praétifed moft will appear the
bett.
Some will make no ufe of the {quare, but mark the heels
of the lower futtocks on the mould, and provide a batton,
marked the fame as the {quare ; the lower end of the batton
being long enough to mould the outfide of the foremoft and
aftermoft timbers ; and the upper end of the batton being
long enough to mould the infide of the midfhip-timber.
Mark
%
WHO
Mark a firmark acrofs the batton, fuppofed to reprefent
the fide of the fquare, which muft always be fitted well
to the lower edge of the mould; from which firmark, fup-
pofed to be the rifing for all the timbers, fet off clofe to
the edge of the batton the heels of all the timbers in
the fore-body, or the diftance in fig.1. from the rifing-line
to the upper edge of the rabbet of the keel, or bearding-
line.
Then draw a margin for the cutting-down of the timbers,
and take the diftance in fig. 1. from the rifing-line of each
timber to the cutting-down, and fet them off on the batton
for the cutting-down, as much above or below the firmark
on the batton as the cutting-down is above or below the
rifing at each timber.
On the other fide of the batton may be put the after-
body.
red fome boats or veffels, where the rifing and cutting-
down are farther afunder at the midfhip-bend, then the bat-
ton will be as ufeful as the {quare ; but inftead of the mid-
dle-lines being marked on the lower futtock-mould, it will
be better to mark the fide of the keel, or where the keels
of the lower futtocks are intended to be, for the better ap-
plying the batton.
_ If the heels of the lower futtocks do not run down
to the fide of the keel, it will alter the rifings on the
batton ; the heels being marked on the mould fhort of the
fide of the keel.
_ The proper heels of the lower futtocks fhould be
marked on the mould, though moulded by the {quare ;
for then the edge of the fquare might be put to the pro-
per mark onthe mould for the heels of the timbers.
The middle-lines marked on the lower futtock-mould
in the Plate, were intended only to fhew that the method
of moulding the floors and lower futtocks were alike.
The fquare is the beft to mould the floors, becaufe the
middle-lines are the propereft to be marked on the floor-
moald. '
What has been faid may fuffice to fhew that whole-
moulding may, in fome meafure, be ufed, and yet form a
pleafing draught, much more fo than that of the boat in
Jig. 1, if lefs ftowage were fufficient to anfwer the purpofe
for which fhe is defigned.
WHOLESOME Sur, in the Sea Language, one that
will try, hull, and ride well, without rolling or labouring
in the fea. A long fhip that draws much water may try,
hull, and ride well; but if fhe draws little water, fhe may
try and ride well, but never hull well; and a fhort thip
that draws much water may hull well, but neither ride nor
try well ; and fuch is called an unwholefome fhip.
WHORE. See Courtrsan, Hartor, Concusine,
&e. .
WHORL, in Botany. See VeRrTIcILLUs.
WHORLBAT, or Hurvsar, a kind of gauntlet, or
leathern ftrap, loaden with plumbets ; ufed by the ancient
Romans in their folemn games and exercifes; and by them
called caflus.
WHORLED Prants. See VerTIcILLAT#.
WHORLES of Flowers, among Herbalifis, are rows of
leffer flowers, fet at certain diftances about the main ftalk
or fpike, as in penny-royal, &c.
WHORTLE-Berry, Bitserry, or Cranberry, in
Botany. See Vaccinium.
The whortle-berry, with one flower upon each footttalk,
oval-fawed leaves, which fall off in winter, and an angular
ftalk, called black whorts, or bilberries, grows very common
upon large wild heaths, in many parts of England, but is
WHY
never cultivated in gardens, it being with great difficulty
tranfplanted ; nor will it thrive long when moved thither.
The fruit is gathered by the poor inhabitants of thofe vil-
lages which are fituated in the neighbourhood of their
erowil, and carried to the market-towns. Thefe are by
ome eaten with cream or milk ; are alfo put into
tarts, and much efteemed by people in the North, but they
are feldom brought to London. ;
The fhrub on which thefe grow rifes about two feet
high, having many ftems, which are garnifhed with oblong
leaves, fhaped like thofe of the box-tree, but fomewhat
longer, and a little fawed on their edges. The flowers are
fhaped like thofe of the arbutus, or ftrawberry-tree, of a
greenifh-white colour, changing toa dark red toward the
top. The fruit is about the fize of large juniper-berries,
and of a deep purple colour, having a flue upon it when
untouched, like the blue plums, which is rubbed off with
handling.
The whortle-berry with nodding bunches of flowers ter-
minating the branches, and oval leaves which are entire,
turned back and punétured on their under fide, called vitis
idea, and red whorts, is an ever-green fhrub, feldom rifing
above fix or eight inches high, with leaves like thofe of the
dwarf-box, which grows upon moors in feveral parts of the
North, but is not capable of being eafily tranfplanted : the ©
berries are red, and have a more agreeable acid flavour than
thofe of the firft fort.
The whortle-berries with oval, entire, reflexed leaves, and
naked, flender, creeping ftalks, called mofs-berries, moor-
berries, and cran-berries, produce branches {mall as thread,
and trailing upon the mofly bogs, which are garnifhed
with leaves refembling thofe of thyme, with the upper fur-
face of a fhining green, and white underneath. The berries,
which grow upon long flender foot-ftalks, fucceeding the
flowers, are round, red, and fpotted, of a fharp acid flavour,
and much efteemed for tarts, or eaten with milk or cream.
This is a native of bogs, and cannot be propagated upon
dry land.
There are feveral other fpecies of this genus, fome of
which are natives of Spain and Portugal, others of Ger-
many and Hungary, and feveral of the northern parts of
America; from whence thofe large fruits are brought to
England which are ufed by the paftry-cooks of London,
during the winter feafon, for tarts. But as all thefe forts
grow naturally in fwamps and bogs, they are not eafily
tranfplanted into gardens in their native country, fo as to
thrive or produce fruit ; therefore, there can be little hope
of cultivating them to advantage. Miller.
Wuortte-Berry, African, a {pecies of Royena.
Wrortte-Berry, Bear’s. See Uva Urf.
WHUR, in Falconry, denotes the fluttering of partridges
or pheafants as they rife.
WHY-EA-TEA, in Geography, a bay on the eaft coaft
of Owhyhee. N. lat. 19° 44’. E. long. 204°°54!. :
WHYMEA Bay, a bay on the north coalt of the
ifland of Woahoo. N. lat. 21° 38/.. E. long. 202° 51'.
Wuymea Road, a road on the fouth-weft coaft of the
ifland of Attowai. Captain Vancouver fays, this bay is
much confined in refpeét to fafe anchorage.
WHYTE, Roser, in Biography, an excellent com-
pofer of church-fervices in the ityle of Paleftrina, which,
however, he could not imitate, as he was anterior to him,
and a great mafter of harmony before the productions of
this chief of the Roman fchool were publifhed, or at leaft
circulated, in other parts of Europe. Whyte was dead in
1581, when his Latin Full Anthems and Services were
beautifully tranfcribed in a fet of books, itill preferved at
Oxford ;
WHY
Oxford ; as we find by a diftich at the end of a prayer, in
five parts, upon a plain fong: ‘ Precamur Sané&te Domine.”
Maxima mofarum noftrarum gloria Whyte
Tu peris ; zternum fed tua mufa manet.
Whyte preceded Tallis and Bird, and died before their
fame was well eftablifhed. His works feem never to have
been printed ; but in the library of Chrift-church, Oxford, a
fufficient number of them has been preferved in the Aldrich
colleGtion, to excite not only wonder, but indignation, at
the little notice that has been taken of them by mufical
writers. Morley, indeed, has given him a place in the lift
of compofers at the end of his Introduétion, and ranks him,
with Orlando di Laffo, among excellent men, who had ven-
tured to begin a compofition with a fourth and fixth; he
likewife places him with Fairfax, Taverner, Shepherd,
Mundy, Parfons, and Bird, ‘ famous Englifhmen who have
been nothing inferior to the beft compofers on the continent.””
And no mufician had then appeared who better deferved to
be celebrated for knowledge of harmony, and clearnefs of
ftyle, than Robert Whyte, as is manifefted in Burney’s
Hift. of Muf. vol. iii. by an anthem for five voices.
But befides this mafterly compofition, and a great num-
ber of others, to Latin words, which we fcored from
the Chrift-church books, and which were probably pro-
duced at the latter end of Henry VIII.’s reign, or during
the time of queen Mary, when the Romifh religion was
ftill in ufe, we are in pofleffion of a {mall MS., which, by
the writing and orthography, feems of the 16th century,
entitled “* Mr. Robert Whyte, his Bitts, of three Parte
Songes,in Partition: with Ditties, 11 ; withoute Ditties, 16.”
Thefe are fhort fugues or intonations in moft of the eight
ecclefiaftical modes, in which the harmony is extremely
pure, and the anfwer to each fubject of fugue brought in
with great fcience and regularity. Burney.
WHYTHORNE, Tuomas, gentleman, in Mujfical
Hiftory, author of a book of fongs, printed by John Daye,
in 1571, under the following title: ‘‘ Songes of three,
fower, and five voyces, compofed and made by Thomas
Whythorne, gentleman, the which fonges be of fundrie
fortes, that is to fay, fome long, fome fhort, fome hard,
fome eafie to be fonge, and fome between both ; alfo fome
folemne, and fome pleafaunt or mery: fo that according to
the {kil of the fingers (not being mufitians), and difpofition
or delite of the hearers, they may here find fonges to their
contentation and liking.””
Our fecular vocal mufic, during the firft years of Eliza-
beth’s reign, feems to have been much inferior to that of
the church, if any judgment can be fairly formed of it
from this book, publifhed before the fongs of Bird had
appeared, and of which both the words and the mufic are
alike truly barbarous. But we have, in our own time,
mufic-books publifhed in England every day without genius
or fcience to recommend them. And it is not certain that
Whythorne’s fongs were ever in much public favour. Now,
ifit fhould happen that one of thefe, by efcaping the broom
of Time, fhould reach pofterity, and fall into the hands of
fome future antiquary, critic, or hiftorian, who fhould con-
demn a// the compofitions of the prefent age by one, that had,
perhaps, been never performed or heard of by contemporary
judges and lovers of good mufic, the fentence would furely
be very unjutt.
WHYTT, Rosert, F.R.S. in Biography, a diftinguifhed
phyfician, was born at Edinburgh in 1714, educated at St.
Andrew’s, and ftudied phyfic firit at Edinburgh, and after-
wards at London, Paris, and Leyden. He fettled in his pro-
Vou. XXXVITII.
WIB
feffion at Edinburgh, where he became a fellow, then prefident
of the college of phyficians, and in 1746 chairman of the intti-
tutions of medicine in the univerfity. Asamedical practitioner
and teacher, and alfo as a writer, he acquired celebrity. The
firft of his publications was an “ Effay on the Vital and
other Involuntary Motions of Animals,?? 1751, in which he
advances a theory different from that of Stahl, as he attri-
butes thefe motions not to the foul, acting to a forefeen end,
but to the power of ftimulus. In 1755 he publifhed “* Phy-
fiological Effays, containing an Inquiry into the Caufes
which promote the Circulation of the Fluids in the very
{mall Veffels of Animals ; with Obfervations on the Senfi-
bility and Irritability of the Parts of Man and other
Animals.”? _Here he fuppofes that the aGtion of the heart
is not fufficient to propel the blood through the minuteft
veffels, but that it is affifted by an ofcillatory motion of
the vellels themfelyes. Of this work, an enlarged edition
appeared in 1761. His other works are, “ An Effay on
the Virtues of Lime-water in the Cure of the Stone,”? 1752 ;
“‘ Obfervations on the Nature, Caufe, and Cure of thofe
Diforders which are commonly called Nervous, Hypochon-
driac, and Hyfteric,” 1764; and fome papers in the Edin-
burgh “ Effays and Obfervations, Phyfical and Literary.”
A pofthumous work appeared, entitled « Obfervations on
the Dropfy of the Brain.” Having long laboured under
a complication of chronic complaints, he died in 1766.
His fon publifhed an edition of all his works in 1768, 4to.
under the infpe@tion of fir John Pringle. Haller Bib.
Anat. Gen. Biog.
WIA, in Geography, one of the {mall weftern iflands of
Scotland, alittle to the fouth of Benbecula. _N. lat. 57° zat.
W. long. 7° 11'.—Alfo, one of the {mall Weftern iflands,
near the eaft coaft of Barray. N. lat. 56° 58’. W. long.
7° 22'.—Alfo, a {mall ifland near the weft coaft of Skye.
N. lat. 57° 21'. W. long. 6° 27).
WIAMPA, or Winira, or Sinpa, a town of Africa,
on the Gold Coaft, in the diftri& of Agonna.
WIANDOTS. See Wyanpors.
WIAPOCO, or Lirrte Wr, one of the navigable
mouths of the Oroonoko.
WIBALDUS, in Biography, a perfon of note in the
12th century, defcended from a noble family in the bifhopric
of Liege, completed his ftudies at Liege, and became a
teacher firft at Vaffo, and afterwards at Stablo. In 11 30
he was eleGted abbot ; and in 1136 he accompanied the
emperor Lotharius on his expedition to Italy, by whom he
was employed in feveral important departments, and fixed
as abbot in the monaftery of mount Caffino. But he
quitted this monaftery in the following year, and returned
to Germany. In 1146 he became abbot of the monaftery
of Corvei on the Wefer, in which he was confirmed by king
Conrad, to whom he was no lefs an obje&t of confidence
than he had been to Lotharius. He was no lefs a favourite
with Frederic I,, who had fent him twice as ambaflador to
Conftantinople ; but on his return from his laft miffion
thither, he terminated his life at Buleltia, in Paphlagonia,
in confequence, as it is faid, of poifon, which had béen
given to him in the month of July, 1158. His Letters,
mixed with fome other works, one volume of which only
remains, throw confiderable light on the ftate of fociety at
that time, and on the ecclefiaftical hiftory of Germany.
Gen. Biog.
WIBLINGEN, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, with
a Beneditine abbey, near the conflux of the [er with the
Danube ; 3 miles S.S.W. of Ulm.
WIBORGIA, in Botany. See Vizsoraias.
wic
WIBURG, im Geography. See Visorc. ne
WIBY, a town of Sweden, in the province of Nericia ;
18 miles $.W. of Orebro.
WIC, denotes a place on the fea-fhore, or on the bank
of a river. Though in the original Saxon, it more pro-
perly fignifies a /rreet, village, or dwelling-place ; as alfo a
cafile. See WYKE. ‘
We often meet with wic in the Saxon writers, as a ter-
mination of the name of a town which had a complete name
without it: as, Lunden-qwic, that is, London-town ; which
figmfies no more than London. In the Saxon Annals,
it is mentioned, that king Ethelbert made Melitus bifhop
of Lunden-wic. A ,
So, Ipfwich is written in fome old charters, vill de Gippo,
and fometimes villa de Gippo wico; which is no variation,
but the fame thing ; for Gipps is the complete name, and
the Gipp-wic is Gipps-town. “
WICCAKAW, in Geography, a town of the ftate of
Georgia ; 22 miles N.N.W. of Oakfufkee. : :
WICHRA, a river of Saxony, which rifes three miles
N. of Waldenburg, and runs into the Pleifs, 2 miles N.
of Borna. ‘
WICHTIS, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Nyland ; 27 miles N.N.W. of Helfingfors.
WICHTRACH, a town of Switzerland, in the canton
of Berne; 12 miles $.S.E. of Berne.
WICK, a royal borough, market-town, and the county-
town of the fhire of Caithnefs, Scotland, is fituated at the
entrance of the fmall river Wick, the eftuary of which
forms a good harbour, at the diftance of 279 miles N. from
Edinburgh. The town is {mall, and the ftreets narrow and
confined; but there are feveral refpectable buildings to
ornament the place. The church is an old, dark, and ill-
conftruéted edifice. A weekly market is held on Fridays,
and is well fupplied. The chief fources of commerce and
induftry are the fifheries, which are profecuted with great
attention and fuccefs. The town and borough-lands of
Wick were anciently part of the earldom of Caithnefs; on
the petition of George, then earl, a charter was granted by
James VI. of Scotland, Sept. 24, 1589, erecting the town
of Wick into a royal borough, under the fuperiority of
that nobleman. In 1672 the whole earldom of Caithnefs
was difpofed of to John Campbell, afterwards created earl
Breadalbane, by whofe fucceffors it was fold to the family
of Sinclair, in whom the fuperiority is ftill vefted. In
1716 the convention of royal boroughs fixed the fett or
government of the borough of Wick. By this fett, the
old magiftrates nominate two perfons, out of whom a provott
and two baillies are to be chofen by the free burgeffes : the
provoft and two baillies fo elected have the right of
choofing feven counfellors, a treafurer, and a dean of guild.
Wick, in conjun@tion with the boroughs of Dingwall,
Dornock, Kirkwall, and Tain, fends one member to parlia-
ment. The parifh of Wick is twenty miles long and ten
broad ; and in the: population return of the year 1811 1s
ftated to contain 5080 inhabitants. Carlifle’s Topographical
Diéionary of Scotland, 4to. 2 vols. 1813. Gazetteer of Scot-
land; 1806. Beauties of Scotland, vol. v. Caithnefsfhire.
Wick, a river of Scotland, which runs into the Northern
ocean, at Wick, in the county of Caithnefs.
WICKER, a twig of the ofier fhrub, fingle or wrought.
Wicxer-Bajket, in Rural Economy, any fort of bafket
which is made of wicker-work, or the plaited or twifted
twigs of the willow, or other fuch kinds of young fhoots.
See Basket.
A. fort of wicker-bafket or braid, too, is made ufe of
9
wic
in grafting in field, orchard, or fruit grounds. It is ob-
ferved in the Gloucefterfhire Report on Agriculture, that
the grafts are fecured immediately after the compott is put
on, with * braids.”? Thefe are open wicker-bafkets in the
form of an inverted cone, fitting the {tock below the place
to which the compoft extends, and rifing about two feet
high, and expanding at the top to nearly he fame diameter.
This contrivance ferves not only to guard the grafts in
their early ftate, but alfo to keep the fhoots to a proper
compact form of growth. The practice chiefly prevails
on the banks of the Severn, where the ofier ( /alix viminalis)
is grown in great abundance.
In hop-grounds likewife large wicker-bafkets are em-
ployed for picking the hops into. See Hop.
And wicker-work of the bafket kind is made ufe of for
many other purpofes of different forts.
Wicker-7ree, a name given by the Englifh to a tree.
common in China, and defcribed by Kircher and others.
It is, as it were, a rope twifted by nature, about an inch
thick, and creeps along the earth often for above a hundred
paces together, much embarrafling the way, but ferving for
cables of fhips, feats, hurdles, beds, mats, and various
other neceflary ufes. It endures no vermin, and is much
valued for being cool and refrefhing in the hot feafons.
Wicker-Work, in Agriculture, a fort of bafket-work on
a large feale, ufed for defending land from water of the
fea or other kinds. It is obferved by Mr. Loudon, in his
work on ‘ Country Refidences,’’ that in fome very fandy
fhores, defences of the embankment kind may be made of
wicker-work ; and that three or four rows of paling may
be made of different heights, and the intervals between
them be filled with furze, brufhwood, ftraw, or any other
fuch materials. It is thought that thefe materials would
retain the fand as the tide pafled through among them; and
that in a very fhort time a defence or fort of embankment
would be formed of the fhelving kind, which fhould then be
planted with the upright fea lime-grafs, in order to bind it.
See EMBANKMENT, and Water, Sea, Defending Land from.
Alfo Upricur Sea Lyme-Grafs, and Etymus Arenarius.
WICKERAD, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Roer. It gave name to a lordfhip,
furrounded by the duchy of Juliers; 3 miles N.E. of
Erkelens.
WICKET, of the French guichet, a little door within a
gate; or a hole in a door, through which to view what
pafles without.
WICKFORD, in Geography, a town of Rhode ifland,
with a poft-office ; 10 miles N.W. of Newport.
WICKHAM, commonly called Market-Wickham, to
diftinguifh it from two other places of the fame name
in the county, is a village and parifh in the hundred of
Wilford, and county of Suffolk, England. It has been a
place of much greater confequence than it is at prefent, and
had a weekly market and town-hall, where the quarter eae
were held. The fpiritual courts for the archdeaconry
Suffolk are ftill held here. The parifh-church, being built
on a hill, conftitutes a land-mark for veffels Gling by the
coaft. From the tower, a {pectator may fee nearly fifty
other churches. An aifle, or chapel, on the fouth fide of
the church, was built by Walter Fulburn, of this parith,
who died, and was buried within its walls, in 1489. The
rectories of Wickham, Pettiftree, and Bing, all in the hun-
dred of Wilford, were bequeathed in 1718 by Mr. John
Pemberton for charitable ufes. According to the popu-
lation report of 1811, this parifh contained 133 houfes,
and 906 inhabitants. It is 124 miles N.E. of ipa,
ani
Wit
and 81 in the fame dire&tion from London. 'The market,
which was formerly held on Saturdays, has long been dif-
continued.—Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xiv. Suf-
folk, by F. Shoberl.
Wickuam Breaux, and Wickuam Streyth, the names of
two other parifhes in Suffolk, England.
WICKLIFFISTS, or Wickuirrires, in Ecclefiaftical
Hiflory, a religious feét, who had their rife in England in
the 14th century, and their name from their leader John
Wickliffe. :
Wickliffe, of whofe opinions we give fome account
in his biographical article, (fee Wiciirr,) denied that
bifhops were of a different order from priefts, and that
by virtue of their office they had any power to do what
priefts have not ; and that in the apoftolic times the two
orders fubfifting in the church were thofe of prieft and
deacon. With regard to tithes, he obferves, that we do not
read in the Gofpel where Chrift paid tithes, or commanded
any man fo to do; and that if they were due by God’s com-
mandment, there fhould be every where in Chriftendom one
manner of tithing ; and that thofe things’which are due to
priefts fhould be given freely, without exaétion or conftrain-
ing. In oppofition to the papal claims of fupremacy and
dominion, he maintained that the grants of emperors may be
refumed; that St. Peter and his fucceffors have no rights
conferred upon them of civil or political dominion ; that the
perfons of the clergy and the goods of the church are not
exempted from the civil powers ; and that bulls of abfolu-
tion or excommunication are conditional and not abfolute,
and depend for their effeéts on the difpofition and character
of thofe to whom they pertain.
Wickliffe defines herefy to be error maintained againft
holy writ, and that in life and converfation, as well as in
opinion. He ventured to affirm, that children who die with-
out baptifm may be faved; that this rite does not confer
grace, but only fignify that which was before given; and
he denied that all fins are abolifhed by baptifm. But in
thefe and fome other points, occurring in his various works,
which were publifhed at different times, he is not always
perfeGly confiftent ; but in all matters of principal im-
portance he is uniform.
He left many followers in England and other countries,
who were called Wickliffites and Lollards, and who held
their opinions in private without making any public profef-
fion of them; though they were generally known by their
difparaging the fupertftitious clergy, whofe corruptions were
fo notorious, and their cruelty fo enraged, that it was no
wonder the people were much prejudiced againft them.
Wherever they could be found, they were terribly perfe-
cuted by the inquifitors, and other inftruments of papal ven-
geance.—Lewis’s Hiftory, &c. 8vo. paffim. Mofh. Eccl.
Hitt. vol. ii. 8vo. Burnet’s Hift. Reform. vol. i. p. 23.
WICKLOW, in Geography, a maritime county of Ire-
land, on the eaft coaft, having the county of Dublin on the
north, the Irifh fea on the eaft, the counties of Kildare,
Dublin, and Carlow, on the weit, and that of Wexford on
the fouth. Its extent from north to fouth is 32 Irith (403
Enghfh) miles; from eaft to weft, 26 Irifh (33 Englifh)
miles ; and the fuperficial contents are 311,600 acres, or
486 {quare miles, equal to 500,600 acres, or 780 {quare
miles Englifh. Mr. Radcliffe, according to the county
map, ftates the fuperticial contents at 305,404 Irifh
acres. There are 58 parifhes, which have 20 churches,
moftly in the archbifhopric of Dublin. Dr. Beaufort
ftates the population at 58,000. “A great part of Wick-
low is rendered unfit for habitation, and incapable of cul-
ture, by mountains intermixed with rocks and bogs. How-
Wie
ever, though the heart of the county be a cheerlefs wafte,
the hills on the eaft and weft fides, and efpecially along the
coatt, are from fix to eight miles in breadth, being many of
them well wooded, and intermixed with profitable and
{miling valleys, form a delightful and various fcenery.
They are crowded with gentlemen’s feats, and are not
without {mall towns and villages.”? This was Dr. Beau-
fort’s account in 1792. In 1801, captain Frazer publifhed
a ftatiftical account for the Dublin Society. _ This gentle-
man laments, that ‘ the Wicklow farmers foul the land by
repeated corn-crops, and feldom or never lay it down to
grafs with feeds.” He deplores ‘ the total negleét of the
improvement of the breed of animals for ftock and labour ;??
and under the head of ploughs he remarks, ‘“ the common
plough in ufe. in this diftricé is the fwing-plough; it is
feldom, however, formed on any feientific principles, and
is generally very clumfy, and ill-adapted for making clean
or regular work.’”? In 1812, however, when the Rev.
Thomas Radcliffe publifhed a Report of the Agriculture
ands Live-Stock of the County of Wicklow, a very great
change had taken place. A few extraéts from this intereft-
ing publication will furnifh the reader with the moft
authentic information on the ftate of this county, and of
what has been effected by the exertions of the Farming
Society of Ireland, its own local Farming Society, and the
encouragement as well as example of good landlords.
The climate of the county is, in general, mild; but on
the eaftern fide, along the fea-coatt, is peculiarly warm, and
favourable to vegetation ; infomuch that there is almoft a
perpetual {pring ;, and land of an apparently light quality
is known to produce crops equal, if not fuperior, to thofe
on the richeft foils in other parts of Ireland. - The crops
commonly cultivated are, potatoes, wheat, barley, and oats.
With refpe& to potatoes, the valuable fyftem o drilling is
almoft univerfally adopted. The quantity of wheat is in-
confiderable : it is generally taken after the potatoe-crop,
fometimes after another white crop, or upon the lea; but
the periodical fallow for wheat is fortunately unheard of.
The barley-crop is taken after potatoes or turnips, and,
like the wheat, is fown under the plough. The oat-crop,
by the common practice, is taken upon the lea; but if upon
{tubble-ground, it is fown under the plough. The crops
are not exceeded in quantity or quality. in any part of
Ireland. Green crops are not in much ufe among the
tenantry. The manure in this county, befides dung, confifts
of brown, blue, and white marl, lime and lime-ftone gravel.
In the greateft part of this county, the implements of the
beit conftruGtion are in very general ufe; fuch as the Scotch
plough, as recommended and fupplied by the Farming
Society, the Scotch harrow, the Scotch cart, drill-machines,
and even the threfhing-machine. Mott of the improved
breeds of cattle have been introduced into this county ;
but Wicklow cannot be confidered as a breeding county.
The dairies are numerous; but, on a contraéed feale,
averaging from eight to fixteen cows, and almoft uniformly
engaged in the feeding of veal for the Dublin market. In
the northern part of the county, much of the milk is con-
fumed in fattening early lamb. The county of Wicklow,
though not to be clafled as a breeding county with refpe@
to cattle, is very extenfively fo with refpe& to fheep, its
vaft tracts of mountain fupplying a. wholefome, though not
an exuberant, pafture to that animal. The breed of this
county is the mountain kind; and the number of breeding
ewes may be {tated at_20,000. The South Down are the
favourites with the gentlemen; and many flocks of the
native mountain have been croffed with South Down. The
Merino fheep have alfo been fuccefsfully introduced, The
BH .2 cotton
Wic
cotton manufacture is carried on with fpirit at Stratford-
upon-Slaney. The woollen manufaéture is chiefly limited
to the flannel-trade. This, however, is carried on largely,
and is a fource of fair profit and induftrious occupation.
It ‘prevails on the property of earl Fitzwilliam, and the
Flannel-hall at Rathdrum was built at his lordfhip’s expence.
The average annual fale is about 5000 pieces of 120 yards
The romantic beauties of this county have been. often
defcribed. The vicinity to Dublin makes them eafily
acceffible, and few travellers omit to vifit them. The anti-
quities of Glendalough have been noticed in the proper
lace, under that name. The mineralogy of Wicklow has
n noticed in Dr. Fetton’s valuable Notes on the Mine-
ralogy of the Neighbourhood of Dublin; and on this
head Mr. Griffith’s Report on the Mountain Diftri& of
Wicklow fhould alfo be confulted. This uncultivated
diftri& has many peculiarities, which confift chiefly in the
facility of accefs by means of roads; the vicinity of highly
improved lands and induftrious inhabitants; the frequent
occurrence of beds of lime-ftone, gravel, and marl; the beft
manure for the amelioration of mountain foils; and the
uncommon mildnefs of the cliniate. Thefe uncultivated
lands occupy about 200,000 Irifh acres, of which about
60,000 confift of black bog ; the remainder is moory foil,
generally covered by coarfe iedgy grafs, or grafs intermixed
with heath. In this diftri&, many rivers have their fources.
The Liffey, with its tributary ftreams, takes a circular
eourfe through the county of Kildare, and falls into the
bay of Dublin; the Slaney runs fouthward to the county
of Wicklow ; the Fartrey difembogues itfelf at Wicklow ;
and the Ovoca at Arklow. (For an account of the Crone-
bane’ mines, fee CRONEBANE.) At Croghan Kinfhela, in
the fouthern part of the county, a quantity of native gold
has been extracted by wafhing from the alluvial foil, of
which an account, by Meffrs. Mills and Weaver, may be
found in the Tranfaétions of the Dublin Society. Near
600 ounces of gold, worth above 2000/., were extrated ;
but the vein could not be difcovered, and the fearch for it
was given up. Oxyd of tin was found in the fame ftream.
The county of Wicklow has no large town, and has only
the two members for the county to reprefent it in par-
liament. — Frazer’s Survey. Beaufort’s Memoir. Rad-
cliffe’s Report. Griffith’s Report, &c.
Wicxtow, the aflize-town of the preceding county,
which is alfo a poft-town. It is pleafantly fituated on a
{mall harbour, and near a beautiful ftrand abounding in fine
bbles, which is called the Murrough. The ale of Wick-
‘ow has been long celebrated in Dublin. It is 24 miles
S.S.E. from Dublin.
WICKWA, a {mall lake of Canada, at the eaftern ex-
tremity of Lake St. John.
.WICKWAR, anciently Wicken, a market-town in the
hundred of Grombald’s Ath, in the county of Gloucefter,
England, is fituated 19 miles S.W. from Gloucefter, and 108
miles W. from London, and confifts of one long ftreet. The
town is incorporated and governed by a mayor and twelve
aldermen. It has a weekly market on Monday, and two
yearly fairs. Init two courts are held; one bor the bo-
rough, and another for the tything, or foreign, which have
feparate conftables. The clothing manufaéture, which once
flourifhed here, has long been on the decline ; but the lower
claffes are ftill employed in fpinning for the clothiers of
other places. Wickwar contains a well-endowed free
grammar-fchool, which was founded in 1684. The church,
a handfome building on an eminence, confifts of a nave
and north aifle. The reCtory is valued in the king’s books
Wwic
at 18/. The refident population in 1801 was 764; in
1811 it had increafed to 805.—Hift. of the County of
Gloucefter, by the Rev. Thomas Rudge, B.D. Gloucefter,
1803, 2 vols. 8vo.
WICLIFF, De Wvcuir, Wicrer, or Wicxuierr,
Joun, in Biography, the earlieft reformer of religion from
Popery, was born about the year 1324 in Yorkfhire, near
the river Tees, in a parifh whence he takes his name. He
was educated at Oxford, firft as a commoner of Queen’s col-
lege, and then at Merton college, peculiarly celebrated at
that period for its learned members. His induftry and
talents foon raifed him to diftin&tion ; and he is faid to have
committed to memory the moft abftrufe parts of Ariftotle,
and to have excelled in his acquaintance with the fubtleties
of the fchool divinity. He was alfo eminently fkilled in
civil and canon law, and in the law of the land. But the
ftudy which led to his future fame was that of the Scrip-
tures; to which he added a diligent perufal of the Latin
fathers, and of the writings of the Englifh divines, Robert
Grofthead and Richard Fitz-Ralph. In his treatife « Of
the Laft Age of the Church,” at the early period of the
year 1356, he remonftrated againft fome Popih corruptions ;
and in 1360 he was aétive in oppofing the encroachments of
the Mendicant Friars, who interfered with the jurifdiétion and
ftatutes of the univerfity, and took all opportunities of en-
ticing the ftudentsfrom the colleges into theirconvents. In
the following year, fuch was the credit he had acquired by his
condu& and writings, he was appointed mafter of Baliol
college, and was preleneed to a living in Lincolnfhire. At
this time he was held in fuch efteem by archbifhop Simon
Iflip, that in 1365 he conftituted him warden of Canterbury
college, which he had juft founded ; but on occafion of a
difpute between the regular and fecular priefts, Wickliffe and
the three fecular fellows were reje€ted ; and on an appeal to
Rome, the fentence againft Wickliffe was confirmed in 1370.
His reputation in the univerfity was not at all diminifhed by
his exclufion. In 1372 he took the degree of D.D., and
read le@tures, which gained him fuch applaufe, that whatever
he faid was regarded as an oracle. The impoftures of the
monks were the objeéts to which his firft attacks were pare
ticularly directed ; and the circumftances of the times fa-
voured his defign. The court of Rome was now enforcing
by menaces its demands on king Edward III. of the —
and tribute to the fee of Rome, which had been inglorioufly
ftipulated by king John ; and the parliament had determined
to fupport the king in his refufal. A monk appeared as an
advocate on behalf of the claims of Rome ; and Wickliffe’s
reply caufed him to be favourably regarded at court, and pro-
cured for him the patronage of the king’s fon, John of Gaunt,
duke of Lancafter. In 1374 Wickliffe was joined in an
embafly to Bruges, the object of which was to confer with the
papal nuncios concerning the liberties of the Englifh church,
on which the ufurpations of Rome had made unwarrantable
encroachments. In the fame year the king prefented him to
the valuable re€tory of Lutterworth, in Leicefterfhire ; and
in the following year he was inftalled in a prebend of the
collegiate church of Weftbury, in Gloucefterhhire. Wick-
liffe, by his foreign miffion, had an opportunity of ac-
quainting himfelf with the corruption and tyranny of the
court of Rome; and both his le€tures and converfations
were amplified with inveétives againft the pope. Whilft
he defended the authority of the crown and the privileges of
the nobles againft all ecclefiaftical encroachments, heycen-
fured vice and corruption in all ranks of fociety. This
condu&, though it raifed his reputation among the people,
excited a hoft of enemies, who fele&ted from his writin
nineteen articles, which they deemed heretical, and which,
as
WICLIFF.
as fuch, they tranfmitted to Gregory XI. In 1377 this
pontiff returned three bulls addrefled to the archbifhop of
Canterbury and the bifhop of London, ordering the feizure
and imprifonment of Wickliffe ; or, if this meafure failed, his
citation to the court of Rome; and alfo a requifition to
the king and government to affift in extirpating the errors
which he had piacere Edward died before the bulls
arrived ; and the duke of Lancafter, uncle to the young
king, had great influence in the adminiftration. When
Wickliffe, therefore, was cited to appear at St. Paul’s
church before the two prelates, poffeffing plenitude of power,
he thought it neceflary to fecure himfelf by the protection
of that powerful patron. On the appointed day he ap-
peared at St. Paul’s, in the midft of a vaft concourfe of
people, and accompanied by the duke of Lancafter, and
lord Henry Percy, earl-marfhal. The bifhop of London
was very indignant, and angry words pafled between him
and the two lords; fo that the whole aflembly was tumul-
tuous, and nothing was done. Wickliffe afterwards ap-
peared before the two prelates in Lambeth palace, and de-
livered an explanation of the articles objected againft him.
The Londoners, who were apprehenfive that he might be
feverely treated, flocked in crowds to the palace; anda
meffenger from the queen forbade the delegates to proceed
to a definitive fentence. Gregory foon after died, and his
commiffion expiring with him, Wickliffe efcaped, but not
without a fevere illnefs, which was the confequence of his
anxiety and fatigue. His {pirits, however, were unbroken,
and he was firm in maintaining opinions which the friars,
by all the efforts of intimidation, urged him to renounce.
Upon his recovery, he prefented to the parliament, in 1379,
a paper againft the tyranny and ufurpations of Rome ; and
he alfo drew up fome free remarks on the papal fupremacy
and infallibility. But his moft effe€tual attack on the cor-
ruption of religion was his tranflation of the Bible into
Englifh. This occupied mary of the laft years of his life,
and remains a valuable relic of the age in which it was per-
formed, and a permanent memorial of the talents and in-
duftry of the perfon by whom it was accomplifhed. (See
Englifo Bistes.) By way of preparation for his Bible, he
publifhed a treatife “* Of the Truth of the Scripture,”’ in
which, as well as in a prologue or preface to his tranflation,
he held, long before any of our other reformers or advo-
cates for the fufficiency of Scripture, that this is the law of
Chrift, and the faith of the church ; that all truth is con-
tained in it; and that every difputation which has not its
origin thence is profane. ‘ The truth of the faith,’’ fays
he, “ fhines the more by how much the more it is known—
nor are thofe heretics to be heard who fancy that feculars
ought not to know the law of God, but that it is fufficient
for them to know what priefts and prelates tell them by
word of mouth; for the Scripture is the faith of the church,
and the more it is known in an orthodox fenfe the better ;
therefore, as fecular men ought to know the faith, fo it is to
be taught men in whatfoever language is beft known to
them. Befides, fince the truth OF the faith is clearer and
more exaét in the Scripture than the priefts know how to
exprefs it—it feems ufeful that the faithful fhould them-
felves fearch out and difcover the fenfe of the faith, by
having the Scriptures in a language which they underftand.
—The laws which the prelates make are not to be received as
matters of faith; nor are we to believe their words or dif-
courfes any farther or otherwife than they are founded on
the Scripture ;’’—with much more to the fame purpofe, and
in the fame admirable ftrain. In this preface, and feveral
other publications and treatifes ftill in manufcript, he re-
fleGted feverely on the corruptions of the clergy, condemned
the worfhip of faints and images, the doétrine of indulgences,
pilgrimages to particular fhrines, and confeffion ; and alfo
denied the corporal prefence of Chrift in the facrament,
inveighed againft the wanton exercife of the papal power,
and oppofed the making of the belief of the pope’s being
head of the church an article of faith and falvation, cenfured
the celibacy of the clergy, forced vows of chaftity, expofed
various errors and irregularities in the hierarchy and difci-
pline of the church, and earneftly exhorted all people to the
ftudy of the Scriptures.
“In his le€@tures of 1381, he attacked the Popifh do&rine
of tranfubftantiation, concerning which he laid down this
fundamental propofition; viz. that the fubftance of bread
and wine ftill remained in the facramental elements after
their confecration, and that the hoft is only typically to be
regarded as the body of Chrift; and he deduced from it
fixteen conclufions. This attack alarmed the church,
which regarded tranfubftantiation as the moft facred tenet
of the Romifh religion, and the chancellor of Oxford pro-
nounced a condemnation of thefe conclufions: Wickliffe
appealed from this fentence to the king; but he found
himfelf deferted by his proteétor, the duke of Lancafter,
who had no further occafion for his fervices, or who could
not avail himfelf for any political purpofe of his theological
difcuffions. Thus circumftanced, he found himfelf in
danger ; his refolution failed him, and he humbled himfelf
by making a confeffion at Oxford, before the archbifhop and
fix bifhops, with other clergy, who had already condemned
fome of his tencts as erroneous and heretical. In this con-
feffion, he admitted the real prefence of Chrift’s body in the
facrament, with fome explanations and reafons which were
not fatisfactory to his perfecutors. It has been faid that he
made a public recantation of the opinions with which he was
charged ; but of this no fufficient evidence appears. The
next ftep in their proceedings againft him was a royal letter,
procured by the archbifhop, addreffed to the chancellor and
proétors, and direéting them to expel from the univerfity and
town of Oxford all who fhould harbour Wickliffe or his fol-
lowers, or hold any communication with them. Thefe pro-
ceedings obliged him to withdraw, and to retire to his rec-
tory at Lutterworth, where he continued to preach re-
formation in religion, and finifhed his tranflation of the Sertp-
tures. Some have faid that king Richard banifhed him out
of England; but if that were the cafe, it was only a tem-
porary exile, and he returned in fafety to Lutterworth,
In 1383 he had a paralytic ftroke, which furnifhed him with
an apology for not appearing to a, citation of pope
Urban VI.; and this was fucceeded by a fecond attack,
which terminated his life on the laft day of December 1384.
His remains, however, did not efcape the vengeance of his
enemies many years after his death ; for the council of Con-
ftance in 1415, not content with condemning many propofi-
tions in his works, and declaring that he died an obftinate
heretic, with impotent malignity ordered his bones to be
dug up and thrown upon a dunghill. This fentence was
executed in 1428, in confequence of a mandate from the
pope, by Flemming, bifhop of Lincoln, who caufed his re-
mains to be difinterred and burnt, and the afhes to be thrown
into a brook. ‘ Thus,’? fays Fuller, the church hiitorian,
‘in a figurative ftrain juftified by faé, “this brook hath con-
veyed his afhes into Avon, Avon into Severn, Severn into
the narrow feas, they into the main ocean; and thus the
afhes of Wickliffe are the emblem of his doGtrine, which now
is difperfed all the world over.”? His dorine not only fur-
vived thefe impotent attempts to extinguifh it, but was
perpetuated and diffufed by his followers, who were called
Lollards ; and “this germ of reformation,” as one of bis
Il biographers
wie:
biographers fays, “‘broke forth into complete expanfion,
when the feafon for that great change was fully come.’
OF his general charaéter, it will be fufficient to fay, “ that he
was confeffedly learned for his age, and was an acute rea-
foner. In fhort, notwithftanding certain errors and imper-
fe€tions, he may be regarded as a perfon of extraordinary
merit and qualifications, who is entitled to honourable re-
membrance from every foe to ecclefiaftical tyranny and im-
pofture ;”” and we may add that he advanced principles
which have not yet produced their full effec.
The number of traéts he wrote and publifhed, both in
Latin and Englifh, is very confiderable. From two large
volumes of his works, entitled “* Aletheia, i. e. Truth,’’ and
a third under the title of “‘ Trialogus,”” John Hufs is faid to
have derived moft of his doétrines. We have a full and
complete ‘ Hiftory of the Life and Sufferings, and various
Writings of Wickliffe,” both printed and MS., publifhed in
8vo., at London, in the year 1720, by Mr. John Lewis ;
who alfo publithed, in 1731,“ Wickliffe’s Englifh Tranflation
of the New Teftament from the Latin Verfion, called the
Vulgate.”? This tranflation is enriched with a learned pre-
face by the editor, in which he enlarges upon the life,
actions, and fufferings of this eminent reformer. Bieg.
Brit. Mofh. Eccl. Hift. Neal’s Hift. of the Puritans.
Gen. Biog. For an account of his diftinguifhing tenets,
and thofe of his followers, fee Wickuirrists and Lot-
LARDS.
WICOMICO, in Geography, a river which rifes in
the ftate of Delaware, enters the ftate of Maryland, and
paffes into Fifhing bay, on the eaft fide of the Chefapeak,
N. lat. 38° 16’. W. long. 75° 57’
WICOMOCO, a river of Virginia, which runs into the
Chefapeak, N. lat. 37° 55’. W. ing. 76° 25!.
WICQUEFORT, Asranam, in Biography, was born
at Amfterdam in 1598, and having left his own country for
France at an early age, he was nominated refident for the
ele€tor of Brandenburg at the French court, and held the
office for thirty-two years. But being fufpe&ted by cardinal
Mazarin of communicating fecrets to his correfpondents in
Holland with regard to the amours of Lewis XIV., he
was ordered, in 1658, to leave the kingdom; but in the
mean time he was arrefted, and confined in the Battille.
At length, in 1659, he was releafed and difmiffled. How-
ever, in three months the cardinal recalled him, and fettled
on him a penfion. On occafion of the war between France
and Holland in 1672, he returned to his own country, and
was protected by John de Witt, who employed him in
writing a hiftory of Holland to his own time. In 1676 he
was arrefted and condemned to perpetual imprifonment,
under an accufation of carrying on a fecret corref{pondence
with the enemies of the ftate ; and after having been confined
for three years, he made his efcape. by the contrivance of
one of his daughters. He then fought refuge at the court
of Zell, from which he returned to Holland in 1681, where
he lived without moleftation, but without recovering the
places of which he had been deprived. In the following
ear, 1682, he died. The work on account of which
icquefort is beft known, is entitled “* L’Ambaffadeur et
fes Fonétions,” firft printed at the Hague in 2 vols. gto.
1681, and often reprinted. He holds in high eftimation the
rivileges of the order to which he belonged, as we may
infer from his cenfure of Cromwell’s fpirited aét of juftice
in executing the brother of the Portuguefe ambaflador for
a murder: neverthelefs he inculcates found morality with
regard to the conduct of diplomatifts in the countries to
which they are fent. His other works are, ‘* Memoires
toucbant les Ambafladeurs et les Miniftres ;’’ one volume of
WipD
his “ Hiftory of the Dutch Republic,” which appeared in
French at the Hague in 1719, fol.; and tranflations into
French of the accounts of different embaffies, and alfo
of voyages and travels. Moreri. Gen. Biog.
WICRANGLE, in Ornithology, an Englifh name for
the mattagefs, or greater butcher-bird, the Janius cinereus major
of authors.
WICRANTUM, in Natural Hiftory, a name given by
the people of the Eaft Indies to certain foffile bodies, of the
nature of the pyrites, of the fize of peas, and formed into
varioufly angular figures. :
They look black and gloffy, and much of the nature of
blende, or mock-lead ; but when put into the fire, they
fhew us by their fmell that they contain fulphur. They
are found in the diamond-mines.
The natives firft powder them; and then mixing them
with the juices of certain plants, they dry them, and then
calcine them again. Thefe proceffes they repeat at leaft
fixty times ; but the firft calcinations are made with a mix-
ture of divers urines, as that of the horfe, the camel, the
cow, and the like.
After this tedious preparation, they are given in coughs
and colds, and are faid to be a remedy even in confump-
tions.
WICZENIECZ, in Geography, a town of Poland, in
Podolia ; 6 miles‘N.W. of Kaminiec.
WIDAWA, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 22
miles S.W. of Siradia.
WIDDAU, a river of Germany, which joins the
Rodau at Rotenburg, in the county of Verden.
WIDDY, in Agriculture. See Witny. .
WIDE, is ufed in fome places to denote a {mall vale,
and alfo a wide piece of water, or pond.
Wipe-L£ared, in the Manege, is applied to a horfe, when
the root, or lower part of his,ear is placed too low, and the
ear itfelf is too large. The French ufe the term oreillard for
fuch a horfe.
Wine Bay, in Geography, a bay on the eaft coaft of
New Holland, between Double Ifland Point and Indian
Head. ;
Wine Mouth Bay, a bay, of England, on the N.W.
coaft of Cornwall. N. lat. 50° 46’. W. long. 5° 109/.
. WIDEKINDI, or Winicuixnt, Joun, in Biographys
a Swedifh hiftorian, was born in the province of Weftman-
land, about the year 1620, and ftudied at Upfal, where he
delivered an oration in 1654, on occafion of queen Chrif-
tina’s acceffion to the throne; and by her recommendation
he was appointed hiftoriographer of the kingdom. In 1676.
he propofed printing his ‘* Hiftory of Guftavus Adolphus,’”
and meafures were taken for this purpofe ; but he died at
Stockholm in 1678, before the work was executed. The
firft part of this hiftory was publifhed in 1691, fol.; butas
it much offended both the Danes and Ruffians, it was fup-
prefled by the king’s command. It is not known whether
he completed the work in MS,; but the part publifhed is
written in a dull, heavy ftyle, and it has been carelefsly
printed. The author, however, was a man of learning,
well acquainted with hiftory, and reckoned a good Latin
poet. He poffeffed an excellent library, and was much re-
{peéted by king Charles Guftavus, who called him his phi-
lofopher. The moft important of his works, a catalogue
of which is given in ‘ Schefferi Svecia Litterata,’’ is the
“« Hiftory of the Ruffian War,” written both in Latin and
Swedifh, 1672, 4to. Gen. Biog.
WIDERDRIESS, in Geography, atown of the duchy
of Stiria; 2 miles S. of Windifch Gratz.
WIDJITZE,
WIE
WIDJITZE, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Czaflau; 8 miles W. of C@zaflau.
i WIDMINNEN, a town of Pruffia; 14 miles N.W. of
ick.
WIDOW, Vinua, a woman that has loft her hufband.
Some alfo ufe the term widower, for a man who has loft
his wife. Marriage with a widow is akind of bigamy in the
eye of the canon law.
The widow of a freeman of London may ufe her huf-
band’s trade as long as fhe continues a widow.
Mr. Kerfeboom has given us a table, fhewing how long
four hundred and thirty-two widows lived, and finds, that
a a medium, each lived fourteen years. Phil. Tranf. N° 468,
es 2.
It Bake that, in Germany, the number of widows
dying annually is four times the number of widowers : thus,
in Drefden alone, the number of widows who died in four
years was 584; the number of widowers 149: i. e. 4 tol.
At Wittenberg, during 11 years, 98 widowers died, and
376 widows. At Gotha, during 20 years, 210 widowers
died, and 760 widows. And as widows are certainly, one
with another, feveral years younger than widowers, it may
be concluded that the number of the former in life together
could not be lefs than five times the latter. °
Thus alfo, m 1770, the number of widows in life, de-
rived from the whole body of profeffors and minifters in
Scotland, was 380; but the number of widowers among
them has, one year with another, been fcarcely go; i. e.
not fo much as a quarter of the number of widows. Price’s
Obfery. on Rey. Paym. eff. 4.
Thefe faéts cannot be accounted for without admitting
the greater mortality of males. See MArriace, and Mor-
TALITY.
There have been many fchemes eftablifhed for providing
annuities for widows, for an account of feveral of which,
fee Price’s Obfery. &c. chap. ii, fe&. 1, 2, 3
Among the ancient Greeks, widows had the care of the
eternal fire of Velta committed to them; which charge
among the Romans could be performed by virgins only,
who from their office were called veftals. See VEsTAL.
Winow of the King, was fhe, who, after her hufband’s
death, being the king’s tenant in capite, was driven to re-
cover her dower by the writ De dote affignanda ; and could
not marry again without the king’s confent.
Wipow Bench, in the county of Suffex, is that fhare
which a widow is allowed of her hufband’s eftate, befides
her jointure. :
Wipow’s Chamber, a name given in London to the appa-
rel and furniture of the bed-chamber of the widow of a
freeman, to which fhe is entitled.
Wivow-/Wail, in Botany. See CNEoRUM.
WIDURIS, in Natural Hiflory, the name of a ftone
found in Java, Malabar, and fome other places, and de-
{cribed by Rumphius. Some fpecies of this are all over of
a fine white ; others are of a dufky colour, with itreaks of
white ; the fimply white ones are femi-pellucid, and. look
very like the white of an egg. Some alfo have called this
the Ayalops, or achates vitrea per[picuitatis.
WIECK. See Week.
WIED, in Geography, a county of Germany, fituated
to the north of Treves, in the year 1560, divided into two
parts: the Lower County, or New Wied, or Wied New
Wied; and the Upper County, or Wied Runkel. Both
had feats in the college of Weftphalia counts.
Wien, New. See NEuwIED.
Wien, or Old Wied, a town of Germany, in the county
of New Wied ; 9 miles N. of Coblentz.
\
Wit
WIEDENBRUCK, a town of Weltphalia, in the bi-
fhopric of Ofnabruck ; 32 miles S.S.E. of Ofnabruck.
N. lat. 51° 45’. E. long. 8° 18).
WIEDERAU, a town of Saxony; 5 miles N. of
Liebenwerda.
WIEDERSBERG, a town of Saxony, in the Vogt-
land; 8 miles W.S.W. of Oelfnitz. ,
WIEDERSPACH, a town of Germany, in the mar-
gravate of Anfpach; 6 miles W. of Anfpach.
WIEGANDSTHAL, or WiecentHAL, a town of
Upper Lufatia ; 11 miles S. of Lauban.
WIEHE, a town of Thuringia; 26 miles N.N.E. of
Erfurt. N. lat. 51° 18'. E. long. 11° 35/.
WIELAND, Curisropuer Martin, in Biography, was
the fon of a Proteftant clergyman at Biberach, in Swabia, where
he was born in September 1733. Educated by his father, he
began at the early age of thirteen to diftinguifh himfelf by
his Latin and German poems ; and he purfued his education
at Magdeburg and at Erfurt. Upon his return home he
became affeétionately attached to Sophia de Guterman,
afterwards known by her works under the name of Mad. de
la Roche. In the year 1750 he ftudied jurifprudence at
Tubingen ; but his time was chiefly devoted to the writing
of verfes, fo that in 1752 he publifhed a didactic poem in
fix cantos, entitled «* The Nature of Things ;”? ‘“ Ante-
Ovid, or the Art of Love;’? and ‘ Moral Letters and
Tales.’’ He alfo began an epic poem, on the fubjeét of
Arminius, the firft five cantos of which he fent to the famous
Swifs poet Bodmer ; and he was thus led to vifit Switzer-
land, and to cultivate a friendfhip with this celebrated poet,
and to refide for fome time in his houfe at Zurich. In this
retired and tranquil fituation, he applied with great diligence
to the ftudy of the belles lettres, and acquainted himfelf
with the principal modern languages, fuch as Englifh,
French, and Italian, to which he afterwards added the
Spanifh and Portuguefe. He alfo read Plato with great at-
tention, and wrote feveral works, among which were the
*¢ Trial of Abraham,’’ and * Letters of the Dead.’? After
a refidence of feven or eight years in Switzerland, he quitted
this country, having formed his tafte on the models of Eu-
tipides, Xenophon, and Shaftfbury, whofe writings he had
diligently ftudied ; and in 1758 he publifhed his ** Arafpes
and Panthea,’’ a work which manifefts the afcendency which
judgment and moral fentiment had acquired over his imagin-
ation. Upon his return in 1760 to his native city, he was
appointed a dire¢tor of the chancery, which office he held
till the year 1769, referving, however, fome leifure mo-
ments for the compofition of his philofophical romance,
entitled “ Agathon,’”? and his beautiful didactic poem
“ Mufarion.”? About this time he became intimately ac-
quainted with count Stadion, a nobleman who lived with
f{plendour near Biberach, who had cultivated a tafte for li-
terature, and who polleffed an excellent library. He after-
wards received from the ele€tor of Mentz an invitation to be
profeffor of philofophy and the belles lettres at Erfurt, and
during his refidence in this place he became acquainted with
Anna Amelia, duchefs dowager of Weimar, a patronefs of
polite literature, and in 1772 fhe appointed him. tutor to
the two princes, Charles Auguftus and his brother Conftan-
tine, of whom fhe was guardian. In this fituation he occu-
pied himfelf in preparing a variety of works, both in profe
and verfe, which have done honour to German literature.
He was at this time aulic counfellor to the duke of Saxe
Weimar, with apenfion, and acounfellor of government to
the eleGtor of Mentz. Wicland married his favourite
daughter Charlotte to a bookfeller at Zurich, who was a
fon of the celebrated poet Solomon Gefner. In 1797 he
vifited
WIE
vifited his children at Zurich, and refided with his family in
a romantic fituation on the border of the lake, where he was
vifited by the moft eminent literati of Switzerland. Con-
ceiving a fond attachment to a rural retreat, he fold his
houfe at Weimar, and purchafed a {mall eftate in the neigh-
bourhood, where he fixed his abode. Although his fortune
was {mall, his difpofition was liberal ; and he affifted many
diftreffed young poets and authors for their contributions to
the German Mercury, which he commenced in the year 1783-
To the ex-monk Reinhold, who had efcaped from Vienna, he
was a generous patron, and gave to him one of his daughters
in marriage. This monk was afterwards profeffor of philo-
fophy at Kiel. He alfo fupported another monk, who had
fled to him from a Ciftertian monaftery in Swabia, during
his refidence at Jena, where he ftudied philofophy. Wieland
had married in 1765 a perfon of good family at Augfburg,
of whom he expreffes himfelf in the higheit terms of re-
fpeét and affeétion, and by whom he had thirteen children ;
« found,” he fays, “* in body and mind; with their mother,
they form the happinefs of my life.” In 1807 this venera-
ble poet was eleted a member of the floral order at Nurem-
berg ; and in 1808, Buonaparte fent him the crofs of the
legion of honour. After the battle of Jena, he was pro-
tected by a fpecial order of that conqueror. He died in
January 1813, in his Soth year. For the delineation of his
talents and charaéter by Kiittner and others, and an account
of his works, which were very numerous, we mutt refer to
his article in the General Biography, obferving that his
original works have been publifhed in thirty-fix large 4to.
volumes, and fix fupplementary volumes. Leipfic, 1794—
1802.
WIELAS, in Geography, a town on the eatt coaft of
the ifland of Gilolo. N. lat. 1° 9! E. long. 128° 30!
WIELCZYNY, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate
of Novogrodek ; 40 miles S.E. of Slonim.
WIELDEMAN. See WILDEMAN.
WIELEN, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 46 miles
N.W. of Pofen.
WIELICHOW, a town of the duchy of Warfaw;
25 miles S.S.W. of Pofen.
WIELICZA, a town of Auftrian Poland, celebrated
for its falt-mines, which produce a great revenue to the em-
peror, to whofe lot it fell in the year 1773. The inhabit-
ants refide chiefly in the mines, and the church is under-
ground; 8 miles S. of Cracow. Thefe falt-mines, with
the territory belonging to them, were afligned to the empe-
ror of Auftria by the treaty at Vienna in 1815.
WIELONA, a town of Samogitia; 20 miles S. of
Rofienne.
WIELUN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Siradia ; 16 miles S. of Siradia.
WIEN, a river of Auftria, which runs into the Danube
at Vienna.
WIENNERHORBEG, a town of Auftria; 12 miles
W. of Brugg.
WIENNERWALD, or The Forel of Vienna, the
fouth part of the arch-duchy of Auitria, bordering on
Hungary.
WIEPERZ, or Wirrz, ariver of Poland, which runs
into the Viftula, near Stericza, in the palatinate of San-
domirz.
WIER, Jouy, in Biography, a phyfician, was born in
1515, at Grave on the Meufe ; and being domefticated
with the famous Cornelius Agrippa, adopted his opinions
with regard to the occult fciences. After having ftudied at
Paris and Orleans, he took the degree of M.D. about the
year 1534. In the courfe of his travels, he vifited the court
WIE
of the duke of Cleves, and was appointed his i
He died at Tecklenburg, in Weitphs ia, in 1586. me a
man of confiderable learning ; and though participating in
a great degree the credulity of the age, he incurred oi
mity of the monks by afcribing to deception and impofture
the forcery, witchcraft, and magical praétices, which they
fupported, to the operation of natural caufes. The turn of
his_mind is difcernible in his book ** De Demonum Pref-
tigiis et Incantationibus.”” In his treatife of medical ob-
fervations he has given an account of the putrid fore throat
under the name of “ Angina peltilentials,” Among his
other writings are enumerated “ De Ire Morbo, et ejus
Curatione Philofophica, Medica, et Philofophica ;’’ Trac-
tatus de Commentitiis Jejunis ;” « De Tuff Epidemica,
nno 1580;” ** De Varenis, *Mo i
nm" “Hales Eloy. o] tbo endemio Weitphalo-
IERINGEN, in Geography. See ViERINGEN.
WIERNITZ, a town of ee 3 8 miles N. of Korn-
WIESE
» a town of Silefia, in the principali ™
kau; 2 miles N.E. of Weydenau. ithigliNig sande
WIESEN, a river of Germany, which rifes in the
ig Foreft, and runs into the Rhine ‘a little below
ale. «
WIESENBACHE, ariver of Saxony, whi i
the cilia me N. of Dippoldifwalda. iene
N, a town of the co .
14 miles E. of Wurzburg. mlaiehink weg
WIESENBURG, a citadel of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgebirg; 5 miles S. of Zwickau.—Alfo, a town of
Saxony ; 15 miles N.N.W. of Wittenberg. ;
WIESENFELD, a town of the duch ;
5 miles S.S.E. of Gemunden. Rati 5
WIESENSTEIG, a lordfhip of Bavaria, fituated be-
tween the territories of Ulm and Wurtemberg, about eight
miles long, and nearly as much in breadth. It defcended
from the dukes of Teck to the counts of Helfenftein, and
gave name to a peculiar line. On the failure of the counta
of this houfe, in the year 1627, in the perfon of count Ru-
dolph, one-third of this lordfhip devolved to the houfe of
Furftenberg, but the other two-thirds were purchafed by
the ele&or of Bavaria, of the two elder daughters of the
laft count ; to this the dukes of Wurtemberg indeed would
not give their confent, and in the year 1704 took poffeffion
of the lordfhip, but by virtue of the peace of Baden, con-
cluded in the year 1714, were obliged to reftore it to the
ele€tor of Bavaria.—Alfo, a town of Bavaria, and capital
of a lordfhip of the fame name; 25 miles S.E. of Stutt-
gart.
WIESENT, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of
Bamberg ; 3 miles E. of Forcheim.
WIESENTHAL, Boumiscu, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Saatz ; 25 miles N.W. of Saatz. N. lat. 50°
23'. E.long. 12° 57’.
WirsentHaL, Ober, a town of Saxony, in the circle
of Erzgebirg ; 11 miles S.E. of Schwartzenberg.
WirseNTHAL, Unter, a town of Saxony, mn tie circle of
Erzgebirg. All thefe towns are very near together, a {mall
brook only feparates the Bohemian town from the two Ger-
man ones ; 10 miles S.E. of Schwartzenberg.
WIESENTHEID, a lordfhip fituated between the
duchy of Wurzburg, the county of Caltell, and the mar-
a of Anfpach. It takes its name from a citadel be-
onging to the counts of Schonburg.
j WIESPINCAN, a river of Lovifiana, which runs
into the Miffiffippi, N. lat. 41° 22’. W. long. 91° 36.
WIESSEN,
WIF
WIESSEN, .a town of Germany, inthe county of Rie-
neck ; 10 miles N.W. of Lohr.
WIESTERBURG, a town of Weftphalia, in the prin-
cipality of Halberftadt ; 7 miles N.E. of Ofterwick.
WIETHEN, a lake of North America. N. lat. 62°
30’. W. long. 99° 50’.
WIETLISBACH, a town of Switzerland, in the can-
ton of Berne ; 20 miles N. of Berne.
WIETMARSEN, or WirrmarscuHen, a town of Ger-
many, in the county of Bentheim, with an abbey, which
formerly belonged to the BenediGtines, and was in the
12th century fecularized for noble ladies; 4 miles N. of
Northorn.
WIFE, Uxor, a married woman; or one joined with,
and under the proteétion of, a hufband. See Marriace.
A wife, in our Englifh law, is termed feme covert ;
femina viro co-operta; her condition during marriage is
called her coverture ; and, in the judgment of the law, is
reputed to have no will, as being fuppofed entirely under,
and fubjeé&t to, that of her hufband: uxor fulget radiis
mariti.
A man cannot grant any thing to his wife, or enter into
covenant with her; for the grant would fuppofe her fepa-
rate exiftence, and to covenant with her would be only to
covenant with himfelf; and, therefore, it is generally true,
that all compaéts made between hufband and wife, when
fingle, are void by the intermarriage. A woman, however,
may be attorney for her hufband; and a hufband may be-
queath any thing to his wife by will, for that cannot take
effect till the coverture is determined by his death.
From the unity of perfon that fubfifts between the huf-
band and wife, in confequence of marriage, it follows, that
whatever perfonal property belonged to the wife before
marriage, 1s by marriage abfolutely vefted in the hufband.
In a real eftate, he only gains a title to the rents and profits
during coverture; for that, depending upon feodal prin- p
ciples, remains entire to the wife, after the death of her
hufband, or to her heirs, if fhe dies before him; unlefs by
the birth of a child, he becomes tenant for life by the cur-
tefy. But in chattel interefts, the fole and abfolute pro-
perty veits in the hufband, to be difpofed of at his pleafure,
if he choofes to take poffeffion of them: for, unlefs he re-
duces them to poffeffion, by exercifing fome act of owner-
fhip upon them, no property vefts in him, but they fhall
remain to the wife, or to her reprefentatives, after the
coverture is determined.
There is, however, a confiderable difference in the ac-
quifition of this {pecies of property by the hufband, accord-
ing to the fubje€t-matter ; viz. whether it be a chattel real
or perfonal; and of chattels perfonal, whether it be in fo/-
Seffion, ox in adion only.
A chattel real velts in the hufband, not abfolutely, but
Sub modo. As, in cafe of a leafe for years; the hufband
fhall receive all the rents and profits of it, and may, if he
pleafes, fell, furrender, or difpofe of it during the cover-
ture: if he be outlawed or attainted, it fhall be forfeited to
the king; it is liable to execution for his debts; and if he
furvives his wife, it is to all intents and purpofes his own.
Yet if he has made no difpofition thereof in his life-time,
and dies before his wife, he cannot difpofe of it by will;
for, having never been transferred from the wife, after his
death fhe fhall remain in her ancient poffeffion, and it fhall
not go to his executors.
Thus alfo with regard to chattels perfonal (or cho/es in
aéiion), as debts upon bond, contraéts, and the like; thefe
the huiband may haye if he pleafes; that is, if he reduces
them into poffeffion by receiving or recovering them at law :
Vou. XXXVIII.
WIF
in which éafe, they are abfolutely and entirely his own:
and fhall go to his executors or adminiftrators, or as he fhall
bequeath them by will, and fhall not reveft in the wife. But
if he dies before he has reduced them into poffeffion, fo that
at his death they ftill continue cho/es in aéion, they fhall fur-
vive to the wife.
Thus in both the fpecies of property the law is the fame,
in cafe the wife furvives the hufband; but, in cafe the huf-
band furvives the wife, the law is very different with refpe&
to chattels real and chofes in adion; for he fhall have the
chattel real by furvivorfhip, but not the chofe in aétion; exe
cept in the cafe of arrears of rent, due to the wife before
her coverture, which in cafe of her death are given to the
hufband by the ftatute 32 Hen. VIII. cap. 37.
As to chattels perfonal (or chofes in poffefion), which the
wife hath in her own right, as ready money, jewels, houfe-
hold goods, and the like, the hufband hath therein an im-
mediate and abfolute property, devolved to him by the
marriage, which can never again reveft in the wife or her
reprefentatives.
The wife alfo, by marriage, acquires a property in fome
of her hufband’s goods, called her paraphernalia, which
fhall remain to her after his death, and fhall not go to his
executors. hefe, fignifying the apparel and ornaments of
the wife, fuitable to her rank and degree, the hufband can-
not devife by his will; though during his life perhaps he
hath the power (if unkindly inclined to exert it) to fell
them or give them away. But if fhe continues in the ufe of
them till his death, fhe fhall afterwards retain them againit
his executors and adminiftrators, and all other perfons, ex-
cept creditors where there is a deficiency of affets. And
her neceflary apparel is proteéted even againft the claim of
creditors.
The wife can make no contraét without her hufband’s
confent ; and, in all law-matters, fine viro refpondere non
atefi.
The hufband is bound to provide his wife with neceffaries
by law, as much as himfelf ; and if fhe contraéts debts for
them, he is obliged to pay them; but for any thing befides
neceflaries, he is not chargeable. Alfo if a wife elopes, and
lives with another man, the hufband ig not chargeable even
for neceflaries, at leaft if the perfon who furnifhes them is
fufficiently apprized of her elopement.
If the wife be indebted before marriage, the hufband is
bound afterwards to pay the debt. If the wife be injured
in her perfon or property, fhe can bring no ation for redrefs
without her hufband’s concurrence, and in his name as well
as her own; neither can fhe be fued, without making the
hufband a defendant. There is indeed one cafe where the
wife fhall fue and be fued as a feme fole, viz. where the huf-
band has abjured the realm, or is banifhed; for he is then
dead in law. See Custom of London. ’
In criminal profecutions, the wife may be indi€&ted and
punifhed feparately ; for the union is only a civil union.
But in trials of any fort, they are not allowed to be evidence
for or againft each other. However, where.the offence is
dire@tly againft the perfon of the wife, this rule has been
ufually difpenfed with ; and, therefore, by ftat. 3 Hen. VII.
cap. Z. in cafe a woman be forcibly taken away and married,
fhe may be witnefs againit fuch her hufband, in order to
convict him of felony. See Forcisre Abduaion.
In the civil law, the hufband and wife are confidered as
two diftin& perfons; and may have feparate eftates, con-
traéts, debts, and injuries; and, therefore, in our ecclefiaf-
tical courts, a woman may fue and be fued without her
hufband.
But, though our law in general confiders man and wife
31 ag
WIG
as ene perfon, yet there are fome inftances in which fhe is
feparately confidered ; as inferior to him, and a¢ting by his
compulfion. And, therefore, all deeds executed, and a&ts
done by her during her coverture, are void ; except it be a
fine or the like matter of record, in which cafe fhe muft be
folely and fecretly examined, to learn if her aéts be volun-
tary. She cannot by will devife lands to her hufband, unlefs
under fpecial circumftances ; for at the time of making it
fhe is fuppofed to be under his coercion. And in fome
felonies, and other inferior crimes, committed by her
through conftraint of her hufband, the law excufes her ;
but this extends not to treafon and murder. See FEME-
Covert.
The hufband alfo, by the old law, might give his wife
moderate correétion ; but this power of correétion was con-
fined within reafonable bounds, and the hufband was prohi-
bited from ufing any violence to his wife. The civil law
gave the hufband the fame, or a larger authority over his
wife; allowing him, for fome mifdemeanors, flagellis et
fuplibus acriter verberare uxorem ; for others, only modicam
caftigationem adhibere. But, with us, in the politer reign of
Charles II., the power of correGtion began to be doubted ;
and a wife may now have fecurity of the peace againft her
hufband, or, in return, a hufband againft his wife. The
courts of law will {till permit a hufband to reftrain a wife of
her liberty, in cafe of any grofs mifbehaviour. Blackit.
Com. book i. book ii.
If a wife bring forth a child during her hufband’s abfence,
though of many years; yet if he lived all the time inter
quatuor maria, within the ifland, he muft father the child ;
and the child, if firft born, fhall inherit. See Bastarp.
If a wife bring forth a child begot by a former hufband,
or any other at, before marriage, but born after mar-
riage with another man; this latter muft own the child, and
that child fhall be his heir at law.
The wife, after her hufband’s death, having no jointure
fettled before marriage, may challenge the third part of his
yearly rent of land, during her life; and, within the city
of London, a third part of all her hufband’s moveables for
ever. See Dower, Intestate, and Custom of London.
The wife partakes of the honour and condition of her
hufband; but none of the wife’s dignities come, by mar-
riage, to her hufband.
Yet, the hufband, who marries a woman feifed of lands
in fee-fimple, or fee-tail, i.e. of any eftate of inheritance,
and has by her iffue born alive, which was capable of her
eftate, fhall, on the death of his wife, hold the lands for his
life, as tenant by the curtefy of England.
The Englith laws are generally gi eateal by foreigners as
very hard, in refpe& to the women ; and yet Chamberlayne
is of a very different opinion, afferting, that the condition
of wives in England is better than in any other country.
The difabilities to which the wife is fubje&t are for the
moft part intended for her proteétion and benefit. So great
a favourite (fays judge Black{tone) is the female fex of the
laws of England.
Tertullian has two books, on the ornaments and attire of
wives. In the fecond, he labours to prove that a Chriftian
wife cannot, in confcience, endeavour to pleafe by her
beauty, which the knows to be naturally liable to raife loofe
defires ; and that fhe ought not only to avoid all affected
bgauty, but even to conceal and cover her natural beauty.
Wirr, Mid, Obfetrix. See Detivery.
WIFFLISBURG, in Geography. See Avencues.
WIGAN, a borough and market-town in the hundred
of Weft-Derby, and county of Lancafter, England, is
feated near the rife of the river Douglas, the banks of which
2
for diffenters, and one for Roman Catholics.
WIG
are noted for a celebrated battle fought between king Arthur
and the Saxons, when the latter were defeated. In the
time of Henry VIII., Wigan is defcribed by Leland as a
“‘ paved town, as big as Warrington, but better builded,
and inhabited by fome merchants, artificers, and farmers.’
In its prefent ftate, it has a neat though irregular appear-
ance ; and has been lately much improved by the opening of
two new ftreets, and the eretion of feveral handfome
buildings. An extenfive trade is carried on in the manufac-
ture of coarfe home-made linens, checks, calicoes, fuftians,
and other cotton goods. Tere are alfo large brafs and
pewter works.
Wigan is a borough by prefcription, and has had its pri-
vileges confirmed by the feveral charters of Henry III.,
Edward II., Edward III., Richard II., and Charles II.
Its corporate body confifts of a mayor, recorder, twelve
aldermen, and two bailiffs. Two members are returned to
parliament ; and the right of ele€tion is vefted in the free
burgeffes, in number about 200. The reprefentation of
this borough has occafioned fome very expenfive contefts ;
and it is faid to have coft George Byng, efq. 10,000/. in
his oppofition to the intereft of fir Fletcher Norton, and
Simon Luttrell, efq. Returns appear fo early as the 23d
and 35th Edward I., after which the privilege was fuffered
to be dormant for 240 years; no other return being made
till 1ft Edward VI. :
The parifh-church is ancient, and confidered to be a
handfome ftruGture : it confifts of a nave, a {pacious chancel,
and two fide-aifles. Among the monuments in the church
is one to the memory of fir Roger Bradfhaigh, and another
to fir William and lady Mabel Bradfhaigh. The remains
of George Hole, reétor of this church and bifkop of
Chefter, are depofited within the communion-rails.. He
died Auguft 23, 1668. The reéory is one of the beft en-
dowed in the kingdom, and the incumbent is always lord of
the manor. Inthe town is a chapel of eafe, three chapels
A town-hall
was built in 1721, at the joint expence of the earl of Barry-
more and fir Roger Bradfhaigh, the theh’ reprefentatives of
the borough. A free-{chool was ereéted, and liberallyen-
dowed, about the beginning of the laft century, by volun-
tary contribution ; and upwards of 30 years ago, the fame
liberality eftablifhed a blue-coat {chool for 30 boys. A
commodious workhoufe has been alfo built at the expence of
the inhabitants of the town, where the neceflitous and fuper-
annuated poor are comfortably accommodated ; induftry in
the more able are furnifhed with the means, and the meri-
torious are encouraged and rewarded. A difpenfary has
been ereéted, and is {upported by the benevolence of the in-
habitants of the town and its vicinity.
At the north end of the town is a monumental pillar,
ereéted in 1679 by Alexander Rigby, efg., then fheriff of
Lancafhire, to commemorate the valour and loyalty of fir
Thomas Tyldefley, who was flain on this {pot in 1651, in
the aétion wherein the earl of Derby was defeated by colonel
Lilburne.
In a field near Scholes-bridge, contiguous to this town,
a {pring was lately difcovered, which has obtained the name
of Wigan Spa, or New Harrowgate, as the water refembles
that of Harrowgate in Yorkthire. — .
The population of Wigan, which has been progreffively
increafing, was, in the year 1801, according to the return
to parliament, 10,989; the number of houfes, 2236. In
1811, the former had increafed to 14,060, and the latter
to 2686.
The parith of Wigan contains twelve townfhips, in three
of whibhy befides that in the town, are chapels of the efta-
blifhment,
WIG
blifhment, fubordinate to the mother church. Three of
thefe townfhips, Haigh, Afpinall, and Hindley, are worthy
of notice for the produétion of the fineft cannel or candle
coal, which is found in large blocks as black as jet, and will
bear a beautiful polifh. (See Coat, Cannel.) The Liver-
pool and Leeds canal, and the river Douglas, afford navi-
sgsable communication between this town and feveral other
towns. On an eminence in this townfhip, about a mile
north of Wigan, is Haigh-hall, the ancient feat of the
Bradfhaighs, a family of high antiquity and diftinétion, but
now extinét; from whom it defcended by marriage to the
earl of Balcarras, who now refides here. This venerable
manfion was built at different periods; the chapel is fup-
pofed to be coeval with the reign of Edward Il. In the
vicinity of Wigan originally ftood the ancient family man-
fion of the Marklands.
Four miles weft of Wigan is the village of Holland, or
Up-Holland, whence the illuftrious but ill-fated family of
Holland derived their name.
About three miles north of Wigan is the village of
Blackrode, at which place the Rev. John Whitaker fixes
the Roman ftation, named Coccium. Mr. Percival and
Mr. Watfon both agree with Mr. Whitaker in placing
Coccium here ; but thefe opinions are fatisfactorily refuted
by the hiftorian of Whalley, who contends that this ancient
ftation was at Ribchefter.—Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. ix. Lancafhire, by J. Britton, F.S.A.
WIGEON Penexors, Anas Penelope of Linneus, in
Ornithology, is a well-known bird. (See Duck.) Its bill
is lead-coloured, and the-end of it black; the head, and
upper part of the neck, of a bright light bay ; the fore-
head paler, in fome almoft white ; the plumage of the back,
and fides under the wings, are elegantly marked with narrow,
black and white undulated lines ; the breait is of a purplifh
hue, fometimes, though rarely, marked with round black
fpots; the belly white; and the vent-feathers black. In
fome birds the coverts of the wings are almoft wholly white ;
in others of a pale brown, edged with white; the greater
quill-feathers are dufky ; the outmoft webs of the middle
feathers of a fine green, the tips black; the laft are ele-
gantly ftriped with black and white; the two middle fea-
thers of the tail are longer than the others, black, and fharp
pointed ; the reft afh-coloured ; the legs dufky.
The head of the female is of a rufty brown, {potted with
black ; the back is of a deep brown, edged with a paler ;
the tips of the leffer quill-feathers white ; the belly white.:
Pennant.
WIGGER, in Geography, a river of Switzerland, which
runs into the Aar, 3 miles N.W. of Zoffingen.
WIGHT, Istxz or. See Isix of Wight.
Wicnr, J/le of, a county of Virginia, on the right fide
of James river, about 40 miles long and 15 broad, watered
by the Nanfemond. It contains 9186 inhabitants, includ-
ing 4041 flaves.
WIGLEN, a {mall ifland in the North fea, near the
coaft of Norway. N. lat. 65°.
WIGSTADT, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 6 miles N.E. of Geyerfberg.
WIGSTADTEL, or Wakow, a town of Silefia, in
the principality of Troppau; 10 miles S. of Troppau. N.
lat. 49° 38’. E. long. 17° 47!.
WIGTON, a town of Cumberland, England, ftands in
a fine dry open country ; and within the laft thirty years has
been greatly increafed in population, from the introduétion
of manufa&tures. In the year 1811 its inhabitants amounted
to 2977, who occupied 643 houfes.
WIG
The firft manufaftories eftablifhed here were for different
kinds of coarfe linens; but fince the year 1785, this bufi-
nefs has received a confiderable check by the encouragement
given to the various branches of the cotton trade, which
flourifh in great vigour. In 1790 a manufaétory for print-
ing calicoes was eftablifhed at Spittle, about a quarter of a
mile from the town, and feems likely to become an im-
portant undertaking, as the goods are in high repute, and
the fituation extremely convenient for extending the works.
The prefent church was ereéted in 1788: its neatnefs is
eminently contrafted with the ancient fabric, which was a
dark gloomy ftruture, built, according to the Chronicon
Cumbriz, by Odoard de Logiz, to whom the barony was
given by Waldeof, fon of earl Gofpatrick. The materials
it was conftruéted with were procured from the Roman fta-
tion at Old’Carlifle, as appears from the ftones being marked
in a fimilar manner to thofe that may yet be obtained there.
In removing’ the foundations of the old tower, two Roman
fepulchral infcriptions were difcovered. The ftreets are to-
lerably {pacious, and many of the buildings are handfome
and modern. In the year 1723, an hofpital was founded
here, under the will of the Rev. John Thomlinfon, A.M.
for fix indigent widows of Proteftant beneficed clergymen,
epifcopally ordained ; and incorporated by the name of
«The Governefs and Sifters of the College of Matrons, or
Hofpital of Chrift in Wigton.”’? The endowment has been
augmented by fome fmall benefaétions: the allowance to
each widow is about eight pounds annually. A free-{chool
was alfo eftablifhed here in 1780; chiefly by the contribu-
tions of the inhabitants, aided by the benevolence of Dr.
Thomlinfon’s brother. In this town, obferves Mr. Gough,
was anciently an hofpital or free chapel, dedicated to St.
Leonard, to which, Mr. Pegge is of opinion, belongs a feal
found in Pickering-caftle, Yorkfhire: it is of wood, and
has the reprefentation of the Deity, with the crucifix, cir-
cum{cribed Sigillum Wighton.
About one mile fouth from Wigton are the ruins of the
confiderable Roman ftation, now called Old Carlifle, but
generally fuppofed to have been the Olenacum of the Noti-
tia, where the Ala Herculea were in garrifon. Veltiges of
ancient buildings are very confpicuous ; the foundations of
numerous ruined edifices being fcattered over many acres,
as well within the vallum as on every fide, without excepting
to the weftward, where the ground defcends precipitoufly
to the brook Wifa. The {tation itfelf occupied an elevated
{cite, and commanded an extenfive view north and north-weft.
Its form is an oblong {quare 170 paces in length and 110
broad, with obtufe angles, defended by a double ditch and
vallum, and having an entrance near the middle of each
fide. The military way, on which it itands, is very broad
and diftin€, and leads immediately to Carlifle and the Wall.
Within the vallum, a well was difcovered a few years ago,
about three feet in diameter, and regularly lined with ftones.
Various infcriptions, facrificing initruments, coins, altars,
{mall images, ftatues on horfeback, urns, and other veftiges
of antiquity, have been found at this ftation.
Several antiquities, difcovered near this place in the
courfe of the laft century, have been defcribed in different
volumes of the Gentleman’s Magazine, particularly in thofe
for the years 1748, 1756, and 1757-
Clea-hall, a feat of fir Henry Fletcher, bart., whofe fa-
mily obtained it by an intermarriage with the female heir of
a branch of the Mufgraves, ftands on a cultivated fpot in
the midft of an elevated and dreary moor.—Beauties of Eng-
land and Wales, vol. iv. Cumberland, by J. Britton and
E.W. Brayley.
312 WIGTOWN,
WiG
WIGTOWN, a royal borough, market-town, and the
capital of the fhire of the fame name, Scotland, is fituated
on the fide of a hill near the confluence of the river Blade-
nock, at the diftance of 105 miles S.W. by S. from Edin-
burgh. It is of very high antiquity, and appears to have
received its charter of incorporation from king Robert
Bruce. The civil government is vefted in a provolt, two
baillies, and twelve counfellors. Wigtown unites with the
boroughs of Whitehorn, New Galloway, and Stranraer, in
fending one member to the Britith parliament. ‘The church
is in good repair. A well-fupplied market is held weekly,
and five fairs annually. Being the fhire-town, the theriffs’
courts are holden here. A grammar-fchool is eftablifhed,
and well conduéted. The parifh of Wigtown is in the form
of an oblong-fquare, extending five miles in length and four
in breadth, and comprehends about 5500 acres. ‘The climate
is cold, but remarkable for producing health and longevity.
A great diverfity prevails in the foil and furface: towards the
fouth it is inter{perfed with hills, which are almoft entirely
arable, with a dry, light, and fertile mould; the north-weft
corner is more varied and lefs produétive; and the north-
weft part is principally covered with mofs, and appears to
have been formerly an arm of the fea. The greater part is
iuclofed ; and the fpirit of agricultural improvement is much
encouraged. Particular attention is paid to the repairs of
the roads and bridges. The population of the parifh, at
the enumeration of the year 1811, amounted to1711- In
the weftern part of the parifh is a large circle of ftones,
called «* The Standing Stones of Torhoufe,”’ which is fup-
pofed to have been a temple of the Druids.—Beauties of
Scotland, vol. ii. Wigtownfhire. Gazetteer of Scotland,
1806. Carlifle’s Topographical DiGtionary of Scotland,
2 vols. 4to. 1813.
. Wicrown Bay, a bay of the Irith fea, on the S. coaft of
Scotland, at the mouth of the river Cree, between the
counties of Wigtown and Kircudbright.
WIGTOWNSHIRE, the weftern part of the diftri&
of Galloway, forms the fouth-weftern extremity of Scot-
land. It is bounded on the E. by Kircudbright, on the
S.E. by Wigtown bay, on the S. and W. by the Irih
fea, and on the N. by Ayrfhire. It is of an irregular
figure, of which the greateft length is about thirty miles,
and the breadth nearly twelve. The fuperficial contents are
469 fquare miles, or 238,721 Scottifh acres. The fhire com-
prehends three royal boroughs, Wigtown, Stranraer, and
Whitehorn; alfo the town of Portpatrick, and thirteen other
parifhes. By the population return of the year 1811, the
number of houfes is ftated to be 5402; that of the inhabit-
ants 26,891 ; namely, 12,205 males, and 14,686 females. The
fhire fends one member to the imperial parliament, and the
three boroughs unite to fend another. Wigtownfhire is one
of the moft level counties in Scotland ; and the hills are in
general free from projecting rocks, and very acceffible to
the plough. The navigation along the coaft is fo uninter-
rupted, that it may be regarded as one of the mott eligible
fituations in the ifland, in point of natural advantages, for
a trading diftrift. “The richeft lands lie upon the coaft,
where the means of improvement are to be met with in the
greateft abundance : the inland and more elevated parts have
a confiderable mixture of heath and mofs, but are all in a
greater or lefs degree fufceptible of improvement. There
are few mountains in Wigtownfhire. The Cairnpat, near
Portpatrick, is one of the moft confiderable: it rifes 800
feet above the level of the fea. The fummit bears all the
marks of having been a military ftation, being furrounded
by three flone walls, with very ample fpaces between them ;
WIG
and commands a profpe& of Loch-ryan, and Luce bay,
which by advancing inland form the peninfula, called the
Rhynns of Galloway, in which Portpatrick is fituated.
The rivers of this county are of no great importance.
The Cree forms part of its eaftern boundary. The next
ftream to the weftward is the Bladenoch, which rifes from a
lake called Loch Macbeary, fituated moftly between the two
parifhes of Kirkowen and Penningham. There are feveral
{mall iflands in it ; upon the largelt of which are the remains
of a confiderable building and fmall garden. The river
Bladenoch, which has its eure in this lake, runs in a fouth-
eaftern direétion for about two-thirds of its length ;. after
which it takes a more eafterly courfe, and empties itfelf into
the bay of Wigtown : its whole length is about twenty-four
miles. Tarff is a ftream which mfes in the precinéts of
Ayrfhire, and after a courfe of twelve miles, in a fouth-
ealterly direétion, falls into the Bladenoch in the parifh of
Kirkowen. Luce-water is a {mall river, which runs into the
great bay of that name. Salmon are caught in it ; and it is
obferved that the fkin of the falmon, when it firft goes up
the river, which is deeply tinged with mofs, is of a filvery
colour, but after remaining fome time, it becomes of a
brownifh-yellow.
Wigtownhhire has feveral frefh-water /akes, but none of
particular importance. In the parifh of Sorbie is one of
three miles in circumference, well ftored with pike, perch,
and eels. It is called Dowalton lake, becaufe the ancient
powerful chiefs, the Macdowals, had their refidence near it.
In the parifh of Ince are fifteen lakes, of different degrees
of extent, abounding with fifh of feveral kinds, and fre-
quented by a variety of water-fowls. Swans emigrate from
Ireland, particularly in fevere winters, and continue in thefe
lakes till fpring. The fhire of Wigtown is deeply pene-
trated by navigable bays. Wigtown bay and Luce bay ad-
vance in a dire¢tion nearly parallel far into the country to-
wards the north. At the fame time, from the northern part
of the county, the long and narrow bay called Loch-ryan
advances fouthward towards the bay of Luce, and peninfu-
lates an extenfive territory, which appears to have long re-
mained divided from the reft of Scotland. Loch-ryan is a
beautiful as well as a fafe and commodious bay for fhipping.
It is about ten miles in length from north to fouth : the en-
tranee into it is nearly two miles broad. It is bounded on
the eaft by the parifh of Balantrae, in Ayrfhire, and on the
weft by Millar Point, a headland in the parifh of Kirkholm.
About three or four miles from the mouth of the loch, on
the eaft fide, is the little village of Cairn; contiguous to
which is a commodious bay with good anchoring ground,
and depth of water fufficient for fhips of any burthen ; and
all veffels entering into or coming out of the frith of Clyde
feek this bay in ftormy weather. King William’s fleet an-
chored here in their paflage to Ireland. Befides the Cairn
bay, there are feveral other good anchoring bays in the loch.
Luce bay, which advances from the fouth towards Loch-
ryan, is far more extenfive. In dark and hazy weather,
veffels often miftake Luce bay for the Irifh channel, and
when keeping a northerly courfe, fometimes run on fhore,
before the error is difcovered. The bay of Luce contains
a great variety of lefler bays, fome of which are capable of
being converted into convenient harbours ; and mariners ac-
quainted with them find anchoring places, in which they are
in fafety from almoit every wind The coaft around the
bay of Luce is very various: in fome places it confilts of a
fine gravel beach ; at other points fteep rocks project into the
fea, forming a bold inacceffible fhore. ‘The moft fouthern
point of the coaft, or rather of Scotland, is called the er
°
WIG
of Galloway : in the weltern fide of it rifes a very elevated
coaft ; it is about the extent of a mile, and projects itfelf
as the boundary between the Irifh fea and the bay of Luce.
In a high wetterly wind a prodigious {well of fea rolls round
the point, and is then awfully grand. Here the fea has
formed caverns, which are rendered dreadful by a fetting-in
tide and a ftrong wefterly wind. The noife is like loud
claps of thunder. Ships pafs and repafs this point from
England, Ireland, and the weft of Scotland.
Though the agriculture of this county is yet but in an in-
ferior ftate, great exertions are making to bring the foul
under the beft management of which it is capable. Stull,
however, the defeéts of the foil, added to the imperfect
ftate of the hufbandry which has hitherto exifted, greatly
deprefs the value of the territory. The earl of Stair’s
eftate is faid to extend to about 55,000 acres, but produces
an annual rental of no more than 11,000/. fterling. There
are in this county great traéts of flow mofs, of that foft
confiftence which renders it almoft inacceffible, and of no
utility either for agriculture or pafturage. Little hopes are
yet entertained of the pra¢ticability of improving this fort
of territory. But it is confidently afferted, that an immenfe
field of mofs of this defcription below Newton Douglas
might by proper management be floated into the fea, leav-
ing fome thoufand acres of rich clay behind. The great
trunks of trees that are found in the moffes of this county,
afford full proof of its having been formerly covered with
wood. ‘The renewal of the forefts, however, proves a very
arduous tafk ; and in certain expofures on the coa‘t has re-
peatedly baffled the hopes of the moft ingenious and atten-
tive planters. Wood, corn, and potatoes, in this expofure, are
more or lefs injured, according to their vicinity to the fea ;
whereas, when proteted from it, they are found to grow
with their ufual vigour. Shelter, therefore, either natural
or artificial, muft be had on this coaft before wood can be
planted with any chance of fuccefs. Scottifh firs, which
ferve to nurfe up plantations in many other parts of the
country, are unfortunately found to thrive worfe here than
any other {pecies of wood. Under this difficulty, the earl
of Galloway fortunately difcovered the valuable proper-
ties of the pinafter, or maritime pine, which he obferved to
grow with a degree of luxuriancy fuperior to any other in
his plantations. He has fince increafed the propagation of
that tree, and now finds that under its proteétion, almoft
any other wood may be planted with fuccefs. Attempts are
making to introduce dairy-farms into this county, for the
purpofe of fupplanting the univerfal praCtice of breeding
cattle. One farmer, upon this plan, has no lefs than eighty
milking cows: he ufes his whole milk in the manufature of
cheefe, which he exports to the Clyde. A remarkable
breed of {mall white-faced fheep, peculiar to the coaft of
this county, deferves notice. It is called the Mochrum
breed. Thefe are faid to be of Spanifh extraétion, an idea
the more readily adopted, from the quality of their wool,
which is of the fine clothing fort, of a texture fuperior to
moft in Scotland, and but little inferior to real Spanifh.
This breed, which is at prefent of an under fize, is well-
fhaped, hardy, and found by proper attention to improve
much, both in weight of carcafe and wool.
The mineral produétions of the county are but few: the
parifh of Kirkmaiden, which forms the fouthern part of
the peninfula that bounds the bay of Luce on the weft,
contains valuable quarries of flate, of which confiderable
quantities are wrought and fent to market. Here are feve-
ral natural caverns, in one of which is a petrifying water,
dropping from the roof. In the parifh of Inch, fituated
WIL
upon Loch-ryan, are feveral mineral fprings: one, with a
fulphurous impregnation, has been found ufeful in ftomachic
and {corbutic complaints. There is alfo a chalybeate fpring.
Some appearances of coal have been thought to exift here ;
but that valuable mineral has hitherto been fought in vain.
In this quarter, towards Ayrfhire, is a bold rocky fhore,
containing feveral natural excavations or caverns, extending
eighty or an hundred yards under ground. The parifh of
Whitehorn, in the fouth-eaftern part of the county, pro-
duces very fine variegated marble, and alfo flate of a ftrong
quality. The chief natural defe& incidental to this county
is the want of coal, a defe& common to it with almoft the
whole of the fouthern border of Scotland. Was it not for
this check to the eftablifhment of manufaétures, it might be
likely to affume fome fhare of commercial importance.
Though of {mall extent, it has an ample fea-coaft, which af-
fords great facility for exporting the produce of its agricul-
ture and dairies. This facility is fo great, that the inhabit-
ants of Wigtownfhire are fometimes in dread of fearcity, in
confequence of the greater part of their produce being car-
ried to Glafgow, Paifley, or Liverpool, where a market is
always to be obtained.—Beauties of Scotland, vol. ii. Wig-
townfhire, 1805. Gazetteer of Scotland, 1806.
WIGWORM Point, a cape on the coaft of Patagonia,
in the ftraits of Magellan; 3 miles N.E. of Cape Pro-
vidence.
WIHACS, or Winarts. See Binacs.
WIHENATS, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Savolax ; 40 miles N. of Chriftina.
WIHR, or Weyer, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Rhine ; 6 miles W. of Colmar.
WIHRBACH, a river of France, which runs into the
Rhine, 7 miles above Germerfheim.
WIKES, in Agriculture, a term ufed to fignify temporary
boundaries or marks, fet up in order to divide the fwaths
to be mown ; fuch as the boughs of trees, in the common
fields and meadows in different diftriéts ; as well as fuch
boughs when fet upon hay-cocks and ftouks of corh for the
taking of tithes, and other fuch purpofes..
WIKINISH Creek, in Geography;°a river of Pennfyl-
vania, which runs into the Sufquehanna, N. lat. 40° 32!.
W. long. 77° 1.
WILAUF, a river of Wurtemberg, which runs into the
Rems, near Schorndorf.
WILBASSEN, or WiLpapgssEn, a town of Wett-
phalia, in the bifhopric of Paderborn; 8 miles S.E. of
Dringenberg.
' WILBRAHAM, a townfhip of Maffachufetts, in the
county of Hampfhire, with 1776 inhabitants ; 10 miles E.
of Springfield.
WILBURG, a citadel of Auftria; 8 miles E.S.E. of
Ips.
WILBYE, Joun, in Biography, one of our beft madri-
galifts of queen Elizabeth’s reign. In his firft fet, the fol-
lowing are well-known: ‘¢ Lady, when I behold the rofes
{prouting ;” and “ Flora gave me faireft flowers :’”? but,
“« Hard by a cryftal fountain,”? which, according to Hearne,
(Lib. Nig. Scace.) ufed annually to be fung by the fellows
of New college, Oxon, we are unable to find. Thofe
words are adjufted to the mufic of Giov. Croce, in the
fecond book of Mufica Tranfalpina, and are fet by Morley
in the Triumphs of Oriana; but appear not either in the
firft or fecond fet of Madrigals publifhed by Wilbye, and
we know of no other.
WILD Axsen, in Geography, a mountain of the duchy
of Stiria; 7 miles N.N.W. of Muertzenfchlag. r
WILD
WIL
Wup Angelica, Bafil, Briar, Campion, Carline Thifile,
Carrot, Chervil, Cifily, Climber, Lettuce, Liquorice, Madder,
Marjoram, Melic, Mint, Muflard, Oat, Radifb, ne
Rocket, Tare, Thyme, and Vine, in Agriculture. ee
Wexrp.
Witp-Fire, or Eryfipelas, a difeafe in fheep, which affe&ts
the fkin, and which, if not well attended to, is liable to
{pread very quickly among the flock. It is attended with
confiderable inflammation in many cafes, though but feldom
with blifters over the body. It commonly takes place
towards the latter end of fummer, and does not continue
more than eight days at a time, although fuch fheep as are
once affeé&ted with it are very liable to have it again. It
was formerly a praétice with fhepherds to bury the fheep
that were affeted with this difeafe in the ground at the
door of the fold, with their feet upwards, which, they
believed, aéted as a charm to drive it from the flock. But
this folly is now done away with.
In the cure of this affeétion of the fkin, recourfe may be
had to evacuations from the bowels by the ufe of calomel,
or purging-falts, diflolved in warm water, for three or four
days; then fulphur with nitre may be given in pretty full
dofes, cooling wathes being ufed at the fame time. Strength-
ening remedies fhould afterwards be employed, fuch as oak,
or other barks of the fame nature. During the cure,
the fheep fhould be kept from being too much expofed
to cold, and in a dry found pafture, being well fed when
neceflary.
Winp-Fire, Ignis Gregalis, or Grecus. See Wild-Firr.
Wutp-Fire Arrows, {uch as were trimmed with wild-fire,
and fhot burning, to ftick in the fails or rigging of fhips in
afight. See Fine-drrow.
Witp-Fow/!. See Water-Fow , and Decoy.
Wirp-Goofe, Anas Anfer. See Duck.
Winp-Goge Chace. See CHace.
Witp-Honey. See Honey.
Witp-Land, Reclaiming of, in Agriculture.
claiming Lanps. :
Witn-Olive. See Er maGnus.
Winn Service-Tree, in Agriculture and Gardening, a deci-
duous tree of confiderable growth, which is much cultivated
in the field and pleafure-ground. It has been obferved,
that this tree is fometimes planted in one arouses
among fruit-trees, but that it fhould be put in pleafure-
ounds, plantations, or on lawns, for its ornamental effe&
in the autumnal feafon. :
Tf trained up with ftraight clean ftems, fervice-trees
will grow to the height of thirty or forty feet; in that
cafe, they fhould be planted among foreft-trees, or in the
back parts of large fhrubberies. But thofe who with to
plant them as flowering fhrubs muft head them down when
young, te make them throw out horizontal fhoots ; they
may then be planted among the middling-fized fhrubs,
which will make a beautiful variety, both when in flower,
and when bearing fruit. Thefe trees "ee to a con-
fiderable fize when properly managed, and are very much
ufed by wheelers and others, on account of the wood
being all, what they call, heart-wood. ;
The fruit has been found excellent for feeding game, and
other forts of birds and fowls.
WILDAU, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Stiria, on the weft fide of the Muchr; 12 miles S. of
Gratz.
WILDBAD, a town of Wurtemberg, celebrated for
its warm-baths ; 30 miles N.E. of Strafburg. N, lat. 48°
40!. E. long. 8° 26’.
See Re-
WIL
WILDBE RG, a town of Wurtemberg, on the Nagold ;
3 miles N. of Nagold. _N, lat. 48° 33'. e. long. 8° 48',—
Alfo, a town of Pruffia, ia the province of Oberland; 12
miles S. of Ortelfburg.
Wicpsera, or Wildbergen, a town of the Middle Mark
of Brandenburg; 28 miles N. of Brandenburg. N. lat.
52°55. E.long. 12° 38/.
WILDE, James, in Biography, a Swedith hiftorian,
was born in Courland in 1679, and educated at Riga; and
haying quitted that city in 1695, he fought farther im-
provement in feveral German academies, graduating M.A.
at Griefswald. At the age of 21, fuch was his proficiency
in various branches of literature, he was appointed co-reétor
of the cathedral fchool at Riga, and foon after teacher of
politics, hiftory, and eloquence, in the royal gymnafium of
that place. Qualified by his talents and acquirements for a
higher rank in the department of inftruGtion, he was invited,
in 1703, to be profeffor of hiftory in the academy of Pernau;
but declining this office, he was, in the following year,
nominated by Charles XII. to fill the chair of Latin elo-
quence and poetry, which he occupied for five years.
phe his ftay at Aix-la-Chapelle, which he vifited in
1709 for the recovery of his health, the Ruffians made an
irruption into Livonia, and he lott his library, with all his
documents and papers. From hence, inftead of returning
to his native country, he proceeded to Stockholm, and
offered his fervices to the fenate. Such were the exifting
troubles at that time, that it was not till the year 1713
that government appointed him to be profeffor of eloquence
and poetry at Griefswald. But he preferred a humble and
more private fituation as tutor to the two fons of count
Cronhielm, with whom he made a tour to England, Hol-
land, France, and Germany. Purfuing a fimilar tour with,
a young Holitein count, and becoming acquainted with
the duke of Holftein, he was appointed his cabinet-fecre-
tary, in conneétion with the profefforfhip of the law of
nature and nations at Kiel. And in the fame year kin
Frederick made him hiftoriographer tothe kingdom; on which
office he entered at Stockholm in November 1719. His
works were numerous and learned ; but his conftitution was
feeble, fo that he funk under his labours, and died in 1755.
Although he was more than thirty years old when he went
to Sweden, he obtained a thorough acquaintance with the
Swedifh hiftory: he was alfo well acquainted with the
public law of Germany ; and in his earlier years he had
raifed himfelf by writing Latin poetry. He was alfo a
good philofopher, and a theologian, and often preached.
His memory was fingularly retentive ; and this ferved him
in various works which he compofed after having loft his
fight in 1741. Many of his works were loft at the capture
of Pernau. During his tour with the fons of count Cron-
hielm, he publifhed at Frankfort, in 1717, ** Diatriba de
Jure et Judice Legatorum 4 Stephano Caffio ;”” “ Suecie
Hiftoria Pragmatica, que vulgo jus publicum dicitur, &c.””
Holm. 1731, 4to.; ‘* The oasietpal Nature, Origin,
and Antiquity of the Swedifh Laws, with an Accougt of
the Changes and Alterations which have been made in them,””
ibid. 1736, 4to. ; “ Puffendorf’s Introduction to the Hif-
tory of Sweden, with Additions, Proofs, and Notes,”’ by J.
Wilde ; “I. Part,” ibid. 1738, 4to.; “ II. Part,” ibid.
1743, 4to.; ‘* Preparatio hodegetica ad Introductionem
Puffendorfii in Svethici ftlatus Hiftoriam, &c.’’ ibid. 1743,
4to. Gen. Biog.
Wixpr, in Geography, a river of Pruffian Lithuania,
which runs into the Ruffle.
WILDE-
WIL
WILDEBERG, a town of Pomerelia; 2 miles S. of
Marienburg.
WILDEMAN, a town of Weftphalia, in the principality
of Grubenhagen, near which are fome mines of filver and
Jead.; 6 miles S.W. of Goflar.
WILDENBERG, or Wirpenzorc, a town of the
duchy of Berg; 10 miles E. of Homberg.
WILpENBERG, a town and caftle of France, in the depart-
ment of the Rhine and Mofelle ; 10 miles W. of Kirn.
WILDENBRUCH, a town of Hinder Pomerania; 5
miles S. of Balm.
WILDENECK, a town of the duchy of Carniola; 10
miles S.E. of Stein. '
WILDENFELS, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgebirg ; 5 miles S.E. of Zwickau.—Alfo, a citadel in
the territory of Nuremberg; 3 miles W.S.W. of Bezen-
flein.
WILDENFURT, a town of Saxony, in the circle
of Neuftadt ; 2 miles N.N.E. of Weyda.
WILDENHOPF, a town of Pruflia, in Natangen ; 23
miles S. of Brandenburg.
WILDENS, Joun, in Biography, was born at Antwerp
in 1584. He became an admired painter of land{capes,
but under whom he acquired the art is unknown. He ap-
pears to have been a diligent obferver of nature, and to have
itudied much in the open air ; as his ftudies of foretts, tields,
&c. are numerous. When he had obtained confiderable
reputation, his talents introduced him to the notice of
Rubens, who employed him to affift in executing the land-
{cape parts of back-grounds, which he did with fo great
felicity, that there appears no diffimilarity in {tyles in the
pictures on which they both took’ their refpeétive parts.
Two of his beft pictures are in the chapel of St. Jofeph at
Antwerp, embellifhed with figures by Lang Jan: the fub-
ject of one is the Flight into Egypt, and of the other a
repofo. He died in 1644, aged 60.
WILDENSCHWERT, in Geography, a town of Bo-
hemia, in the circle of Chrudim; 9 miles E. of Ho-
henmaut.
WILDENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the mar-
gravate of Anfpach ; 7 miles S.E. of Creilfheim.
WILDENTHAL, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgebirg ; 7 miles $.S.W. of Schwartzenberg.
WILDERNESS, in Gardening. There is nothing fo
great an ornament to a large garden as a wildernefs, when
properly contrived, and judicioufly planted.
The wildernefs fhould always be proportioned to the fize
of the garden, and fhould never be fituated too near the
houfe : becaufe the trees perfpire fo large a quantity of
watery vapours, as makes the air very unwholefome:
though vegetables ferve, as modern experiments have fuf-
ficiently afcertained, to purify and meliorate the air. See
Arr.
The wildernefs fhould never be fo placed as to block up
a good profpeét; but where the view naturally ends with
the verge of the garden, or little more, nothing terminates
it fo well as a fine plantation of trees. The fize of the trees
fhould be confidered, and tall growing ones fhould be
planted in larger places ; {maller, in lefs extenfive ; ever-
greens alfo fhould be kept by themfelves, and placed moft
in fight, not mingled confufedly among the trees which catt
their leaves. ‘The walks fhould be large and not numerous ;
the large walk is beft made ferpentine, and this fhould not
be entered upon in the grand walks of the garden, but by
fome private walk.
It is too common a method to difpofe the trees in wil-
derneffes, in form of regular fquares, triangles, &c. but this
WIL
is faulty ; for as nature fhould be ftudied in thefe works of
fancy, the moft irregular is the moft pleafing plantation.
The walks for the fame reafon are much more pleafing
when they run in wild meanders, than when they interfec&
one another in ftudied and regular angles. The winding
walks fhould be made to lead to an open circular piece. of
grafs, with a ftatue, an obelifk, or a fountain: or, if an
opening large enough for 2 banqueting-houfe be contrived
in the middle, it will afford a very pleafing fcene. The
trees fhould gradually rife from the fides of the walks and
openings, one above another, to the middle of the quarters,
where the largeft trees fhould ftand, by which means the
heads of all the trees will appear in view, but their ftems
will not appear in fight.
Not only the growth of trees is to be confidered in the
planting of a wildernefs, but their nakedneffes are to be
confidered and hid. The larger growing trees are allowed
a proportionable diftance, and their ftems hid by honey-
fuckles, rofes, fpirzas, and other low-flowering fhrubs.
Thefe may alfo be planted next all the walks and openings ;
and at the foot of thefe, near the walks, may be fet rows of
primrofes, violets, and daffodils, with other the like flowers;
behind the firft rank of lower flowering fhrubs fhould be
planted thofe of a fomewhat higher ftature, as the althea-
frutices, the cytifufes and guelder-rofes ; and behind thefe
may be rows of the talleft flowering fhrubs, as the lilacs,
laburnums, and the like; and behind thefe, the heads only
of the lower growing trees will appear, which fhould be
backed gradually with thofe of higher growth to the centre
of the quarter ; from whence the heads of the trees fhould
defcend every way to the walks, or openings. The grand
walks and openings fhould always be laid with turf, and
kept well mowed; but, befide thefe, there ought to be
{maller ferpentine walks through the feveral quarters, where
perfons may retire for privacy; thefe fhould be left
with the bare earth, only kept clear of weeds, and laid
fmooth.
Thefe walks fhould be made as winding as poffible, and
a few wood-flowers planted along their fides will have a
very good effet. The ever-greens fhould be allotted a
peculiar part of the wildernefs, and fuch as fronts the houfe ;
and in the planting of thefe, the fame regard is to be had to
their growth, that the talleft trees be planted hindmoft, and
their {tems hid by fhorter ones, and fo on, down to the
verge ; as in the firft row may be planted lauruftines, boxes,
{purge, laurels, junipers, and favins; behind thefe, laurels,
hollies, and arbutufes ; next behind thefe, yews, alaternufles,
phillereys, cypreffes, and Virginian cedars; behind thefe,
Norway and filver firs, and the true pine ; and finally, be-
hind thefe, the Scotch pine and pinalter. Thefe will have
a very beautiful appearance, as their tops will only be feen,
and make a fheet of green, which may alfo be very beauti-
fully varied, from the artful admixtures of the feveral fhades
of green which the various plants have.
Tn all thefe plantations, the trees, however, fhould not be
fet in formal ftiff rows, but in a loofe variety, proportioned
to their manner of growth. Miller.
WILDERSDORF, in Geography, a town of Auttria,
onthe Zeya; 8 miles W.S.W. of Zifterftorf.
WILDESHAUSEN, a town of Weltphalia, with a
diftri& formerly belonging to the archbifhopric and duchy
of Bremen, and afterwards to the duchy of Brunfwick, in
which it is infulated. It is fituated on the Hunte, and
contains about 312 houfes. The inhabitants are partly
Roman Catholics; in the bailiwick are 30 villages; 20
miles S.S.W. of Bremen. N. lat. 52° 52’. EE. long.
8° 27),
WILDING,
WIL
WILDING, in Rural Economy, a four auftere fort of
apple, often ufed with others that correct thefe qualities,
for making home cyder. See Cyper.
Wip1xe, Royal, an excellent cyder-apple. It is faid, in
the Gloucefter Report on Agriculture, to be a native of
Dimock ; that it is a free, clean, and handfome grower ;
makes excellent cyder, is a great favourite meee the
planters in the upper part of the foreft-diftrict of that
county, and is much introduced in the vale, on the eaft fide
of the Severn. See Cyper.
WILDS, a term ufed by our farmers to exprefs that
part of a plough by which the whole is drawn forwards.
The wilds are of iron, and are of the form of a gallows,
whence they are by fome called the gallows of the plough,
but improperly ; the gallows of the plough being properly
that part formed by the crow-ftaves, and the tranfverfe piece
' into which they are mortifed at the top. The wilds confiit
of two legs, and a tranfverfe top-piece : one of the legs, and
the top-piece, are all of one piece of iron ; and the other leg,
which is loofe, has a hole in the top, into which the end of
the tranfverfe piece is received : both thefe legs pafs through
the box of the plough, which is that tranfverfe timber
through which the fpindles of the wheels run. Thefe legs
are pinned in behind the box with iron pins: the holes
through the box at which thefe legs pafs, are not made at
right angles, but flanting upwards, fo that the forepart of
the wilds is higher than the hinder part; were it not for
this, the upper part of the crow-ftaves would lean quite
back when the plough is drawn.
The ufe of the notches in the wilds is to give the plough
a broader or narrower furrow ; if the links are moved to
the notches on the right-hand, it brings the wheels toward
the left, which gives the greater furrow ; and, on the con-
t , a {maller furrow is made when the links are moved to
the notches on the left. The legs of the wilds fhould be
nineteen inches, and their diftance eight inches and a half ;
they muft be made ftrong, and the links muft be placed in
different notches, that the front of the plough may be kept
fteady, and the wheels not be drawn one before the other.
Thefe links are of iron alfo, and are each fix inches and a
half long, and to thefe are faltened the chains of the harnefs,
by which the whole plough is drawn along. __
WILDSAUBACH, in Geography, a river of Germany,
which runs into the Elbe, 6 miles below Drefden. |
WILDSEE, a lake of the duchy of Stiria; 8 miles E.
of Neumarck.
WILDSHUT, a town and caftle of Bavaria; 5 miles
N.N.W. of Lauffen.
WILDSTADT. See Wittstapr.
WILDUNGEN, a town of Germany, in the county of
Waldeck ; 7 miles S.S.E. of Waldeck. N. lat. 51° 7/.
E. long. 9° 8!.
WILEHENGEN, a town of Switzerland ; 9 miles W.
of Schaffhaufen.
WILEIA, a town of Samogitia, on the Niemen; 25
miles S.S.E. of Rofienne.
WILF, in Agriculture, a term ufed provincially to fignify
the white willow. See WiILLow.
WILFERSDORF, in Geography, a town of Auttria ;
4 miles W. of Bragg.
WILHELMSDORF, a town of Pruffia, in Oberland ;
13, miles S. of Holland.
WILHELMSHOF, a town of Germany, in the duchy
of Anhalt Bernburg, near Hartzgerode.
WILHELMSPURG, a town of Autftria ; 8 miles S.
of St. Polten.
WIL
WILHELMSTEIN, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Roer ; 7 miles S.W. of Juliers.
WILHELMSTHAL, or Neusrapret, a mine-town
of Silefia, in the principality of Glatz; 15 miles S.E. of
Glatz. N. lat. 50° 3/. E. long. 16° 42.
WILIA, a river of Lithuania, which runs into the
Niemen, near Kowno, in the palatinate of Troki.
WILINGO, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Schonen ; 7 miles N, of Helfingborg.
WILITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Kaurzim ;
5 miles N.N.W. of Kaurzim.
WILKES, Joun, in Biography, was born in London in
1727, and finifhed his ftudies at the univerfity of Leyden.
Soon after his return to England, he married a Mifs Mead,
who was a lady of large fortune, and fettled at Aylefbury.
This lady, though hi hly refpectable both in her chara&ter
and conneétions, and belonging to a diffenting family as well
as himfelf, was older than he, and in other refpeéts an un-
fuitable wife, fo that the attachment was originally formed,
on his part, from lucrative motives: one daughter was the
fruit of this conne€tion. Mr. Wilkes, thus furnifhed with
the means of profufion, lived in an expenfive ftyle, and being
little anxious about domeftic happinefs, affociated with the
gay and licentious, to whofe habits and manners his_princi-
ples and charaéter were facrificed. Urged by his partial
friends who thought him qualified for public life, he offered
himfelf, in 1754, as a candidate for the town of Berwick,
but his views were difappointed. In this and in feveral
other inftances, he countera¢ted the inclinations and wifhes
of his wife, fo that their continued connection was a fource
of difquietude, and they determined to feparate. In 1757
he was returned as a member for the borough of Aylefbury,
the confequence of which was an increafe of expenditure,
that involved him in pecuniary embarraflments, and led him
to difhonourable praétices, and particularly to an attempt of
freeing himfelf from the obligation of paying his wife’s an-
nuity, in which he failed of fuccefs. His parliamentary
patron was earl Temple, by whofe influence he was chofen
reprefentative for Aylefbury ; and from fe intereft he
expected to obtain fome place under government, which the
perplexity of his circumftances rendered particularly de-
firable. But he was once and a difappointed ; and he
afcribed his failure to the interference of lord Bute. In
1762 he conneéted himfelf, as a political writer, with lord
Temple and Mr. Pitt, and defended them, whilft he expofed
the miniftry, on occafion of the rupture with Spain, ina pam-
phlet entitled “ Obfervations on the Papers relative to the
Rupture with Spain.”? This publication was followed in
763 by an ironical dedication to lord Bute, of Ben
Jonfon’s ‘ Fall of Mortimer,”’ in which he indulged unre-
{trained levity againft the ‘ favourite,” as he was called,
and his antipathy to the Scottifh nation ; which was further
manifefted in a periodical paper called ‘the North Briton,”
commenced in 1762, and intended to counteraé& ‘the
Briton,”? which Smollet conduéted in defence of lord Bute’s
adminiftration. The North Briton, however, was written
with a fpirit fo confonant to the fentiments of the public at
that period, that it probably contributed to the refignation
of that nobleman in April 1763. The 45th number of this
periodical work was publifhed on the 23d of April, and
contained fo fevere and farcaftic a comment on the king’s
{peech, that his minifters, under the fanétion of the crown-
lawyers, determined upon a profecution : and the home fe-
cretary of ftate, lord Halifax, iffued a “ general warrant ;’?
i. ¢. a warrant, in which no particular names were {pecified,
for the apprehenfion of the authors, printers, and publifhers
of that paper, Ass foon as it was difcovered that Wilkes
10 had
WIL
had given orders for the printing, he was taken into cuf-
tody, and brought before the two fecretaries of flate.
Perfeétly felf-poffefled, and avowing the illegality of his
arreft, he refufed to an{wer any interrogatories; and a
habeas corpus which had been fued out for him being evaded,
he was clofely confined in the Tower. However, he was
foon after brought by habeas corpus before the court of
common pleas, when lord chief juftice Pratt declared the
opinion of that court againft the legality of his commitment,
fo that he was difcharged amidft the acclamations of the
audience and of the populace. In the courfe of thefe pro-
ceedings he was deprived of his commiffion as colonel, by
the king’s order ; and his patron, lord Temple, loft his poft
of lord-lieutenant of the county. This nobleman, at his
own expence, availed himfelf of the legal decifion againft
general warrants, and commenced aétions againft the king’s
meflengers, the fecretaries, the under fecretary, and the foli-
citor of the treafury ; in all which the profecutors obtained
damages, which were paid by the crown, in confequence of
an exprefs order of council. Thus the doétrine of the ille-
gality of f{uch warrants was eftablifhed, and for this acceffion to
the caufe of liberty the public were indebted to John Wilkes,
lord Temple, and lord chief juftice Pratt, afterwards lord
Camden. Wilkes, not fatisfied with this triumph, pro-
ceeded, againit the advice of friends, to fet up a prefs in his
own houfe, and to reprint the North Briton ; for which he
was again profecuted to conviction. Having withdrawn to
France in 1763, he was expelled from the houfe of com-
mons, becaufe he did not appear to anfwer the charges that
were produced againft him. The next attack that was di-
rected spout him was occafioned by his printing an indecent
and profane piece, called ‘¢ Effay on Woman,”’ and faid to
have been written by Mr. Potter, fon of the archbifhop of
the fame name; and as fome {fcandalous reflexions on a
bifhop were introduced in this piece, complaint of breach of
privilege was made in the houfe of lords ; and on a profecu-
tion, he was found guilty of both the crimes of blafphemy
and libel. By his continued abfence, he incurred the penalty
of outlawry. Upon a change of miniftry he returned to
England, and delivered himfelf to cuftody ; and confiding
in his popularity, he offered himfelf as.a candidate to repre-
fent the city of London; but failing in this obje&, he was
immediately elefted for the county of Middlefex. Al-
though his fentence of outlawry was reverfed as illegal, he
was condemned for his two libels to an imprifonment of 22
months, and a fine of 1000/. In 1769 he was charged with
being the author of a pamphlet relating to the riots, occa-
fioned by his imprifonment, and expelled from the houfe ;
and being immediately re-eleéted, he was declared incapable
of a feat in the houfe during the exifting parliament. He
now became popular as the martyr of liberty, and large fums
were colleéted towards the payment of his debts. He was
again re-elected, and his eleétion was declared void. At the
next election, the court-candidate, colonel Luttrel, whofe
votes were about a fourth of thofe of Mr. Wilkes, was de-
clared the fitting member. This meafure caufed diffatis-
fa&tion and complaint through the country, and produced
petitions for the diflolution of parliament. Wilkes, though
excluded from parliament, was chofen an alderman of the
city of London ; and inthe exercife of his office as a magif-
trate, he refifted with his ufual fpirit exa@tions of authority
which he confidered as illegal ; and aétually liberated one of
the printers of newfpapers in which the {peeches of mem-
bers of parliament were detailed, and who had been arrefted
by royal proclamation. Two others were releafed by lord
mayor Crofby and alderman Oliver, who being members
of the houfe were committed to the Tower. Wilkes
Vor. XX XVIII.
WitL
was ordered to attend at the bar of the houfe; but ina
letter to the fpeaker, he objeéted, that in the order for at-
tendance, no notice was taken of his being.a member of the
houfe, and his attendance in his place had not been defired,
which forms, he faid, were effential: he alfo demanded his
feat, and then he would give a full account and juititication
of his condué&. The houfe, fenfible of the difficulty to
which it had fubjected itfelf, faved its authority by adjourn-
ing for the day on which Wilkes was ordered to attend. In
1772 Wilkes was chofen one of the fheriffs for London and
Middlefex, and in 1774 lord mayor of London. Having
conduéted himfelf with propriety and reputation in his pub-
lic offices, he was re-cleGted in 1776 a reprefentative for
the county of Middlefex ; and was allowed to take his feat
without oppofition. In parliament, he oppofed the meafures
that occafioned the American war; and on the acceffion of
the Rockingham adminiftration, he carried his motion for
refcinding the decifion of the houfe of commons, which gave
Luttrel a feat by a minority of votes. In 1779 he fuc-
ceeded in his application for the office of chamberlain in the
city of London, and retained it during the remainder of his
life. Tired of political confli&ts, the latter years of his life
pafled off without much notice, fo that, to adopt his own
expreffion, he was an ‘‘ extinguifhed volcano ;”? and he ex-
pired at the houfe of his daughter in 1797, in the 73d year
of his age. His private hiftory affords no memorial that is
either amufing or inftructive. The early errors of his con-
du& caft a fhade over his character. His literary talents
and attainments, devoted as he was to pleafure, and engaged
in bufinefs, never attra€ted much notice ; though as a com-
panion he knew how to render himfelf agreeable. Although
his patriotifm might poflibly originate in difappointed views
and expectations, he was confiftent and fteady in maintaining
the caufe to which he was attached; and he was, either
intentionally or incidentally, and by an intrepidity and felf-
poffeffion which he poffeffed in an eminent degree, the in-
ftrument of gaining fome important advantages to public
and private liberty. Alm. Mem. of Wilkes. Ann. Reg.
Gen. Biog.
WILKes, in Geography, atown of Ohio, in Gallia county,
with 187 inhabitants.—Alfo, a county of the ftate of Geor-
gia, bordering on South Carolina, containing 7066 inhabit-
ants. Tobacco is the chief produce, of which 3000 hogfheads
were exported in 1788.—Alfo, a county in the N.W.
corner of North Carolina, with 7247 inhabitants, including
790 flaves.—Alfo, a town of North Carolina; 50 miles W.
of Salem.
WILKESBARRE, formerly Wvomine, called alfo
Wilkefburg, atown of Pennfylvania, and chief town of Lu-
zerne county; fituated on a plain, bounded on one fide by
the Sufquehanna, and on the other by a range of mountains,
and containing about 150 wooden dwelling-houfes, a church,
court-houfe, and gaol, with 1225 inhabitants. A dreadful
maflacre was committed in this place, during the American
war, by the Indians under the command of colonel Butler,
which is recorded in moft hiftories of that war, and which will
ever remain a blot on the Englifhannals. Several of thehoufes,
to which the unfortunate victims retired to defend them-
felves on being refufed quarter, are {till ftanding, perfo-
rated in every part with balls; the remains of others that
were fet on fire are alfo {till to be feen, nor will the inha-
bitants on any account fuffer them to be repaired. N. lat.
°13!, W. long.75° 50. Weld’s Travels, vol. ii.
WILKINS, Dava, in Biography, a learned antiquary,
was born in 1685, and in early life more than once made the
tour of Europe, acquiring a knowledge of moft modern
languages. In 1715 he was appointed by archbifhop Wake
3K keeper
WIL
keeper of the Lambeth library, of which he made a cata-
logue, and for his three years’ labour in this way he was re-
compenfed with feveral.preferments, {uch as the reCtories of
Hadley and Monk’s Ely, the archdeaconry of Suffolk, and
a canonry of Canterbury. Among his principal publica-
tions we may reckon “ Novum Teftamentum Copticum,”
Oxon, 1716, 4to.; an edition of * Leges Saxonice eccle-
fiattice et civiles,”? with many valuable additions, 1721, fol.;
Joannis Seldeni Opera omnia,” 1726, 3 vols. fol.; ‘* Pen-
tateuchus Copticus,’’ 1731, 4to.; “ Concilia Magne Bri-
tanniz,”’ 4 vols. fol. 1736; and a learned preface to bifhop
Tanner’s ‘ Britannico-Hibernica.”? He married the eldeit
daughter of Thomas, lord Fairfax, fettledin Scotland, and
died in 1745, in his 60th year, Nichols’s Lit, Anecd.
Gen. Biog.
Wirxixs, Jouy, D.D., am Englifh prelate, was born
near Daventry, in Northamptonfhire, in 1624, and finifhed
his education at Magdalen-hall, Oxford, where he gra-
duated M.A. He afterwards took orders, and became
chaplain, firft to lord Say, and then to Charles, count pala-
tine of the Rhine. At the commencement of the civil war
he joined the parliament, took the folemn league and cove-
nant, and became warden of Wadham college. In 1649 he
graduated D.D., and in 1656 married the filter of Oliver
Cromwell. In 1659 he was nominated head of Trinity
college, Cambridge ; but being ejeGted on the reftoration of
king Charles II., he became preacher to the fociety of
Gray’s-Inn, London, and reétor of St. Lawrence, Jewry ;
about which time he was introduced into the Royal Society
as fellow and one of the council, and advanced to the fee of
Cheiter. He was diftinguifhed by his moderation, and was
reproached on this account by his enemies, who reprefented
‘him as wavering in his religious principles. Several bifhops
cenfured him with uncandid feverity, among whom were
archbifhop Sheldon, bifhop Fell, and archbifhop Dolben,
making no allowance for the favourable difpofition which he
was led to manifelt towards the diffenters by his education
under Mr. John Dod, his grandfather, a truly pious and
learned man, who difapproved many things in the church of
England long before the grand feparation which took place
- on account of Laud’s impofitions and feverities. After the
Reftoration he was a moderate conformift, and difpofed to
be indulgent in many things, for the fake of preventing re-
ligious diffenfions. On this account he incurred hatred and
obloquy. He at length fell a vitim to the ftone, occafioned
by his fedentary habits, and clofe application to ftudy ; and
died, with a tranquillity and firmnefs becoming a wife man
and a Chriftian, at the houfe of ‘his friend Dr, Tillotfon, in
Chancery-lane, London, in November, 1672. Bifhop Wil-
kins was not only an able divine, but a good mathematician
and aftronomer; and well {killed in mechanics and experi-
mental philofophy. As a writer he was judicious and
plain; and he ftudied more to be ufeful than to pleafe.
Generous in his difpofition, he neither fought honour nor
riches. ‘The revenues which he received from the church he
{pent in its fervice ; and whilft he was fecure from want, he
did not with to be richer. His charaéter is thus delineated by
Dr. Burnet: “* He was a man of as great a mind, as true
a judgment, as eminent virtues, and of as good a foul, as any ,
he ever knew ; and though he married Cromwell’s filter, yet
he made no other ufe of that alliance but to do good offices,
and to cover the univerfity of Oxford from the fournefs of
Owen and Goodwin, At Cambridge he joined with thofe
who ftudied to propagate better thoughts, to take men off
from being in parties, or from narrow notions, from fu-
perftitious conceits, and fiercene{s about opinions. He was
alfo a great obferver and promoter of experimental philofo-
'>
ai
’ o
WIL
“h "
phy, which was then a new thing, and much looked after.
He was naturally ambitious, but was the wifeft clergyman
I ever knew. He was a lover of mankind, and delighted in
doing good.’? He alfo poffeffed, according to this hiftorian,
“ a courage which could ftand againft a current, and againit
all the reproaches with which ill-natured clergymen ftudied
to reproach him.”? His principal works are the following :
viz. The Difcovery Ay a New World; or, a Difcourfe
tending to prove that it is probable there may be another
habitable World in the Moon,”’ London, 1638, 4to., wri
ten when he was only twenty-four years of age ; ‘ Difcourfe
concerning the Poffibility of a Pafflage to the World in the
Moon ;”’ * Difcourfe concerning a new PI tending to
prove that it is palible our Earth is one of the Planets,’’
ibid. 1640, 8vo. ; ‘© Mercury; or, the Secret Meflenger :
fhewing how a man may with privacy and fpeed communi-
cate his thoughts to a friend at any diftance,”’ ibid. 1641,
8vo.; ‘ Mathematical Magic ; or, the Wonders that may
be performed by Mechanical Geometry,’’-in two books,
ibid. 1648 and 1680, 8vo. Thefe latter five, compoling his
mathematical works, were printed at London in one volume,
8vo. 1708. “* Effay towards a real Character and a philofo-
phical Language,”’ ibid. 1668, fol.; ‘‘ Of the Principles and
Duties of Natural Religion,” two books, ibid. 1675, 8vo.
publifhed by Dr. Tillotfon, Alfo, “* Sermons preached on
feveral Occafions,”’ and fome others. Life prefixed to his
Philofophical and Mathematical Works. :
WILKINSON, in Geography, a county of Georgia,
with 2154 inhabitants, including 318 flaves.—Alfo, a county
of the Mifliffippi, with 5068 inhabitants, including 2630
flaves. sath.
WILKOMIERS, a town of Lithuania, in the palati-
nate of Wilna, on the Swienta, near its union with the
wie 44 miles N.N.W. of Wilna.
LKS, a county of North Carolina, with 9054 inha-
bitants. ‘
WILKUSCHKE, a town of Pruffia; 5 miles N.N.E.
of Ragnitz. f
WILL, VotunTas, is ufually defined a faculty of the
mind, by which it embraces or rejects any thing reprefented
to it, as good or evil, by the judgment.
Others will have it to be the mind itfelf, confidered as em-
bracing or refufing ; adding, that as the underftanding is
nothing elfe but the foul, confidered as perceiving ;
the will is nothing elfe but the foul, confidered as willing,
&c.
Mr. Locke more intelligibly defines the will, a faculty
which the foul has of beginning or forbearing, continuing
or ending, feveral ations of the mind, and motions of the
body, barely by a thought or preference of the mind, or-
dering, or as it were commanding, the doing, or not doing,
fuch and fach a particular a€tion.. This power which the
mind has, to order the confideration of any idea, or the for-
bearing to confider it ; or to prefer the motion of any part
of the body to its reft, and vice verfa, is what we call the
will. See Power. -
The actual exercife of that power, is what we call wolition,
or willing; and the doing or forbearing, of any aétion
confequent on fuch order, of the mind, is called voluntary.
So far, according to this writer, as a man has a power to
think or not to think, to move or not to move, according to
the preference or direction of his own mind, fo far he is free ;
and hence liberty, he fays, is not an idea belonging to voli-
, tion or preferring, but to the perfon having the power of
doing, or forbearing to do, as the mind fhall choofe or direéts
On the other hand, wherever any performance or forbearance
is not equally in a man’s power ; wherever doing or not pa)
wi
WILL.
wil not equally follow upon the preference of his mind ;,
there he is not free, though perhaps the a€tion may he volun-
tary. Accordingly, where thought is wholly wanting, or
the power to aét or forbear according to the direCtion of
thought, there neceffity takes place ; this, in an agent capa-
ble of volition, when the beginning ‘or continuation of any
action is contrary to the preference of his mind, is called
compulfions when the hindering or ftopping of any aétion is
contrary to his volition, it is called refraint. Agents that
have ne thought, no volition at all, are in every refpect ne-
ceflary agents.
Father Malebranche lays it down, that the willis that to
the foul, which motion is to the body ; and argues, that as
the Author of nature is the univerfal caufe of all the mo-
tions in matter, fo he is of all the inclinations in the mind ;
and that as all motions are dire&, unlefs their courfe be di-
verted and changed by fome foreign caufe ; fo all inclinations
are right, and could have no other end but the enjoyment of
truth and goodnefs, were there not fome foreign caufe to de-
termine the natural impreffion to evil ends.
Accordingly, he defines will to be the impreffion, or na-
tural motion, which carries us towards good indeterminately,
and in the general; and the power the mind has, to direct
this epee impreflion towards any particular objet that
pleates it, is what he calls /iberty.
Ariftotle diftinguifhes two kinds of aéts of the will, viz.
Beanoss, willing, volition ; and wpoxtpecsc, eleélion. ‘The firtt,
that employed about the ultimate end; the latter, about
the means.
The fchoolmen alfo diftinguifh the aétions of the will into
elicit and commanded. Elicit aéts, aéiones elicite, are thofe
immediately produced by the will, and really inherent in it ;
fuch are willing and nilling. Commanded atts, aéfiones im-
perata, are effeé&ts produced by other powers; v. gr. the
fenfitive, intellective, or locomotive powers, at the command
or infligation of the will. As to follow, flay, fight, fly,
&c.
But others will have the former kind properly to belong
to the underftanding ; and only the latter to the will.
The word willis taken in three fenfes :
1. For the power or faculty of willing, in which fenfe it
is, we have confidered it above.
2. For the aé or exercife of this power ; as, when we
fay, No man wills his own deftruétion.
3. Fora habit, or a conftant difpofition and inclination to
do any thing. In which fenfe juttice is defined a conftant
will to give every one what belongs to him: “ Juttitia eft
cénftans et perpetua voluntas jus fuum unicuique tribuendi.”’
Inftit. Juftin.
Wiu, Aniecedent. See ANTECEDENT.
Witt, Free.. See Liserty, and FRrepom.
Wi, Laf Will, or Tefament, in Law, a folemn a&, or
inftrument, by which a perfon declares his mind and inten-
tion as to the difpofal of his goods, effe€ts, &c. after his
death. See TEsTAMENT. ‘
This a& or inftrument is emphatically flyled the will of
the deceafed, becaufe it dire&ts the difpofal of* the whole or
part of his property, by written or oral inftructions pro-
perly witneffed and authenticated, according to his pleafure.
Some have diftinguifhed between a teftament and a will ;
a will being properly limited to land, and a teftament
only to chattels, requiring executors, which a will only for
land doth not require : fo that every teftament is a will, but
every will is not a teftament. However, the words have
been commonly ufed indifcriminately.
Wits, Hiffory of. Wills or teftaments, fays judge
Blackftone, are of very high antiquity. We find them
among the ancient Hebrews ; not to mention what Eufebius
and others have related of Noah’s teftament, made in writ-
ing, and witneffed under his feal, by which he difpofed of
the whole world, a more authentic inftance of the early ufe of
teftaments occurs in the facred writings (Gen. chap. xlviil. ),
in which Jacob bequeaths to his fon Jofeph a portion of his
inheritance double to that of his brethren ; which will we
find executed many hundred years afterwards, when the pof-
terity of Jofeph were divided into two diftin& tribes, thofe
of Ephraim and Manaffeh, and had two feveral inheritances
affigned them; whereas the defcendants of each of the other
patriarchs formed only a fingle tribe, and had only one lot of
inheritance. Solon was the firft legiflator that introduced
wills into Athens ; but in many other parts of Greece they
were totally difcountenanced. In Rome they were un-
known, till the laws of the Twelve Tables were compiled,
which firft gave the right of bequeathing ; and among the
northern nations, particularly among the Germans, tefta-
ments were not received into ufe. Hence it appears, that
the right of making wills and difpofing of property after
death, is merely a creature of the civil {tate, which has per-
mitted it in fome countries, and denied it in others, and {ub-
jeGted it to yarious reftritions and regulations, where the
law allows it.
With us in England, this power of bequeathing is coeval
with the firft rudiments of the law; not indeed, that it ex-
tended originally to all a man’s perfonal eftate. See Ra-
TIONABILI parte bonorum. ;
It is alfo fufficiently clear, that, before the Conqueft,
lands were'devifable by will. But, upon the introduétion
of the military tenures, the reftraint of devifing lands na-
turally took place, as a branch of the feodal doGtrine of mon-
alienation without the confent of the lord. By the common
law of England fince the Conquett, no eftate, greater than
for term of years, could be difpofed of by teftament; ex-
cept only in Kent, and in fome ancient burghs, and a few
particular manors, where their Saxon immunities by {pecial
indulgence fubfifted. But when ecclefiaftical ingenuity had
invented the do€trine of u/es, asa thing diftinét from the
land, ufes began to be devifed very frequently, and the de-
vifee of the ufe could in chancery compel its execution.
However, when the ftatute of ufes, viz. 27 Hen. VIII.
cap. 10. had annexed the poffeffion to the ufe, thefe ufes,
being now the very land itfelf, became no longer devifable :
whereupon the ftatute of wills was made, viz. 32 Hen. VIII.
cap. 1. explained by 34 & 35 Hen. VIII. cap..5. which
enacted, that all perfons being feifed in fee-fimple (except
feme-coverts, infants, ideots, and perfons of nonfane me-
mory) might by will and teftament in writing devife to any
other perfon, except to bodies corporate, two-thirds of their
lands, tenements, and hereditaments, held in chivalry, and
the whole of thofe held in focage ; which now, through the
alteration of tenures by the ftatute of Charles II. 12 Car. II.
cap. 25. amounts to the whole of their landed ‘property,
except their copyhold tenements. As for copyhold and
other cuftomary lands, thefe are devifable or not, according
to the cuftom of the refpective manors. And generally, a
deyife of copyhold will not pafs, without a furrender to the
ufe of the will. In the cafe of a child or widow, a court of
equity, in favour of thefe, will fupply a defe& of fur-
render (2 Vez. 582. 5 Vez. 557-); fo alfo, when there is
a general devife of real eftate to-pay debts, and there is no
real eftate but copyhold: alfo where a copyhold is in the
hands of truftees, the perfon for whom the lands are holden
in truft may devife the fame without furrender. (2 Atk. 38.
1 Vez. 489.) And though the court will fupply the de-
fe& of a furvender for the benefit of children, yet the rule
AKG ¢3 doth
WILL.
doth not extend to grand-children, or to a natural child,
and confequently not to any more diftant kindred. (2 Vez.
= 1 Wilfon, 161. 6 Vez. 544.) And if a man,
eifed of copyhold lands, furrenders the fame to the ufe of
his will, and executes a will, not attefted by any witneffes,
yet it fhall dire& the ufes of the furrender : for the claufe
in the ftatute, which requires the teftator’s figning in the
prefence of three witnefles, is confined only to fioks eftates
as pafs by the ftatute of wills of 34 & 35 Henry VIII.,
which doth not extend to copyhold. (2 Atk. 37. 7 Eaft’s
tep. 299.) See MorTMAIN.
y 29 Car. II. cap. 3. any eftate pur auter vie fhall be
devifable by a will in writing, figned by the party fo de-
vifing the fame, or by fome other perfon in his prefence
and by his exprefs direGtions, attefted and fubfcribed in the
prefence of the devifor by three or more witneffes ; and if
no fuch devife thereof be made, the fame shall be chargeable
in the hands of the heir, if it fhall come to him by reafon of
a {pecial occupancy, as affets by defcent, as in cafe of lands
in fee-fimple; and in cafe there be no fpecial occupant
thereof, it fall go to the executors or adminiftrators of the
party that had the eftate thereof by virtue of the grant, and
fhall be affets in their hands.
One that hath money to be paid him on a mortgage may
devife this money when it comes. God. O. L. 391-
And if the feoffee in mortgage, before the day of pay-
ment which fhould be made to him, maketh his executors
and die, and his heir entereth into the land as he ought ; it
feemeth in this cafe, that the feoffor ought to pay the money
at the day appointed to the executors, and not to the heir
of the feoffee: but yet the words of the condition may be
fuch, as the payment fhall be made to the heir; as if the
condition were, that if the feoffor pay to the feoffee or to
his heirs fuch a fum at fuch a day, there after the death of
the feoffee, if he dieth before the day limited, the payment
ought to be made to the heir at the day appointed. 1 Intt.
209, 210.
And hereby it appeareth, that the executors do more re-
prefent the perfon of the teftator, than the heir doth that of
the ancettor ; for though the executor be not named, yet
the law appoints him to receive the money, but fo doth not
the law appoint the heir to receive the money unlefs he be
named. 1 Inft. 209, 210.
A perfon may devife by his will the right of prefenting
to the next avoidance, or the inheritance of an advowfon.
And if fuch devife be made by the incumbent of the church,
the inheritance of the advowfon being in him, it is good,
though he die incumbent ; for though the teftament hath no
effeét but by the death of the teftator, yet it hath an incep-
tion in his life-time : and fo it is, though he appoint by his
will who fhall be prefented by the executors, or that one
executor fhall prefent the other, or doth devife that his
executors fhall grant the advowfon to fuch a man. Watf.
C. 10.
But where an advowfon was devifed to the firt or other
fon of B, that fhould be bred a clergyman and be in holy
orders, and if B fhould have no fuch fon, to C; both de-
vifes were holden by the court of common pleas to be void,
as depending on too remote a contingency ; for the rule of
law is, that the contingency on which fuch an executory
devife hinges muft take effect within fome life in being, or
21 years afterwards ; but it was uncertain that the fon of B,
if he ever fhould have any, would take, or be able to take
orders within 21 years of the death of his father. Proétor
v. the Bifhop of Bath and Wells, and others, 2 H. Bla.
&.
Tf upon articles for a purchafe, the purchafer die, having
devifed the land before a conveyance executed, the land will
afs in equity ; for the teftator had an equity to recover the
and, and the vendor ftood truftee for the teftator, and as he
fhould appoint, till a conveyance executed. 1 Chanc.
Caf. 39. 2 Vern. 679. or
For the vendor of the eftate is, from the time of his equ
traét, confidered as a truftee for the purchafer; and the
vendee, as to the money, is confidered as a truitee for the
vendor. 1 Atkyns, 573.
So if a man y ots to lay out a fum of money in the
purchafe of lands, generally ; and devifeth his real eftate
before he hath made fuch a purchafe: the money to be laid
out will pafs to the devifee. Id.
But if a man, having made his will, afterwards contraéts
for the purchafe of ; the lands contracted for will not
pafs by the will, but defcend to the heir at law. Id.
But if a good title cannot be made of the lands; as the
heir in fuch cafe cannot have the lands, fo he fhall not have
the money intended to be laid out.
If aman have a leafe for ever fo many years, determin-
able upon life or lives, that is, if fuch or fuch live fo long ;
this eftate may well enough be given and difpofed by wil
becaufe it is but a chattel. Went. 19,
A leafe for years may alfo be deviled to A for life, re-
mainder to B. And if the leafe be renewable, and A renew,
B fhall contribute to the fine fo partaking of the benefit of
the renewal.
If the teftator, by his laft will and teftament, do give or
bequeath to another any debt due unto him, or a thing in
action belonging unto him, the legacy is good and effeétual
in the law, and may be recovered in this manner, that is to
fay, if the teftator do make the legatary executor of that
particular debt or thing in a¢tion bequeathed, then the lega-
tary as executor thereof may commence fuit in his own
name, and recover the fame to his own ufe, againft him by
whom it was due; but if the teftator do not make the lega-
tary executor of the debt or thing in a€tion bequeathed, then
his remedy lieth in the ecclefiaftical court, where he may
convent the executor, and compel him either to fue for that
debt in a court competent, and upon recovery and payment
thereof to pay it over to the legatary, or elfe to make a
letter of attorney to the legatary for the recovery of the
debt or thing in a¢tion bequeathed in the name of the exe-
cutor to the ufe of the legatary. Swin. 187, 188.
Albeit the teftator have no fuch thing of his own as is
bequeathed, yet neverthelefs the legacy is good in law;
therefore, if the teftator do bequeath a horfe or a yoke of
oxen, the a gee is good in law, though the teftator have
neither horfe nor ox of his own. But who #i make
choice, in this cafe, of the thing fo bequeathed, is a quef-
tion not to be negleéted: and the folution is this; that if
the words of the devife be directed to the legatary, as if the
teftator fhall thus fay, I will that A B hall have a horfe
the choice doth belong to the legatary ; but if the words
be directed to the executor, as if the teftator fhall thus fay
I will that my executor give to AB a horfe, the elsBion
doth belong to the executor. Provided neverthelefs, that
to whomfoever the election doth belong, whether to the le-
gatary, or to the executor, they muit not be unreafonable
in their eleGtion, but frame themfelves according to the
meaning of the teftator; otherwife the legatary might make
choice of the beft horfe in the country, and the executor of
pred 4 contrary to the meaning of the deceafed. Swin,
188.
If there be two joint-tenants of lands, and one of them
devifeth that which to him belongs, and dieth ; this is no
good devife, and the devifee takes nothing, becaufe the de-
vife
WILL.
vife doth not take effe& until after the death of the devifor,
and then the furviving joint-tenant takes the whole by
prior title, to wit, from the firft feoffment. | Gilbert on
Wills, 120.
And although the jointure is fevered before the teftator’s
death, yet if the will be made before the feverance, it will
have no effet; unlefs there is a republication of the will
after the partition. Bur. Mansf. 1496.
So alfo a man cannot give or bequeath by will any of
thofe goods or chattels which he hath jointly with another :
for if he fhould bequeath his portion thereof to a third per-
fon, this bequeft is void by the laws of this realm; and the
furvivor, which had thofe goods or chattels jointly with
another, fhall have that portion fo bequeathed, notwith-
ftanding the faid will. Swin. 189.
But otherwife it is with the tenants in common (God. O.
L. 131.) and coparceners. For there is no furvivor be-
tween coparceners, but’the part of each is defcendible, and
confequently may be devifed. (Co. Lit. 185. 4.) Anda
deed of partition is not a revocation of a devife of his moiety
by tenant in common. Luther v. Ridley, cited in 3 P.
Wms. 169. \
By 20 Hen. III. cap. 2. widows may bequeath the crop
of their ground, as well of their dowers, as other their
lands and tenements ; faving to the,lords of the fee all fuch
fervices as be due for their dowers and other tenements.
And this is only in affirmance of the common law. (2 Inft.
80.) But by 27 Hen. VIII. cap. 10. a married woman,
having a jointure made, fhall not have any dowry of the re-
fidue of her hufband’s lands,
By 28 Hen. VIII. cap. 11. if the incumbent before his
death hath caufed any of his glebe land to be manured and
fown, at his proper cofts and charges, with any corn or
grain; he may make and declare his teftament of all the
profits of the corn growing upon the faid glebe land fo ma-
nured and fown.
But if the teftator is leflee for years, and fow the land a
fhort time before his leafe expires, and then dies, before the
corn can poflibly be ripe within the term, in this cafe a de-
vife thereof is void, becaufe he himfelf could nct have
reaped it after the expiration of the term, if he had lived.
Swin. ror.
Not only that thing may be devifed or bequeathed by the
teftator, which is truly extant, or hath an apparent being
at the time of the making of the will or death of the teftator ;
but that thing alfo whichis not in rerum natura, whilft the
teftator liveth: therefore, it is lawful for the teftator to be-
queath the corn which will be fown or grow in fuch foil
after his death, or the lambs which fhall come of his flock
of fheep the next year, depafturing in fuch a field. But if
there be no fuch corn growing in that foil, nor any lambs
arifing out of that flock, then the legacy is deftitute of
effe&t, becaufe no fuch thing is extant at all as was be-
queathed. But if the teftator devife a certain quantity of
grain or number of lambs, as for the purpofe, twenty quar-
ters of corn or twenty lambs, and doth will and devife, that
the fame fhall be paid out of the corn which fhall grow in
fuch a field, or arife out of his fheep depaituring in fuch a
ground ; though not fo much or no corn at all there grow,
er not any or not fo many lambs there arife, yet neverthe-
lefs the executor is compellable by law to pay the whole
l2gacies entirely ; becaufe the mention of the foil and of the
flock was rather by way of demonftration than by way of
condition, rather fhewing how or by what means the faid
legacy might be paid, than whether it fhould be paid at all
yea orno. Swin. 186.
Thofe things which after the death of the teftator defcend
6
to the heir of the deceafed, and not to his executor, cannot
be devifed by teftament, except in fuch cafes wherein it is
lawful to devife the lands, tenements, or hereditaments.
If a man be feifed of a houfe, and poffeffed of divers
heir-looms, that by cuftom have gone with the houfe from
heir to heir, and by his will devifeth away thefe heir-looms ;
this devife is void: for the will taketh effe@ after his death ;
and by his death, the heir-looms by ancient cuftom are
velted inthe heir, and the law prefers the cuftom before the
devife. And fo it is, if the lord ought to have a heriot
againft his tenant, and the tenant devifeth away all his
goods; yet the lord fhall have his heriot for the reafon
aforefaid. 1 Inft. 185.
The teftator may devife all goods and chattels which he
hath in his own right, but not thofe which he hath in the
right of another as executor. Swin. 185.
An adminiftrator cannot make a teftament of thofe goods
which he hath as adminiftrator to any perfon dying in-
teftate ; becaufe he hath not any fuch goods to his own
proper ufe, but ought therewithal to pay the debts of the
dead perfon, and to diftribute the ret according to law.
Swin. 189.
The hufband cannot devife fuch goods as his wife hath as
being executrix to another, nor fuch things as are in a@tion,
as debts due to her before marriage by obligation or con-
tra&t, unlefs he and his wife recover the fame during mar-
riage, or that he renew the bonds, and take them in his
own name; otherwife after his death they remain to her.
1 Inft. 351.
But the hufband may, at any time during the coverture,
releafe a bond given to his wife. And where the hufband .
makes a fettlement, the bonds to his wife, being part of her
fortune, will notwithftanding his death in the life-time of
his wife, before the fecurity be changed, be decreed in
equity to his executor ; he being confidered in that cafe as
a purchafer for a valuable confideration. Cafes in the time
of L. Talb. 168.
A man may by his will difpofe of his chattels and per-
fonal eftate that he fhall for the future acquire, any time
after the making his will, to the time of his death. And
this is neceflary from the reafon of the thing ; becaufe the
chattels and perfonal eftate are in a continual fluGtuation ;
and if the law were not fo, it would create very great con-
fufion, or elfe would render it neceflary for a man to make
a new willevery day. Gilb. 122.
But it is not fo with lands, for they are fixed and per-
manent: and, therefore, if a man maketh his will, and de-
vifeth therein all the lands which he fhall have at the time of
his death; and after that, he purchafeth lands, and dieth
without republication or making a new will; in this cafe,
though his intent to the contrary is very apparent, yet it is
a void devife: for a man cannot devife any lands but what
he hath at the time of making his will. And this was ad-
judged upon great deliberation, by Holt chief juftice and
the court, in the cafe of Bunker and Cook: and the judg-
ment was affirmed afterwards upon a writ of error in the
houfe of lords, Feb. 24, 1707. Gilb. 122.
But, by Holt chief juftice: If he republifhed his will, in
fuch manner, and with fuch circumftances, as are neceflary
to complete execution of an original will; then the pur-
chafed lands will pafs as by an original will. (11 Mod.
127.) And in truth this feemeth to make it a new will,
to all intents and purpofes ; and not a republication of the
old one.
But a codicil, which concerneth only perfonal legacies,
will not amount to a republication of the will, fo as to pafs
lands purchafed after the making of the will. 2 Vern. 62 Ss
If
WILL.
If a man devifeth all his lands for payment of his debts,
and purchafeth lands afterwards: the lord keeper faid he
would decree a fale, though there were no precedent articles.
2 Cha. Ca. 144. u ;
If aman hath a leafe, and difpofeth of it {pecifically by
his will; and after furrenders it and takes a new leafe, and
after dies; the devifee fhall not have this lait leafe, becaufe
this was a plain countermand of his will. Goldf. 93.
But in the cafe of Stirling and Lydiard, Nov. 21, 1744,
where a man devifed all and fingular his leafehold eftate,
goods, chattels, and perfonal eftate whatfoever, and after-
wards renewed a leafe ; it was held by the lord chancellor
Hardwicke clearly, that the leafehold eftate pafled by the
If a man devifeth a term for years, which he hath not at
the time of the devife, but purchafeth fome time before his
death ; Holt chief juftice doubted whether this would be
good. But Mr. Peere Williams fays, that notwithitanding
the doubt which the court of king’s bench feems to have
had in that cafe, it hath been clearly held to pafs by fuch
a will.. 3 P. Wms. 169.
Wits, Perfons capable of making. Every perfon hath
full power and liberty to make a will, that is not under
fome fpecial prohibition by law or cuftom: which prohibi-
tions are principally upon three accounts; for want of fuf-
ficient difcretion; for want of fufficient liberty and free
will; and on account of criminal condué.
In the firft clafs are to be reckoned infants, under the
age of fourteen if males, and twelve if females ; which is the
rule of the civil law. By ftatute 34 & 35 Hen. VIII.
cap. 5. wills or teftaments made of any manors, lands, tene-
ments, or other hereditaments, by any perfon within the
e of twenty-one years, fhall not be taken to be good or
effectual in law; for until that time, by the common laws
of this realm, they are accounted infants. (Swinb. 74.)
But by cuftom in particular places, they may devife lands
before the age of twenty-one. (God. O. L. 21. Wentw.
24.) But no cuftom of any place can be good, to enable a
male infant to make any will before he is fourteen years of
age. (Law of Exec. 153.) If the teftator is not of fuf-
ficient difcretion, whatever be his age, that will overthrow
his teftament. Accordingly, madmen, or otherwife non
compotes, ideots or natural fools, perfons grown childifh by
age or diftemper, fuch as have their fenfes befotted with
drunkennefs ; all thefe are incapable, by reafon of mental
difability, to make any will as long as fuch difability latts.
To this clafs may alfo be referred {uch perfons as are born
deaf, blind, and dumb; who, as they have always wanted
the common inlets of underftanding, are incapable of having
animum teflandi, and their teftaments are therefore void. It
has been maintained that perfons deaf and dumb, who under-
ftand what a teftament meaneth, and that are defirous of
making one, may by figns and tokens declare their tefta-
ment: and that a blind perfon may make a nuncupative
teftament, by declaring his will before a fufficient number
of witneffes ; and that he may make his teftament in writing,
provided the fame be read before witneffes, and in their
prefence acknowledged by the teftator for his laft will.
Swinb. 95, 96.
Perfons of the fecond defcription are by the civil law of
various kinds; as prifoners, captives, and the like. But
the law of England does not make fuch perfons abfolutely
inteftable ; but only leaves it to the difcretion of the court
to judge, upon the confideration of rey ee. circum-
ftances of durefs, whether they could be fuppofed to have
liberum animum teflandi. With regard to feme-coverts, our
Jaws differ {till more materially from the civil. Among the
4
Romans, a married woman was as capable of bequeathing
as a feme-fole. But with us, a married woman is not only
utterly incapable of devifing lands, being excepted out of
the ftatute of wills, 34 & 35 Hen. VIII. cap. 5. but alfo
fhe is incapable of making a teftament of chatede without
the licence of her feaihsnd, who frequently, upon marriage,
covenants with her friends to allow her that licence: his
affent, therefore, muft be given to the particular will in
quettion, without which it will not be a complete teftament.
Her will, therefore, operates in the nature of an appoint-
ment, the execution of which the hufband by his bond,
agreement, or covenant, is bound to allow. The queen- .
confort is an exception, for fhe may difpofe of her chattels
by will; without the confent of her lord: and any feme-
covert may make her will of goods, which were in her pof-
feffion in auter droit, as executrix or adminiltratrix; for
thefe can never be the property of her hufband: and if fhe
has any pin-money or feparate maintenance, it is faid fhe
may difpofe of her favings thereout by teftament, without
the controul of her hufband. But if a feme-fole makes her
will, and afterwards pig fubfequent marriage is
efteemed a revocation in nd entirely vacates the will.
Perfons of the third clafs are, firft, all traitors and felons,
from the time of conviétion; for then their goods and
chattels, and all fuch lands, tenements, and hereditaments, as
they fhall have in their own right, ufe, or pofleffion, of any
eftate or inheritance, at the time of fuch treafon committed,
or at any time after, are forfeited to the king. The tefta-
ment before made doth, by reafon of the fame conviction,
become void both in refpeét of goods, and alfo in refpe& of
lands, tenements, and hereditaments. But if a perfon, at-
tainted of treafon, obtain the king’s pardon, and be thus
reftored to his former eftate, he may make his teftament,
and his former teftament is good. (Swinb. 97.) Neither
can a felo de fe make a will of goods and chattels, for they
are forfeited by the a& and manner of his death; but he
may make a devife of his lands, for they are not fubjeéted
to any forfeiture. (3 Inft. 55.) Outlaws alfo, though
only for debt, are incapable of making a will, fo long as
the outlawry fubfifts, for during that time their goods and
chattels are forfeited ; but he that is outlawed in an aétion
perfonal, may make his teftament of lands, for they are not
forfeited. (Swinb. 107.) An outlaw ina perfonal aétion
may in fome cafe make executors; for be may have debts
upon contract, which are not forfeited to the king; and
thofe utors may have a writ of error to reverfe the out-
lawry. (Cro. Eliz. 851.) Coke obferves, that an excom-
munication (meaning the greater excommunication ) is worfe
than an outlawry ; Fe if a plaintiff, who is an executor, be
outlawed, his outlawry cannot be pleaded to difable him
from proceeding in the fuit, enaite it is in the right of
another ; but if he is excommunicated, it is otherwife, be-
caufe every man that converfes with fuch a perfon is excom- ~
municated himfelf (1 Inft. 134.); that is, after he is
denounced excommunicate, and they are admonifhed not to
converfe with him. (Ayl. Par. 266.) As for perfons
uilty of other crimes, fhort of felony, who are hy the civil
aw precluded from making teftaments, (as ufurera, libellers,
and others of a worfe ftamp,) by the common law their tef-
taments may be good.
Wir, Nature and Incidents of a. Wills or teftaments
are divided into two forts, viz. written and verbal or nun-
eupative: of which the former is committed to writing ; the
latter depends merely upon oral evidence, being declared by
the teftator in extremit. before a fufficient number of wit-
nefles, and afterwards reduced to writing. A codicil is a
fupplement to a will.
As
WILL.
As nuncupative wills and codicils are liable to great im-
pofitions, and may occafion many perjuries, the Fihite of
frauds, 29 Car. II. cap. 3. hath laid them under many
reftrictions ; except when made by mariners at fea, and fol-
diers in aétual fervice. As to all other perfons, it enacts,
1. That no written will fhall be revoked or altered by a fub-
fequent nuncupative one, except the fame be in the life-time
of the teftator reduced to writing, and read over to him and
approved; and unlefs the fame be proved to have been fo
done by the oaths of three witnefles at leaft ; who, by 4 &
5 Ann. cap. 16. muft be fuch as are admiflible upon trials
at common law.
2. That no auncupative will fhall be good, where the
eftate bequeathed exceeds 30/., unlefs proved by three fuch
witnefles, prefent at the making of it, and unlefs they or
fome of them were {pecially required to bear witnefs to it
by the teftator ; and unlefs it was made in his laft ficknefs,
in his own habitation, or where he had previoufly refided
at leait ten days, except he be furprifed with ficknefs on a
journey, or from home, and dies without returning to his
dwelling.
3. That no auncupative will fhall be proved by the wit-
neffes after fix months from the making, unlefs it were put
in writing within fix days; nor fhall it be proved till four-
teen days after the death of the teftator, nor till procefs
hath firft iffued to call in the widow, or next of kin, to
conteft if they think proper.
As to written wills (viz. thofe that concern not the de-
vife of lands), they need not any witnefs of their publication.
A teftament of chattels, written in the teftator’s own hand,
though it has neither his name nor feal to it, nor witnefles
prefent at its publication, is good; provided fufficient proof
ean be had that it is his hand-writing. (Swinb. 353.
Gilb. Rep. 260.) And though written in another man’s
hand, and never figned by the teitator, yet if proved to be
according to his initruétions, and approved by him, it hath
been held a good teftament of the perfonal eftate. How-
ever, it is the fafer and more prudent way, and leaves lefs
in the brealt of the ecclefiaftical judge, if it be figned or
fealed by the teftator, and publifhed in the prefence of wit-
neffes. It is faid in 3 Salk. 396. that by the canon law,
and alfo by the common law, two witnefles are requifite to
prove a will of goods ; for one witnefs by the civil law, unto
which the other laws are conformed in this matter, is as no
witnefs at all, 1 P. Wms. 13.
The ftatute of frauds and perjuries, 29 Car. II. cap. 3.
directs, that all devifes of lands and tenements fhall not only
be in writing, but figned by the teftator, or fome other per-
fon in his prefence, and by his exprefs direction; and be
fubfcribed, in his prefence, by three or four credible wit-
neffes: In the conftruétion of this ftatute, it has been ad-
judged that the teftator’s name, written with his own hand
at the beginning of his will, as, ‘* I John Mills do make
this my lalt will,” &c. is a fufficient figning, without any
name at the bottom; though the other is the fafer way.
(3 Lev. 1.) It hath been faid, that if the teftator only
put his feal to the will, without figning it, this is a fufficient
figning within the ftatute; becaufe figning is no more than
a mark to diftinguifh a man’s aét, and fealing is a fufficient
mark to know it to be his will. (Gilb. 93.) ‘Others,
however, have held that fealing without figning was not
fufficient. (1 Wilfon, 313. 2 Vezey, 459.) Signing
being only mentioned in the {tatute, fealing is not neceffary.
(God. O. L. 5. 1 Wentw. 29.) It has alfo been deter-
mined, that though the witnefles muft all fee the teitator
fign, or at leaft acknowledge the figning, yet they may do
it at diffrent times. But they muft all fubfcribe their
names as witnefles in his prefence, left by any poffibility
they fhould miftake the inftrument. In one cafe determined
by the court of king’s bench, the judges would not allow
any legatee, nor confequently a creditor, where the legacies
and debts were charged on the real eftate, to be a com-
petent witnefs to the devife. This determination occafioned
the ftatute 25 Geo. II. cap. 6. which reftored both the
competency and credit of fuch legatees, by declaring void
all legacies given to witnefles, and thereby removing all
poflibility of their intereft affeCting their teitimony. . The
fame ftatute likewife eftablifhed the competency of creditors,
by directing their teftimony to be admitted; but leaving
their credit (like that of all other witneffes) to be con-
fidered, on a view of all the circumftances, by the court
and jury before whom fuch will fhall be contefted. And in
a much later cafe, M. 31 Geo. II. the teftimany of three
witnefles, who were creditors, was held to be fufficiently
credible, though the land was charged with the payment
of debts. By ftat. 29 Car. II. cap. 3. all declarations or
creations of trufts or confidences, of any lands, tenements,
or hereditaments, fhall be manifefted and proved by fome
writing figned by the party who is by law enabled to de-
clare {uch truft, or by his laft will in writing, or elfe they
fhall be utterly void, and of none effet. And all grants
and aflignments of any truft or confidence fhall likewife be
in writipg, figned by the party granting or afligning the
fame by fuch laft will or devife; or elfe fhall be utterly
void, and of none effect.
No teftament is of any effe& till after the death of the
teftator ; and, therefore, if there be many teftaments, the
laft overthrows all the former; but the republication of a
former will revokes one of a later date, and eftablifhes the
firft again. Although no man can die with two teftaments,
becaute the latter doth always infringe the former; yet a
man may die with divers codicils, and the latter doth not
hinder the former, fo long as they be not contrary. (Swinb.
15.) All codicils are part of the will; therefore, a codicil
merely for a particular purpofe, as to change an executor,
and confirming the will in all other refpeéts, does not revive
a part of the will revoked by a former codicil. If two
teftaments be found, and it doth not appear which was the
former or latter, both teftaments are void; but if two
codicils be found, and it cannot be known which was the
firft or Jaft, and one and the fame thing is given to one per-
fon in one codicil, and to another perfon in another codicil
the codicils are not void, but the perfons therein namie
ought to divide the thing betwixt them. Swinb. 15.
If codicils are regularly executed and attefted, they may
be proved as wills are. So if they are found written by the
teftator himfelf, they ought to be taken as part of the will,
and to be proved in common form by the oath of the ad-
miniftrator with the will annexed ; and in cafe of oppofition,
by witneffes to the hand-writing and finding: and it hath
been ufual to exhibit an affidavit of the hand-writing and
finding, before a probate or adminiftration paffes even. in
common form.
But in cafe of a real eftate, a codicil cannot operate, unlefs
it be executed according to the ftatute. 1 Atk. 426.
By ftat. 29 Car. II. cap. 3. no devife in writing of lands,
tenements, or hereditaments, or any claufe thereof, fhall be
revocable, otherwife than by fome other will or codicil in
writing, or other writing declaring the fame, or by burning,
cancelling, tearing, or obliterating the fame by the teftator
himfelf, or in his prefence, and by his direétions and confent 5
but all devifes and bequefts of lands and tenements fhall res
main and continue in force, until the fame be burnt, ean-
celled, torn, or obliterated by the teftator, or by his diree~
tions
WILL. y
tions in manner aforefaid, or unlefs the fame be altered by
fome other will or codicil in writing, or other writing of
the devifor, figned in the prefence of three or four witnefles
declaring the fame.
And no will in writing concerning any goods or chattels
or perfonal eftate fhall be repealed, nor fhall any claufe,
devife, or bequeft therein be altered or changed, by any
words, or will by word of mouth only, except the fame be
in the life of the teftator committed to writing, and after the
writing thereof read unto the teftator, and allowed by him,
and proved to be fo done by three witneffes at the leaft.
A will which will pafs perfonal eftate is not a fufficient
revocation of a former will, by which a real eftate is de-
vifed. Comyns, 451.
Although the itatute fays, that no will in writing con-
cerning perfonal eftates fhall be repealed by word of mouth
only, except the words be put into writing, and read to
and allowed by the teftator, and proved to be fo done by
three witneffes ; yet where a man by will in writing devifed
the refidue of his perfonal eftate to his wife, and fhe dying,
he afterwards by a nuncupative codicil bequeathed to an-
other all that he had given to his wife, this was refolved to
be good: for by the death of the wife, the devife of the
refidue was totally void; and the codicil was no alteration
of the former will, but a new will for the refidue. 1 Abr.
Caf. Eq. 408,
Alfo, the ftatute hath not taken away revocations of
wills by aét of law; as if the teltator afterwards make a
feoffment, or do any other a& inconfiftent with the will:
but fuch revocation remains as before the ftatute. Carth. 81.
If a man devifes lands to one and his heirs, and after-
wards mortgages the fame lands to another for years or in
fee; though a mortgage in fee is a total revocation at law,
yet in equity it fhall be a revocation pro tanto only. 1 Abr.
Eq. Caf. 410.
And the reafon is, became mortgage is not confidered
as a conveyance of the eftate, but only as a charge upon it ;
being merely a fecurity, and in the confideration of equity
carries only a chattel intereft, the creditor gains nothing
real, it affords no dower, and goes toexecutors. Sparrow
and Hardcattle, May 6, 1754. 3 Atk. 798.
But if lands be devifed to one in fee, and afterwards
mortgaged to the fame devifee ; this is a revocation in toto,
being inconfiftent with the devife: but if the mortgage had
been to a ftranger, it had been a revocation quoad the mort-
gage only. Prec. Cha. 514.
If a man feifed in fee devifes it to one in fee or for life,
and afterwards makes a leafe to another for years; this,
even at law, fhall not be a revocation but during the years.
1 Roll’s Abr. 616.
So if a hufband pofleffed for forty years devifes it to his
wife, and after leafes the land to another for twenty years,
and dies ; this leafe is not any revocation of the whole eftate,
but_only during the twenty years, and the wife fhall have
the refidue by the devife. Id.
But where a man feifed of a leafe for lives devifed it, and
afterward furrendered the old leafe, and took a new one to
him and his heirs for three lives; it was decreed, that this
renewal of the leafe was a revocation of the will as to this
particular. For by the furrender of the old leafe, the tef-
tator had put all out of him, had divefted himfelf of the
whole intereft ; fo that there being nothing left for the de-
vife to work upon, the will mutt fall, and the new purchafe,
being of a freehold defcendible, could not pafs by a will
made before fuch purchafe. 3 P. Wms. 166. 170.
But where the teftator devifed all and fingular his leafe-
hold eftate, and afterwards renewed a leafe ; it was held by
lord Hardwicke clearly, that this leafehold eftate pafled by
the will: for that this is not a {pecific legacy, bat only an
enumeration of the feveral particulars of the perfonal eftate,
but yet is a general devife of the whole. 3 Atk. 19¢
_ Though a covenant or articles do not at law revoke a
will; yet if entered into for a valuable confideration,
amounting in equity to a conveyance, they mutt confe-
quently be an equitable revocation of a will, or of any
writing in nature thereof. 2 P. Wms. 624.
£6: woman’s marriage is alone a revocation of her will.
A man made a will, and appointed one (who was no re-
lation) to be his executor. He afterwards went abroad,
where he became a governor of one of the plantations, and
fent over for an Englifh woman of his acquaintance, whom
he married, and had children by; and died, without an
aGtual revocation of his will. . Yet it was determined, that
this total alteration of his circumftances was an implied re-
vocation. 1 P. Wms. 304.
It is an eftablifhed maxim, that wills fhould be conftrued
favourably. Accordingly, the intention of the teftator is
called by lord Coke the r-ftar, to guide the judges in
the expofition of wills. In divers inftances, relating to the
interpretation of wills, collateral evidence hath been admitted
in the court of chancery to explain the teftator’s intention.
But notwithftanding thefe cafes, the courts have been very
unwilling to admit of parol evidence in relation to any thing
that appears on the face of a will; and it is certain that too
much caution cannot well be ufed in this particular, efj
cially when it is confidered that the ftatute of frauds and
perjuries, which was made to prevent perjury, contrariety
of evidence, and uncertainty, binds the courts of equity as
well as the common-law courts; as alfo that little regard
ought in many cafes to be had to the expreffions of the tef-
tator, either before or after the making his will, becaufe
poflibly thefe expreflions might be ufed by him, on purpofe
to conceal or difguife what he was doing, or to keep the
family quiet, or For other fecret motives and inducements
which cannot after his death be found out. 2 Bac. Abr.
310.
Notwithftanding that wills are generally favoured by the
law ; yet where the teftator endeavours to eftablith a fettle-
ment againft the reafon and policy of the common law, the
judges will reje&t it. Gilb. 110. 2 Bac. Abr. 79.
Alfo where the teftator by his will maketh no other dif-
pofition of his eftate than the law itfelf would have done,
had he been filent ; there fuch a will is ufelefs, and fhall be
rejected : and, therefore, if a devife be made to a perfon
and his heirs, which perfon is heir at law to the devifor se
this is a void devife, and the heir fhall take by defcent as his
better title ; for the defcent ftrengthens his title, by taking
away the entry of fuch as may poflibly have right to the
eftate ; whereas if he claims by devife, he is in as by pur-
chafe. Gilb. 110. 2 Bac. Abr. 79. y
Alfo devifes are void and rejected, where the words of
the will are fo general and uncertain, that the teftator’s
meaning eannot be collected from them; and, therefore,
where a man by will gave all to his mother, the general
words did carry no /ands to his mother ; for fiace the heir at
law hath a plain and uncontroverted title, unlefs the anceftor
difinherits him, it would be fevere and unreafonable to fet
him afide, unlefs fuch intention of the teftator is evident
from the will; for that were to fet up and prefer a dark
and at beft but a doubtful title to a clear and certain one.
Gilb. 112. 2 Bac. Abr. 81.
The claufe of ‘* perfect mind and memory”? is more ufual
than neceffary in a will, and yet not hurtful. (Swinb. 7.)
But
WILL.
But in cafe of conteil, it is neceflary to prove the fanity of
the teftator. 2 Atk. 56.
For the different modes of devife, and the legal meaning
of the appropriate terms by which they are exprefled, we
refer to Burn’s Ecclefiaftical Law, udi infra.
From the above accounts it follows, that teltaments may
be avoided three ways: 1. If made by a perfop labouring
under any of the incapacities before mentioned. 2. By
making another teftament of a later date. And, 3. By
cancelling or revoking it.
The Romans were wont to fet afide teftaments, as being
inofficiofa, deficient in natural duty, if they difinherited or
totally paffed by (without afligning a true and fufficient
reafon) any of the children of the teftator. But if the child
had any legacy, though ever fo fmall, it was a proof that
the teftator had not loft his memory nor his reafon, which
otherwife the law prefumed. Hence probably, fays Black-
ftone, has arifen that groundlefs vulgar error of the necef-
fity of leaving the heir a fhilling or fome other exprefs
legacy, in order to effe€tually difinherit him ; whereas the
law of England, though the heir or next of kin be totally
omitted, admits no querela inofficiofa, to fet afide fuch telta-
ment. Burn’s Eccl. Law, vol, iv. art. Witt. Blacktt.
Com. book i.
Wits of Seamen and Marines. By the ftatute 26 Geo. III.
¢. 63. no will made by any petty officer or feaman in the
King’s fervice, whereby any wages, pay, prize-money, or
allowance of money of any kind due for fuch fervice is be-
queathed, fhall be valid, unlefs, if made while the party 1s
in the fervice, it be figned before and attefted by the captain,
or the officer then commanding, and one of the figning of-
ficers of the fhip to which the party belongs, and unlefs it
{pecify in the body thereof the name of the fhip, and the
number at which the maker of the will ftands upon the
fhip’s books, and contains a full defcription of the refidence,
profeffion, or bufinefs of the perfon in whofe favour it is
made, and the day of the month and the place where it was
executed, or by the agent of any of his majefty’s hofpitals
or quarters appointed to receive fick and wounded feamen,
in which the party may be at the time; or if made by fuch
officer or feaman difcharged from the fervice, within the
bills of mortality, unlefs it be attefted by the officer ap-
pointed by the treafurer of the navy to infpe& fuch wills ;
or if made at any of the ports where feamen’s wages are
paid, unlefs it be attefted by the treafurer of the navy, chief
or fecond clerk there ; or if made at any other place, unlefs
it be attefted by the minifter and churchwardens of the parifh
in England or Ireland, or by two elders of the parifh in
Scotland. In order to obtain a probate thereof, the will
muft be fent to a proétor by the infpetor of wills appointed
by the treafurer of the navy.
If any fuch petty officer or feaman fhould die inteftate,
the perfon claiming adminiftration muft apply by petition to
the faid infpeGtor, who is to grant a certificate direéted to
a proétor, that letters of adminiftration may pafs in favour
of the petitioner, if entitled thereto by law.
If any proctor, regifter, or other officer of any ecclefi-
aftical court fhall be aiding and affifting in procuring pro-
bate of a will, or letters of 4dminiftration, for the purpofe
of enabling any perfon to receive fuch wages, pay, prize-
money, or allowance of money of any kind, without firft
obtaining the certificate from the infpeG@or of feamen’s
wills, or perfon authorized to officiate for him, every fuch
proétor, regifter, or other officer, fhall forfeit 500/., and for
ever after be incapable of aéting in any capacity in any ec-
clefiaftical court in Great Britain or Ireland.
And bythe 32 Geo. ITI. c. 34. after the rt day of Au-
Vor. XX XVIII.
guft 1792, no letter of attorney or will of a non-commiffioned
officer of marines or marine fhall be valid unlefs made accord-
ing to the 26 Geo. IIT. c. 63.
All are to be deemed petty officers, feamen, marines, &c.
except fuch'as are rated upon the books of fuch fhip, ad-
mirals or flag officers, and their fecretaries, captains, and
lieutenants, mafters, fecond mafters, and pilots, phyficians,
furgeons, chaplains, boat{wains, gunners, carpenters, and
purfers, captains of marines, captain lieutenants of marines,
lieutenants, and quarter-mafters of marines.
Every lieutenant, on board any of his majefty’s fhips,
fhall upon a page of every mutter book of fuch fhip fign
his name for the purpofe, and for the purpofe only, that the
infpeétor of feamen’s wills, or fuch perfon as fhall be de-
puted by him, may have an opportunity of comparing the
fame with the name of any fuch lieutenant attefting the will,
&c. executed by or in favour of any petty officer, feaman,
non-commiffioned officer of marines or marine.
And all captains of fhips fhall, upon their monthly muf-
ter books or returns, {pecify which of the men, mentioned in
the faid returns, have granted or iffued any will or teltament
during that month or {pace of time from the preceding re-
turns, by inferting the date thereof oppofite to the party’s
name. The mufter books, &c. in cafe of failing from an
foreign ftation, at a time when no opportunity fhall offer of
tran{mitting them to the navy-board, to be left with the
naval officer of the place, if any, or with fome refpeétable
merchant, with directions to forward the fame to the com-
miflioners of his majefty’s navy by the firft fafe opportunity,
and in cafe of the removal of the commander, to be deli-
vered over to his fucceffor and a receipt given for the fame.
Provided that it fhall be lawful for the minifter of any
parifh, to whom the infpe€tor of feamen’s wills fhall tran{f-
mit his check of any letter of attorney or will, pafled and
allowed by him, to deliver the faid check to the attorney or
executor in the faid letter of attorney or will named and ap-
pointed. And all feamen’s letters of attorney, and wills
made prior to the 1ft of Auguft 1786, and thofe of marines
prior to the 1ft of Auguft 1792, fhall be examined and in-
{pected by the infpeétor of feamen’s wills for the purpofe of
preventing frauds, forgeries, or impofitions of any kind
therein ; and if fuch infpe¢tor fhall fee no caufe to fufpeé&
the authenticity of the fame, he fhall affix the ftamp of his
office, and iffue checks for the fame, but if he fhall fee good
caufe to fufpeé the truth and authenticity of fuch letter of
attorney or will, he fhall report the fame to the treafurer, or
to the paymafter of the navy, and fhall enter his caveat
againit fuch letter of attorney or will, which fhall prevent
any money from being had or received thereon until the fame
fhall be authenticated to the fatisfaGtion of the faid treafurer
or paymafter. :
The wages, pay, prize-money, or allowances of petty
officers or feamen, non-commiflioned officers of marines, and
marines dying inteftate, are to be paid only upon letters of
adminiftration obtained in the following manner :
The perfon claiming fuch adminiitration fhall fend or give
in a note or letter to the infpeCtor of feamen’s wills, {lating
the name of the deceafed, the name of the fhip or fhips to
which he belonged, and that he has heard or been informed
of his death, and requefting the infpe€tor to give fuch di-
reGtions as may enable him to procure letters of adminiftra-
tion to the deceafed, or to the like effet, upon receipt
whereof the infpeétor of feamen’s wills fhall deliver or fend
to the perfon claiming fuch adminiftration, a paper in a pe-
culiar form of words, which paper being duly filled up and
certified fhall be returned to the treafurer, or to the pay-
mafter of his majefty’s navy, London, who upon Beery
L the
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the fame fhall dire& the mfpeétor of feamen’s wills to exa-
mine the fame, and make fuch inquiry relative thereto as
may appear to him neceflary on that behalf; and being fatis-
fied, he fhall forthwith make out a certificate for obtaining
letters of adminiftration, and purfue the courfe minutely
defcribed in Burn’s Ecclefiaftical Law, art. Wills. 1
By 32 Geo. III. c. 34. the following fums are to be paid
for the feal, parchment, arene and fuing forth of probates
of wills and letters of admini{tration granted in purfuance “
of this a&, for the purpofe of receiving wages, or pay, Or
allowances of money of any kind, which fhall remain due to
the deceafed, viz.
See
For probates of wills, if the goods and eam
#5 under the value of 2o/. . - - - pet as
For letters of adminiftration a. - eee Pee
For probates of wills under gol. - - - ee RR
For adminiftration = - - - - - 117.8
For probates of wills under Gol. - - = - Telia 2
For adminiftration -" © = apmuye: 2, 0
For probates of wills under 1o0o/. ad 1,138
For adminiftration - - - - - BZ. 1k. 0
For commiffions or requifitions to {wear executors
or adminiftrators :
Under 2o/. - - - - - o15 oO
And under roo/. - . - - teat a0
But if the probates or letters of adminiftration be granted
to the widow, children, father, mother, brother, or fifter,
in purfuance of this at, for the fame purpofe of receiving
wages, or pay, or allowances of money of any kind, which
fhall remain due to fuch warrant or petty officer, &c. then
the following fums are to be paid, viz.
Los. d.
For probates of wills under 20/. - ert) FeO HOSIO
For adminiftration - + eh i - Oo 14 0
For probates of wills under golk - = - - O19 6
For adminiftration - - - -% = B70
For probates of wills under 60/,- - = ny ge
For adminiftration = - ait ahi + 1ODISC
For probates of wills under 100/. . - 197 6
For adminiftration - - - - ° 115 6
For commiffions or requifitions to fwear executors
or adminiftrators :
Under 2o/. 3 gtr 1) ade aT MOP EZMEO
Under 4o/. - . - - - os 6
Under 6o/. - - - - - 016 6
Under rool. - - - - - o 18 6
And no more than 5s. are to be taken for the fuing forth
of the probate of any will or letters of adminiftration granted
to the widow, children, father, mother, brother, or fifter
of any fuch feaman or marine, &c. and 5s. for commiffions
or requifitions to {wear fuch widow, &c. unlefs the goods
amount to 100/.: which laft-mentioned charge of 5s. mutt
be underftood to be demandable where the ae or letters
of adminiftration are not for the purpofe of receiving wages,
or pay, or allowances of money remaining due, but for ge-
neral purpofes, as to obtain adminiftration of the goods and
chattels of the deceafed. ¥
A bill of the expences of obtaining letters of adminiftra-
tion to creditors, is to be laid before and taxed by one of
the regifters of the prerogative court of Canterbury, or
their deputies, who are entitled to a fee of 3s, 4d. for the
fame; and the proétor is to tranfmit fueh letters of admi-
niftration with he bill of expences fo certified, to the trea-
furer or paymatfter of his majety' navy. Proétors ay
more than the prefcribed {ums forfeit so/., and regifters an
12
} ee F
; »
other officers of any ectlefiaftical court, procuring letters
of adminiftration or probate contrary to this a& and the
26 Geo. III., to be incapacitated to aét, and forfeit 50o/.
WiLL, Qualification and Office of the Executor of a. See
Executor, Execuror de fon Tort, and Joinr-Executors.
See alfo Desrs, Desrer-Lxecutor, INVENTORY, and Lr-
GACY.
Wut, Probate of a. See Propate.
Wit, Lffate at, in Law, is where lands and tenements
are let by one man to another, to have and to hold at the
will of the leffor ; and the tenant by force of this leafe ob-
tains poffeffion. Every eftate of this kind is at the will of
. both parties, landlord and tenant: fo that either of them
may determine his will, and quit his conneétion with the
other at his own pleafure, under certain reftriftions. For,
if the tenant at will fows his land, and the landlord, before
the corn is ripe, or reaped, puts him out, the tenant shall
have the emblements, and free ingrefs and egrefs to cut and
carry away the profits. But where the tenant himfelf deter-
mines the will, the landlord fhall have the profits of the
land. The law is careful, that no fuch fudden determina-
tion of the will by one party fhall tend to the manifeft and
unforefeen prejudice of the other. This appears in the cafe
of emblements juft mentioned ; and alfo, the leffee after the
determination of the leffor’s will fhall have reafonable ingrefs
and egrefs to fetch away his goods and utenfils. And if
rent be payable quarterly or half-yearly, and the leffee de-
termines the will, the rent fhall be paid to the end of the
current quarter or half-year. Upon the fame principle,
courts of law have of late years inclined as much as poflible
againft conftruing demifes, where no certain term is men-
tioned, to be tenancies at will: but have rather held them
to be tenancies from year to year, fo long as both parties
pleafe, efpecially where an annual rent is referved: in which
cafe they will not fuffer either party to determine the tenancy
even at the end of the year, without reafonable notice to the
other. Blackft. Com. vol. ii.
Witt with a Whip. See lenis Fatuus.
Witv’s Cove, in Geography, a creek on the N.E. coaft
4 the ifland of St. Chriftopher, to the S.W. of Muddy
oint.
Witw’s Creek, a river of Maryland, which runs into the
Potomack, N. lat. 39° 30’. W. long. 78° 47'.
WILLACH. See Vitracn.
WILLAERT, Apniay, in Biography, the difciple of
John Mouton, and mafter of Zarlino, has been long placed
at the head of the Venetian {chool of counterpoint by the
Italians themfelves. He was born at Bruges in Flanders,
and during his youth ftudied the law at Paris; if with the
view of making it his profeffion, there muft have been an
early confli& between legiflation and mufic, which having a
powerful advocate in his own heart gained the caufe; for
by his own account (fee Josquin) he went to Rome in the
time of Leo X., where he found that his motet, ‘* Verbum
bonum et fuave,’? was performed in the pontifical chapel,
as the work of that renowned compofer ; he therefore muft
have been a contrapuntift fome time, before any of his works
could have travelled to Rome.
The account which Zarlino gives of this motet (P.i.
p- 175.) having pafled for a work of Jofquin, excited our
curiofity to fee it; and finding it among ae Motetti della
Corona, in the Britifh Mufeum, we {cored it; but difco-
vered that the predile&tion for a great name had operated
‘too powerfully in favour of this compofition while Jofquin
was imagined to be the author of it; for it is neither writ-
ten with the clearnefs, dexterity, nor even correétnefs, of
that wonderful contrapuntift: there is not only confufion 2
the
WIL
the parts and defign, in many places, but fomething very
harfh and unpleafing in the harmony, particularly in the
clofes without a fharp feventh, both in the key-note and in
the fifth. The motet is in fix parts, foprano, two counter-
tenors, tenor, baritono, and bafe. Some of thefe fevenths
would doubtlefs have been made fharp in performance by
the fingers of thofe times, in obedience to a rule for fharpen-
ing afcending fevenths in minor keys, and flattening them in
defcending.
The lift of his works, in Walther’s Di@tionary, though
ample, is far from complete. ‘The motet Verbum bonum,
juit mentioned, was publifhed at Foffombrone in 1519, forty-
three years before Zarlino made him an: interlocutor in his
dialogue (Ragionamente), at Venice; and it can hardly be
imagined that no others of his compofitions appeared till
1542, when, we are told, that his motets for fix voices were
publifhed. In the Fior de Motetti, lib. i. Venice, 1539,
there is a Pater-nofter, in four parts, by Adriano; and in
the fame year the firft book of his motets, for four voices,
was republifhed in the fame city by Ant. Gardano, in folio,
under the following pompous title: *¢ Famofiffimi Adriani
Willaert, Chori Divi Marci illuftriffime Reipublice Vene-
tiarum Magiftri, Mufica Quatuor Vocum (que vulgo Mo-
te€&tz nuncupatur) noviter omni ftudio, ac diligentia in lu-
cem edita.”” This edition, which, we find by the title, was
not the firft, is preferved in the Britifh Mufeum. Indeed,
for near fifty years after his name firft appeared, hardly a
colle€tion of motets or madrigals was publifhed to which he
did not contribute ; but the moft {plendid and curious work
of this author, that we have feen, is preferved in the Britifh
Mufeum. It was publifhed at Ferrara, 1558, by his fcho-
lar and friend, Francefco Viola, another of the interlocutors
in Zarlino’s Ragionamente, under the title of Mufica Nova,
in three, four, five, fix, and feven parts. In the dedication
of this work to Alfonfo d’Efte, duke of Ferrara, the editor,
his maeftro di capella, calls Adriano (the name by which he
is always mentioned by the Italians) his mafter, and fays,
that he is ftrongly attached to him, not only for his wonder-
ful abilities in mufic, but integrity, learning, and the friend-
fhip with which he has long honoured him. Zarlino, in like
manner, omits no opportunity of exalting the character of
his mafter. Thefe are honourable teftimonies of regard,
which feem the more worthy of being recorded, as, either
from the worthleffnefs of the mafter, or ingratitude of the
{cholar, they are but feldom beftowed.
In the cantus part there is a wooden cut of the author:
¢ Adrian Willaert Flandrii Effigies.”” And indeed the com-
pofitions are of that kind for which he was moft renowned,
and fuch as the editor thought would conftitute the moft
durable monument of his glory. In the tenor part there are
many canons of very curious conftruétion ; fome with two and
three clefs, and a different number of flats and fharps for the
feveral parts, which are moving in different keys at the fame
time ; and one particularly curious, in feven parts, ‘‘ Preter
rerum feriem,’”? of which three are in ftri& canon of the
fourth and fifth above the guide; the tenor leading off in
G, the fextus following in C, and the feptima pars in D,
while the reft move in free fugue.
Zarlino (P. ili. p. 268.) afligns to Adriano the invention
of pieces for two or more choirs; and Piccitoni (Guida
Armonica) fays, that he was the firft who made the bafes in
compofitions of eight parts, move in unifons or o€taves ;
particularly when divided into two choirs, and performed at
a diftance from each other, as then they had occafion for a
powerful guide. The dexterity and refources of this author,
in the conftruction of canons, are truly wonderful, as is, in-
deed, his total want of melody ; for it is fcarcely poffible to
WIL
arrange mufical founds, diatonically, with lefs air or mean-
ing, in the fingle parts. But there are many avenues through
which a mufician may travel to the temple of Fame; and he
that purfues the track which the’ learned have marked out,
will perhaps not find it the moft circuitous and tedious; at
leaft theorifts, who are the moft likely to record the adven-
tures of paflengers on that road, will be the readieft to give
him a caft. A learned and elaborate ftyle conceals the want
of genius and invention, more than the free and fanciful
produétions of the prefent times.
Adriano lived to a great age, and filled a very high mufi-
cal ftation, maeftro di capella of St. Mark’s church at Venice.
His works and fcholars were very numerous; and among
thofe to whom he communicated the principles of his art,
there were feveral who afterwards arrived at great eminence ;
fuch as Cipriano Rore, Zarlino, and Coftanzo Porta. In
the title of a book, publifhed at Venice, 1549, there are
“ Fantafie,’’ or “ Ricercari,” compofed dallo excellentiffimo
Adrian Vuigliart, and Cipriano Rore, fuo difcepolo. P.
Martini, in his Saggio di Contrappunto, P. ii. p. 266. calls
Adrian Willaert the mafter of Coftanzo Porta. Burney.
WILLAFANS, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Doubs; 3 miles S.E. of Ornans.
WILLAKALA, a town of Sweden, in Finland; 48
miles E. of Biorneborg.
WILLAWAKY, an Indian town on the N.W. coaft
of lake Michigan. N. lat. 47° 45!. W. long. 87° 10!.
WILLDENOVIA, in Botany, received its name from
profeflor Thunberg, in honour of Dr. Charles Lewis Will-
denow, late profeffor of botany at Berlin, well known as
the author of many learned botanical writings, but efpe-
cially by his Species Plantarum, of which the immortal work
of Linneus, bearing the fame title, is the bafis. The ad-
dition of effential chara¢ters, and of many new fpecies, ' be-
fides thofe accumulated in profufion, with great intelligence
and difcrimination, from authors fubfequent to Linnzus,
might entitle this to rank as an original work ; were not
the Linnsean part of it too fervile a tranfcript, not only of
miftakes, of remarks contradiGting each other, and of evi-
dently falfe fynonyms; but in general of errors of the
prefs, and wrong citations of plates and pages, ‘which prove
that the refpective books, though in every body’s hands,
were not confulted. The learned editor happily lived to
complete the firft part of the fifth volume, comprifing the
order of Filices, in which he was well verfed. That he
left the reft of the Cryptogamia unattempted, is perhaps ra-
ther fortunate than otherwife. The Mu/ci, Lichenes, and
Fungi, each form a ftudy by themfelves, and are treated of
feparately by different authors. They would have added
enormoufly to Willdenow’s work, and could, after all, have
proved but a compilation. If the fcience goes on as it has
done, an univerfal botanift will be nearly as impoffible a
charaéter as an univerfal naturalift is at prefent.
Another genus (fee ScuLECHTENDALIA) was dedicated
to Willdenow by Cavanilles, which is retained in Lamarck’s
Illuftrations, t. 685, by the name of Vildenovia. The
change of orthography at the conclufion we readily adopt,
inftead of the uncouth Willdenowa, or Willdenowia, and it is
now likewife followed by Thunberg himfelf, in his Flore
Capenfis.—Thunb. in Stockh. Tranf. for 1790, 28. Prodr.
14. Fl. Capenf. v. 1. 312. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 717+
Poiret in Lamarck Dié. v. 6. 177.—Clafs and order, Dioe-
cia Triandria. (Triandria Monogynia; Thunb,)—Nat.
Ord. Tripetaloidee, Linn. Junci, Jufl. Reffiacee, Brown
Prodr. v. 1. 243.
Gen. Ch.’ Male, Cal. Perianth inferior, of numerous, im=
bricated, membranous, pointed, permanent glumes, ee
3L2 than
~
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than the fruit. Cor. Petals fix, equal, ere&t, oval, mem-
branous, permanent. S*am. Filaments three, capillary,
fhorter than the corolla ; anthers ovate-oblong.
Female, Calyx and corolla as in the male. Pi/l. Germen
fuperior, roundifh; ityle very fhort, two or three-cleft ;
ftigmas two or three, downy. Peric. Drupa dry, roundifh,
{mooth. Seed. Nut folitary, of one cell.
Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx of many imbricated glumes. Co-
rolla of fix petals, permanent.
Female, Calyx and corolla as in the male.
Stigmas two or three. Drupa with one feed.
Obt, This genus differs from Restio (fee that article),
chiefly in having a fingle-feeded drupa inttead of a cap/ule,
opening by valves, and containing feyeral /eeds. We have
here merely altered the phrafeology refpecting the calyx,
which in Reffio is termed, rather improperly, a catkin.
1. W. ffriata. Striated Willdenovia. Thunb. in Stockh.
Tranf. for 1790, 27. t. 2. f..1.: Fl. Cap. v. 1.312. Willd.
nsI- Poiret n. 3.—Stem leaflefs, round, ftriated.—Native
of the Cape of Good Hope, as are likewife the two fol-
lowing {pecies. The /lem is two feet high, or more, erect,
rufhy, hard and. rather fhrubby, branched, ufually fimply
forked, rarely three-forked, round, jointed, {triated, {mooth ;
the branches alfo round, ftriated. Sheaths at each joint and
fubdivifion folitary, ovate, clofe, brown, fmooth. Leaves
none. Flowers terminal, folitary, ere&, the fize of a pea.
Scales of the ca/yx about ten, rarely fewer, or more, loofely
imbricated, equal, oblong, pointed, brown, fmooth, the
length of the nail, membranous at the edges. Corolla white,
much fhorter than the drupa, and preffed clofe to its fides.
Style in two fhort, broad, yellow -divifions. Stigmas fhort,
obtufe, brown. Drupa ovate, black, dotted ; fometimes,
according to Thunberg, of two cells, which laft circum-
ce, if real, greatly invalidates the generic character.
2. W. teres. Smooth Willdenovia. Thunb. in Stockh.
Tranf. for 1790, 28. t. 2.f. 2. Fl. Cap. v. 1.314. Willd.
n. 2. Poiret n. 1.—Stem and branches leaflefs, round,
fmooth and even. The fem of this fpecies is fhrubby, much
branched, jointed, fimply or triply forked, ere&, a foot or
more in height, not ftriated; its branches fomewhat level-
topped. Sheaths at each fub?ivifion ovate, brown, fmooth,
as long as the nail. lowers terminal, folitary, ere&.
Scales of the calyx about fix, ovate, awned, grey and
{mooth. Petals very thort, emarginate, fhining, furround-
ing the bafe of the fruit. Style undivided, very fhort.
Stigmas feathery, tapering, purplith. Drupa hard, ovate,
black, {mooth, of one cell.—This plant differs from the
foregoing in having fewer calyx-/cales, a {mooth and more
branched fem, long tapering /ligmas, and a {mooth, not
dotted, fruit. Poiret, who had feen a fpecimen, attributes
to the prefent fpecies the flefhy cylindrical body, with fix
notches, furrounding the bafe of the corolla externally, which
Willdenow calls a ne@ary, and admits into his generic cha-
racter, We have feen but few and incomplete fpecimens of
any of the genus, and therefore cannot judge of the part in
queftion, but we prefume the term neary mult here be mif-
applied. Thunberg does not mention it in his Flora.
3. W. compreffa. Compreffed Willdenovia. Thunb. in
Stockh. Tranf. for 1790, 28. t. 2. f. 3. Fl. Cap. v. 1. 315-
Willd. n. 3. Poiret n. 2.—Stem leah » {mooth and even ;
branches comprefled. Stem two feet high, or more, fhrubby,
ere&t, {mooth in every re{pe&, fimply or triply forked ; its
branches compreffed, or femi-cylindrical, wand-like. Sheaths
6f the fubdivifions ovate, pointed. Leaves on the young
branches, and refembling them, thread-fhaped, tapering.
Flowers terminal, folitary, upright, the fize of a pea.
Scales of the calyx ovate, awued, fmooth, membranous at
Style one.
WIL
the edges. Petals ovate, acute, as long as the fruit. Style
undivided. Stigmas three, feathery. Drupa ovate, com-
preffed, obtufe, grey. Thunberg.
WILLEBROD, in Biography, the apoftle of Frifeland,
was an Anglo-Saxon, and born in Northumberland about
the year 658, and educated in the abbey of Rippon, where
he engaged in the religious profeffion. At the age of
33, he accompanied eleven of his countrymen into Ba-
tavia, and employed himfelf for three or four years in con-
verting the Frifians who were under the French dominion ;
and having met with great fuccefs, he went to Rome, and
received from pope Sergius the pallium, ordaining him arch-
bifhop of Frifeland. Pepin gave him a réfidence at Wilte-
burg, now Utrecht, of which he was the firft prelate. Em-
barking from Frifeland for the north, he penetrated into Den-
mark, and in his return was caft by a ftorm on an ifland
called Fofteland, fuppofed to be the fame with Heligoland.
He afterwards baptized Pepin, fon of Charles Martel, and
{pent the reft of his life in propagating Chriftianity among
the Batavians. His colleague and affiftant was Winfrid,
his countryman, furnamed Boniface, the apoftle of Ger-
many. He died in 740, at the age of 82; was buried
at his abbey of Efternac, in the diocefe of Teves, and ho-
noured with canonization. His life was written by the
celebrated Alcuin. Mofheim. Moreri.
WILLEMSTADT, or Wictiamsrapt, in Goaragies
a ftrong town of Holland, fituated upon that part of the e
called Buttervliet, built in 1584, by William I., prince of
Orange, from whom it receives its name. This fortrefs is one
of the keys of Holland, and defended with feven baftions and
double foffe ; it has alfo a good harbour, but which it is fome-
times dangerous for wéffels to enter at certain times of the
year. It was befieged by thg I'rench in the year 1793, but
by the brave refiftance of the governor and garrifon, affifted
by the Engltfh, with gun-boats, &c. the befiegers were
compelled to retire with great lofs; 12 miles S.W. of
Dort. N. lat. 51°41! E. long. 4° 18!.
WILLENBERG, or WixpenBeERG, atown of Pruffia,
in the province of Oberland ; 93 miles S. of Konighberg.
N. lat. 53° 11/. E. long. 20° 53!
WILLERING, a town of Auftria, on the Danube; 4
miles W. of Lintz.
WILLERSDORF, a town of Bavaria, in the bi-
fhopric of Bamberg ; 5 miles S.W.of Forcheim. *
WILLET’s Bay, a bay on the north-weft coaft of the
ifland of St. Chriftopher, about a mile to the fouth-weft of
Dieppe Bay.
WILLIAM L.,, called ‘ the Conqueror,” king of Eng-
land, and duke of Normandy, in Biography, was the natu-
ral fon of Robert, duke of Normandy, by Arlotta, the
daughter of a tanner, and born in 1024. When his father
went on a pilgrimage to Jerufalem, and his fon was only
nine years of age, he caufed the ftates of the duchy to
{wear allegiance to William, as his heir. On his return in
1033, Robert died; and the confequence was a variety of
diffenfions among the barons of the duchy, in which
Henry I. of France took a part ; fo that when William ar-
rived at majority, he found his dominions in a low and dif-
trated ftate. But his vigour and exertions foon reftored
order and fubmiflion, and general tranquillity through his
duchy. Edward the Confeffor, at this time bing of Eng-
land, had no children ; and the archbifhop of Canterbury,
who was a Norman, recommended his adopting William
as his fucceffor, and he was commiffioned by the king to
inform the duke of his intention. However, as he had not
publicly divulged his purpofe, Harold, the fon of earl God-
win, afcended the throne without oppofition, on his deceafe
in
WILLIAM.
in 1066. Harold, however, had previoufly taken a folemn
eath to affift William in accomplifhing the purpofe of Ed-
ward refpeCting the fucceffion; and his perfidy excited the
indignation of William, and induced him to prepare for dif-
poflefling Harold of the Englifh throne by force of arms.
His intentions were no fooner announced than he was joined
by a great number of military adventurers ; and upon an ap-
pealto Rome, the pope fanétioned the conteft, and fent him
a confecrated banner. Thus encouraged, he affembled a
fleet of 3000 veffels, and an army of 60,000 men; and de-
termining on invading England, landed on September 28,
1066, at Pevenfey, in Suffex. Harold, as foon as he re-
ceived this intelligence, marched from York, and having re-
cruited his forees at London, haftened to encounter the
Normans, who were encamped near Haftings. On the 14th
of Ogtober the two armies engaged, and after a fevere
battle, which lafted during a whole day, the Englifh were
defeated, with the lofs of Harold and his two brothers.
Wilkam loft no time in availing himfelf of this victory ; but
having reduced the town and caftle of Dover, and received
the fubmiffion of the Kentifh men, proceeded towards Lon-
don. In his way he was met by Edgar Atheling, who had
been proclaimed legal heir to the monarchy, Stigand, arch-
bifhop of Canterbury, and fome of the principal nobility,
who made an offer to him of the crown; and on Chriftmas-
day, 1066, after a kind of tumultuous eleétion, he was
crowned at Weitminfter-abbey by the archbifhop of York,
and took the coronation-oath. Having adopted meafures
for conciliating his fubjeéts, and overawing thofe who were
adverfe to him, he re-croffed the fea to Normandy, taking
with him as hoftages Edgar, the primate, and feveral of the
principal nobility. Soon after his departure, the Englifh
were treated contumelioufly and oppreflively by the Nor-
mans, whofe condué excited infurre¢tions, and led to a con-
{piracy for the maffacre of all who remained in the country.
This intelligence. occafioned William’s return in December
1067 ; and among other meafures of amore conciliatory na-
ture, he imprudently renewed the tax called « danegelt,”’
which excited infurre€tions through various parts of the
kingdom. A\s foon as thefe infurre@ions were fupprefled,
his queen, Matilda, was crowned at Weltminfter: but new
troubles arofe from the union of the two principal nobles,
Edwin and Morcar, with the kings of Scotland and Den-
mark, and the prince of North Wales, which threatened an
extenfive revolt. The confpiracy for this purpofe was dif-
covered and crufhed, and meafures were taken for prevent-
ing the evils that were likely to refult from it. From this
time William’s government became daily more and more
defpotic ; and the nobility of the country, perceiving that
their ruin was the obje&t of his contemplation, prepared to
leave the kingdom. Infurreétions broke out in various parts
of the country, and the means which he adopted for fup-
prefling them were in the higheft degree rigorous and de-
fiructive. Asa meafure of future prevention, he brought
from Normandy the feudal conftitution into England, and
divided moft of the lands into baronies, which he granted to
the moft confiderable of his followers, under the condi-
tion of certain fervices and payments; and thefe fubdivided
their fhares on fimilar tenures, among others, chiefly fo-
reigners, of inferior rank. ‘The ecclefiaftical property of
the kingdom was regulated upon a fimilar fyftem; and un-
der various pretences, the Normans fuperfeded the Englifh
in the poffeffion of all church dignities. In order to favour
this expulfion of the Englifh dignitaries, a legate from the
pope was, for the firft time, admitted into this country, and
a reverence for the fee of Rome, fimilar to that which fub-
fifted on the continent, was inculcated on all Britifh fub-
2
jets ; whillt the king took care, by referving certain powers
to himfelf, to guard the civil fovereignty againft papal
ufurpations. In order further to fubjugate the minds of
the Englifh, and reduce them to the ftate of a conquered
people, the king projected the abolition of their language ;
and by admitting at court no other language befides the
French, he caufed all the youth in the {chools of the king-
dom to be initruéted in it, and the laws to be drawn up in
that Janguage, which was alfo ufed in all judicial pleadings
and writings.
Having fuppreffed an infurre€tion which broke out in
1071 by the inftigation of the earls Edwin and Morcar, and
in the following year negotiated a peace with Malcolm, king
of Scotland, he was called to Normandy in 1073, on occa-
fion of a revolt in that country. In 1075 his prefence was
neceffary in England to check a conf{piracy among the Nor-
man barons, whom he had diftinguifhed by his favour, and
who were joined by Waltheof, an Englifh nobleman, on
whom he had beftowed his niece Judith. Waltheof, in this
confpiracy, fell a facrifice to the treachery of his wife. In
the following year, ‘viz. 1076, the haughty and ambitious
Hildebrand, who was now pope Gregory VII., required Wil-
liam to do homage for his kingdom to the holy fee, alleging a
promife to this purpofe, and alfo to pay the accuftomed Eng-
hfh tribute. William denied his promife of homage, which
he refufed to render, but remitted to Rome the Peter-pence ;
and whilft he would not allow the Englifh prelates to attend
a general council fummoned by Gregory, he permitted the
pope’s legate to convene a fynod at Winchetter for eftablifh-
ing the celibacy of the clergy. On his return to Normandy
in this year, he found the country engaged in a civil war, in
confequence of a rebellion excited by his fon Robert. On
this occafion the father and fon had a perfonal encounter ;
but when the fon difcovered that he was thus engaged, he
was {truck with horror, fell at his father’s feet, and implored
forgivenefs. The father was at firft unrelenting ; but they
were afterwards reconciled. About the year 1081, William
ordered that furvey of the landed property of the kingdom
to be made which is recorded in Domefday-book. (See
Domespay. For an account of the impolitic as well as cruel
manner in which he indulged his paffion for the chace, we
refer to the article Forrest.) The latter years of his life fur-
nifhed various occafions of affi@tion.and difquietude. ‘The
death of his queen Matilda, to whom he was affectionately at-
tached, was anevent that took place in 1083, and was thecaufe
of undiflembled forrow and lamentation. 'The preparations
made by the king of Denmark and the earl of Flanders for
an invafion of England occafioned to him no {mall degree of
anxiety: and when he was refcued from this danger by the
death of the Danifh king, he was called into Normandy in
1086, to repel the incurfions of fome French barons ; and
fufpeéting that the king of Francehad inftigated them to thefe
acts of hoftility, he commenced a war againit him in 1087,
in the profecution of which he even laid wafte the country
at the approach of harveft by the moft cruel devaftation.
But an accidental injury which he received in mounting his
horfe ftopped his career, and terminated in his death.
Alarmed by the near profpeét of diffolution, his mind was
haraffed with remorfe in the review of the atrocious con-
du& with which he was chargeable, and he fought relief
by donations to the church, to which perfons of his charac-
ter have commonly reforted, and by the pardon and releafe
of fome of his enemies. By his laft teftament he bequeathed
to his eldeft fon Robert the counties of Normandy and
Maine, and to his fecond fon William, the crown of Eng-
land, and to his third fon, Henry, the property of his mo-
ther. He expired at the abbey of St. Gervais, near
Roven,
WILLIAM.
Rouen, on September 9, 1087, in the 63d year of his age,
and the 21ft “3 his reign over England, leaving five daugh-
ters, as well as fons. ‘ William the Conqueror at his
death,”’ fays one of his biographers, ‘ was the moft power-
ful and greateft fovereign of his time. He poffeffed fupe-
rior talents, political and martial, and employed them with
fingular vigour and induftry. But his paffions were ftrong,
his difpofition was fevere and mercilefs, and his ambition and
love of rule caufed him to difregard all reftraints of juftice
and humanity. There never was a more fortunate ufurper
of a throne, which he tranfmitted to along and ftill fubfitt-
ing line of defcendants ; and the eftablifhment of his dynafty
is the moft confpicuous era of Englifh hiftory.”’ Rapin.
Hume. Henry. Lyttleton. Gen. Biog.
Wi1ram IL., furnamed Rufus, fecond fon of the Con-
queror, and king of England by his father’s nomination, was
crowned at Weftminfter in September 1087, and recog-
nized as king when he was about 27 years of age. His
brother Robert fucceeded to the dukedom of Normandy by
the difpofition of his father, which proved the occafion of
much difcontent and conteft; partly becaufe the great
barons poffeffed eftates both in England and Normandy, and
under feparate governments; and partly becaufe Robert
was the eldeft fon, and the moft popular. A confpiracy
was foon formed by the maternal brothers of the late king,
in which many nobles concurred for depofing William.
But William, poffefling a certain portion of his father’s
vigour, took meafures Fe defeating them. With this view
he conciliated the native Englifh, took poffeffion of the
caftles and perfons of the unfortunate barons, banifhed them
to Normandy, and beftowed their eftates on his faithful ad-
herents. When he was firmly feated on the throne, he for-
got his promifes of relieving the Englifh from oppreffion,
and even enhanced the feverity of the foreft laws. "The death
of Lanfranc, whom he refpeéted, left him at liberty to feize
vacant bifhoprics and abbeys, and to beftow church lands
on his captains and favourites. In 1090 he vifited Nor-
mandy with hoftile intentions refpecting his brother ; but a
negociation took place, and they were reconciled. Robert
accompanied William to England, and commanded an army
which was fent againft Malcolm, king of Scotland. But a
variance foon took place between the brothers, occafioned
by the encroaching and treacherous difpofition of William,
which led him to excite the Norman barons to rebel againft
Robert. Whilft William was profecuting hoftile meafures
againft his brother, he was recalled to England in 1095, to
f{upprefs a confpiracy among the barons in the north, whom
he {peedily defeated and feverely punifhed. The fpirit of
crufading having at this time pervaded Europe, Robert was
feized with the mania, and mortgaged his dukedom to Wil-
liam for 10,000 marks, in order to enable him to unite with
the crufaders in 1096. William, having gone over to the
continent to take poffeffion of Normandy and Maine, was
taken extremely ill, and apprehending danger, refolved to
repair the injury which he had done to the church, and to
fupply the vacancy of the archbifhopric of Canterbury,
which had continued from the death of Lanfranc. ‘The
ecclefiaftic nominated on this occafion was Anfelm, who,
notwithftanding the difinclination he had manifetted againtt
accepting the appointment, was afterwards a zealous
defender of the rights of the church, and of ecclefiaftical
authority in general. The king and the primate foon dif-
agreed ; and though a fynod was affembled for the depofi-
tion of the archbifhop, the king failed in the attempt. But
when Anfelm defired permiffion to leave the kingdom, he
obtained leave ; but his temporalities were feized, and the
pope received him as a confeflor in the caufe of religion,
William’s French acquifitions were the occafion of trouble
to him; for whilft he was hunting in the New Foreft, he
received information that the citadel of Maine was befieged,
and he therefore haftened to Dartmouth, and determined to
embark without delay. As the weather was tempeituous,
the mariners expreffed fome apprehenfion of danger; the
king, however, was refolute and perfevering, and afked them
if they had eyer heard of a king who was drowned. Having
accomplifhed his objeét, he was applied to by the duke of
Guienne, who was under the influence of the paffion for crn-
fading, for the loan of a fum of money, as a mortgage on
his rich provinces of Guienne and Poitou. William ac-
cepted the propofal ; but whilft he was preparing to carry
over the money, and to. take pofleffion of the provinces, he
was accidentally killed inthe New Foreft. Having alighted
from his horfe after a chafe, a itag {prung up Sear aor}
and a French gentleman, Walter Tyrrel, perceiving the
animal, fhot off an arrow, which glancing from a tree, en-
tered the king’s breaft, and penetrated to the heart. Tyrrel
immediately fled, and embarking for France, joined the
crufaders. The king’s body was found by the country
people, and interred without ceremony at Winchefter.
This happened on Auguft 2, 1100, when the king was in
the 4oth year of his age, and the 13th of his reign. The
charaéter of William Rufus has been unfavourably repre-
fented, both on account of the depredations which he com-
mitted in the church, and of his indifference to religion.
“« The incidents of his reign,” fays a biographer, ‘ prove
him to have poffeffed vigour and decifion, courage and po-
licy ; but to have been violent, perfidious, and rapacious,
and void of all fenfe of juftice and honour. One of his beft
public aéts was the fending Edgar Atheling into Scotland,
to reftore prince Edgar, fon of Malcolm, to the throne of
that kingdom, of which he was the lawful heir. He de-
ferves to be regarded as a promoter of the ufeful arts by his
ftill-remaining erections of the Tower, London-bridge, and
Weftminfter-hall.”” Gen. Biog.
Witttam III., king of England, prince of Orange, and
ftadtholder of Holland, was the pofthumous fon of Wil-
liam II., prince of Orange, and of Mary, daughter of
Charles I., king of England, and born on November 14,
1650, at a very imerclethy period. His guardianfhip was
divided between the princefs-royal his mother, the princefs-
dowager his grandmother, and the ele€tor of Brandenburg.
During the negociations that fucceeded the naval war be-
tween the Englifh and Duteh republics, Cromwell, the pro-
tector, ftipulated, that the prince of Orange, who was a
branch of the houfe of Stuart, fhould be for ever excluded
from the ftadtholderate ; but on the event of the Reftora-
tion, the princefs-royal petitioned, in 1662, that her fon
might be invefted with the offices and dignities which be-
longed to his anceftors ; and foon after the aét of exclufion
againft him was annulled. Although the ftates of Holland
would not admit, as a condition of peace in the fucceedin
war between England and the United States, the prelimi-
nary propofed by Charles II. of elevating the prince to the
ftadtholderate, they formally adopted him as ‘‘a child of the
ftate,’’ and placed him under the care of perfons who
fhould infpire him with principles fuited to his fituation
under a free government. After fome fubfequent debates
concerning the rank which fhould be afligned him, he was
raifed in 1670 to the dignity of firft noble of Zealand, and
then admitted into the council of {tate. On occafion of the
war, which was declared by Lewis, and his penfioner
Charles, againft the United States in 1672, the public voice
obliged the magiltracy of Holland to revoke the perpetual
edit procured by De Witt for abolifhing the fadtholder-
ate,
WILLIAM.
ate, and to confer that dignity with all its prerogatives upon
William. Thus authorized by the States to change the
regency in all the moft confiderable towns of Holland and
Zealand, party oppofition was extinguifhed, and every pro-
pofal for the defence of the country was unanimoufly
adopted. The prince, at this early age, fully juftified the
confidence that was repofed in him by the firmnefs and ele-
vation of his mind. At an extraordinary aflembly of the
ftates, he pointed out, in an elaborate f{peech, the pernicious
confequences that muft refult from the ‘ peace propofed by
the French king, who was in poffeffion of three of the pro-
vinces ; he fhewed the poflibility of raifing fupplies for a war
in defence of their religion and liberty ; and by the cool
intrepidity of his manner and force of his arguments, he
produced fuch an effe€&t upon his before-defponding audi-
ence, that they concurred in the refolution of making every
facrifice, rather than defert the caufe of their country.
Vigorous meafures were entered upon ; foreign alliances
were formed ; fortunate circumftances prevented the further
advance of the French, who evacuated the province of
Utrecht ; Charles II. was obliged by his parliament to
make peace, in 1674, with the Dutch, who in the fame
year figned feparate treaties with the bifhop of Muniter
and the eleGtor of Cologne; and at length the three con-
quered provinces were re-united to the States General ; and
the condu& of the prince of Orange fo much ingratiated
him with the ftates of Holland, that the offices of ftadtholder
and captain-general were declared hereditary in his male
line.”? In all his military ations, he difplayed both courage
and wifdom ; fo that the prince of Condé teftified in his
favour, that at the battle of Seneff, ‘he had in every point
aGted like an old captain, except in venturing his life too
like a young foldier.’”? The humiliation of the French
king feems to have been his favourite obje& ; and with this
view he wifhed to fix the Englifh court in the fame in-
tereft. This was one motive which induced him to conneé&
himfelf more clofely with the royal family, by a marriage
with Mary, eldeft daughter of the duke of York. Accord-
ingly he came into England in 1678, and then the nuptials
took place which were fo fatisfaftory to the nation, and
which were afterwards followed by the moft important con-
fequences. Without enlarging on the meafures purfued by
the prince on the continent, we fhall dire& our attention to
thofe in which our own country was more immediately in-
terefted. The fucceffion of the prince’s father-in-law to the
crown of England in 1685, inftead of ftrengthening the
bonds of affinity by which they were attached to one
another, ferved only to feparate them more widely.
The king was a bigotted papift, and the prince was re-
garded as a great fupporter of the Proteftant caufe on
the continent, and therefore they could not cordially concur
in their views and operations. King James, whofe obje&
was to render the Catholic religion predominant, began with
endeavouring to procure for it a free toleration in Great
Britain, by a repeal of the penal laws and the teft-a& ; and
in order the more effeCtually to accomplifh his purpofe, he
ftrongly folicited the prince of Orange to exprefs his con-
currence and that of the princefs; but as they knew how
unpopular the defign was in England, they refufed to grant
it. About this time Lewis XIV., under the impulfe of his
own bigotry, and that of thofe with whom he aéted, re-
pealed the edié&t of Nantes, which had fecured the privi-
leges of his Proteftant fubjeéts ; and by his harfh treatment
of them, drove numbers of them out of his dominions, and
thus excited a dread and hatred of popery through all
Proteftant countries of Europe. The effeét of this mea-
fure with regard to the prince of Orange was, that it fuf-
pended all party oppofition to him in Holland, and gave
him additional importance in Europe, as the determined foe
of French ambition. The arbitrary proceedings of king
James alarmed all the friends of civil liberty, and of the
eftablifhed religion in England ; and apprehenfive of danger,
they dire€ted their views to the prince of Orange as their
deliverer. Accordingly conferences were held with a con-
fidential envoy whom he fent over to afcertain the public
opinion ; applications were made to the prince by feveral
perfons of rank ; and at length, when the birth of a prinee
of Wales difappointed all hopes of a Proteftant fucceffion,
the leading men of different parties concurred in aétually
inviting him to come over, and to undertake the proteétion
of the church and conftitution from threatening ruin. The
prince confented, and with confummate prudence and fecrecy
prepared for the interefting expedition ; and as exifting cir-
cumftances afforded a profpeét of a breach between the
United States and their allies, and the king of France, he
was thus enabled to augment the Dutch forces by fea and
land without fufpicion. Having previoufly difperfed
through the kingdom a declaration, ftating the grievances
of the reign, and announcing his intention of bringing over
an armed force to defend the nation from tyranny, and to
procure the affembling of a free parliament, he put to fea in
OGober 1688, witha fleet of about 500 veflels, and an army
of 14,000 men. He was once driven back by a ftorm, but
a fecond attempt fucceeded, fo that he gained the Englifh
coaft without oppofition, (the king’s fleet being wind-
bound,) and on the sth of November difembarked his
troops at Torbay. Of the caufes, progrefs, and termina-
tion of the Revolution, we have given an account under the
articles James II. of England, and Revotution. King
William feated on the throne became fovereign of a power-
ful kingdom ; but his tranquil poffeffion of the crown de-
pended on a variety of circumf{tances which he could neither
dire&t nor controul. The confli& of different parties was
not eafily reftrained ; nor were his difpofition and manners,
which were cold and referved, notwithftanding all his excel-
lent qualities, adapted to unite and conciliate the partifans
of the old and new government. Amongft thofe who had
taken an aétive part in the late meafures, or who had ac-
quiefced during their progrefs, fome were diffatisfied with
the total exclufion of James and his infant fon ; and others
could not approve the transfer of the crown by the will
of the people. In Scotland, the appointment of William
was the act merely of the whigs ; and in Ireland, where the
population was chiefly Catholic, the intereft of James was
predominant. The church zealots in England were not
pleafed with the tolerant principles manifefted by king
William, and with the wifhes he expreffed for the compre-
henfion of the diffenters. Thus circumftanced, the com-
mencement of his reign was embroiled by the open oppofi-
tion and fecret intrigues of his enemies, and in the progrefs
of it the collifion of parties was the occafion of much per-
fonal difquietude both to him and to the queen. His atten-
tion was for a confiderable time diftracted by the ftate of
his native country, when war with France was renewed in
1689, by James’s invafion of Ireland in the {pring of that
year, when his intereft with the Catholics was powerful,
and in which he was aided by the French king, and alfo by
an infurreGtion of the Jacobite party in Scotland. Ireland
feemed at this time to demand his principal exertions ; for
though marfhal Schomberg had been fent over in 1689 to
oppole the progrefs of the late king, little had been done
to.any important purpofe. Accordingly in the fummer of
1690, he embarked with a reinforcement for this country, and.
by the battle of the Boyne, in which Schomberg was Ailes
le
WILLIAM. :
he routed the Irifh army, and totally difperfed it. James
abandoned the conteft, and fled precipitately to France,
leaving the redu@tion of the ifland to William, which was
chmiphnaly effe€ted in the following year. Whilft he was
thus engaged in military operations, a party fpirit agitated
his domeftic government. The convention parliament, con-
fifting of whigs, who were his decided friends, dreaded mo-
narchical power, and refufed to fettle upon him the crown
revenue for life. Hence he was led to diffolve the parlia-
ment in difguft; but he foon found that the*new par-
liament, in which the influence of the tories preponderated,
though it readily indulged his defires with regard to the
revenue, and voted liberal fupplies for the Irifh war, was
compofed of perfons that were not real friends to the prin-
ciples which placed him upon the throne. We fhall leave
to the details of hiftory the events that occurred on the con-
tinent in the profecution of the war againft France; and
proceed to obferve, that in the year 1695 he fuffered a
fevere lofs by the death of queen Mary, who had proved
herfelf an affeGtionate wife, and both faithful and zealous in
promoting his intereft ; nor was his attachment to her lefs
ardent and fincere. The deceafe of Mary revived the hopes
of the Jacobites, and they were bufy and aétive in formmg
confpiracies, not ferupling to concert the atrocious’ plan of
affaffinating the king. In 1697 peace with France was con-
cluded at Ry{wick, and Lewis was reduced to the neceflity
of acknowledging William as the lawful fovereign of Great
Britain, and to make no future attempts for difpoffeffing
him of his throne. The next conteft that engaged political
parties at home related to the reduétion of the military efta-
blifhment. King William, attached to a military life, and
not very confident with refpe& to his own fecurity on the
throne, wifhed to retain a greater force than parliament was
difpofed to allow; which was no more than 7000 men, who
were to be all natives; fo that he was under a neceflity,
though with great reluétance, of parting with his favourite
Dutch guards. The next political object that engaged the
king’s attention was connected with the balance of power
in Europe, and that was the fucceffion to the crown of
Spain, upon the death of Charles II., who was in a de-
chining ftate of health, and who had no iffue. In 1701 the
king of Spain died, and left a teftament in favour of the
grandfon of Lewis XIV., which will was accepted by the
French king; and of courfe preparations were made by
William and the Dutch for renewing the war with France.
This meafure was further rendered neceffary by the death
of James II. in the fame year, and Lewis’s acknowledgment
of his fon as king of Great Britain. On the meeting of the
parliament at the end of this year, William made a {peech
on the ftate of affairs, on his own propofed condu&, and on
the neceflity of mutual confidence between the crown and
people. This fpeech was much applauded, and was an-
{wered by a very loyal addrefs. Thus was his reign, which
had been diftinguifhed by its viciffitudes and trials, and by
the extenfive and permanent benefits that refulted from it,
drawing to its termination. A fall from his horfe gave a
fhock to his enfeebled conftitution, and brought on a fever,
the iffue of which he tranquilly expeéted ; and he expired
on the 8th of Mareh, O.S. 1702, in the 52d year of his
age, and 13th of his reign.
The charaéter of king William has been varioufly de-
lineated by political writers of different fentiments and difpo-
fitions. All allow that he poffeffed confiderable political
talents, and though in his military operations he was often
unfuccefsful, few perfons exceeded him in his ability for re-
pairing loffes, and making a good clofe of a campaign.
Although, as we have before faid, his manners were cold
and referved, he was not deftitute of fenfibility. The par-
tifans of James, and thofe who difapproved of the Revolu-
tion, have cenfured his condu& in depofing his father-in-
law ; but public liberty and the welfare of a nation muft be
ever regarded as paramount to private duties. He never
fought power otherwife than for accomplifhing the import-
ant and beneficial ends to which his views were direéted ;
and therefore he cannot be juftly charged with a culpable
degree of ambition. Whatever may be the opinion of er-
roneous and interefted individuals of the jacobites and tories
of more ancient or modern times, ‘* he will ever be te-
fully remembered,” as one of his biographers fays, ‘ by the
United Netherlands, as the great founder of their freedom
and independence ; and will be honoured as the deliverer of
the Britith iflands from tyranny, civil and religious, as long
asa due fenfe of the benefits of that deliverance fubfifts
among their inhabitants”?
Though the Jacobites in England would not allow that
this prince had any mufic in his foul, Bonnet Bourdelot, in
his “ Hift. de la Mof. et de les Effets,”” fays, “¢ that he had
been informed by a friend, one of the attendants of the
prince of Orange, afterwards king of England, that in the
year 1688, the prince being then at the Hague, and, as may
be fuppofed, deeply engaged in reflexions on the critical
fituation of his affairs at that time, had three choice mufi-
cians to play to him whenever he found himfelf too much
agitated and thoughtful.”’
WirxiaM of Naffau, prince of Orange, and founder of
the Dutch republic, was born in Germany in 1533, and de-
{cended from Lutheran parents, though, being introduced into
the fervice of Mary queen of Hungary, and afterwards of
Charles V., he conformed to the Catholic religion. He
was trained to military and civil employments of high rank ;
and as he had ample poffeflions in the Low Countries, he
attained to the dignity of governor of the provinces of Hol-
land, Zealand, and Utrecht, under the Spanifh government.
His chara&er is very highly drawn, and is faid to have com-
bined magnanimity, prudence, bravery, equanimity in all
fortunes, fingular penetration and fagacity, retentive me-
mory, popular eloquence, and the art of conciliating men’s
affections. Upon the introdu€tion of the inquifition by the
bigotry of Philip II., a flame broke out in the Netherlands ;
and the prince of Orange, with the counts Egmont and
Hoorn, did every thing in their power to reftrain the feveri-
ties exercifed on a religious account, and to induce the Spamfh
court to recal cardinal Granvelle, to whofe influence folely
they were owing ; andin this effort they fucceeded in 1564.
On occafion of the fanguinary meafures propofed in the
councils of Philip, and carried into execution by the duke
of Alva, the prince of Orange, the moderation of whofe
temper caufed him to be fufpected, furrendered his employ-
ments, and retired with his family, in 1567, to his brother at
Naffau. Alva, having arrefted counts Egmont and Hoorn,
and occafioned them to be condemned and executed, cited the
prince of Orange to anfwer charges of fedition and treafon
that were preferred againit him ; and on his non-appearance,
his eftates were confifcated, and his eldeft fon, a ftudent at
Louvain, was carried off into Spain. William, who about this
time feems to have declared himfelf a Proteftant, levied an
army with a view of penetrating into Brabant; but Alva’s
military fkill defeated his purpofe, and he was under a he-
ceflity of difbanding his troops. Still determined on reliev-
ing his country, he made another application in 1571 to
feveral Proteftant powers for fuccour, but they were all
averfe from encountering the power of Spain. At length
he obtained from the court of France fome fupplies of mo-
ney, and was then enabled to fit out a {mall {quadron, which,
in
WILLIAM.
ia 1572, took poffeffion of the port of Brill. This trivial
fuccefs roufed the f{pirits of the Netherlanders, and feveral
places in Zealand and Holland declared for the Orange
party. At length a convocation of nobles and deputies from
the principal towns in Holland took place at Dordrecht,
and forming themfelves into an independent ftate, chofe
William for their chief. Convinced by the maflacre of the
Proteftants in France, that it was in vain to expect afliftance
from that quarter, he difmiffed his troops, and retired to
Holland ;~and whilft Alva was exercifing his ufual feveri-
ties, the people of Holland and Zealand alone remained in
arms againit the Spanifh government ; and the prefence of
William gave order and ftability to the new republic. Al-
though the duke of Alva was recalled from his government
in 1573, the caufe of independence was in a very precarious
ftate. However, in 1574, the ftates of Holland and Zea-
land conferred on William the fovereign authority during
the war, and formed a treaty of union and alliance with each
other. Peace with the court of Spain could not be obtained
otherwife than on terms which could not be accepted ; and
the afpe& of affairs in 1576 was very difcouraging. At
length, however, the death of Requefens, who had fucceeded
Alva as governor, and the depredations to which the towns
of Brabant and Flanders were expofed, favoured William
in his efforts to accomplifh a general union of the provinces
of the Low Countries for mutual defence; and this was
effeGted by the treaty, called the pacification of Ghent.
William was now juttly regarded as the true patron of
public liberty. At the beginning of the year 1579, the
duke of Parma being the Spanifh governor, the union of
Utrecht was figned, which was the bafis of the confedera-
tion of the Seven United Provinces, all of which, by their
deputies, concurred in forming it. When the feparation of
the Catholic and Proteftant Netherlands took place, the
latter, being diftreffed, fought the affiftance of France, by
nominating, in 1580, the duke of Anjou, brother to
Charles IX. king of France, for their fovereign, and re-
nouncing their allegiance to Philip ; but the adminiftration
of Holland and Zealand was ftill entrufted with the prince
of Orange. Philip, afcribing this meafure to William, iffued
an edié of profcription againft him; in confequence of
which his life was in danger, and an attempt was made to
aflaffinate him. At length he fell a victim to the fanaticifm
of a native of Franche-Compte, who was urged forward by
a Cordelier and a Jefuit, who, under pretence of bufinefs,
obtained accefs to him, and fhot him through the body.
He fell, and ejaculating ‘“‘ My God! have mercy upon me
and thy poor people,’’ inftantly expired, on July 10, 1584,
having nearly completed his 52d year. He was interred
with great honour and teftimonies of refpe&t, at Delft. He
was four times married, and had iflue by each wife. His
feeond fon, Maurice, fucceeded to his authority in the
United Provinces. (See Mauricr.) William, having
been educated in a court, acquired the manners and habits
of a ftatefman, and was charged with diffimulation and proud
ambition. But his obje€ts were always pure and patriotic,
and he zealoufly preferved the liberties of his country ; and,
though he has been traduced by the advocates of defpotifm,
he has received the higheft tokens of refpe& from a people
who gratefully acknowledge him as the principal author
of their freedom and independence. Univ. Hift. Gen.
Biog.
WitiraM of Wykeham, an Englifh prelate, was born in
1324, at Wykeham in Hamphfhire, and by the liberality of
a patron, educated at Winchefter {chool, and afterwards
recommended to Edyngdon, bifhop of Winchefter, who intro-
duced him into the fervice of king Edward III. about his
VoL. XXXVIII.
23d year. Acquiring extraordinary fkill in architeéture, he
was appointed in 1356 clerk of the king’s works in two
manors, and furveyor of the royal works at the caftle and in
the park of Windfor. The king was fo highly fatisfied
with his condué in thefe fimilar departments, that he recom-
penfed him by feveral preferments, civil and ecclefiaftical. In
1359 he was nominated chief warden and furveyor of the
royal caftles of Windfor, Leeds, Dover, and Hadlam, and
of feveral other caftles, manors, and parks. Whilft he had
only the clerical tonfure, he enjoyed many ecclefiaftical
dignities ; and, in order to his further advancement in the
church, he was ordained prieft in 1362. In the following
year he was made warden and jutticiary of the royal forefts
fouth of Trent, and in 1364 keeper of the privy-feal. He
was alfo chief of the privy-council, and governor of the
great council ; and befides other civil preferments which he
enjoyed, he fucceeded Edyngdon, in 1366, as bifhop of Win-
chefter, which paved the way for his elevation to the poft of
high-chancellor in 1367, of which latter dignity, however,
he was divefted in 1370. Thus poflefling ample means of mu-
nificence in a ftate of celibacy, and a liberal fpirit, his pro-
feffion as an archite&t led him to repair and ere& numerous
buildings in his fee at an expence of no lefs than 20,000
marks. He alfo direéted his attention to the improvement
and proper difcipline of the religious honfes comprehended
within his diocefe. For the better education of his clergy,
he laid the foundation of a college in Oxford, which was to
be fupplied with ftudents from a feminary at Winchefter. He
was interrupted, however, in his liberal defigns of general
utility by an impeachment for mifcondué in the adminiftra-
tion of public affairs, occafioned by the influence of the duke
of Lancafter, who had conceived a prejudice againft him ;
and, in confequence of this impeachment, his temporalities
were feized to the king’s ufe, and he was banifhed from court.
The clergy, however, interfered, and the people regarded
him asa fufferer from the duke’s exorbitant power ; fo that
a tumult enfued, that procured the reftoration of his tem-
poralities, and his recovery of the royal favour, a little while
before the king’s death. During the turbulent reign of
Richard II. Wykeham conduéted himfelf with caution, and
fucceeded in the eftablifhment of his two colleges. For that
at Oxford he obtained a patent in 1379, and it was com-
pleted in 1386. It is now known by the name of the New
college. His college or fchool at Winchefter was finifhed
in 1393. He alfo undertook the repair of the cathedral,
which was a Saxon edifice of the eleventh century, and in
the courfe of ten years rebuilt it in the Gothic ftyle. (See
WincuesTEr.) In 1384 he was induced, againtft his incli-
nation, to accept the office of high-chancellor, which he
refigned again in 1391, after having reftored the public
tranquillity. When the king recovered his authority, he
procured a parliament in 1397, which impeached feveral of
the commiffioners, who had almoft divefted him of his au-
thority, of high treafon ; but Wykeham, who was one of
them, efcaped with a forced loan of 1ooo/. He attended
the firft parliament of Henry IV. in 1399, which depofed
Richard, but was not prefent at the council, which adjudged
him to perpetual imprifonment. As his health declined, he
was difabled from performing the duties of his office ; and
therefore nominated coadjutors in his bifhopric, fettled all his
temporal and fpiritual concerns, and with tranquillity waited
his difmiffion from the world. This happened in September
1404, when he had finifhed his 80th year. His remains
were interred in his own chapel or oratory in Winchefter
cathedral, where a tomb of white marble was erected to
his memory. Lowth’s Life of William of Wykeham.
Biog. Brit.
3M WILLIAM,
WIL
_ WirttaM, Sweet, in Botany. See Drantuus, and
INK.
WILLIAMS, Daniet, D.D. in Biography, an eminent
non-conformift divine, was born at Wrexham, in Denbighthire,
about the year 1643 or 1644. The Se a of his early
education were counterbalanced by the natural vigour of his
mind, and by future application. Devoting himfelf to the
miniftry among Proteftant diffenters, he was one of the
firft who had refolution to engage in it, after the privations
and fufferings which followed the A@ of Uniformity in
1662. At the age of 19 years he was admitted a preacher
among the Prefbyterians, and for feveral years officiated
occafionally in feveral parts of England. Being here in
danger of perfecution, he accepted an invitation to become
chaplain to the countefs of Meath in Ireland, where dif-
fenters enjoyed a greater degree of liberty ; and fore time
afterwards he became pattor to a refpeétable congregation
in Wood-{treet, Dublin. Here he continued for nearly
twenty years, exercifing his miniftry with acceptance and
ifefulnefs, and conduéting himfelf fo as to maintain harmony
with his brethren in the miniftry, and to fecure refpe& and
efteem from the Irifh Proteftants in general. During his
refidence in Dublin, he married a lady of an honourable
family, with a confiderable eftate. ‘Towards the clofe of
the reign of James II., his oppofition to popery rendered
his fituation in Ireland unpleafant to him, and he therefore
came over to England in 1687, and fettled in London.
Here he joined thofe minifters who oppofed an addrefs to
the king on occafion of his difpenfing with the penal laws ;
and by his firmnefs and intrepidity contributed in no {mall
degree to their unanimous rejection of it. Out of his own
funds, and by his wealthy conneGtions, he ‘procured relief
for thofe Irifh Proteftants who fought refuge in London
from the tyranny and perfecution of Tyrconnel. After
the ‘Revolution in 1688, which ‘was an event’ that gave him
and his brethren inexpreffible fatisfa&tion, he was often con-
fulted by king William on Irihh affairs ; and his reports con-
cerning the abilities and character of Irifh refugees, who
were capable of ferving the government, were duly regarded.
On occafion of his vifit to Ireland, in the year 1700, for fet-
tling his own affairs, his condu&t in the inftances now f{pecified
was gratefully acknowledged. Towards the latter end of
the year 1688, he was unanimoufly chofen paftor to a numer-
ous congregation of Prefbyterians in Hand-alley, Bifhopf-
gate-ftreet ; and in this conneétion he fpent the remainder
of his days, devoting to charitable purpofes the falary
which he received from his congregation. ‘With the famous
Richard Baxter he cultivated an intimate acquaintance ; and
at his death, in 1691, he was chofen to fucceed him at
the Merchants’ Tuefday le€ture in Pinners’-hall. Some
of his fellow-le€&turers advanced what he conceived to be
Antinomian tenets ; and thefe dangerous notions he thought
it to be his duty to oppofe. Hence arofe a fufpicion of
his orthodoxy, and an attempt to exclude him from the
legture. Their defign was fruftrated by a majority of the
fub cribers ; but as their oppofition was inveterate, it was
Seohiptt molt advifable to feparate and to eftablifh another
Tuelday le@ure at Salters’-hall. Three of the moft re-
fpectable of the old lecturers, viz, Dr. Bates, Mr. Howe,
and Mr. Alfop, feceded with Mr. Williams.
Upon the publication of the works of Mr. Crifp, who
avowed himfelf the champion of Antinomianifm, Mr. Wil-
Tiams undertook to refute them ; and in 1692 publifhed his
« Gofpel Truth ftated and vindicated, &c.”” 8vo.3 a work
which, though now almoft forgotten, ‘was defervedly ap-
proved by the principal London minifters of that peridd ;
and as it is diftinguifhed by great clearnefs and ftrength of
10
WIL
argument, as well as 4 truly Chriftian temper, it ferved
to check the pernicious errors which were then induttrioufly
circulated. It was defended by the author in his “ De-
fence of Gofpel Truth, &c.” 8vo., and in a ‘ Poftfeript’’
to a new edition of his work, and alfo in other pieces.
Againft the charge of Socinianifm, an appeal was made to
Dr. Stillingfleet; then bifhop of Woreefier, and Dr. Jona-
than Edwards of Oxford, who were deemed matters
and judges in this controverfy ; and they honourably ac-
quitted the author, with many expreffions of refpeét for
him. Difappointed in their efforts to induce fufpicion of his
orthodoxy, his enemies indulged their malignity further b
arraigning the purity of his morals. Indignant as he well
might be at this attack, he fubmitted his condu& to the
inveftigation of the United London Minifters, who con-
curred in the report of their committee, “ that he was
‘entirely clear and innocent of all that was laid to his
charge.” The attachment of his congregation, it fhould
be obferved, was not ‘in the leaft degree diminifhed by the
malignant mifreprefentations of his enemies.
In the year 1701, Mr. Williams, after having been for
fome time a widower, married a fecond wife of confiderable
fortune and diftinguifhed worth, who furvived him.
During the reign of queen Anne he exerted himfelf,
though ineffetually, in oppofing the bills againft occafional
conformity, and for impofing the facramental teft upon the
diffenters in Ireland. In 1707 he ufed all his influence
with his friends in Scotland in promoting the union between
the two kingdoms ; and in the year 1709 he was honoured
with the degree of D.D. by the univerfities of Edinburgh
and Glafgow. Availing himfelf of his long acquaintance
with the earl of Oxford, he took the liberty of remonttrating
againit the political meafures which he was purfuing. The
doétor’s franknefs did not pleafe the ftatefman ; and his re-
fentment againft him for declaring unfavourable fentiments
of the meafures of his adminiftration, and communicating
them to his friends in Ireland, was deep and permanent.
Upon the acceffion of king George I., he had the honour
of prefenting an addrefs of congratulation to his majefty,
at the head of the Proteftant diffenting minifters of the
different denominations refiding in‘ London and its vicinity’s
and it has been ever fince the cuftom for the body of fuch
minifters to prefent addreffes on all public occafions, and
they have the honour, as a body, of being received on the
throne, and by their committees in the aie, and of re-
ceiving a written anfwer. Soon after the ‘acceffion of
George I., the health of Dr. Williams began to decline ;
and at length an afthmatic diforder terminated his life on
January 26, 1715-16, in the 73d year of his age. In the
fequel of this article we fhall take advantage of literally
tranfcribing the well-written account given of Dr. Williams
by the Rev. Mr. Morgan, the highly refpeétable and much
efteemed librarian of the excellent inftitution which he has
eftablifhed ; under wliofe infpe€tion and care this library is
gradually rifing into a reputation, which, by the contribu-
tions of its friends in books and money, and by the annual
appropriation of a fmall fum out of the furplus of its
fourder’s bequélts, will vie with the principal efablith-
ments of a fimilar nature inthe city of London.
“© He had been bleffed by nature,”” fays our biographer,
«with a ftrong and vigorous conttitution, and. poffeffed a
found penetrating judgment, and great ftrength of mec:
The fubjeés of his pulpit performances were always prac-
tical and ufefal; his fentiments folid, inent, and diftin-
guifhed by an uncomnion variety ; and “his manner of en-
forcing them powerful and impreffive. He was remarkable
for his boldefs' and courage in’ avowing and defending what
he
WIL
fie conceived to be truth of importance, and ‘ purfued
what he thought right with a blunt integrity and unfhaken
refolution.? At the fame time his candour towards thofe
who differed from him, his kind treatment of perfons who
had endeavoured to injure his own reputation, and his con-
{cientious tender regard for that of others, were prominent
features in his charaéter. He was a fteady non-conformift
upon principle; yet he maintained a charitable difpofition
towards the eftablifhed church, and at the Revolution was
very defirous of promoting the fcheme ofa comprehenfion.
Though he poffeffed an ample fortune, he exercifed great
frugality in his perfonal expences, for the noble purpofe of
being more ufeful to others who ftood in need of affiftance,
and of more effeétually ferving the great interefts of truth
and virtue. The fame laudable views governed him in the
final difpofal of his property. By his laft will, befides
liberal benefaGtions to numerous benevolent and charitable
inftitutions in London and Dublin, he provided for the
fupport of an itinerant preacher to the native Irifh, of two
perions to preach to the Indians in North America, and of
deveral charity-fchools in England and Wales. He direéted
that a certain fixed fum, from the income of his eftates,
fhould be appropriated to the affiftance of poor minitters,
the widows of poor minifters, fludents for the miniftry, and
to other benevolent purpofes. He alfo left eftates to the
univerfity of Glafgow, which at prefent furnifh handfome
exhibitions to fix ftudents for the miniftry among Proteftant
diffenters in South Britain, who are to be nominated by his
truftees. The laft grand bequeft in his will was for the
eftablifhment of a library in London, for the benefit of the
public. Having formed this defign, he purchafed Dr.
Bates’s curious colleétion of books, which he added to his
own, and direéted his truftees to provide a proper building
for their reception. Such an edifice was ereéted by them
in Red-Crofs-{treet, Cripplegate, where the library was
opened in 1729, and admiffion to it is eafily obtained by
perfons of every defeription, without any exception, upon
application to one of the truftees. Since it was firft efta-
blifhed, very confiderable additions have been made to it by
legacies, as well as gifts of money and books ; and it now
contains upwards of 16,000 volumes, many of which are
very valuable and rare, in the various departments of lite-
rature and fcience. The founder’s works were collected
together, and printed at different periods, in 6 vols. 8vo. ;
the laft confifting of Latin verfions of feveral of his tra&s,
“which he direéted to be publifhed in that language for the
ufe of foreigners.”” Memoir prefixed to his Works.
Witiams, in Geography, a townfhip of Pennfylvania,
in Northampton county, with 1243 inhabitants; 60 miles
N. of Eatton.
Witttam’s Port,a town of Maryland, onthe Potomack ;
5 miles S.W. of Hagars Town.
WititAm’s River, a river of Vermont, which runs into
the Conneéticut, N. lat. 43° ro’. W. long. 72° 24!
WILLIAMSBOROUGH, a poft-town of North
Carolina, on a creek which falls into the Roanoke; 48
miles N.E. of Hillfborough.
WILLIAMSBURG, a county of the ftate of South
Carolina.—Alfo, a county of the ftate of Virginia. Alfo,
a town of Virginia, fituated on an ifthmus between York
river and James river, a creek from each river coming up
within a mile of the town, but not navigable for large
veffels. It was at one time the feat of government and
refidence of the governor, now removed to Richmond. It
contains about 200 houfes, and 1200 inhabitants. The
principal buildings are a college and town-houfe, an epif-
‘copal church, and an hofpital for lunatics ; 50 miles E.S.E.
of Richmond. N. lat. 37° 13!. W. long. 76° 50.—Allfo,
WiLb
a town of Maffachufetts, in Hampfhire, with 1122 inhabit-
ants; 8 miles N.W. of Northampton.—Alfo, a town of
New York, on the Genefee; 288 miles N.N.W. of
Philadelphia.—Alfo, a town of the ftate of Ohio, on the
ittle Miami, in the county of Clermont, with 1251
inhabitants.—Alfo, a town of Maryland; 4 miles N. of
Talbot.
WILLIAMsguRG, or Joneflown, a poft-town of Pennfyl-
vania ; 23 miles E.N.E. of Harrifburg.
WILLIAMSON, a townfhip of Ontario county, in
New York, 206 miles from Albany, bounded N. and W.
by lake Ontario. In 1810 the whole population confifted
of 1139 perfons, and it had 55 fenatorial eleftors. -A red
oxyd of iron is found in this town, which is a good pigment
for painting.
WILLIAMSON, a county of Weit Tenneflee, with 13,153
inhabitants, including 3985 flaves. ;
WILLIAMSPORT, a poft-town of Pennfylvania, on
the weit branch of the Sufquehanna, in the county of Ly-
coming, with 344 inhabitants.
WILLIAMSTOWN, a townhhip of the ftate of Ver-
mont, in Orange county, with 1353 inhabitants; 60 miles
N. of Norwich.—Alfo, a poft-town of North Carolina, on
the Roanoke; 55 miles W. of Halifax.—Alfo, a town of
Maflachufetts, in the N.W. corner of the ftate, in the county
of Berkfhire, with 1843 inhabitants; 132 miles W.N.W.
of Botton—Alfo, a poft-townfhip of Oneida county,
in New York, ereéted in 1805, from a part of Mexico,
and confifting of two townfhips of Scriba’s patent, each being
fix miles fquare. The population in 1810 confilted of 562
perfons, and 82 fenatorial eleGtors. The pott-office was
eftablifhed in 1812.
WILLICHIA, in Botany, was fo called by Mutis,
after Dr. Chriftian Lewis Willich, a phyfician at Claufthal,
in Lower Saxony, who publifhed at Gottingen, in 1747,
1762, and 1766, various obfervations wand illuftrations of
Botany, of more or lefs importance, chiefly relating to the
determination of f{pecies and their fynonyms, with curfory
remarks on variations or irregularities of {tru€ture, exceptions
to received charaéters, &c. The author died in 1776.
—Linn. Mant. 553. Schreb. Gen. 32. Willd. Sp. Pl.
vy. 1. 189. Vahl Enum. v. 2. 39. Mart. Mill. Did.
v.4. Juff. 418. Poiret in Lamarck Did. vy. 8. 798.—
Clafs and order, Triandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. uncer-
tain, Jufl. We fhould prefume Scrophulariz.
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in four
ovate, acute, {preading, permanent fegments. Cor. of one
petal, wheel-fhaped, twice the length of the calyx: tube
{carcely any: limb flat, in four roundifh, convex fegments.
Siam. Filaments three, inferted into the clefts of the limb,
except the lowermoit, and fhorter than its fegments ; anthers
ere&t, roundifh, of two cells. Pi/?. Germen fuperior,
roundifh, compreffed; ityle thread-fhaped, the length of
the ftamens, declining towards the lower cleft of the corolla ;
fligma obtufe. eric. Capfule roundifh, compreffed,
fharp-edged, of two cells and two valves, with an oppofite
partition. Sceds feveral, roundifh, minute. Receptacle glo-
bular, formed of two hemifpheres.
Eff. Ch. Calyx four-cleft. Corolla four-cleft. Sta-
mens in three of its clefts. Capfule fuperior, of two cells,
with many feeds. F
1. W. repens. Creeping Willichia. Linn. Mant. 558.
Willd. n.1. Vahl n. 1.—Gathered in Mexico, by Mutis,
whofe defeription, communicated to Linnzus, is our only
fource of information. concerning this plant. The root is
fibrous, annual. Stem herbaceous, creeping, thread-fhaped,
_ branched, hairy, about two feet in length. Leaves alter-
nate, ftalked, rather diftant, orbicular, fomewhat peltate,
, is: ee crenate,
WIL
erenate, hairy, an inch in diameter; reddifh underneath.
Footflalks very long, hairy, thicker than the ftem. Flower-
fralks axillary, in pairs, fingle-flowered, thread-fhaped, hairy,
the length of the footftalks. Flowers {mall, rofe-coloured,
with a hiiky calyx.
There is no {pecimen in the Linnzan herbarium.
WILLIESBURG, in Geography, a poft-town of Vir-
ginia ; 243 miles S.S.W. of Wafhington.
WILLIMANTIC, a river of Conneticut, which runs
into the Shetucket at Windham.
WILLINCK, a large townfhip of New York, at the
S. end of Niagara county, ereted in 1808; 315 miles W.
of Albany. It comprifes about eighteen townfhips of the
Holland company lands. The general charaéter of the
foil is, that it is good land for farming. In 1810 the popu-
lation confifled of 2028 perfons, and there were 260 fenato-
rial eleGtors.
WILLING’s Creek, ariver of Weft Florida, which
runs into the Miffiffippi, N. lat. 30° 49!. W. long. g1° 21’.
WILLINGBOROUGH, a town of New Jerfey, in
Burlington county, with 619 inhabitants; 14 miles N.E.
of Philadelphia.
WILLINGTON, a town of Connedticut, in Tolland
county, with 1161 inhabitants ; 6 miles E. of Tolland.
WILLIS, Browne, in Biography, an eminent antiquary,
the grandfon of Dr. Willis, a celebrated phyfician, was
born at Blandford in 1682, and was removed from Wett-
minfter-fchool in the year 1690 to Oxford, where he was
admitted a gentleman-commoner of Chrift-church ; and
after leaving the univerfity he profecuted his ftudies for
three years under Dr. Wotton. When he came into pof-
feffion of the family eftate, he was returned in 1705 as a re-
prefentative for the town of Buckingham. In 1715 and
1716 he publifhed two parts of a work, intitled “ Notitia
Parliamentaria; or, a Hiftory of the Counties, Cities, and Bo-
roughs in England and Wales, with Lifts of all the Knights,
Citizens, and Burgeffes,” 8vo., to which in 1750 he added
a third part, being an appendage to the journals of the houfe
of commons, then printed. On the revival of the Society
of Antiquaries in 1717, he was chofen a member; and he
fuftained his reputation as an antiquary by various writings,
among which are, “* Surveys of the Four Welfh Cathedrals ;””
¥ Hittory of the United Parliamentary Abbeys and Con-
ventional Cathedral Churches ;”? “ Survey of the Cathedrals
of England, with Parochiale Anglicanum,” 3 vols. 4to. ;
« Hiftory and Antiquities of Buckingham.” In 1723 he
received, in confideration of his literary merit, from the
univerfity of Oxford, the degree of ‘A.M. by diploma.
He manifefted his attachment to the church by expending
confiderable fums in repairing thofe in the country, and
thus injured his own fortune. But frugality in his perfonal
and domeftic expences compenfated this injury. He pof-
feffed a fine cabinet of Englifh coins, which in 1741 he
prefented to the univerfity of Oxford; the univerfity, in
confideration of his family, liberally paying for thofe of
gold by weight, and conferring upon him the degree of
LL.D. With many peculiarities in his character, he
claimed refpeét as a man of moral worth from thofe who
knew him. To him belonged the honour of having firit
placed the Englith ecclefiaftical hiftory and antiquities
upon the firm bafis of records and regifters, which he
affiduoufly fearched. He died in 1760, in the 78th year of
his age. Biog. Brit.
ILLIS, duas; an eminent phyfician, was born in
1621-2, at Great Bedwin, in Wilthhire; and in 1636 ad-
mitted into Chrift-church college, Oxford, where he took
the ufual degree with a view to the clerical profeffion.
But he changed his purpofe, and fludied phyfic, taking his
WIitL
bachelor’s degree in 1646, and commencing medical practice
at Oxford. He diftinguifhed himfelf by his fteady attach-
ment to the church of England, and alfo by his love of
{cience, fo that he became one of the firft members of that
philofophical fociety at Oxford, which laid the foundation
of the Royal Society of London. As a chemift, which
was the character under which he was ambitious of excelling,
he publifhed in 1659 a work, intitled “ Diatribe due ;
prior agit de Fermentatione, alterade Febribus. His acceffit
Differtatio epiftolica de Urinis.’””? The recompence of his
attachment to the caufe of epifcopacy and loyalty was the
Sedleian profefforfhip of natural philofophy at Oxford, con-
ferred upon him after the Reftoration, by the recommend-
ation of archbifhop Sheldon, foon after which he received
the degree of doétor. Upon the eftablifhment of the Royal
Society, he was one of its firft members. In the year
1664, when he is faid to have difcovered, and brought into
ufe, the mineral water of Aftrop in Nawhaneteaiiee he
publifhed his ‘* Cerebri Anatome; cui acceflit Nervorum
Defcriptio et Ufus.”? This work, on which his reputa-
tion principally depends, was followed in 1667 by his
‘* Pathologia Cerebri et Nervofi Generis, in qua agitur de
Morbis convulfivis, et de Scorbuto.”” Before this year he
was fettled in London, and being nominated a phyfician in
ordinary to the king, was advancing to the firft rank in
practice. His next publication was intitled “* Adfe&tionum
que dicuntur Hyfterice et Hypochondriace Pathologia
Spafmodica, vindicata contra refponfionem epiftolarem
Nath. Highmori. Cui acceflerunt Exercitationes Medico-
Phyfice de Sanguinis Accenfione, et Motu mufculari,’’
1670. On occafion of the lofs of his wife, a daughter of
dean Fell, he amufed himfelf by writing his work ‘ De
Anima Brutorum que Hominis Vitalis ac Senfitiva eit ;
Exercitationes duz,”’ 1672, in which he confiders the foul
of brutes as the fame with the vital principle in man, cor-
poreal in its nature and perifhing with the body, After his
fecond marriage, he began to print in 1673 his ** Pharma-
ceutice Rationalis, five Diatriba de Medicamentorum
Operationibus in Humano Corpore ;’? but he did not live
to publifh this work, as he was carried off by a pleurify in
1675, at the premature age of 54, in the full vigour of his
faculties and zenith of his reputation. Dr. Willis had no
powers for appearing with advantage and brilliancy in
fociety ; but he was intent on fcience and practice, frugal,
pious, and charitable. His works engaged great attention
on their firft publication; but in confequence of modern im-
provements, they have funk in the public eftimation,
though they are not altogether negle&ted. They are written
in a rich and elegant Latin ftyle. Haller. Biog. Brit.
Wits, in Geography, a town of the ftate of New
Jerfey ; 33 miles S.E. of Burlington.
Wituis’s Creek, a river of Virginia, which runs into
James river, N. lat. 37° 40! W. long. 78° 18).
Wittis’s Jfland, a {mall ifland in the South Atlantic
ocean, near the north-weft coaft of the ifland of Georgia,
fo named by captain Cook, from one of his crew who
difcovered it in the year 1775. S. lat. 54°. W. long.
38° 23!.
WILLISAU, a town of Switzerland, and capital of a
bailiwick, in the canton of Lucerne; 15 miles W. of Lu-
cerne.
WILLISTON, a poft-town of the ftate of Vermont,
in the county of Chittenden, with 1195 inhabitants; 25
miles N. of Newhaven.
WILLISTOWN, a townfhip of Pennfylvania; 15 miles
S.W. of Philadelphia.
WILLMAR, a town of the county of Henncberg;
7 miles S.E. of Meinungen.
WIL.
WiL
‘WILLOBOCKE, a river of Yorkfhire, which runs
into the Swale.
WILLONGTALYS, a lake of Vermont.
Sas!. W. long. 71° 58.
WILLOUGHBY, a town of England, in the county
of Warwick, fituated on a navigable canal, on the borders
of Northamptonfhire ; 14 miles S.E. of Coventry.
Wittoucusy Bay, a bay on the fouth-eaft coaft of the
ifland of Antigua. N. lat.17° 1o!. W. long. 61° 25/.
Wittoucusy Lake, a lake of the ftate of Vermont.
WILLOW, &c., in Botany. See Sarrx.
Our common willows in the {pring feafon, when they are
in flower, produce a quantity of cottony matter, which
might be put to fome ufe.
The Chinefe are induftrious enough to colleé this cotton
as it falls from their willows ; and the women and children,
among the poorer people, card it, and pick out the feeds,
and render it fit for many ufes in the place of cotton.
The poor people, in fome part of the Indies, make a fort
of liquor of the flowers of their willows before they are
opened, which intoxicates them very fuddenly ; and the
dry hufks of the fame tree remaining after the flowers and
feeds are fallen, are wholefome as food, people in time of
famine having lived upon them, boiled in water.
The wood of the willow, though in itfelf very light and
{pongy, is yet of a nature to bear the injuries of wet better
than almoft any other kind. It is ufed by the Chinefe on
this occafion, in the making of their wells, and on all other
occafions where wood is to {tand under water, and fucceeds
perfely well. Obferv. fur les Coutumes de l’Afie. For
the ufes to which willow-bark and wood are applied, fee
Saxrx, and GUNPOWDER.
Wittow, in Agriculture, a well-known tree, of which
there are feveral different {pecies or kinds; but thofe moftly
cultivated for farm purpofes are, the common white willow,
the purple or red willow, the fallow, and the broad-leaved
or Huntingdon willow.
The firft is a tall-growing tree, of the deciduous kind.
It has a fine filvery appearance in the leaves; is quick of
growth, and the wood is very ufeful where lightnefs and
cleannefs of the grain is beneficial, as for hurdles, gates,
hop-poles, &c. ;
The fecond is a free-fhooting willow ; but its wood is in-
ferior for many ufes, efpecially thofe of the farmer.
The third fort delights in a rather dry foil, being a tree
below the middle growth. It has numerous branches, of
a fmooth appearance, and dark green colour. Its wood
is very ufeful for hurdles and other fimilar purpofes of the
farmer.
It has two varieties, the long-leaved, and the ftriped fal-
low, both which are very ufeful.
The fourth fort, or red-hearted willow, is fuppofed by
fome as the beft fort for planting, for the ufe of the farmer,
as growing quickly ; but the great ufe to which they are ap-
plied is that of making hurdles, ftakes, gates, and farming
implements, being a wood uncommonly tough and light, ow-
ing, as is conceived, to a new method ufed in planting them
clofe to the ground. If it is the defign of the planter to
let them grow into timber, (which would be far fuperior to
deal for the purpofe of flooring, or other light work, par-
ticularly as it will neither fplinter nor fire; and if fuffered
to remain for twenty or twenty-five years, would make
good mafts for fmall craft, as they fhoot up perfectly
ftraight, and without any collateral branches, ) it is neceflary,
at the firft or fecond year’s growth, to obferve which pole
is the ftrongeft, as the remaining poles muft be cut away.
In about fifteen years’ time it 13 f{uppofed they will want
3
N. lat.
Wit
thinning ; of courfe the inferior muft be taken out and the
fuperior be fuffered to remain.
In cultivating them on wajfte moift lands, laying out the
ground into lands, like hop-lands, as from three to four
yards wide, with a ditch on each fide; three feet wide at
the top, one foot at the bottom, and two and a half deep,
is advifed by a late writer as the beft mode from much ex-
perience. The earth that comes out of the ditch fhould be
thrown on the land.- But if there is not fully fufficient fall
for the water to get off, the ditch fhould be deeper and
wider, till there is near a yard of earth above the leyel of
the water. As foon as this is done, the ground muft be
double dug, that is, trenched two {pades’ depth, except it
be very boggy, which will afford room for the plants to
fhoot, and will fave the expence of weeding, which other-
wife muft be incurred in the firft fummer after the plants
are fet ; for if they are not kept clear of weeds the firft year,
the hopes of the planter will certainly be deftroyed.
In refpeét to the times of planting, they muft be from
January to the end of March; but the fets for that purpofe
fhould be cut from December to the end of February, when
the fap is down. And the reafon is, that if poles are cut
in the {pring (the fap being up), the ftool will at leaft be
weakened by bleeding, if not killed; and of courfe pre-
vented from fhooting 5 vigoroufly as if cut at the preceding
time.
In regard to the fets or truncheons, they may be cut
from twenty inches to two feet long ; particular care fhould
be taken in the cutting, that the bark be not fridged or
bruifed, or in any other refpe& injured; for in that cafe the
plant will be weak and puny.
The poles have been fold at eight years’ growth for 214/.
per acre, net-money ; the kids or brufhwood pay for the
felling. Had they been fuffered to have ftood two years
longer, they would, it is faid, have produced 300/. per acre.
The plantation of the bafket and cooper’s willow is an
object of importance in thofe wafte and negleéted corners
which are to be found upon every eftate and farm.
The refufe dwarf willows or offal, as it is termed, are
ufed in the fifheries and bafket-work, and will pay, commu-
nibus annis, for the labour. The cooper’s-willow differs
from the common or bafket-willow ; the former is‘known
by a fingle bud or eye throughout the rod, which fimply
throws out a leaf; the latter by a double or flattened eye,
which produces a branch or fprig. The former is applica-
ble to every purpofe ; the latter the cooper rejeéis: of
courfe the former fhould be propagated.
Plantations of the willow kind have been vaftly in-
creafed, indeed, in many parts of the country within thefe
few years.
Wi.tow-Galls, in Natural Hiffory, the name given by
authors to certain protuberances found very frequently on
the leaves of the feveral {pecies of willow, which are pro-
perly galls, each containing the worm of a fly, and owing
its exiltence to that infect.
The galls are ufually of a roundifh or oblong figure, and
are equally protuberant on each fide of the leaf: they are
of a pale green at firft; but they afterwards become yel-
lowifh, and finally reddifh. The furface of thefe is feldom
perfe€tly even, but ufually has feveral little prominences and
cavities in it. When this gall is opened, there is found in
it a worm refembling a caterpillar in figure, having a {mooth
annulated body, a hard brown head, and twenty legs; and
by Reaumur called falfe or baftard-caterpillar. This crea-
ture, when the gall is young, is blue; it afterwards becomes
greenifh ; and finally, when the gall becomes red, it is white.
This infect feems to eat in its prifon more voracioufly than
any
WIL
any other gall-infe&t whatever ; for while the gall grows in
fize, it becomes alfo thinner in every part ; fo that the crea-
ture, at the proper time, has but little difficulty to get out.
Reaum. Hif. Infe&. vol. vi. p. 211.
When the time of the laft change of this infe& draws
nigh, it leaves the tree, and defcending to the earth
makes its way into it in a proper place, and then becomes
a nymph, ott of which at a proper time iffues a four-
winged fly.
The flies which are produced in April copulate almoft
as foon as freed from their exuvie of the chryfalis ftate, and
the females foon after lodge their eggs in the leaves of the
illows. This is all done before the end of April, and the
young ones hatched of thefe eggs live but a fhort time be-
fore they pafs into the chryfalis ftate, and living flies are
hatched from thefe in June. The young ones of this brood
pafs their chryfalis ftate in the earth, and appear not during the
whole winter, till the {pring fun enlivens them again. There
is, befide thefe, another kind of galls of the willow-leaves,which
are of the clafs of thofe, each of which contains feveral cells;
in each cell of thefe there is found a {mall white maggot, the
offspring of the egg of a two-winged fly, which, after paff-
ing the chryfalis {tate in the earth, alfo comes out in the
form of its winged parent. The cells in the galls are dif-
ferent in number in the feveral galls, and are from four or
five to twenty: they have no communication with one an-
other, but each worm lives in its own cell.
Befide thefe there is alfo fometimes found in thefe galls
a worm of a brownifh-white colour, having two hooks in
its head, and nd legs at all. This has all the appearance of
& Carnivorous animal, and probably was’ depofited there in
the egg-ftate by its parent, not to feed on the gall, but on
its defencelefs inhabitant. This worm finally becomes a
fmall blueifh beetle, and is often found alone in the cavity
of the gall, often in company with its proper inhabitant,
fucking its juices as it feeds on thofe of the plant. There
feem to be feveral fpecies of thefe devourers common to
thefe galls ; fince Vallifnieri obferved, in the boxes where he
kept thefe galls to produce the animals from thence, many
{pecies of {mall beetles, and feveral diftin& kinds of flies,
which were probably the latt ftate of feveral kinds of carni-
vorous worms, which had preyed upon the proper inhabit-
ant of the galls. Vallifnieri, Dialog. des Infeé.
Wittow-Herb, or French Wittow, in Botany. See
Epitozium.
Wixtow-Herb is a name fometimes given to the /ythrum
or purple loofe-ftrife. See Lyrarum.
Wittow, Sweet, Dutch Wittow, Gate, or Candle-
Berry Myrtxe, in Botany. See Canvix-Berry-Tree, and
Candle-Berry MyntLe.
Wirtow-Weed, in Agriculture, a term provincially ap-
plied to fmart-weed, or perficaria, which is a troublefome
weed on many places in the corn-fields and other tillage-
lands. See Weep.
WILLS, in Geography, a town of Ohio, in the county
of Guernfey, with 659 inhabitants.
WILLSBOROUGH, a poft-townhhip of Effex county,
in New York, with a poft-office, 530 miles from Wafhing-
ton, ereéted in 1788, then in Clinton county, and very exten-
five ; from which feveral towns have been fince ereéted. It
is bounded N. by Chefterfield, E. by lake Champlain, in
the ftate of Vermont, S. by Effex, and W. by Lewis. Along
the lake the land is level and tolerably productive. “A {mall
well-drain affords many {cites for water-works ; and: iron-
ore of the beft quality is found in great abundance. The
population confilts af 668 perfons, and the fenatorial elec-
tors are §7. Here are, one diftillery, a forge for making
WIL
bar-iron, an anchor-fhop, a carding-machine, and a clothiery,
befides a confiderable number of grain and faw mills.
7 WILLssoroucn, a townthip of New York, near Crown
ont. -
WILLSTADT, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 50 miles W. of Wexio.—Alfo, a town of Ger-
many, in the county of Hanau Lichtenberg; 7 miles S.E.
of Strafburg.
WILLUGHBEIA, in Botany, was fonamed by Schre-
ber, in memory of our great Englith naturalift, Francis
Willughby, efq. of Middleton-hall, Warwickhhire, the friend
of Ray, in our biographical account of whom the reader
will find many particulars relating to Mr. Willughby and his
family. This gentleman may well claim bealiaichs ditinction,
on account of his enquiries into the philofophy of vegeta-
tion, in conjunétion with his illuftrious affociate, during the
fpring of 1669.—Schreb. Gen. 162. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1,
1231. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. (Ambelania; Aubl. Guian,
265. Juff. 148. Lamarck Did. v. 1.125. Illuftr. t. 169.
Pacouria; Aubl. Guian. 268. Juff.148. Lamarck Di&.
v. 4. 691. Illuftr. t. 169.)—Clafs and order, Pentandria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Contorte, Linn. Apocinea, Jufl.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, flefhy, in
five deep acute fegments, very fmall. Cor. of one petal,
falver-fhaped : tube cylindrical, enlarged at the bottom:
limb horizontal, in five deep, oblique, acute, wavy feg-
ments, more dilated at one fide than the other, lying over
each other at the bafe. Stam. Filaments five, very fhort,
inferted into the tube juft above the bafe; anthers arrow-
fhaped. Pift. Germen fuperior, roundifh ; ftyle quadrangu-
lar ; ftigma capitate, ovate, thick, ftriated, double-pointed,
fubtended by a flat orbicular difk. Peric. Berry ovate,
coated, of one or two cells. Sceds numerous, angular,
compreffed, imbedded in pulp.
Eff. Ch. Corolla falver-fhaped, contorted. Stigma ca-
pitate. Berry coated, with many angular feeds.
1. W. acida. Acid Willughbeia. -Willd. n. 1. (Ame
belania acida; Aubl. Guian. 266. t. 104. )—Stem ere.
Flower-{talks the length of the footftalks.—Nativeiof ex-
tenfive forefts in Guiana and Cayenne, bearing flowers and
fruit in September. ‘The ¢runk of this tree is feven or eight
feet high, and feven or eight inches in diameter, with a
greyifh bark, and foft white wood. The Aead confifts of
very numerous, ftraight, knotty branches, fubdivided in an
oppofite manner. Leaves oppofite, on fhort ftalks, ellipti-
cal, fomewhat pointed, entire, wavy, {mooth and fhining,
with one rib, and many tranfverfe parallel veins ; their
greateft length feven inches, by three in breadth. Flowers
axillary, three or four together on one common ftalk, which
is hardly fo long as the adjoining footftalk. Braéeas {ealy,
folitary at the bafe of each general as well as partial ftalk.
Corolla whitifh, fearcely fo large as that of Vinca minor.
Fruit lemon-coloured, oval, corrugated or warty, two inches
long, feparated by a longitudinal flefhy partition, into two
cells, filled with acid vifcid pulp, and containing many
brown rough feeds. This fruit, though milky, is whole-
fome. After the rind is taken off, the remainder is foaked
for a while in water. ‘The flavour is agreeably acid, not-
withftanding a great degree of vifcidity, by which the pulp
adheres to the lips and teeth. This fruit, with or without
its rind, is preferved in fugar. In the latter ftate it is cool-
ing, flightly acid ; in the former moderately purgative, and
efteemed ufeful in dyfenteries. The whole plant when
wounded difcharges a milky, very tenacious, juice.
2. W. feandens. Climbing Willughbeia. Willd. n. 2.
(Pacouria guianenfis; Aubl. Guian. 269. t. 105.)—Stem
twining. Flower-ftalks branched, as long as the —
ative
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Native of woods about the mouth of the creek of the Ga-
libis in Guiana, bearing flowers, as well as fruit, in May.
The frunk is about three inches in diameter, fending off
long, knotty, trailing branches, which twine round the neigh-
bouring trees to their very fummits, from whence the ex-
tremities hang down, clothed with oppofite, oval, fmooth,
entire Jeaves, not unlike the foregoing, and about as large,
on fhort ftalks; their rib, as well as lateral veins, are pro-
minent and reddifh. The flower-/lalks are axillary, folitary,
wavy, alternately branched, refembling tendrils, terminating
in feveral little tufts, or umbels, of yellow flowers, rather
fmaller than the firft fpecies. Fruit roundifh or oboyate,
the fize and colour of a quince, of an agreeable {cent when
ripe, pulpy, yielding but a {mall quantity of milky juice if
cut, though all the other parts of the plant contain a great
quantity of the fame kind of glutinous milk as the pre-
ceding. Aublet does not mention any ufe to which this
fpecies, or its fruit, is applied.
WILLUGHBY, Francis, in Biography, was born in
1635 of a good family in Lincolnfhire, and educated in
Trinity college, Cambridge, under the tuition and in habits
of friendly intercourfe with the excellent philofopher and
natural hiftorian, John Ray. They were intimate aflociates,
and made a foreign tour together in the years 1663 and
1664. Tobirds and fifhes Willughby paid particular atten-
tion, and he formed a rich mufeum of animal and foffile pro-
duGtions. In 1668 he married the daughter of fir Henry
Bernard, and his family refidence at Middleton, in War-
wickfhire, was the place of Ray’s frequent refort, where
he and his hoft profecuted their philofophical experi-
ments and obfervations, the refult of which they com-
municated to the Royal Society, of which they were both
members. This inftruétive and pleafant intercourfe was,
however, prematurely interrupted by the death of Wil-
lughby in 1672, at the age of 37. His confidence
in Mr. Ray was manifefted by appointing him one of
his executors, and committing to him the charge of edu-
cating his two infant fons, bequeathing to him an annuity
for ‘life as a compenfation. Ray afcribes to him, without
any trace of adulation, fingular moral excellence and high
mental endowments. His pofthumous work, publifhed
under the infpeétion of ‘Mr..Ray, was entitled: “‘ Francifci
Willughbeii Arm. Ornithologie Libri tres ; in quibus Aves
omnes haétenus cognite, in methodum naturis fuis conve-
nientem redu€te, accuraté defcribuntur. Defcriptiones
iconibus elegantiffimis. et vivarum avium fimillimis zri incifis
illuftrantur. Totum Opus recognovit, ‘digeffit, fupplevit
Johannes Raius,’’ Lond. fol. This work was alfo tranflated
into’ Englifh by Ray, and publifhed in 1671.with large ad-
ditions. Mr. Ray alfo colleéted.and arranged Willughby’s
papers.on Ichthyology. He added the two firft books, and
with the affiftance of the! Royal Society publifhed them. in
1686 under the following title: ‘¢ Fran. Willughbeii Arm,
de Hiftoria Pifcium, Libr. quatuor, \juffu. et fumptu ‘Soc.
Regie Lond. editi. ‘Totum Opus recognovit, coaptavit,
fupplevit librum etiam primum et fecundum integros.adjecit
J,Raius.”” Oxon. fol. The papers of Willughby in the
Phil. Tranf. relate to vegetation, plants, and infe&ts. The
colle&tion of Ray contains fome of his letters. Biog. Brit.
Pulteney’s Sketches of Botany. :
WILLY, in Geography, a river of England, which runs
into the Avon, near Salifbury.
WILLYKA, a town of Lithuania,. in the:palatinate of
Wilna; 60 miles: E. of Wilna.
“WILMANSTRAND. “See VitMANsrRAND.
“WILMANTON, a town of New York ;50:miles N.
of ‘New York.
WIL
WILMINGTON, a fea-port town of the fate of Dela-
ware, on Brandy-wine Creek ; 22 miles S.W. of Philadel-
phia. N. lat. 39° 45'.. W. long. 75° 34'.—Alfo, a fea-port
town of North Carolina, with about 250 houfes, on a branch
of Cape Fear river. In January 1781, this town was taken
by the Britifh troops; 76 miles S.S.W. of Newbern. N.
Jat. 34° 11'. W. long. 78° 5!.—Alfo, an ifland near the
coaft of Georgia, at the mouth of the Savanna. N. lat.
32°. W. long. 81° 6!.—Alfo, a poft-town of Vermont, on
Deerfield river, in Windham county, with 1193 inhabitants ;
to miles E.S.E. of Bennington,—Alfo, a town of Maffa-
chufetts, in the county of Middlefex, with 716 inhabitants ;
16 miles N. of Bofton.—Alfo; a town of New York; 53
miles N. of New York. F
WILMOT, Joun, in Biography, earl of Rochefter, was
the fon of Henry, earl of Rochetter, an eminent loyalift in
the reign of Charles I.. and was born in 1647, at Ditchley,
in Oxtdihie In 1659 he was entered at Wadham col-
lege, Oxford, and afterwards travelled into France and
Italy under a tutor, who is faid to have reclaimed him from
his early licentioufnefs ; but upon his return to the profligate
court of Charles II., in which he was a gentleman of the
bed-chamber, he relapfed into his former intemperance. In
1665 he went to fea, and, as it is faid, behaved with great
intrepidity in the attack of a caftle at Bergen, in Norway,
which chara@er for courage he alfo maintained when he af-
terwards ferved under fir Edward Spragge. In fome of his
domettic adventures, however, he forfeited this kind of re-
putation. Welcomed in all companies on account of his wit
and viyacity, he ,became habitually intemperate, infomuch
that, on a fubfequegt review of his condu@, he acknow-
ledged that for fiye fucceffive years he was never free from
the inflaming effects of wine. His various adventures, in his
real, or in a difguifed charaéter, have furnifhed many anec-
dotes, that have been circulated in converfation, or in books
of mere amufement, but which are not worth recording in
graver publications. His wit furnifhed in the focieties
which he frequented a kind of apology for his profanenefs
and licentioufnefs ; and as for his poetical compofitions, they
were for the moft . part lampoons or amatory effufions, the
titles of which would ftain the.page of biography. ‘ In
all his works, (fays Dr. Johnfon, meaning probably thofe
which can de read, ) there is {prightlinefs and vigour, and every
where may be found tokens of a mind which ftudy, might
haye carried to excellence.” The juftice of Walpole’s fen-
tence, in his “ Catalogue of Noble Authors,’ will be ge-
nerally allowed: ‘¢ Lord Rochefter’s poems; have much
more obfcenity than, wit, more wit than poetry, more poetry
than- politenefs.”? . His.courfe of debauchery .was of no
long duration ; for, foon after the age of 30 he funk into
a ftate of debility and difeafe, which induced him to
ftudy phyfic, and this ftudy permitted,him to refleét on the
courfe of his paft life, the irremediable effets of which he
learnt from experience. ,Towards.the clofe of his fhort life,
he became: acquainted -with bifhop Burnet, who convinced
him of the truth both of natural and revealed. religion, and
his mind was then imprefled to fuch a.degree, that he is faid
to have became a fincere,penitent. His, life terminated in
July, 1680, foon after he had commenced. his 33d year.
He left a fon and two daughters. Biog. Brit. “Johnfon.
Burnet.
Wixmor, in Geography, a town of Noya. Scotia, near
Annapolis. —Alfo, a town of New Hampfhire, in the county
of Hillfborough, with298 inhabitants.
WILNA, a city, and capital of the duchy of Lithuania,
on the Wilia, founded in the year 1305. ,This city lies in
a mountainous country, on feveral. little eminences. \ It is
very
WIL
very large, and has two confiderable fuburbs, called Anto-
kolla and Rudaifzka. Inthe old ruinous royal palace is
the arfenal, and the hall where the court of juttice is held ;
and over-againft it is the magnificent church ig sen to
the caftle, which was built in the year 1386. The treafury
belonging to this church is very rich ; and it is alfo remark-
able for the elegant marble chapel of St. Cafimir, whofe
filver fhrine is faid to weigh thirty quintals. There are
upwards of forty churches in this city, and among thefe are,
one Lutheran and one Calvinift mahi a Jewith fynagogue,
a Tartarian church, and a Greek church ; but all the reft are
Popifh churches. Not to mention the devaitation which
Wilna formerly fuffered from the Ruffians in the years 1610
and 1655, and from fire in 1737, it was deftroyed by a
dreadful conflagration in the year 1748, when 13 churches,
the Jewifh fynagogue, 25 palaces, 469 {tone edifices, con-
fifting of private houfes, hofpitals, inns, baths, convents,
and mills, with 146 tradefmen’s fhops, and difpenfaries,
befides a great number of granaries and warehoufes, were
confumed to afhes. In 1749 another fire happened by
lightning, which confumed 6 churches, the council-houfe,
$ palaces, and 277 other ftone buildings. The chapel
of St. Cafimir was alfo burned, and the lofs fuftained by the
deftruétion of this edifice only amounted to a vaft fum. The
churches have been fince rebuilt at avery great expence, and
fome of them in a more elegant manner than before ; but
the city has not recovered its former grandeur. Wilna is
the fee of a bifhop, founded in 1387. The univerfity was
founded in 1570. It gives name to a palatinate. In 1794
it was taken by the Ruffians, and with its territory annexed
to that empire ; 168 miles E. of Konigfberg. N. lat. 54°
36'. E. long. 25° 18’.
WILRE, atown of France, in the department of the
Ourthe ; 4 miles E. of Fauquemont.
WILS, a town of the county of Tyrol, on the borders
of Bavaria; 5 miles N.N.W. of Reutten.’
WILSCOW, a river of Brandenburg, which empties
itfelf into a large lake, communicating with the Rega, 4
miles S. of Treptow.
WILSDEN, a townfhip of England, in the Weft
Riding of Yorkfhire, near Halifax.
WILSDRUF, or Witsporr, ‘a town of Saxony, in
the margravate of Meiffen; 9 miles W. of Drefden, N.
lat. 51°. E. long. 13° 8!.
WILSELMAUR, a town of Auttria; 3 miles W. of
Brugg.
WILSNACH, a town of Brandenburg, in the Mark
of Prignitz. This town was anciently famous, there being
no lefs than three hofts worfhipped at this place, which
hofts they fay, in 1383, remained untouched in the church
when it was burned down, and upon each of them was feen
a drop of blood. To thefe hofts numerous pilgrimages were
made from the remoteft countries; by which means this
lace rofe from a village to a fmall town. At length the
Fotts were burned in the year 1552, by the Lutheran
preacher, Joachim Ellefeldt ; 8 miles S. of Perleberg.
WILSON, Ricuarp, in Biography, the moft eminent
landfcape-painter of the Englifh {chool, was the fon of a
clergyman, and was born at Pineges, in Montgomerythire,
in 1714.
Having received from his father a good claffical education,
in the eourfe of which he had evinced a decided difpofition
for drawing, he was fent to London at the age of 15,
and placed as a difciple with an obfcure portrait-painter,
named Wright. After a lapfe of fix years, he commenced
profeffor, and under the patronage of Dr, Hayter, bifhop
of Norwich, he foon afterwards had the honour to paint
WIL
portraits of his prefent majefty and his brother, the late
duke of York ; both at that time under the tuition of the
bifhop. He continued to practife portrait-painting fome
time in London, but with no great fuccefs, and at length
went to Italy to cultivate his tafte. Even there he conti-
nued to praétife it, ftill unacquainted with the genuine bias
of his genius, although occafionally exercifing his talents
and employing his time in ftudies of landfcape. At Venice
Wilfon painted a portrait of the late Mr. Lock, of Nor-
bury-park, one of the moft creditable of his performances
in that branch of the art ; and it was there that accident
opened his eyes to his own peculiar gratifications, and led
him into that path, by porting which he has obtained a
name among the worthiett in art.
As a matter of relaxation and amufement, he had painted
a landfcape, which being feen by Zuccarelli, fo warmly ex-
cited that eminent artift’s admiration, that he advifed Wilfon
to purfue that line of art exclufively. From this time it is
believed that he abandoned portraiture, and followed the ju-
dicious advice of a rival artift ; and foon after he left Venice
in company with Mr. Lock, and travelling flowly to Rome,
made numerous ftudies on the way, which are ftill preferved
at Norbury-park. On his arrival at Rome, the advice of
Zuccarelli was confirmed by Vernet and Mengs, both then in
high repute. So much were they delighted with Wilfon’s
landfcapes, that they each offered to exchange a picture
with him; a propofal far too flattering for refufal. This
liberality, as commendable as it is unufual, was followed by
Vernet in the handfomeft manner, as he hung the picture by
the Englifhman in his exhibition-room, and recommended
him to the particular attention of the cognofcenti.
His progrefs in land{cape-painting muft have been very
rapid ; indeed it muft have had the charaéter of being almoft
intuitive, fince he obtained avery great degree of reputation
during his ftay in Italy, and painted many pi€tures there of
known celebrity. He travelled with the late earl of Dart-
mouth to Naples, and made a number of very fine drawings
for that- nobleman, now preferved by his grandfon ; and for
him alfo he painted two pictures, one a very fine one, a view
of Rome, which has been beautifully engraved by Middi-
man. He was alfo employed by the late duke of Bridge-
water to paint a landfcape with the ftory of Niobe ; but his
grace had the bad tafte to employ Placido Conftanza to re-
paint the figures. To preferve his reputation, Wilfon
painted another of the fame fubje&, and both are now in
England. He returned from Italy in 1755, and occupied
apartments over the north piazza of Covent-Garden. He
had merited, and here he alfo obtained celebrity, and for a
while employment. Many of his principal performances ap-
pear to have been painted about this time, moft of which are
known by the fine prints engraved from them by Woollett
and others ; in which the grandeur, breadth, and purity of
compofition in mafs and in line, contend for admiration with
the talents confpicuous in the engravings.
Hitherto the life of Wilfon was honoured as his talents
deferved ; the remainder of it exhibited a gradual declenfion,
not fo much of power as of patronage. ’*Tis true he was
often too free in his pencil, and too much mannered in his
{tyle ; repeating himfelf, perhaps, till it became irkfome.;
tis faid, alfo, that he was not of the moft tractable
humour, and was low in his purfuits and affociations.
Whencefoever it arofe, he was doomed to undergo indif-
ference and negle&, and confequently the inconveniences of
lownefs of purfe. Sometimes he was employed to paint
views of gentlemen’s feats, but probably the occupation
fuited the artift as little as the refult gratified the patron.
Wilfon’s view of nature was far too broad for fuitable
adaptation
WIL
adaptation to fuch a purpofe, and confequently there are not
many pictures of this clafs to be met with which have pro-
ceeded from his pencil. The great charatteriftic of his
works is grandeur, refulting from breadth, purity, and fim-
plicity, united in fullnefs of colour and mellownefs of touch.
He was perfe&tly original in feeling and execution, more
grand in general conception than Claude, though infinitely
lefs perfect in detail; and far from travelling through his
career in art, with fo even a pace as his great predeceflor and
only rival in the more exalted ftyle of landfcape-painting be-
fore our time. Now athird fhines in the fame hemifphere,
and Claude and Wilfon find no ill-fuited affociate in the name
of Turner.
At the inftitution of the Royal Academy, Wilfon was
chofen one of the founders; and after the death of Hay-
man he was made librarian. That ftation he retained till his
death, which happened in May 1782, in the 68th year of
his age.
Witson, Tuomas, an Englifh prelate, was born in
1663, at Burton-in-Wirral, Chefhire, and finifhed his educa-
tion in Dublin college, where he took his degree of arts.
In 1689 he was ordained prieft, and in 1692 became do-
meftic chaplain to the earl of Derby, and attended his fon,
Jord Strange, who was his pupil, on a tour to the continent.
Upon the death of the young gentleman, he returned to
England, and in recompence. of his faithful fervices, was
nominated to the bifhopric of the Ifle of Man, by the earl of
Derby, who then pofleffed:the fovereignty of the ifland.
The nomination was approved by king William, and he was
confecrated in January 1697-8, having received at Lambeth
the degree of LL.D. The revenue of the bifhopric did
not amount to more than 300/. a year; but by fome col-
lateral advantages the bifhop was enabled to exercife hofpi-
tality and charity, to repair his ruined palace, and to founda
new chapel at Caftletown. He alfo eftablifhed parochial libra-
ries, which he furnifhed with religious books, among which
was a {mall traét, the firft that was ever printed in the Manks
language.’ He improved the agriculture of the ifland by
introducing into it corn, horfes, cattle, and fheep, from
England ; and he ftudied phyfic with a view of adminifter-
ing to the relief and comfort of the iflanders. He publifhed
ecclefiaftical conftitutions, which were fo much approved,
that lord chancellor King faid of them, that “if the ancient
difcipline of the church were loft, it might be found in all its
purity in the Ifle of Man.”? Bifhop Wilfon, chiefly with a
view to the intereft of religion and morality, was anxious to
maintain a due regard to epifcopal authority, and this
anxiety led him in two inftances to exceed the bounds of
prudence and propriety. When fome copies of the ‘ Inde-
pendent Whig”? had found their way into the ifland, he or-
dered them to be feized, apprehending that they inculcated
fentiments hoftile to Chriftianity and the eftablifhed church.
He alfo involved himfelf in difficulties and incurred reproach
by excluding from the communion the wife of the governor,
n account of an aét of defamation, for which fhe refufed to
afk pardon of the injured party. This led to a ferious al-
tercation with the governor, who fined both the bifhop and
his two vicars-general, for fufpending his chaplain for dif-
obedience in admitting the wife to communion, and who ar-
refted them for refufing to pay the fine. Accordingly they
were kept clofe prifoners in the caftle for nine weeks, till the
bifhop, by application to the council in England, obtained
their releafe. The pious and mild-tempered bifhop after-
‘wards declined profecuting the governor for damages.
From his piety and attachment to the church, he was ho-
noured in 1707 with the degree of D.D. from the univerfity
Vor. XXXVIII.
WIL
of Oxford, in full convocation, and in which he wa after-
wards aggregated at Cambridge.
Such was the bifhop’s zeal for doing good, that he would
not quit the {phere affigned him for this purpofe, though he
was offered an Englifh bifhopric ; in reference to which cir-
cumftance queen Caroline, direéting her attention to Wilfon,
among a number of other prelates who happened to be at
court at the fame time with him, faid to them, ‘* Here, my
lords, comes a bifhop whofe errand is not to apply for
a tranflation, nor would he part with “his fpoufe be-
caufe fhe is poor.”? His character was in fuch eftimation
with the French minifter, that he procured an order that no
French privateer fhould commit ravages on the Ifle of Man.
In this retired fituation his life was prolonged to his 93d
year, when he calmly expired in March, 1755, leaving one
furviving fon, known in the political world as reétor of St.
Stephen’s, Walbrook, and patron of the celebrated hiftorian
Mrs. Macaulay. After his death a colleGtion of his works
was publifhed in two vols. 4to. 1781. His notes to Crut-
well’s Bible, which was publifhed under the bifhop’s name
in three vols. 4to. 1785, are of little value. The tranfla-
tion of the New Teftament into the Manks language, which
he had undertaken, was completed by his fucceffor, Dr.
Mark Hillefley. Biog. Brit. Life prefixed to his
‘Works. Gen. Biog.
Wiutson, Dr. Joun, a native of Feverfham, in Kent, was
a gentleman of Charles the Firft’s chapel, and fervant in
ordinary to his majefty, in the character of chamber-muli-
cian. His inftrument was the lute, upon which he is faid
to have excelled all the Englifhmen of his time; and, ac-
cording to Ant. Wood, his royal mafter was fo pleafed with
his talents, and had even fuch a perfonal regard for him,
that he not only liftened to him with the greateft attention,
but frequently condefcended to lean or lay his hand on his
fhoulder, while he was playing.
For the excellence of his performance we muft now
wholly depend on tradition, as the compofitions he has left
behind him for the lute are but feeble teftimonies of a great
hand. Nor will his vocal produétions, or Fantafias, either
in print or manufcript, generate very exalted ideas of his
genius or abilities as a compofer. That he was admired by
his majefty, and by the lovers of mufic at Oxford, where he
was honoured with the degree of doétor in mufic, 1644, and
where he long refided, proves more the low {tate of the art
at this time, before the ears of the public were rendered dif-
criminative, by a variety of great and rival talents, than his
own perfeétions. Little had been heard, and but little was
expected. Swift fays, ‘¢ we admire a little wit in a woman,
as we do afew words {poke plain by a parrot :”? and it
might more ferioufly be faid, that the beft mufic, during
times of ignorance and inexperience, is perhaps more admired
than the moft exquifite productions and performance of a
more enlightened period. Nothing can prove this more
clearly than the unbounded and hyperbolical praifes be-
ftowed in France on the operas of Lulli, of which, at pre-
fent, the whole nation is afhamed.
Dr. Wilfon, indeed, feems to have fet words to mufic
more clumfily than any compofer of equal rank in the pro-
feffion; but as he was re{peéted by his contemporaries, and
held an exalted rank in his art, a lift fhall here be inferted of
his works; not fo much for their intrinfic worth, as to
enable curious enquirers to judge for themfelves of the pro-
grefs which mufic had made in this kingdom, when fuch
produ€tions were in high favour, nat only with the greateft
perfonages but principal profeffors of the times.
« Pfalterium Carolinum, the devotions of his, facred ma-
3.N jetty
WIL
jefty in his folitude and fufferings, rendered in verfe, fet to
mufic for three voices and an organ or theorbo.”” Folio,
1657.
“ Cheerful Aires or Ballads, firft compofed for one fingle
voice, and fince fet for three voices.”” Oxon. 1660.
s Aires to a voice alone, to a theorbo or bafs viol ;”’
thefe are printed in a colleétion entitled “ Sele& Aires and
Dialogues.”” Folio, 1653.
« Divine Services and Anthems,’ the words of which are
in Clifford’s ColleGtion. Lond. 1663.
He alfo compofed mufic to feveral of the odes of
Horace, and to fome fele& paflages in Aufonius, Claudian,
Petronius Arbiter, and Statius; thefe were never publifhed,
but are preferved in a manufcript volume curioufly bound in
blue Turkey leather, with filver clafps, which the doétor
prefented to the univerfity, with an injunétion that no perfon
fhould be permitted to perufe it till after his deceafe. It is
ftill among the archives of the Bodleian library.
The compofitions of Dr. Wilfon will certainly not bear
a fevere ferutiny either as to genius or knowledge. It is,
however, not eafy to account for the ignorance in counter-
int which is difcoverable in many lutenifts of thefe times ;
‘or having harmony under their fingers, as much as the per-
formers on keyed inftruments, it facilitates their ftudy, and
fhould render them deeper contrapuntifts than the genera-
lity of flute-players, whofe flimfy compofitions are pro-
verbial.
On the furrender of the garrifon of the city of Oxford,
1646, Dr. Wilfon left the univerfity, and was received into
the family of fir William Walter, of Sarfden, in Oxford-
fhire ; but, in 1656, he was conftituted mufic-profeffor, and
had lodging affigned him in Baliol college, where, being af-
fifted by fome of the royalifts, he lived very comfortably,
exciting in the univerfity, according to A. Wood, fuch a
love of mufic, as in a great meafure accounts for that
flourifhing ftate in which it has long fubfifted there, and for
thofe numerous private mufic-meetings, of which this writer,
in his own life, has given fuch an amufing relation. Atthe
Reftoration, Dr. Wilfon was appointed chamber-mufician to
Charles EI. ; and, on the death of Henry Lawes, 1662, was
again received into the chapel-royal, when, quitting the uni-
verfity, he refided conftantly in London, till the time of his
deceafe, at near 78 years of age, in 1673. Burney.
ILSON, in Geography, a town of South Carolina; 15
miles S.W. of Queenborough.—Alfo, a town of Scotland,
in the county of Lanerk, founded in the latter end of the
18th century, by Meflrs. Wilfon of London, to accommo-
date the workmen employed in an iron foundery there; 5
miles E. of Lanerk.—Alfo, a county of Weft Tenneflee,
with 11,952 inhabitants, including 2297 flaves.
WILSONIA, in Botany, received that appellation from
Mr. R. Brown, who commemorates by it the remarkable
zeal and perfeverance of Mr. John Wilfon, an inhabitant of
Kendal, Weftmoreland, author of a “‘Synopfis of Britifh
Plants in Mr. Ray’s Method,” publifhed at Newcaftle-upon-
Tyne in 1744. This work, however, is incomplete, the
grafles, trees, fhrubs, and all the cryptogamic tribe, except
Ferns, being omitted. The author, whom Dr. Pulteney
fuppofes to have died about the year 1750, is faid to have
left thefe claffes finifhed in MS. ; but they were never pub-
lithed. His performance indeed is now altogether obfo-
lete, being chiefly tranflated from Ray and Tournefort ;
though with fome alterations of the re ie of the former,
and much additional matter, refpeéting the ftations of rare
plants ; all which evinces a confiderable portion of practical
knowledge. Copious medical information is interfperfed,
12
WIL
and a botanical dictionary is prefixed. But the botanift of
whom we are {peaking is principally worthy of memory, for
that indefatigable love of fcience, which even the moft
humble fituation, and the moft limited circumftances, could
not counteract. Whether he was employedin the manufature
of knitted flockings, formerly very extenfive in his native
town, or whether he made fhoes, his biographers are not
agreed; but he contrived to attain more knowledge, and
cultivation of mind, than perhaps a great majority of the
gentry around him. He mutt have had a competent ae-
quaintance with Latin, and he may rank as an Englifh writer
among the moit refpeétable, upon {cientific fubjeéts, in his
time. We cannot commend his prudence, if we compat
fionate his difficulties, when he would have fold his only
cow, the fupport of his wife and family, to buy a copy of
Morifon’s work. But we may be allowed to regret that
his mental application did not tend to fo ample a pecuniary
reward, as that of the famous fir Richard Arkwright, who
repeatedly incurred the cenfure of many a prudent friend,
for negle&t of bufinefs, while he was planning a fcheme of
unbounded profit for himfelf and family. We rejoice to
read that the book fo much defired, was prefented to
Wilfon by a benevolent lady, who lived near him, and who
by this aé has afforded a lafting teftimony to the worth of
his character. An honeft man may always hope for indul-
gence and affiftance, if he fmooths the path of hard duty
with a little mental excurfion, inftead of mere unprofitable
recreation or diffipation, whatever may be his fituation
in life. Many a cow has been fold in confequence of evil
propenfities ; few have been facrificed to procure food for
the mind. — Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 490. Clafs
and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Convolwvull,
Jufl. Convolvulacee, Brown.
Eff. Ch. Calyx pitcher-fhaped, five-fided,. five-toothed.
Corolla funnel-fhaped, of one petal ; imbricated in the bud.
Germen with two feeds. Style cloven. Stigmas capitate.
Capfule....
1. W. humilis. Humble Wilfonia. Br. n. 1.—Difco-
vered by Mr. Brown, in the fouth part of New Holland.
A little, dwarf, fhrubby, proftrate, much branched, downy
plant. Leaves fmall, feffile, thickifh, imbricated in two
ranks. Flowers axillary, folitary, feffile, without bra@eas.
Mr. Brown remarks, that the natural affinity of this genus
muft be uncertain while its fruit continues unknown. He
met with the plant after the fowers were faded, before the
Jeed-veffel was formed, nor is he certain whether the germen
confitted of one cell, or of two. He ranges Wil/onia next
after Creffa, of whofe place in the natural fyftem Linnzus
had formed no opinion, but which Juffieu well refers to his
Convolvuli, notwithftanding the folitary /eed.
WILSONVILLE, in Geography, a town of Pennfyl-
vania ; 120 miles N. of Philadelphia.
WILSTER, a town of the duchy of Holftein, on the
river of the fame name ; 8 miles N. of Gluckttadt.
WILSUM, a town of Germany, in the county of Ben-
theim ; 11 miles W.N.W. of Nienhuus.
WILTER, a town of the Tyrolefe, on the Inn ; 3 miles
above Infpruck.
WILTON, an ancient market, borough, and county-
town of Wiltfhire, England, derives its name from the river
on which it was originally built. By old writers, it was
called Wile, or Wily-Vilodunum and Ellandunum ; and ac-
cording to Baxter it was a chief feat of the Britifh prince,
Carvilius, and thence denominated -Caer-Guilou. Henry of
Huntingdon fays, it afterwards became the capital of the
Weft-Saxon dominions; but Leland and Dr. Milner “a
tend,
WIL
tend, that Winchefter was the chief town of that mo-
narchy. It is not improbable that both places were at
different periods poffefled and occupied by the Weft-Saxon
kings.
Raitecddéat to the Norman Conqueft, Wilton was cer-
tainly a place of diftinguifhed confequence. It contained
feveral religious eftablifhments ; and was the principal town
of the county, as appears from its having given name to the
fhire. Leland ftates, that it poffefled twelve parifh-churches
at the period of Henry III.; a ftatement, if fully authenti-
cated, would afford decided proof both of its great extent
and population. The Weit-Saxon monarchs moft pro-
bably had a palace here, and conferred on this place many
marks of their royal favour. During their dynafty, Wilton
was a royal borough, and appears to have been the fcene of
feveral important hiftorical events. In 823, Egbert gave
battle to and defeated the Mercian army near this town,
which army was commanded by their king, Beornwulf.
Several other engagements between the Saxons and Danes
took place at and near Wilton. One of thefe occurred in
$71, when the valiant Alfred commanded the Saxon army
againft a vaft horde of the Danifh marauders, who having
plundered and laid watte feveral other places, were checked
in their fanguinary career near this town, and after a defpe-
rate battle were compelled to petition for mercy and peace.
Again in 1003, Wilton was vifited by the Danes, when part
of the town was confumed. During the civil warfare be+
tween king Stephen and the emprefs Mand, this place was
the fcene of much flaughter. ;
Wilton continued for many centuries after the Conquett
celebrated for its monaftic inftitutions, and particularly for
its abbey. This was inftituted in 773 by Wulftan, earl of
Wiltfhire, who, having defeated Ethelmund, king of the
Mercians, repaired “ a certain old church of St. Mary, at
Wilton, which had been deftroyed by the Danes, and
placed in it a college of fecular priefts.”’” After the Conquett,
king William and feveral of his fucceflors added greatly to
the opulence of this abbey, which was diffolved in the thirty-
fifth year of Henry VIII. The other monattic inftitutions
in this town were, a houfe of black friars, an hofpital de-
dicated to St. Mary Magdalen, a collegiate church, and an
hofpital dedicated to St. John.
Wilton, though much decayed, ftill retains many of its
ancient privileges. It is a borough both by prefcription
and by charter, and is governed by a corporation of its
own, confifting of a mayor, recorder, five aldermen, three
capital burgeffes, and eleven common-councilmen, with a
town-clerk, and other officers, as fixed by the laft charter
granted in the reign of Henry VIII. The town fends two
members to parliament, and has regularly done fo fince the
twenty-third year of EdwardI. In 1710, it was agreed
that the ele€tive franchife was vefted “in the mayor and
burgefles, who are to do all corporate aéts and receive the
facrament.”” The number of voters is ftated at twenty-
four in the Hiftory of Boroughs, where it is alfo obferved,
that “ the ele€tion of any patie to be a burgefs of Wilton,
who has not taken the facrament of the Lord’s fupper, ac-
cording to the rites of the church of England, within one
year before fuch eleGtion, is a void eletion.”” The mayor is
the returning officer ; and the patron of the borough is the
earl of Pembroke, whofe feat is in the vicinity of the town.
The county courts of juftice are fometimes held here ; as
are likewife the ele€tions for the county members. The
precife {pot where the eleGtors meet to choofe their repre-
fentatives, is marked by a large ftone in the Warren, at a
Short diftance fouth of the town. The market-days here
WIL
were formerly Wednefday and Friday in every week ; but
a {mall one on the former day is now only continued. The
fairs are held on the 4th of May and the 12th of Sep-
tember.
The principal public buildings in this town are the
parifh-church and the town-hall. The other buildings
here appropriated to public purpofes are two chapels,
one belonging to the Methodifts, and another to the Inde-
pendents, a free-fchool, and eight alms-houfes. Wilton,
including the borough and parifh, contains, according to
the parliamentary returns of 1811, 393 houfes, and a popu-
lation of 1963 perfons. It was formerly celebrated for its
carpet manufactories, which gave employment to a large
proportion of its inhabitants. The firft carpet made in
England was manufa¢tured at Wilton. Fancy woollens
and flannels are now the only articles of manufafture. At
the eaftern end of the town is,
Wilton-houfe, feated in a fine park. This edifice is
a large, extenfive pile, ere&ted at different periods, and
difplays different ftyles of archite@ture. It was formerly
an abbey, but the alteration of Mr. James Wyatt has de-
ftroyed every monaftic part of the building. This archi-
te&t (now no more) was employed by the prefent noble
proprietor, to enlarge the manfion and adapt it for the better
difplay of its rich ftores of ancient fculpture and paintings.
A principal feature in this alteration is the formation of a
glazed cloifter, round a central court, which contains nearly
the whole colleétion of ftatues, bufts, baffo-relievos, &c.
Another confiderable novelty is a large court-yard on the
north, furrounded by offices, a lodge, and a new fide to the
houfe. The approach is through a triumphal arch, which
is furmounted by a bold equeftrian ftatue of Marcus Aure-
lius. A veftibule leads to the cloifter, both of which are
filled with ancient marbles.
The colleétion of works of art at Wilton-houfe has long
been highly celebrated, and different publications have been
given to the world, with catalogues and accounts of the
various fubjeéts. Thefe are, the “ AEdes Pembrochianz,” by
Mr. Richardfon, 12mo. 1774 ; an eleventh edition of which
was publifhed in 1788. Gambarini of Lucca publifhed
a “ Defcription of the Earl of Pembroke’s PiGures,”
in 1731. Kennedy alfo produced a “* New Defcription of
the Pictures, &c.” in 1764. Another volume in 4to., with
feveral engravings of the {culpture, was publifhed in 1786.
Wilton-houfe was formerly exhibited to ftrangers, but the
prefent nobleman has fhut it up. Several perfons of the
Pembroke family have been particularly diftinguifhed in the
annals of the country ; particularly in Clarendon’s hiftory.
Philip Maflinger, an eminent dramatic poet, was probably
born at Wilton-houfe, as his father lived in the fervice of
the earl of Pembroke. See Giffard’s Life and Works of
Maffinger.
About a mile eaft of Wilton is Bemerton, the living of
which is poffefled by the Rev. William Coxe, author of
feveral valuable works of Hiftory, Travels, and Topo-
graphy. It is rather fingular that the re€tory of Bemer-
ton has been enjoyed by fecal eminent literary charaéters,
among whom we find the names of Walter Curle, bifhop
of Winchefter, &c. George Herbert, (commonly called the
divine Herbert,) and John Norris.—Beauties of England,
Wiltthire, 8vo. 1814; by John Britton, F.S.A.
Witton, a town of the diftriG of Maine, in the county
of Kennebeck, containing 770 inhabitants; 60 miles N.N.E.
of Portland.—Alfo, a town of New Hamphfhire, in Hillf-
borough county, with ror7 inhabitants; 30 miles E. of
Chefterfield.—Alfo, a town of Conneéticut, in the county
3N2 of
WIL
of Fairfield, with 1728 inhabitants. —Alfo, a town of South
Carolina; 27 miles S.W. of Charleftown.
WILTOWN, a town of South Carolina; 21 miles
W.S.W. of Dorchetfter.
WILTPERG, a town of Auftria; 8 miles S.W. of
Frey ftadt.
WILTSHIRE, an inland county, fituated towards the
fouth-weftern divifion of England, derives its name from the
town of Wilton, which, according to fome ancient hiftorians,
was the metropolis of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Weilex.
On the north and north-weft it is bounded by Gloucefter-
fhire, on the fouth-weft by Dorfetfhire, on the fouth and
eaft by Hamphhire, and on the north-eaft by the county of
Berks. Thefe boundaries are in general artificial, and form
a figure approaching that of an ellifpe. Concerning the
extent and fuperficial area of this county, various are the
ftatements of different writers. In the Magna Britannia it
is {aid to be thirty-nine miles in length from north to fouth,
and thirty in. breadth from eaft to weft. Gough, in his
additions to Camden’s Britannia, eftimates its length at
forty-nine miles, and its breadth at thirty-feven. Its cir-
cumference, according to the fame author, is one hundred
and fifty miles, and the number of acres it contains 876,000.
Mr. Davis, whofe authority on this fubje& is highly re-
{peétable, in his Agricultural Report on the County, ftates it
to be in length fifty-four miles, and in breadth thirty-four.
The fame writer computes the fuperficial area to be 1372
{quare miles, or 878,000 acres.
The county of Wilts is a diftri@ peculiarly interefting to
the topographer and antiquary. To the latter, indeed, it
offers a wider and more varied field for refearch than per-
haps any other county in England. The grand and myfte-
rious monuments of Stonehenge and at Avebury, and the
numerous barrows which cover its plains, are relics of an
age anterior to hiftorical record, and of which the annals of
the world do not furnifh a parallel example. Like the
proud pyramids of Egypt, the former were calculated by
their conftruétion to have remained entire to almoft endlefs
futurity, if the agency of the elements had not been affifted
by the deftruétive influence of man. In the Wanfdyke,
Bokerly-ditch, and Grimfditch, and in the fimpler in-
trenchments with which the county abounds, we behold the
remains of Britifh towns, and perceive the mode adopted by
the Britons to mark boundaries and form communications.
The caftles of Old Sarum, Scratchbury, Battlefbury, and
Bratton, difplay the efforts of a more advanced period; and
many other of the Wiltthire intrenched works bear marks
of fucceffive occupation by the Romans, the romanized
Britons, the Saxons, and the Danes. This part of the
kingdom, indeed, feems to have been the principal theatre of
the military and civil events which were confequent on the
Saxon and Danifh invafions. Here the far-famed Arthur
and the ftill more illuftrious Alfred contended at different
periods for the liberties of their country, and checked for
a time the tide of invading conqueft. At Ludgerfhall,
‘Devizes, Malmfbury, and Marlborough, the veftiges of
Norman fortrefles may yet be traced; and in Clarendon-
ark ftood a fumptuous palace, erected by king John.
almfbury yet preferves the ruins of a magnificent abbey ;
and in the cathedral of Salifbury, we behold an edifice fur-
paffing every fimilar ancient ftruéture in uniformity of ftyle
_and fymmetry of parts. Many of the parochial churches
in the county are alfo objeéts worthy the examination of
the antiquary, as {pecimens of architeétural fkill and {Cience ;
and in Wilton-houfe, Longford-caftle, Font-hill, Corfham-
houfe, Bowood, Tottenham-park, Charlton-park, Stour-
WIL
head, and Longleat, we are prefented with manfions alike
celebrated for magnificence and beauty of fcenery, and for
popular attraétions to the connoiffeurs and artifts of the
country.
At the period of the invafion of our ifland by Julius
Cefar, a people called the Belge inhabited a portion of
this county. The Hedui are faid to have occupied its
north-weftern divifion, near the fource of the Avon and
about Cricklade. Another diftri& is mentioned by Carte,
in his Hiftory of England, as being fubfequently poffeffed
by the Carviki, fo named from their prince Carvilius; but
whether thefe people were fome of the Belge, or a diftin&
tribe, does not appear. Other authors fuppofe that the
Cangi inhabited the northern parts, if not at this era, at leaft
foon after it. ;
When the Romans, after the lapfe of nearly a century,
from the final departure of Cxfar, again invaded Britain in
the reign of Claudius (A.D. 44.), they found the political
condition and relations of its feveral tribes very materially
altered. The opinion of Camden, in his Britannia, is, that
the Belge had fubdued the whole of Wiltthire, and alfo had
poffeffed themfelves of all the territories of the Hedui.
It is very generally admitted, that the Belge were the
moft powerful people in the fouth-weftern divilion of Eng-
land at the era of which we are now {peaking ; and no doubt
is entertained of their having occupied all the fouthern dif-
trict of this county, as far as the Wanfdyke, which is there-
fore defignated by the appellation of ‘ The great Belgic
Boundary.’
Under the Romans, Wiltfhire formed part of Britannia-
Prima, and many ftations, encampments, and other military.
veltigia of that people can be traced in different parts of it.
Subfequent to the departure of the Romans, the earlieft
event of political importance which occurs in hiftory relating
to Wiltfhire is the maflacre of three hundred Britifh nobles,
on the {pot where Stonehenge is fituated, by the orders of
Hengift (leader of the firft Saxon expedition to England),
who had invited them here to a banquet under the pretence
of effe€ting a reconciliation between the Britons and him-
felf: The truth of this dreadful cataftrophe, however,
is extremely doubtful, as it does not appear to be mentioned
by any of the Saxon writers, and feems to reft folely upon
the authority of Nennius, and a few of the Britifh or Welfh
bards, who were evidently interefted in the propagation of
{tories calculated to excite feelings of enmity and revenge in
the breafts of their countrymen, again{t a people, once their
allies, but afterwards their inveterate and barbarous enemies.
Carte fays, that this “* ftory was borrowed from Witikind,
who relates it of the Thuringians, who were murdered by
the Saxons on a like occafion, and upon a fignal given in the
fame words made ufe of by the Britifh writers.’”? ‘Turner,
in his Hiftory of the Anglo-Saxons, regards it as an incident
which can neither be authenticated nor difproved; and
Whitaker, in his Hiftory of Manchefter, afferts, that the
conquefts of Hengift never extended beyond the limits of
Kent; a circumftance which, if fully eftablifhed, would no
doubt tend to invalidate our belief of the tranfattion.
Hume, in his Hiftory of England, calls it a ftory “ in-
vented by the Welfh authors, in order to palliate the weak
refiltance made at firft by their countrymen, and to account
for the rapid progrefs and*licentious devaftations of the
Saxons.”? About the year 520, Cerdic, founder of Weffex,
having received confiderable reinforcements from Saxony,
and cut off a body of Britons which had been difpatched to
intercept them, colleéed all his difpofable forces, and ad-
vanced to Mount Badon, Badbury-caftle, a Britith ha
ul then
WILTSHIRE.
then confidered of great ftrength and importance, on account
of its commanding fituation, and its proximity to the con-
currence of the Roman roads, which interfeét the north-
eaftern divifion of this county. The diftinguifhed Arthur,
who fo long upheld the falling fortunes of his country,
relieved the garrifon with a large army formed under his
owninf{pection : Cerdic, apprized of his intention, abandoned
the fiege, and waited the approach of the enemy. The con-
fli€& was fevere; the genius of Arthur, however, ultimately
prevailed over the fuperior fcience of the Saxon general, and
the more fteady condué of his veteran troops. The fub-
jugation of Wiltfhire was not again attempted till the year
52, when warfare was once more renewed. Kenric, the
fon of Cerdic, and his fucceffor in the Weft-Saxon monarchy,
again pafled the frontiers of his dominions, and threatened
Sorbiodunum or Old Sarum.
The Britifh’ army took a pofition to fecure its fafety, and
fought with their ufual intrepidity, but were defeated by
the fuperior difcipline of the Saxons. At ‘ Beranbyrig,”’
Barbury-caftle, in the vicinity of Marlborough, another
decifive battle was fought, in which the invaders were again
the conquerors ; and Wiltfhire in confequence became in-
corporated in the kingdom of Weflex.
After feveral fkirmifhes, a decifive battle was fought at
Wodnefbury, in which the ufurper of Weflex was defeated.
The Danes made a defcent on the ifland in the thirty-fecond
year of Egbert’s reign, and effected great ravages in Wilt-
fhire. King Alfred afterwards attacked the Danes near
Wilton, and routed them; but elated by fuccefs, he incau-
tioufly fuffered them to rally when they gained a vi€tory.
Alfred engaged them in feveral battles with varied fuccefs,
and poe compelled them to fue for peace, which was
granted ; yet in the following year, regardlefs of their recent
engagements, they fuddenly advanced to Chippenham, then
a royal refidence, and eftablifhed themfelves in that town.
They had gained fuch confiderable reinforcements, that the
king, with a part of his army, retired into Somerfethhire.
Here he remained feveral months, occafionally fallying out
upon the enemy, deftroying their magazines, and carrying
off their provifions. Having muftered a confiderable army,
Alfred quitted his retirement, and advanced to /Ethandune,
where the Danifh forces lay encamped, attacked them by
furprife, and gained a complete viétory. No other particu-
lar event occurred in Wiltfhire until 976, when a fynod was
held at Calne, in which the refpeétive rights of the regular
and fecular clergy underwent a folemn difcuffion: the fecu-
lar clergy would not relinquifh their pretenfions ; another
council was, therefore, convened the fame year at Amefbury,
in which it appears the canons were unfuccefsful.
The next hiftorical occurrence in Wiltfhire happened in
1003, when the towns of Wilton and Sarum were plundered
and nearly burned to the ground by the Danifh monarch.
In 1006 another army of Danes vifited Weffex, and
retirmg to the coaft through Wiltfhire, when fome of its
natives attacked it in the vicinity of Kennet; the Saxons
were, however, defeated, and purchafed peace by fubmitting
to the tribute called Danegelt.
_ England now remained tranquil five years, when in 1011
king Swein and his fon Canute again landed on the fouth
coait, and entering this county, levied heavy contributions
on the inhabitants. King Edward at this time being indif-
pofed at Corfham, his fon Edmund took the field, and put
the invaders to flight. An obftinate battle was fought,
about this time, at ** Scearftan,’’ or Sherfton, on the north-
weftern verge of the county, by Edmund (who had juit
fucceeded his father, Edward) again{t the Danes; the deci-
fion of the battle turned in favour of king Edmund by the
unexpected flight of Canute. Subfequent to the Norman
Conqueft, Wiltfhire retained a confiderable fhare of political
intereft.
In the year 1086, the conqueror held a great council at
Sarum; ‘ where,”’ fays Blackftone, ‘¢ all the principal
landholders fubmitted their lands to the yoke of military
tenure, became the king’s vaffals, and did homage and fealty
to his perfon.”’ Thus was the feudal fyftem formally in-
troduced into this country.
Clarendon, in this county, is remarkable for the laws
pafled there in the reign of Henry II.; « whereby,” fays
Blackftone, “ the king checked the power of the pope and
the clergy, and greatly narrowed the total exemption they
claimed from the fecular jurifdiction ;”’ though the comple-
tion of his wifhes was prevented by the murder of the proud
and arrogant prelate, archbifhop Becket. Thefe laws are
{till familiar to the antiquary, by the appellation of the
© Conftitutions of Clarendon.’ At Marlborough, in 1267,
Henry III. held a parliament, or a general affembly of the
‘ Eftates of England,’ to provide for ‘ the better ftate of
the realm, and the’ more f{peedy adminiftration of juftice ;””
and here were confequently enaéted thofe ftatutes for the
fuppreflion of tumults, which have ever fince been deno-
minated, ‘ The Statutes of Marlbridge.’ In the contefts
between the houfes of York and Lancatter, the inhabitants
of Wiltfhire were confpicuous for their attachment to the
fortunes of the Henries. Many of them were prefent at
the battle of Tewkfbury, an event which tended to fix the
crown on the brows of Edward.
In the deplorable events of the 17th century, this county
was equally diftinguifhed. Many ations between the par-
liamentary and royal forces were decided within its bound-
aries ; particularly at Malmfbury, at Ludgerfhall, and at
Round-a-way-hill, in the neighbourhood of Devizes. War-
dour and Longford caftles were alternately befieged and
taken by both parties within one year.
The remains of antiquity in Wiltfhire, firft entitled to
notice in a colle&ive view, are the {tupendous monuments at
Avebury and Stonehenge, both of which are regarded as
druidical temples. In thefe ftru€tures we are prefented
with the moft wonderful works of a rude but powerful
people; works in which the bodily ftrength of aflociated
numbers, with the fcience and cuftoms of their age, are
ftrongly manifefted, and which are calculated not only to
excite the aftonifhed gaze and amazement of the multitude,
but alfo to roufe curiofity and awaken inquiry in the minds
of antiquaries and hiftorians. See AveBuRY, and SToNnE-
HENGE.
Next to thefe immenfe temples, becaufe refembling them
in relative magnitude, though totally diffimilar in kind, the
Wanfdyke may properly claim attention. This vaft earth-
work, which is {uppofed to have originally interfected the
whole country, is now only diftin@ly vifible in detached
places, throughout the range of hills to the fouth and weft
of Marlborough, where it {till remains tolerably entire, and
in one place is feen in a bold and conneéted line for the
{pace of ten or twelve miles.
Barrows, or Tumuli.—Of corre{ponding antiquity to the
monuments already named, are the artificial hillocks or
mounds of earth which abound in this county, and which
appear to have an intimate conneGtion with thofe temples,
as they are more numerous around Stonehenge and Ave-
bury than in any other places.. Thefe memorials were un-
doubtedly appropriated to fepulchral purpofes. By. the
refearches of Mr. Cunnington, fir Richard C. Hoare’s:
“ Ancient Wiltfhire,”’ the Rev. James Douglas’s “‘ Nennia.
Britannia,” and a few other eulightened antiquaries, we a
made
WILTSHIRE.
made familiar with the contents of thefe facred depofitories.
See Barrow, and Tumutt.
The Roman ftations mentioned in the Itinerary of An-
toninus, as being fituated within the county, are three in
number, Ning: Verlucio, and ‘Cunetio. The firft of
thefe is placed by all antiquaries at Old Sarum; but the
fituation of the other two has been much difputed. Camden
fixes Verlucio at Weftbury; Horfley, at Lackham; and
Stukeley, whofe opinion is the moft probable, in the neigh-
bourhood of Heddington. Cunetio was formerly fappofed
by fome writers to be at the village of Kennet, and by
others at the prefent town of Marlborough ; but it is now
generally allowed to have been fituated at a fhort diftance
eaft from the latter place, near the north-eaftern boundary
of Savernake foreft. Befides thefe, the Romans had feveral
other fettlements in this county; particularly at Eafton-
Grey, at Wanborough, at Pitmead near Heytefbury,
and at Littlecot, at each of which places teffellated pave-
ments arid other Roman remains have been found. Of the
Roman roads which paffed through Wiltfhire, the principal
was a continuation of the Julia Strata, which entering the
county from Bath, left it near Hungerford on the eaft.
The Foffe road branched off from the Julia Strata at Bath-
ford, at the north-weft cérner of the county, where in many
places it is {till confpicuous. Several other roads connected
Sorbiodunum with neighbouring {tations ; and of thefe,
three are traced with confiderable certainty: firft, one
which led to Durnovaria, or Dorchefter ; fecondly, that to
Venta-Belgarum, Winchefter ; and thirdly, another to Vin-
donum, or Silchefter.
The numerous encampments and other intrenched earthen
works with which Wiltfhire abounds vary not only in fize
and fhape, but in method of conftruétion and peculiarity of
fituation. Some of thefe are doubtlefs the works of the
Britons, others of the Belgz, of the Romans, of the
Saxons, the Danes, and the Normans. Many of them,
however, have been in all probability facielively occupied
and altered by the armies of one or more of thefe nations, at
different periods fubfequent to their original formation.
The immenfe fortifications of Old Sarum, Chidbury-hill,
near Warminfter, and Vefpafian’s camp, near Amefbury,
conftitute the moft diftinguifhed monuments in this clafs of
antiquities.
Caflles. —That this county, at an early period, contained
a number of thofe baronial fortified ftruétures, which are
ufually defignated by the term caftles, and which are fup-
pofed by feveral writers to have been firft introduced by the
Normans, is undoubted. Moft of them, however, are now
totally demolifhed, fo that it is even difficult to afcertain
their a€tual {cites ; and the reft have been fo much altered
in later times, as almoft to efface every veltige of the ori-
ginal building. The more celebrated of chet edifices, and
thofe which moft frequently occur in the ancient hiftorians,
are the caftles of Marlborough, Devizes, Ludgerfhall,
Wardour, Combe, and Malmfbury.
General se! HS a geographical arrangement, Wilt-
fhire may be {aid to be naturally divided into two portions,
by an irregular range of hills, which extends tranf{verfely
through the greater part of the county in a dire&tion in-
clining from the north-eaft to the fouth-weft. Thefe dif-
triéts are ufually denominated South*and North Wilthire,
and differ very materially from each other, not only in ap-
pearance, but in almoft every diftinguifhing quality.
South Wiltfrire, which claims priority of notice on account
of its fuperior extent, forms the weftern divifion of a vaft
tra& of chalk-hills, which extends into Hampfhire, and
having for its boundaries the rich lands of Berkfhire, and
the extreme verge of the Marlborough hills on the north ;
the broken ground of Somerfetfhire on the weft; the new
foreft of Hampshire on the fouth ; and the heaths of Surrey
and Suffex, together with the Weft Downs of the latter
county, on the eaft. The furface of the higher downs, to
ufe the words of Gilpin, is “ {pread out like the ocean, but
it is like the ocean after a ftorm; it is continually heavin
in large fwells.” In fome parts, the hills affume the form o'
rotund knolls, and are feparated by {moothly-fided hollows,
which vary confiderably both in depth and extent. At
other places they range along for a fhort diftance in con-
neéted ridges, fhewing on one fide of the range rather a
rapid declivity, from the top of which, on the other fide,
the hills fink in irregular gradation, till at length they fre-
peed fhelve into a perfect flat. This effect, fays Mar-
all in his “¢ Obferyations on’? what he terms “ the Weftern
Diftri&” of chalk hills, is of courfe more particularly dif-
tinguifhable, “‘ where the range of hills is narrow, /ingle,
than where a congeries of fuch ranges are crowded to-
vo diforderly.”” The whole of this diftriét, generally
peaking, is feparated into two divifions, the one called
Ls chigeiaclotee s and the other Salifbury-Downs or
ain.
The principal valleys in this divifion of the county lie
along the banks of the rivers, the moft remarkable of which
diverge like irregular radii from the country around Salif-
bury and Wilton. Thefe difplay rich meadow and corn
lands, interfperfed with feats and villages, and finely covered
in various parts with plantations of wood.
North Wiltfhire differs entirely from the fouthern divifion
of the county in its general appearance. Inftead of a con-
ftant feries af “¢ chalky waves,”’ the afpe@ of this diftri@,
which extends from the verge of the Downs to the hills of
Gloucefterfhire, is nearly that of a perfe&t flat; the few
deviations from the ordinary level being fo gradual as
fcarcely to be perceptible, on a curfory view. The country
here is fo clofe and well wooded, that when viewed from
any of the furrounding hills, it appears like one vaft plant-
ation of trees. If examined in detail, however, it is found
alfo to contain many extenfive traéts of rich pafture land,
fituated on the banks of the Lower Avon and the Thames,
and of fmaller ftreams which flow into both of thofe rivers.
Rivers.—Wiltfhire abounds with rivers, which either
take their rife within the county, or on its immediate con-
fines. Two of thefe, the Thames and the Lower Avon,
are unqueftionably important ftreams. All the others are
much inferior both in extent and confequence ; but feveral
of them deferve to be particularly noticed, viz. the Upper
or Salifbury Avon, the Nadder, the Willey, the Bourne,
and the Kennet. See THAMEs.
The Lower Avon rifes in the hilly diftri& of North
Wiltfhire, at a fhort diftance from the town of Wootton-
Baffet.
The Upper Avon is formed by the confluence of feveral
fmaller ftreams, which take their rife among the hills near
the centre of the county. ‘The Kennet rifes near Avebury,
and running in an eafterly direction, unites with the Thames
at Reading. The Willey and the Nadder join their ftreams
at Wilton, and unite with the Avon at Salifbury.
The cheefe of North Wiltfhire has long been defervedly
celebrated ; though for fome time after it became the ftaple
commodity here, it was fold in the London market as the
manufacture of Gloucelterfhire. See Cueese.
Wafte Lands.—It is a common idea that the Wiltfhire
downs confift entirely of ‘ wafte land.’ This notion,
however, is completely erroneous ; for if the correét appro-
priation of land is to be eftimated by its comparative utility
in
WILTSHIRE.
in different conditions, the application of the grounds in the
chalk diftri& cannot be very eafily improved, or materially
altered for the better.
In North Wiltfhire the number of common fields is very
great, but none of them are of any confiderable extent. It
is fubje& of regret, however, that they fhould exift at all,
as many of them are difperfed over the richeft foil in the
diftri& ; and if brought under regular cultivation would be
extremely produdtive.
The chaces within Wiltfhire are fuppofed to have been
numerous formerly, but only three woodland diftri&s now
retain that peculiar appellation: thefe are Cranbourn-chace,
Vernditch-chace, and Albourn-chace. The firft and fecond
join each other, and occupy a long narrow tra¢t of country
on the fouthern confines of Wiltfhire. There are three
canals which interfe& parts of this county : firft, the Thames
and Severn; fecondly, the Kennet and Avon; and thirdly,
the Wiltthire and.Berkfhire. See CANALs.
The manufadures of Wiltfhire are various, and of great
extent. Salifbury is noted for its flannels and fancy wool-
lens ; and befides carries on a confiderable manufaétory of
cutlery and fteel goods, which are probably fuperior in
workmanfhip to any in the kingdom. Wilton was cele-
brated for a large manufatory of carpets, and Mere for
another of fancy woollens ; and in its neighbourhood a great
quantity of linen is made, chiefly dowlas and bed-ticks.
Broad cloths, kerfeymeres, and fancy cloths, are the prin-
cipal produce of the towns of Bradford, Trowbridge, War-
miniter, Weftbury, Melkfham, Chippenham, and all the
adjacent towns and villages from Chippenham to Heytef-
bury. At Albourn is an excellent manufactory of cotton
goods, of which fuftians and thickfets form the moft valu-
able portion. Swindon and its vicinity has been long famed
for its manufactory of gloves.
Ecclefiaftical and Civil Bini and Government.—The
whole of this county is fituated in the province of Canter-
bury; and, with exception of the parifh of King{wood, is
in the diocefe of Salifbury. It comprehends two arch-
deaconries, Sarum and Wilts; the former comprifing the
deaneries of Salifbury, Amefbury, Chalk, Pottern, Wilton,
and Wily; and the latter, with the annexed reGtory of
Minety, thofe of Avebury, Cricklade, Malmfbury, and
Marlborough.
As in the other counties of England, the chief civil
magiftrates of Wiltthire are, the lord-lieutenant, the cuftos
rotulorum, and the high fheriff; which laft is ele&ted an-
nually, and whofe official bufinefs is chiefly conduéted by a
deputy-fheriff. The other local members of government
are, juftices of the peace, mayors and bailiffs of boroughs,
and a variety of fubordinate officers. The aGting magiftrates
are feventy-three, and the petty feffions for the county
thirteen.
Wiltthire is comprehended in the weftern circuit, and
fends thirty-four members to parliament, viz. two knights
of the fhire, two citizens for Salifbury, and two burgefles
for each of the following boroughs; Chippenham, Calne,
Cricklade, Devizes, Heytefbury, Hindon, Downton, Great
Bedwin, Marlborough, Malmfbury, Ludgerfhall, Welt-
bury, Wilton, Wootton-Baffet, and Old Sarum. At an
early period the whole county was divided into. twenty-nine
portions, called hundreds 3, and thefe are again fubdivided
into two hundred and ninety-five {maller diftriéts, called
parifhes ; with parts of fourteen others. In the county is
one city, Salifbury.; and twenty-three market-towns, viz.
Amefbury, Bradford, Calne; Chippenham, Cricklade, De-
vizes, Downton, Great Bedwin, Heytefbury, Hindon,
Ludgerthall, Malmfbury, Marlborough, Market-Lavington,
Melkfham, Mere, Swindon, Trowbridge, Warminiter,
Weftbury, Wilton, and Wootton-Baffet.
The government, provincial management, number, and
{tate of the poor in this county, as laid before parliament
in the year 1804, and publifhed by authority of the houfe:
of commons, are detailed in the following particulars. It is
ftated, ‘* that returns were received from three hundred and
thirty-fix parifhes, or places, in the county of Wilts, in the
year 1803 ; in 1785, the returns were from three hundred
and thirty-fix ; and from three hundred and twenty-five, in
1776.”? It is then further ftated, ‘ that forty-one parifhes,
or places, maintain all or part of their poor in workhoufes ;
the number of perfons fo maintained, during the year ending
Eafter 1803, was one thoufand fix hundred and feven ; and
the expence incurred therein amounted to 14,547/. 25. 05d-5
being at the rate of 8/. 19s. 8d. for each perfon maintained
in that manner. By the returns of 1776, there were forty
workhoufes capable of accommodating two thoufand and
feventy-nine perfons. ‘The number of perfons relieved out
of workhoufes was forty thoufand five hundred and eleven,
befides four thoufand five hundred and thirty-fix, who were
not parifhioners. The expence incurred in the relief of the
poor, not in workhoufes, amounted to 113,888/. 175. 95d:
A large proportion of thofe who were not parifhioners ap=
pear to have been vagrants; and, therefore, it is probable
the relief given to. this clafs could not exceed 2s. each,
amounting to 453/. 12s. od. This fum being deduéted from
the above 113,888/. 175. g3d., leaves 113,435/. 55. 4d-5
being at the rate of 2/. 16s. od. for each parifhioner relieved
out of any workhoufe. The number of perfons relieved in
and out of workhoufes was forty-two thoufand one hundred
and twenty-eight, befides thofe who were not parifhioners.
Excluding the expence fuppofed to be incurred in the relief
of this clafs of poor, all other expences relative to the main-
tenance of the poor amounted to 131,864/. 19s. g$d., being
at the rate of 3/. 2s. 7d. for each parifhioner relieved. ‘The
refident population of the county of Wilts, in the year
1801, appears from the population abitraét to have been
one hundred eighty-five thoufand one hundred and feven ;
fo that the number of parifhioners relieved from the poor’s
rate appears to be twenty-three in a hundred of the re-
fident population. The number of perfons belonging to
Friendly Societies appears to be fix in a hundred of the
refident population. The amount of the whole total
money raifed by rates is 16s. od. per head on the popula-
tion. The amount of the whole expenditure on account
of the poor appears to average at 145. 34d. per head on the
population. The expenditure in fuits of law, removal of
paupers, and expences of overfeers, and other officers, ae-
cording to the prefent abftra€t, amounts to 7682/. 155. od.
The amount of fuch expenditure, according to the returns
of 1785, was then 2501/. 135. gd. The expenditure in
purchafing materials for employing the poor, according to
the prefent abftra&, amounts to 849/. 8s. 74d. The
amount of fuch expenditure, according to the returns of
1785, was 434/. 11s. gd. It does not appear from the re-
turns received, that the poor of any parifh or place in this
county are farmed or maintained under contract. The poor
of fix parifhes are maintained and employed under the re=
gulations of {pecial aéts of parliament. Thirty-fix Friendly
Societies have been enrolled at the quarter-feffions of this
county, purfuant to the a&t of 33 & 35 Geo. II1.”—
Beauties of England and Wales, Wiltfhire, by J. Britton,
F.S.A. 8vo. 1814. “Ancient Wiltfhire, by fir Richard
C. Hoare, bart., folio, 1815.
WILTSHIRE,
WIN
after which the {pun-yarn is wound round the body of the
winch.
WINCHCOMBE, in Geography, a market-town in the
lower divifion of the hundred of Kiftfgate, Gloucefterfhire,
England, is fituated on the Cotfwold-hills, 15 miles N.E.
by E. from the city of Gloucefter, and 95 miles W.N.W.
from London. It was anciently.a town of confiderable im-
portance, was written Wincelcumbe in Domefday-Book,
and was there ftyled a borough when only Gloucefter and
Briftol, in the fame county, were dignified with that title. It
was the {cite of a caftle, and of a mitred abbey fufficiently
capacious for the reception of 300 monks ; but every veftige
of thefe buildings has long been leyelled with the duft, and
the places where they ftood are only conje&tured. By whom
the caftle was ereéted is unknown; but the abbey was
founded in 798, by Kenulph, king of Mercia, and was con-
fecrated with great folemnity in the prefence of three kings,
and a great number of prelates and nobles. Being deftroyed
by the Danes, it was rebuilt in 981 by Ofwald, bifhop of
Worcefter, who converted it into a college of feculars, and
reftored it to great {plendour. It was largely endowed ;
and in the reign of the Conqueror nineteen manors in this
county were annexed to it, independently of Winchcombe
itfelf. In 1265 its abbot was fummoned to parliament, and
the privilege was continued to all the fucceeding abbots.
The twenty-eighth abbot, Richard Ancelme, furrendered
his abbey and its poffeffions to Henry VIII. in 1539. The
edifice was foon after totally deftroyed. Tradition reports
it as very magnificent ; but no defcription of it is now ex-
tant. Mah wnte, with a {mall territory adjoining, is faid
to have been, in the Anglo-Saxon time, a fheriffdom or
county of itfelf; but in the reign of Canute, it was divefted
of its independence, and annexed to Gloucetterfhire. The
town now confifts chiefly of two ftreets, interfecting each
other; the houfes are low, and principally of ftone. The dif-
ficulty of approaching it, through the badnefs of the roads,
has prevented it from being much vifited ; but the new turn-
pike-roads have now opened a fhort and eafy communication.
The church is a fpacious ftru€ture, with a nave, chancel,
two aifles, and an embattled tower: the body of the church
is alfo ornamented with battlements and pinnacles. The
old church ftood at the weft end of the town; but having
fallen to decay, the prefent fabric was begun in the reign of
Henry VI. by the abbot, William Winchcombe, who com-
pleted the ealt part: the remainder was finifhed by the pa-
rifhioners, affifted by the munificence of Ralph Boteler, lord
Sudeley. The government of the town, which is a borough
by prefcription, is vefted in two bailiffs and ten affiftants ;
from the latter, the bailiffs are annually chofen. A weekly
market is held on Saturdays, and here are three annual
fairs, which are well attended; but from the reclufe fitua-
tion of the town very little trade is carried on, a paper-
mill and a tan-yard being the chief fources of employ. The
workhoufe is an ancient irregular building, in which the
poor are employed in {pinning and weaving linen. Here are
alfo an alms-houfe for twelve poor women, and three charity-
fchools. The population of the town in the year 1811, ac-
cording to the return to parliament, was 1256, occupying
299 houfes: the parifh extends twelve miles in circum-
ference, and includes nine hamlets; the enumeration of the
whole was 461 houfes, and 1936 inhabitants.
About a quarter of a mile to the fouth-eaft of the town
are the ruins of Sudeley-caftle, erected by Ralph, lord Bote-
ler, an eminent ftatefman in the reign of Henry VI., on the
{cite of amore ancient caftle which appears to have been the
refidence of Herald, fon to Radulf, earl of Hereford, in the
time of the Norman conqueror. In this family, which aflumed
I
WIN
the name of Sudeley, the manor continued till the 41ft of
Edward III., when it was conveyed by marriage. Sudeley
was attached to the crown till the reign of Edward VI.
when it was granted to fir Thomas Seymour, who fettled
here with Catharine Parr, the queen-dowager, whom he
had married, and who died here in child-bed, not without
fufpicion of poifon. Seymour being afterwards attainted,
Sudeley was granted to William Parr, marquis of Northamp-
ton, who forfeited it foon afterwards. It now belongs to
the marquis of Buckingham. Of this once-famed fortrefs,
very little remains : parts of towers, the hall, and the chapel,
ferve to fhew the ftyle of architecture and charaéter of the
buildings.—See Williams’s Hiftory, &c. of Sudeley Caftle,
folio. Alfo Beauties of England and Wales, vol. v. by J.
Britton and E.W. Brayley.
WINCHELSEA, a borough and market-town on the
coaft of Suffex, England, fituated about 3 miles W. from
Rye, 8 E. from Hattings, and 67 from London. It is a
member of the Cinque Ports, and an incorporated town,
the officers of which confift, according to its charters, of
a mayor and twelve jurats; but thefe are feldom compofed
of more than four or five perfons. Winchelfea is a place of
antiquity ; but by the ravages of the fea, the {cites of its
houfes, at different periods, have totally changed. ‘The
epoch of the rapid though gradual overthrow of the ori-
ginal town is fixed by Leland between 1280 and 1287.
During that time the inhabitants petitioned Edward I. for
ground to found another town, who accordingly granted
them the fcite of the prefent town, which he furrounded
with walls, and to it the inhabitants gradually removed.
The new town afterwards fell into decay, from a caufe juit
the reverfe of that which ruined the old ; for the fea deferted
its neighbourhood, and left in its place a dreary marth.
This began to be fenfibly felt in the end of the reign of
queen Elizabeth. The channel leading to the harbour was
choaked, the coaft was deferted, and the town, abandoned
by the trader, foon declined. The houfes and churches fell
to ruin, fo that a town, once covering a furface two miles
in circuit, is now reduced to comparatively a few houfes in
a corner of its ancient f{cite, now a mile and a half from the
fea. Of the ancient church, the lofty and f{pacious chancel,
now ufed for divine fervice, and three aifles, alone remain en-
tire. In it are two monuments, with effigies of knights
templars. Some fragments of the walls and of three gates
of the town ftill exift. From the fituation of Winchelfea,
and the fpacious vaults frequently difcovered, it is probable
that the town was the principal mart for French wines, im-
ported into England before the wine-trade with Portugal
was eltablifhed. Winchelfea fends two members to parlia-
ment, who are eleéted by about forty freemen. The houfes
in this parifh, in 1811, were 126, containing 131 families,
and 652 perfons,—Beauties of England, vol. xiv. 8vo. 1813,
Suffex, by F. Shoberl. .
Wincue sea Jfland, an ifland in the Pacific ocean; 30
miles S.E. of fir Charles Hardy’s ifland.
WINCHENDON, a town of the {tate of Maflachufetts,
in the county of Worcefter, with 1173 inhabitants ; 56 miles
N.W. of Bofton.
WINCHESTER, an ancient and eminent city in
Hamphhire, or the county of Southampton, in England,
11 miles N.N.E. from Southampton, and 625 W.S.W.
from London. The buildings are difpofed on the eaftern
declivity of a low hill, which gently flopes to the valley of
the river Itchen, the chalky cliffs of which, and the chalky
foil of the furrounding heights, in the opinion of Camden,
occafioned the ancient name of the city, Caer-Gwent, figni-
fying the ‘ white city.’ The latter portion of the aaa
under
WINCHESTER.
under the Romans, became Venta, with the addition of
Belgarum, from its fituation in the country occupied by the
Belge, by which it was diftinguifhed from Venta Silurum,
now Caerwent, in Monmouthfhire, and Venta Icenorum,
now Cattor, near Norwich, in Norfolk. From Gwent or
Venta we have the firlt part of the name, and cheffer, the
laft part, is a corruption of caffra, the Roman term for en-
campments of different kinds; a frequent name, or appen-
dage of a name, of various places in England, and perhaps
invariably an indication that fuch places owe both their
origin and their primitive form to the military ftations of the
earlieft conquerors of Britain.
Hiftoric Events.—The origin of Winchefter, remote as it
unquettionably is, has been carried back to an epoch far
beyond belief, even a century and half anterior to the
foundation of Rome. Without referring to fuch remote
and uncertain time, we may fafely infer that this {pot was
occupied by the Belge, a Germanic tribe, who paffing
from Gaul, took pofleffion of the country bordering the
fouthern coaft of England. (Czfar’s Bel. Gal. ii. 4.)
Previous to their occupancy, it is conjectured that Win-
chefter was the Caer-Gwent, or white city, of the aboriginal
Britons. After the Romans had fubdued the Belge and
the Britons, they took pofleffion of this town, and fortified
it with ramparts and walls. Thefe were difpofed on the
floping fide of a hill, and in the ufual form of a parallelo-
gram. Within this inclofure the town was conftruéted and
arranged ; and from the importance of this ftation, and its
connection with other ftations by military roads, there can
be little doubt that Venta Belgarum, the Roman name, was
a place of confiderable importance. Among the antique
relics of the Romans, which have been difcovered at Win-
chefter, are feveral coins, urns, &c.; alfo fome fine coins of
Caraétacus, called the firft Britifh emperor. After the
Romans left the ifland in 446, Gortheryn, or Vortigern,
was elected chief of the weftern diftri@, and he fixed his
feat of government at Winchefter. This town, as well as
the whole ifland, was foon deftined to experience a total
change of polity, cuftoms, and manners, by the introduc-
tion and domination of the Saxons in 519. On this occa-
fion, the name of the city was changed from the Britifh
Caer-Gwent and the Roman Venta to another of equal im-
port, Wintan-ceafter, from which the modern name, Win-
chefter, has gradually been formed. In 635 an important
event occurred in Winchefter, the arrival there of Birinus,
deputed by pope Honorius to preach the gofpel in thofe
parts of the country ftill involved in paganifm. Favoured
by king Kinegils, Birinus’s apoftolic labours were eminently
fuccefsful ; for the king founded a new cathedral on the
{cite of that deftroyed under Diocletian, which was confe-
crated under his fon and fucceffor, Kenewalch, in 648.
Egbert, king of the Weft-Saxons, fucceeding in the fub-
jection of all the other Saxon princes, was in 827 crowned
king of all England in the cathedral of Winchefter, thus
created or confidered to be the metropolis of the whole
“Kingdom ; andthere, about 854, Egbert’s fucceffor, Ethel-
wolf, granted his famous charter, eftablifhing a general
fyitem of tythes. About this period the commerce of the
city is recorded to have greatly increafed, and the principal
inhabitants are ftated to have conitituted a guild, under the
royal protection ; the earlieft affociation of the kind, by a
century, recorded in hiftory. During the greater part of
this and the fucceeding reign, the fee of Winchefter was
filled by the celebrated St. Swithun, by whofe advice king
Ethelbald raifed fortifications for the defence of the cathe-
dral againft the Danes. Landing at Southampton, they
advanced to Winchefter, where they committed horrible
exceffes ; but the cathedral efcaped their fury. About 871,
however, that greatly fuffered by them, and all the clergy
belonging to it were maflacred. On the ultimate fuccefs of
the great Alfred, Winchefter refumed a portion of its
former fplendour ; it became again the feat of government 5
there the public records of the kingdom were depofited, in
particular the general furvey, called, from this circumftance,
Codex Wintonienfis, afterwards imitated by William the Con-
queror in 1086, in the famous Roll of Winchefter, or
Domefday-book. (See Domespay.) The fucceffion of
Edgar the Peaceable increafed the importance of Win-
chefter. Among the judicious laws which he eftablifhed
was one to prevent frauds arifing from the diverfity of mea-
fures ufed in the country, by providing a ftandard legal mea-
fure for the whole of his dominions. ‘This was the origin of
the eftablifhed Winchefler meafures ; the ftandard veflels for
meafurement made by Edgar’s orders being depofited in that
city, where the original bufhel is {till preferved. In the
reign of this prince, in 980, the cathedral, having been
partly rebuilt, was folemnly re-confecrated. About the
{ame time the married canons of the cathedral were, at the
fuggeftion of St. Dunftan, removed, to make room for
Benediftine monks. In Winchefter, in 1002, and in the
reign of Ethelred, furnamed the Unready, commenced the
general maffacre of the Danes, in mercilefs vengeance for
the atrocities they had committed on the inhabitants of the
country. Thence arofe the noted hock-tide ports, of which
fome traces may ftill be obferved in remote corners of Eng-
land. But this vengeance remained not long unrequited by
Swayne the Dane, who obtained poffeffion of Winchefter
eleven years afterwards. St. Elphage II., then bifhop, is
faid to have firft introduced organs into the cathedral.
Canute, obtaining the fovereignty of England by the death
of Edmund Ironfide in 1016, chofe Winchefter for his
capital, and, with other rich gifts, beftowed on the cathe-
dral his crown, which was placed over the crucifix on the
high altar: for Canute had vowed never more to wear that
enfign of royalty, from ‘the day when, by commanding in
vain the flowing tide not to approach his feet, he proved to
his flatterers the emptinefs of their adulation, in hailing him
lord of the ocean. Winchefter cathedral is defcribed to have
been the fcene of a legendary tale relating to queen Emma,
mother of Edward the Confeffor, who is faid, but very im-
probably, there to have eftablifhed the purity of her cha-
racter, by walking unhurt over nine burning plough-fhares.
In the reign of the fame Edward, the broad feal of the
chancellor of England was firft made and kept in Win-
chefter.
The Norman invafion produced many changes in the ftate
of the city: there king William I. founded a cattle, as he did
in many other parts of the kingdom, with the view of over-.
awing, under the pretence of proteGting, the inhabitants.
It continued, however, to be a principal royal refidence,
although London then began to aflume the pre-eminence.
The politic monarch knew the influence of the clergy over
the people ; he confequently affigned all or moft of the chief
offices in England to his relatives, dependants, and oftenfible
friends. Councils were held in Winchefter, in which the
new clergy, with the primate Lanfranc at their head, drew
up canons or laws levelled at the Saxons, and framed to
protect or juftify themfelves. Winchefter, the refidence of
the court, was of courfe filled with the priefts, the officers,
and the followers of the king. The curfew (cowvre-fex),
or eight-o’-clock-bell, was firft rung in Winchefter. The
year 1079 is memorable in the hiftory of Winchetter, ‘for
then was commenced the prefent {pacious and magnificent
cathedral church. In the reign of Henry I.°a fingular
302 tranfaGtion
WINCHESTER.
traufaGtion is recorded to have taken place in Winchefter.
‘The current coin of the realm having been greatly debafed
by the different mint-matters, the king in 1125 affembled
them in this city, when all, except three who dwelt in Win-
chefter, were found guilty and feverely punifhed. The bafe
money was cried down, and an entirely new coinage ordered
to be made by the three mafters who had preferved their
honefty. About the fame period Henry caufed to be made
a ftandard yard, from the length of his own arm, in order
to prevent frauds in the meafurement of cloth. This ftand-
ard is fuppofed to have been depofited with other mea-
fures, &c. in Winchefter. The city fuffered greatly in the
diffenfions confequent on the death of Henry, by the
ftruggle between his nephew Stephen and his daughter, the
emprefs Matilda, or Maud. Stephen’s party held the
bifhop’s palace, the cathedral, and adjoining quarters, while
Maud’s pofleffed the caftle and the remainder of the city.
By fire from Stephen’s party, the whole north portion, then
the moft populous, the royal palace, the abbey of St.
Mary, and twenty churches, the magnificent monaftery of
St. Grimbald, the fuburb of Hyde, &c. were deftroyed.
Many privileges were conferred on Winchefter by Henry II.,
in particular, in 1184, that of being governed by a mayor,
with a fubordinate bailiff. His fucceffor, Richard Cceur-
de-lion, was folemnly re-crowned in the cathedral in 1194,
on his return from captivity under the duke of Autftria.
In the end of 1207 was born in Winchefler Henry III. ;
and foon afterwards his father John, for the fum of 200
marks paid at once, and 100 marks per annum, conferred on
the city all the great and unprecedented privileges of a cor-
poration. Thus Winchefter became the firft of all the
corporate cities or towns in the kingdom, nearly two years
before London had even obtained the privilege of being
governed by a mayor. The dignity of the city was in fome
meafure re(tored by the refidence of Henry III. during his
minority ; but it again feverely fuffered in the contefts be-
tween the king and the barons. A heavy blow on Win-
chefter proceeded from the removal of the royal refidence,
in the reign of Edward I.; who neverthelefs held feveral
parliaments there. Under Edward III. it was conttituted
one of the fixed markets, or ftaples for wool ; but by the
removal of the ftaple in 1363, the decline of Winchefter
from commerce and wealth was fenfible and uniform. In
this reign the rebuilding of the nave of the cathedral was
begun by bifhop Edington ; but the honour of completing
it, with material alterations, was referved for his cele-
brated fucceffor, William of Wykeham. To Winchefter
Henry VI. was a confiderable benefaétor ; for in his reign
it was fo reduced in trade and population, that the in-
habitants, in a petition to the king, reprefented 997 honfes
to be unoccupied, and 17 churches fhut up. ‘he fee of
Winchefter was held for a fhort time by cardinal Wolfey ;
but in the time of his fucceffor, Gardiner, the final diffolu-
tion of the monafteries, and the confequent deftruétion of
religious houfes, reduced the city to be little more than the
fkxeleton of what it had formerly been. It revived for a
fhort time in the reign of Mary, who there folemnized her
union with Philip of Spain, and reftored to the fee many
lands which had been alienated by her father and brother.
The city itfelf, however, had, as appears by a charter of
Elizabeth, fallen “into great ruin, decay, and poverty.”
The commencement of 1603 was diftinguifhed by the pro-
clamation of James I. in Winchefter, by the fole authority
of the fheriff of the county, without waiting for the orders
of the privy council in lt who had pafled feveral
hours in deliberation on the fubje&. In the civil wars of
Charles I.’s time, Winchefter was fueceffively held by the
5
oppolite parties; but after the fatal battle of Nafeby in
1645, it was finally reduced by Cromwell. The works of
the caftle were blown up, the fortifications of the city were
deftroyed, together with the bifhop’s caftle of Wolvefey,
and feveral churches, and other public buildings. During
the latter part of the reign of Charles II. Winchefter had
a profpe& of recovering fome portion of its former fplen-
dour ; for he chofe it for his ufual refidence, when not re-
quired by prefence in the capital. In imitation of his ex-
ample, many of the nobility and gentry likewife ere&ed
manfions in the city; but by Charles’s death in 1685, the
project was laid afide; the palace was left unfinifhed ; and
fo completely has its original deftination fince been changed,
that, after being frequently ufed as a prifon of war, it is
now converted into military barracks for the diftri@.
Fortifications : Palace.—The ancient walls of Winchefter
form an irregular parallelogram, inclofing a portion of the
flope of the weftern hill, and of the level valley watered by
the Itchen. But the walls are now nearly deitroyed, and
the fofs in many places filled up. The four gates feemed
to have been conftruéted where thofe of the Roman in-
trenchment were opened. Through two of them, on the
north and fouth fides, paffed the great Roman road com-
municating between Vindonum, now Silchefter, and Clau-
Jentum, near Southampton. Through the gate in the weft
fide of the inclofure, correfponding to the Pretorian gate
of the intrenchment, ran the road communicating with Sor-
biodunum, where now ftand the remains of Old Sarum.
This gate ftill exifts, but much altered from its ancient
{tate : part of it is fuppofed to be coeval with the city walls,
but the whole weftern face difplays workmanfhip of much
later date. The eaft or Decuman-gate opened accefs to
the lively and wholefome waters of the Itchen.
The caftle, now entirely deftroyed, overlooking the city
from the weft, owes its origin to the fyftem of dominion
adopted by William of Normandy. Within its boundary,
of an elliptic form, 850 feet from north to fouth, and in its
greateft breadth 250 feet from weit to eaft, ftands the ori-
ginal chapel dedicated to St. Stephen, and apparently
erected by the king of that name. It is in length 110 feet,
divided into a nave and fide-aifles. At the ealt end is fuf-
pended the antique curiofity called king Arthur’s round-
table ; but with more accuracy attributed to king Stephen,
and probably introduced by him to prevent difputes for
precedency, during their entertainments, among the chi-
valrous champions of that age. It is 18 feet in diameter,
compofed of {tout oaken planks, painted with the figure of
the renowned Arthur, and the names of his twenty-four
knights, as colleéted from the romances of the 14th and
sth centuries. The coflume is, however, of the time of
Henry VIII., when the table was painted. This chapel
was, in Cromwell’s time, converted into a county-hall, a
deftination to which it continues to be applied. In the year
1792, feveral thoufands of French ecelefiaftics fought re-
fuge on the Britifh fhores. In their deftitute fituation, they
were generoufly fuccoured by the ftate and the people ;
and at one time one thoufand of them Were accommodated
with lodgings, and all other neceffaries, in this deferted
abode of royalty.
Winchefter poffeffed alfo another fortrefs at the oppofite
end of the city: this was Wolvefey caftle, the epifcopal
refidence erected by the powerful bifhop Henry de Blois,
brother of king Stephen.
Cathedral.—Vhe grand obje& of attraction in Winchefter
is its cathedral, one of the moft interefting ftructures of its
kind in England, whether confidered with refpe& to the an-
tiquity of its foundation, to the importanee of the tranf-
ations
WINCHESTER.
aétious of which it has been the fcene, or to the characters
of the perfonages whofe mortal remains it contains. This
magnificent and venerable ftruéture has been called, and not
without fome propriety, a fchool of ecclefiaftical archi-
teGture; for it difplays to the ftudent an interefting and
varied feries of examples of the ancient architeéture of Eng-
land, from an early age down to a recent period. If the
ftudent fail to fatisfy himfelf as to Roman remains, or
genuine Saxon work; if, after careful examination, he
retire either doubtful or perfuaded that no fuch architeéture
is there to be difcovered ; ftill he will have ample evidence
and examples of Norman works. The plans and magnifi-
cent defigns of thofe proud invaders and innovators are in
that fabric amply difplayed. There he will fee that the
Normans built not for themfelves only, but for pofterity ;
that their edifices were folid and fubftantial, fimple in their
forms, and large in their parts; that as their fy{tem of re-
ligion was intended to awe, terrify, and foothe the mind,
fo its primary temple in England was calculated moft effen-
tially to promote thofe ends.
The cathedral of Winchefter is of great extent, its ex-
treme external length being 556 feet, that of the crofs or
tranfepts 230 feet; the external breadth of the whole body
and choir 118 feet, and that of the tranfepts 88 feet. The
body of the church is divided by ranges of cluftered co-
lumns into a nave and two fide-aifles, as are alfo the tran-
fepts, with the unufual addition of aifles at the extremities.
The great central tower refts upon four piers of great foli-
dity, and rifes 140 feet from the pavement. ‘The prefent
fabric may be confidered as the foundation of bifhop Wal-
kelyn, a chaplain and relative of William of Normandy,
who began it in 1079, conftruéting the crypts, the tran-
fepts, and tower; alfo the internal parts of the piers and
walls of the nave. The work was continued under fucceed-
ing prelates, in particular by bifhop de Lucy, who built part
of the eaft end; by Edington, who ereéted the weft front
about 1330; and above all by Wykeham, who, between
1370 and 1400, brought the nave to completion. The
exterior of the cathedral prefents but few beauties, or at-
trative features. Its length of nave, plainnefs of mafonry,
fhortnefs and folidity of tower, width of eaft end, and
boldnefs of tranfepts, furnifh, however, fo many peculiar
and {pecific charaGteriftics. The interior of the cathedral will
amply compenfate for any defeéts or deficiencies of the out-
fide. While the fine and fublime archite€&ture of Wykeham,
in the nave and aifles, produces the moft impreffive effec,
and claims general admiration; the large, plain, and fub-
ftantial works of Walkelyn, in the tower and tranfepts, are
fimply grand and impofing. ‘The tranfepts and tower are
entitled to attention, as unrivalled fpecimens of Norman
archite€ture. The choir and eaftern end are elevated above
the nave and aifles, by an afcent of feveral fteps; the choir
itfelf occupying the fpace moftly beneath the Norman tower,
and fitted up with ftalls of elaborate workmanfhip. On the
north fide ftands the pulpit, curioufly carved in the time of
Silkitede, who became prior in 1498. On the fame fide of
the choir is placed the organ, in an unufual fituation, under
one of the lofty arches of the tower. The choir is fepa-
rated from the nave by a fcreen of the Compofite or Roman
order of archite¢ture, faid to have been defigned by Inigo
Jones. The lofty ftone fcreen ereéted behind the high
altar is an elaborate and fumptuous work, covered with
niches, canopies, buttreffes, pinnacles, crockets, pediments,
&e.; and when in its original colour and condition, with
ftatues and coftly ornaments, muft have been peculiarly
{plendid and beautiful. On entering the church by the
weft door, the attention is firft arrefted by the vaft and lofty
columns of the nave, which have been made to affimilate
with the pointed ftyle, by furrounding them with cluitered
fhafts and other ornaments. Between the fifth and fixth
columns, on the fouth fide, ftands the chantry or mortuary
chapel, containing the tomb of bifhop William of Wykeham,
erected in his life-time, or prior to the clofe of the year 1404.
On an altar-tomb within the chapel is the marble effigy of
the founder. On the fame fide of the nave is the chantry of
bifhop Edington, who died in 1366; within an open fcreen
is an altar-tomb fupporting his effi Immediately behind
the altar-fereen in the fouth aifle is placed the fumptuous
chantry of bifhop Fox, containing neither tomb, ftatue, nor
infcription, to commemorate the founder, or to explain his
works in the church. In a recefs beneath is the effigy of an
emaciated human figure, the head ornamented with amitre, but
the feet refting on a fkull. Oppofite to this chantry in the
north aifle ftands that of bifhop Gardiner, who died in 1555.
Towards the eaftern extremity of the church are the chan-
tries of cardinal-bifhop Beaufort on the fouth fide, and of
bifhop Waynflete, the munificent founder of St. Mary’s
college, Winchefter, and Magdalen college, Oxford, on the
north fide ; each containing the tombs and figures of the
refpective prelates. The eaftern extremity of the church is
terminated by the fpacious Lady-chapel, with a {maller
inclofed on each fide. In the middle of the prefbytery, be-
tween the choir and the altar, lies a coffin-tomb, faid to coyer
the remains of William Rufus, who was killed while hunting
in the New Foreft, and buried in this cathedral in 1100. On
the top of the fide-fereens, between the prefent choir and
the aifles, are placed fix wooden chefts, the work of bifhop
Fox, containing memorials and relics of Saxon monarchs,
princes, and other illuftrious perfonages, former prote¢tors and
benefactors of the cathedral. Another objet of undoubted
antiquity is the curious font, now placed between two co-
lumns on the north fide ofthe nave. It isa large fquare block
of black marble, charged on each fide with fculptures, the
whole fupported by fmall columns at the corners. The fub-
je&t of the fculptures is a matter of difpute; and although
as produétions of art they are beneath criticifm, yet as repre-
fentations of coftume, manners, implements, &c. they de-
ferve particular attention.
Lpifcopal Cafile, or Palace—Of this ftru€ture, better
known by the name of Wolvefey caftle, the ruins fhew it to
have been an imperfe@ parallelogram of about 250 feet by
160. What itill remains belonged to the keep. Much
was removed to make way for the new palace erected by
bifhop Morley, under the {uperintendance of fir Chriftopher
Wren, after its deftruGtion by Cromwell. The front of
Morley’s palace was pulled down by the prefent bifhop, who
never occupies the prefent houfe.
College. —One of the moft celebrated inftitutions of Win-
chefter is the college, founded by bifhop Wykeham, and
completed in 1393, on the {cite of an ancient grammar-
{chool ; intending it as preparatory for his eftablifhment of
New college, Oxford. The eftablifhment in Wanchefter
confifts of a warden, 70 {cholars, 10 fecular priefts, who
are perpetual fellows, 3 priefts’? chaplains, 3 clerks, 16
chorifters, and a firft and.a fecond mafter. So judicious
and complete were the ftatutes drawn up by Wykeham
for the government of his college in Winchetter, as to be
adopted, with very little alteration, by Henry VI., for his
own fplendid inftitutions at Eton and King’s college, Cam-
bridge. On the confirmation, by Edward VI., of the ge-
neral diffolution of colleges, &c. introduced by his father,
Winchefter college, with thofe of Eton and the univerlities,
were {pecially excepted. The buildings of the college
occupy a confiderable extent of ground, and confift prin-
cipally
WINCHESTER.
cipally of two courts, with a cloifter. The entrance to the
firft court is under a {pacious gateway, having the mutilated
bufts of a bifhop and a king, to reprefent the founder and
his royal patron, Edward III. The fecond court is alfo
entered by a tower gateway. The chapel and hall form
the fouth wing of the quadrangle, and are enlightened by
lofty windows. The interior of the chapel has a fine and
lofty vaulting, ornamented with tracery. In the centre of
the cloifter is the library, originally conftruéted for a chantry
in 1430, but converted to its prefent ufe in 1627. In the
fouth-weft corner of the fecond court is the hall or refectory,
between which and the paffage to the chapel is the fchool,
a plain brick building, ereéted by fubfcription in 1687 ; over
the door is the ftatue of the founder in bronze, by Cibber.
City.—The prefent city of Winchefter confifts chiefly of
one main ftreet, extending from the weft to the eaft, with
a number of collateral ftreets and lanes branching off on
each fide. Towards the middle of the High-ftreet ftands
the city crofs, an elegant {fpecimen of the ftyle of the age of
Henry VL., confifting of three ftories adorned with open
arches, niches, pinnacles, and {mall croffes. The ecclefiaf-
tical buildings in Winchefter, and its fuburbs, were once
very numerous, and, according to fome writers, amounted
to upwards of ninety. Scarcely twelve now remain. St.
Laurence’s church, near the crofs, is confidered as the
mother-church of the city, and by a folemn entry into it the
bifhop takes poffeffion of his fee; but the principal paro-
chial church is now that of St. Maurice. The town-hall, or
more properly the hall of the guild of merchants of Winchef-
ter, rebuilt in 1713, occupies the place of one erected about
1112. There the city archives, the original Winchefter
bufhel of king Edgar, and other meafures of length and
capacity fixed as ftandards by fucceeding princes, and
various curious memorials of antiquity, are now preferved.
The front of the building is ornamented with a ftatue of
ueen Anne. A neat market-houfe was ereéted in 1772.
he ancient building on the north fide of the High-ftreet,
called St. John’s Houfe, was originally founded as an hof-
pital, apparently fo early as in the 1oth century ; but falling
into the poffeffion or the adminiltration of the knights tem-
plars, or of St. John of Jerufalem, it was on the fuppreffion
of their order granted by Edward II. to a citizen of Win-
chefter, who refounded the inftitution for the fick and lame
foldiers, pilgrims, and wayfaring men, to have their lodging
and diet there gratis for one night or longer, as their ina-
bility to travel might require. At the general diffolution
of hofpitals and monatteries, the revenues and moveable pro-
perty were feized by Henry VIII. ; but the corporation of
the city referved the building itfelf to be ufed for municipal
hahelte In 1554 it again became a charitable foundation,
being endowed by Richard Lamb, efq. for the fupport of
fix widows. The principal chamber or hall, which is 62
feet in length, '38 in breadth, and 28 in height, has been
handfomely fitted up, chiefly by a donation from the late
colonel Brydges of Avington. Among the decorations of
this hall, in which public feafts, mufic-meetings, and affem-
blies are held, is a whole-length picture of Charles II. by
Lely, prefented to the city b chat king himfelf. In the
adjoining council-chamber are fifediaed the city tables, as
they are called, containing a chronological Oe at of
the moft remarkable occurrences relating to Winchetter.
The ancient chapel of the hofpital is now ufed as a free-
{chool. The celebrated ‘ioetathee founded by the great
Alfred, called the ‘ Newen Mynftre,’ and afterwards Hyde
abbey, occupied nearly the whole fpace between the cathe-
dral and the High-ftreet. Completed under his fon Edward,
it was firft filled by canons regular, who, in 963, gave place
to Benedi@tine monks. Alwyn, the eighth abbot, with
twelve of his monks, fell in the battle of Haftings, in fup-
porting the caufe of his nephew, Harold, which wane upon
the abbey the ie of William of Normandy. But the
pofition being unhealthy and inconvenient, a new and mag-
nificent church and monattery were erected juft without the
north wall of the city, on the {pot called Hyde-meadow, to
which the monks removed in 1110, carrying with them the
remains of feveral illuftrious perfonages who had been buried
in the former abbey, among which were thofe of Alfred
himfelf and fome of his defcendants. The annual revenues of
Hyde abbey, of which the abbot fat in parliament, were at
the diffolution valued at 865/. 18s. The church and mo-
naftery were foon afterwards demolifhed, and even the tombs
of Alfred and other eminent perfons were defpoiled.. What
now remains of this inftitution is the fmall and mutilated
parifh-church of St. Bartholomew. Precifely on the {pace
occupied by the abbey-church was fome time ago ereéted a
bridewell, or houfe of correétion, on the plan of the bene-
volent Howard. In digging the foundations, {tone coffins,
rings, and veflels for pte fervice of the church, were dif-
covered, together with fragments of archite¢tural fculpture.
But between fifty and fixty years ago, among the remains
of the buildings, was found a {tone with this infcription in
Saxon charaéters, ‘Alfred Rex DCCCLXXXI.’ An-
other remarkable religious eftablifhment in Winchefter was
the Nunna Mynftre, or abbey of St. Mary, founded by
Alfred’s queen, Alfwitha, and the place of her retirement
after his death. Scarcely any veftige of the conventual build-
ings now remain, excepting in a modern manfion built out
of the ancient materials, and the name of the abbey {till ap-
plied to the inclofure where it ftood.
Winchefter, befides the numerous churches of the efta-
blifhment, contains meeting-houfes for diffenters of various
denominations, among which the principal building is the Ro-
man Catholic chapel, rebuilt by Dr. Milner in 1792, on the
foundations of one more ancient. A large and commodious
county-gaol, from the defigns of Mr. Moneypenny, has been
lately erefted on the north fide of the city.
Many privileges have at various times been beftowed on
Winchefter by Englifh fovereigns. Its chief magiftrate, as
was before noticed, received the title of mayor in 1184, fome
years before the title was granted to the chief magiftrate of
London. The firft charter was conferred by king John ;
but that under which the city is now governed was the gift
of Elizabeth, “ in confideration,” as it is ftated, “ of the city
of Winchefter having been mott famous for the celebration
of the nativities, coronations, fepulchres, and for the pre-
fervation of other famous monuments of the queen’s pro-
genitors.”? By this charter, the government is vetted in a
mayor, recorder, fix aldermen, a town-clerk, two coroners,
two conftables, and a council of twenty-four of the “ better,
difcreeter, and more honeft fort”? of inhabitants. The firft
return of reprefentatives to parliament for Winchefter took
place in the twenty-third year of Edward I. The right of
eleétion is vefted in the corporation.
Winchefter poffeffes very little trade but what arifes from
its fituation in the centre of an extenfive and populous
county. An ancient wool-combing manufactory, however,
is {till in exiftence, and of late years the filk manufacture
has been introduced. All the public bufinefs of Hamp-
fhire is tranfaéted in Winchefter, which occafions a fre-
quent and ample influx of ftrangers from all quarters. The
cathedral and the college fecure to the city the refidence of
a number of fuperior clergy. When in the height of its
profperity, and poffefling the benefit of the wool-ttaple, the
wealth of the inhabitants was greatly increafed by the multi-
tudes
WIN
tudes reforting to its fairs, the principal of which was held
on the neighbouring hills of St. Giles and St. Mary Magda-
len. St. Giles’s fair was, at one time, by far the great-
eft in England. By a grant from William the Conqueror,
it was originally to be held for one day only; but by
Henry II. its duration was enlarged to fixteen days; and
in that time no mercantile bufinefs was permitted to be tran{-
a&ted in Southampton, nor in any other place within feven
leagues of St. Giles’s hill. This fair has long become very
infignificant ; that of St. Mary Magdalen is itill, however,
much frequented. Since the year 1770, various improye-
ments have been made in the general appearance of the city,
by paving, repairing, andcleanfing. As early as 1736 was
eftablifhed in Winchefter an hofpital or infirmary for the
county, a very ufeful inftitution, conducted on a plan judi-
cious in itfelf, and honourable to thofe entrufted with its
adminiftration. According to the parliamentary returns
of 1811, the number of houfes compofing the city and
fuburbs was 1134, and the inhabitants 6705. ,
Ho/fpital of St. Crofs.— About a mile fouth from Winchef-
ter, in the valley watered by the Itchen, ftands the venerable
hofpital of the holy crofs ; an inftitution {till retaining more
of its original chara&ter. ‘* The lofty tower,’’ obferves Dr.
Milner, ‘‘ with the grated door and porter’s lodge beneath
it, the retired ambulatory, the feparate cells, the common
refectory, the venerable church, the flowing black drefs,
and the filver crofs worn by the members, the conventual
appellation ‘ brother’ with which they addrefs one another,
the filence, the order, the neatnefs, in fhort, that reign here,
feem to recall the idea of a monaitery to thofe who have
feen one, and will give no imperfe& idea of fuch an efta-
blifhment to thofe who have not had that advantage.’? But
this eftablifhment was never a monaftery, being only an hof-
pital originally founded by bifhop Henry de Blois, between
1132 and 1136, for the refidence and maintenance of thirteen
poor men, and the relief of a hundred others of the moft
indigent of the city, but of creditable charatter. Each of
thefe was to be provided daily with a loaf of bread, three
quarts of {mall beer, and two meffes for his dinner, in a hall
appointed for the purpofe. In the hofpital was an endow-
ment for a matter, a iteward, four chaplains, thirteen clerks,
and feven chorifters. Before the time of William of Wyke-
ham, bifhop of Winchefter in 1366, the revenues of St. Crofs
had been employed in a way very different from the inten-
tions of the founder ; but that munificent prelate fucceeded,
after long litigation, in reftoring the inftitution to its original
ufes, re-eftablifhing it on a fecure and well-ordered found-
ation. The plan was afterwards refumed and enlarged by
cardinal-bifhop Beaufort, for the additional fupport of two
priefts and thirty-five refident poor men: he alfo rebuilt
a confiderable portion of the hofpital. The prefent efta-
blifhment of St. Crofs is but the wreck of its ancient inftitu-
' tions, having been feverely fleeced, though not quite de-
ftroyed, like many other charitable eftablifhments, at the
Reformation. Inftead of feventy refidents, clergy and laity,
entirely fupported in the place, and one hundred out-
penfioners, the inftitution at prefent confifts of but ten
refiding brethren, and three out-penfioners, with one chaplain
and the mafter. Certain doles of bread, it is true, continue
to be diftributed to the poor of the neighbourhood ; and, as
perhaps the only veftige remaining in the kingdom of the
fimple hofpitality of ancient days, the porter is daily fur-
nifhed with a certain quantity of good bread and beer, of
which every traveller, or other perfon whatever, who knocks
at the lodge and calls far relief, is entitled to partake gra-
tuitoufly. The buildings of the hofpital once compofed
two courts; but the fouth fide of the interior quadrangle
/
WIN
has been of late years pulleddown. On the eaft fide of the
outer court is the ‘ hundred-menne’s hall,’ about forty feet
long, now converted into a brewhoufe; on the fouth fide is
the handfome tower-gateway, with the ftatue of the founder,
Beaufort, in the upper part. In the fecond, or inner court,
is the church, built in the cathedral form, with a nave and
tranfepts, and a low maflive tower at their interfe@ion.
The architeéture of the edifice is fingularly curious, as it
throws fome light on the progrefs, if not on the origin, of
the pointed, or Englifh ftyle. The whole edifice feems to be
a collection of architeétural effays, with re{pe&t to the form
and the difpofition, of both the effential parts and the fubordi-
nate ornaments. It prefents the ponderous pillar of a height
equal to its circumference, but fupporting an incipient pointed
arch. The lower part of the nave contains maflive Norman
pillars ; and the portal of the weft front is an elegant fpeci-
men of the time of king John, or beginning of that of
Henry III. The weft wing of the remaining buildings con-
tains the apartments of the Brethren, each of whom has for
his own ufe three chambers and afeparate garden. Adjoin-
ing to the hall on the north fide are the apartments of the
matter, which are {pacious and convenient ; and on the eaft
fide is the ambulatory or open portico for exercife.
St. Catherine's Hill, or College Hill, feparated from the
meadows of St. Crofs by the branches of the Itchen, is re-
markable for the intrenchment carried round its fummit :
the former name it acquired from an ancient chapel on it,
deprived of its endowments by cardinal Wolfey ; the latter,
becaufe it is a frequent place of refort for the ftudents of
the college.
About three miles north-eaft from Winchefteris Avington,
anciently Abyngton, a feat and manor of the prefent marquis
of Buckingham, in confequence of his marriage with the
fole daughter and heirefs of James, the laft duke of Chandos.
The manor, originally aroyal demefne, was granted, in 961,
by king Edgar to the monaftery of St. Swithun, in Win-
chefter ; but-in confequence of the diffolution, it became,
in the reign of Elizabeth, the property of the ancient family
of Bruges, or Brydges, firft fettled in Shropfhire at the Con-
queft. Inter-marrying with the family of lord Chandos,
renowned in the wars in France under Edward III., the
honours of the two families have ever fince continued united.
Avington is fituated in a fecluded valley, well planted and
nearly inclofed by high downs. The prefent manfion is
moftly of brick, and has been greatly improved by the pre-
fent poffeffor, having been previoufly difmantled by the late
duke, for the purpofe of adding two wings. Some of the
apartments are fitted up with great elegance, and enriched
by a feleGtion of excellent paintings. . The park formed by
the late duke, about three miles in circumference, contains
a piece of water fupplied by the river Itchen.—Hiftory,
&c. of Winchetter, by the Rev. John Milner, D.D. F.S.A.,
2 vols. 4to. 2dedit. 1809. Beauties of England, vol. vii.
Hamphhire, by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley. Hitftory,
&c. of Winchefter Cathedral, by J. Britton, 1 vol. 4to. with
30 Prints.
WINCHESTER, a town of New Hamphhire, in the county
of Chefhire, with 1478 inhabitants ; 13 miles S.E. of Chef-
terfield—Alfo, a town of the ftate of Conneéticut, in
Litchfield county, with 1466 inhabitants; 22 miles N.W.
of Hartford.—Alfo, a town of the ftate of Kentucky, with
4 churches, and 2000 inhabitants.
Wixcuester, or Fredericktown, a town of Virginia;
56 miles W.N.W. of Wafhington. N. lat. 39°15’. W.
long. 78° 22!.
WINCING, in the Manege, is faid of a horfe when
he kicks, fpurs, or throws out his hind feet.
WINCKHEIM,
WIN
WINCKHEIM, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Wurzburg ; 4 miles N.N.W. of Lauringen. :
WINCRANTUM, in Natural Hiflory, a name given
by tlie people of the Eaft Indies to a foffile fubftance refem-
i in fome degree, the plated lead ores of Europe, but
containing very little of that metal ; it is properly a fpecies
of -blende, or mock-lead, of a talcky appearance; it 18
confiderably hard, and is ufually found in other ftones. It
is given in medicine in the Indies as a provocative to venery,
poo firft calcined and beat to powder. :
IND, Ventus, a fenfible agitation of the air, by
which a large quantity of it flows in a current or ftream out
of one place, or region, into another. See Merrzoro-
LoGy.
The winds are divided into perennial, fated, and variable.
They are alfo divided into general and particular.
Winns, Perennial or Conflant, are fuch as always blow
the fame way.
OF thefe we have a very notable one between the two tro-
pics, blowing conftantly from eaft to welt ; called the gene-
ral trade-wind.
Winns, Stated or Periodical, are fuch as conftantly return
at certain times. Such are the fea and land breezes, blow-
ing from fea to land in the evening ; and from land to fea in
the morning.
Such alfo are the /bifting or particular trade-winds, which,
for certain months of the year, blow one way, and the reft
of the year the contrary way. See Trape-Winds.
Winns, Variable or Erratic, are fuch as blow now this,
now that way ; and are now up, now hufhed, without any
rule or regularity, either as to time or place.
Such are all the winds obferved in the inland parts of
England, &c. though feveral of thefe claim their certain
times of the day. Thus, the we/f wind is moft frequent
about noon; the /outh wind in the night ; the north in the
morning, &c.
Winp, General, is {uch a one, as at the fame time blows
the fame way, over a very large tract of ground, almoft all
the year. Such only is the general trade-wind.
But even this has its interruption: for, 1. At land it is
{carcely fenfible at all, as being broken by the interpofition
of mountains, valleys, kc. 2. At fea, near the fhore, it is
difturbed by vapours, exhalations, and particular winds,
blowing from landward ; fo that it is chiefly confidered as
general, only at mid-fea: where, 3. It is liable to be dif-
turbed, by clouds driving from other quarters.
Winns, Particular, include all others, excepting the
general trade-winds ; which fee.
Thofe peculiar to one little canton, or part, are called
topical or provincial winds. Such is the north wind, on the
weftern fide of the Alps, which does not blow above one or
two leagues lengthwife, and much lefs in breadth : fuch alfo
is the pontias in France, &c.
Winps, Phyfical Caufe of. Some philofophers, as Des
Cartes, Rohault, &c. account for the general wind, from
the diurnal rotation of the earth, and from this general wind
derive all the particular ones. The atmofphere, fay they,
invefting the earth, and moving round it; that part will
perform its circuit fooneft which has the {malleft circle to
defcribe : the air, therefore, near the equator, will require
a fomewhat longer time to perform its courfe in, from welt
to eaft, than that nearer the poles.
Thus, as the earth turns eaftward, the particles of the
air near the equinoétial, being exceedingly light, are left be-
hind ; fo that, in refpe& of the earth’s hs ace, they move
eaftwards, and become a conftant eafterly wind.
This opinion feems confirmed by this, that thefe winds
WIN
are found only between the tropics, in thofe parallels of [a-
titude where the diurnal motion is {wifteft. But the conftant
calms in the Atlantic fea near the equator, the wetterly
winds near the coaft of Guinea, and the periodical wefterly
monioons under the equator in the Indian feas, declare the
infufficiency of this hypothefis.
Befides, the air, being kept clofe to the earth by the prin-
a of gravity, would, in time, acquire the fame de
of velocity that the earth’s furface moves with, as well in
ref{pe& of the diurnal rotation, as of the annual, about the
fun, which is about thirty times fwifter. See Trape-
Winds.
Dr. Halley, therefore, fubftitutes another caufe, capable
of producing a like conflant effet, not liable to the fame
objeétions, but agreeable to the known properties of the
elements of water and air, and the laws of the motion of
fluid bodies. Such a one is the aétion of the fun’s beams
upon the air and water, as he paffes every day over the ocean,
confidered together with the quality of the foil, and the
fituation of the adjoining continents.
According to the laws of ftatics, the air, which is lefs
rarefied or expanded by heat, and confequently is more pon-
derous, muft have a motion towards thofe parts of it which
are more rarefied, and lefs ponderous, to bring it to an equi-
librium ; alfo, the prefence of the fun continually fhifting
to the weftward, that part towards which the air tends, by
reafon of the rarefaction made by his greateft meridian heat,
is, with him, carried weftward ; and, confequently, the ten-
dency of the whole body of the lower air is that way.
Thus a general eafterly wind is formed, which being im-
preffed upon the air of a vaft ocean, the parts impel one the
other, and fo keep moving till the next return-of the fun, by
which fo much of the motion as was loft is again reftored ;
and thus the eafterly wind is made perpetual.
From the fame principle it follows, that this eafterly wind
fhould, on the north fide of the equator, be to the north-
ward of the eaft, and in fouth latitudes to the fouthward of
it; for, near the line, the air is much more rarefied than at a
greater diftance from it ; becaufe the fun is twice ina year
vertical there, and at no time diftant above 234 degrees ; at
which diftance, the heat, being as the fine of the angle of
incidence, is but little fhort of that of the perpendicular ray ;
whereas under the tropics, though the fun ftay longer verti-
cal, yet he isa long time 47 degrees off, which is a kind of
winter, in which the air fo cools, as that the fummer heat
cannot warm it to the fame degree with that under
the equator. Wherefore, the air towards the north and
fouth being lefs rarefied than that in the middle, it. fol-
lows, that from both fides it ought to tend towards the
equator.
This motion, compounded with the former eafterly wind,
accounts for all the phenomena of the general trade-winds,
which, if the whole furface of the globe was fea, would
undoubtedly blow quite round the world, as they are found
to do in the Atlantic and the Ethiopic oceans. But fee-
ing that fo great continents do interpofe, and break the con-
tinuity of A ocean, regard mult be had to the nature of
the foil, and the pofition of the high mountains, which are
the two principal caufes of the variations of the wind from
the former general rule ; for if a country lying near the fun
prove to be flat, fandy, and low land, fuch as the deferts of
Lybia are ufually reported to be, the heat occafioned by the
reflexions of the fun’s beams, and the retention of it in the
fand, is incredible to thofe who have not felt it ; by which
the air being exceedingly rarefied, it is neceflary that the
cooler and more denfe air fhould run thitherwards, to reftore
the equilibrium. This is fuppofed to be the caufe, why,
near
WIND.
near the coaft of Guinea, the wind always fets in upon the
‘land, blowing wefterly initead of eafterly, there being fuf-
‘ficient reafon to believe that the inland parts of Africa are
‘prodigioufly hot, fince the northern borders of it were fo
‘very intemperate, as to give the ancients caufe to conclude
that all beyond the tropics was uninhabitable by excefs of
heat.
Mr. Clare, in his Motion of Fluids, p. 302. mentions a
familiar experiment, that ferves to illuftrate this matter, as
well asthe alternate courfe of land and fea breezes. Filla
large difh with cold water, and in the middle of it place a
water-plate, filled with warm water: the firft will reprefent
the ocean, the other an ifland, rarefying the air above it.
‘Then holding a wax-candle over the. cold water, blow it out,
and the {moke will be feen, ina ftill place, to move toward
the warm plate, and rifing over, it will point the courfe of
the air (and alfo of vapour) from fea to land. Andif the
ambient water be warmed, and the plate filled with cold
water, and the fmoking wick of a candle held over the
plate, the contrary will happen. (See Breeze.) For the
phenomena of the wind obferved by Dr. Halley, and ex-
plained by his theory, fee Winn, in Navigation.
From the fame caufe it happens, that there are fo conftant
calms in that fame part of the ocean, called the rains ; for
this traét being placed in the middle, between the wefterly
winds blowing on the coaft of Guinea, and the eatterly
trade-winds blowing to the weftward of it ; the tendency
of the air here is indifferent to either, and fo ftands in equi-
librio between both; and the weight of the incumbent at-
mofphere being diminifhed by the continual contrary winds
blowing from hence, is the reafon that the air here holds not
the copious vapour it receives, but lets it fall in fo frequent
rains.
But, as the cold and denfe air, by reafon of its greater
gravity, preffes upon the hot and rarefied, it is demonftrable
that this latter muft afcend in a continued ftream as faft as it
rarefies ; and that, being afcended, it mutt difperfe itfelf,
to preferve the equilibrium ; that is, by a contrary current,
the upper air muft move from thofe parts where the greateft
heat is: fo, by a kind of circulation, the north-eaft trade-
wind below will be attended with a fouth-wefterly wind
above ; and the fouth-eaft, with a north-weft wind above.
That this is more than a bare conje€ture, the almoft in-
ftantaneous change of the wind to the oppofite point, which
is frequently found in paffing the limits of the trade-winds,
feems ftrongly to affure us ; but that which above all con-
firms this hypothefis, is the phenomenon of the monfoons,
by this means moft eafily folved, and without it hardly ex-
plicable. See Monsoons.
Suppofing, therefore, fuch a circulation as above, it is to
be confidered, that to the northward of the Indian ocean
there is every where land, within the ufual limits of the lati-
tude of 30°; wiz. Arabia, Perfia, India, &c. which, for
the fame reafon as the Mediterranean parts of Africa, are
fubje& to infufferable heats when the fun is to the north,
pafling nearly vertical; but yet are temperate enough when
the fun is removed towards the other tropic, becaufe of a
ridge of mountains at fome diftance within the land, faid to
be frequently, in winter, covered with fnow, over which
the air, as it paffes, muft needs be much chilled. Hence it
happens, that the air coming, according to the general rule,
out of the north-eaft, to the Indian fea, is fometimes hotter,
fometimes colder, than that which, by this circulation, is
returned out of the fouth-weft ; and, by confequence, fome-
times the under-current, or wind, is from the north-eatt,
fometimes from the fouth-wett,
That this has no other caufe is clear from the times in
Vor. XX XVIII.
which thefe winds fet, wiz. in April; when the fun begins
to warm thefe countries tothe north, the fouth-weft monfoons
begin, and blow, during the heats, till Ogtober, when the
fun being retired, and all things growing cooler northward,
and the heat increafing to the fouth, the north-eaft winds
enter, and blow all the winter till April again. And it is,
undoubtedly, from the fame principle, that to the fouth-
ward of the equator, in part of the Indian ocean, the north-
weft winds fucceed the fouth-eaft, when the fun draws near
the tropic of Capricorn. Phil. Tranfa@t. N° 183. or
Abridg. vol. ii. p. 139.
Some philofophers, diffatisfied with Dr. Halley’s theory
above recited, or not thinking it fufficient for explaining
the various phenomena of the wind, have had recourfe to
another caufe, viz. the gravitation of the earth and its at-
mofphere towards the fun and moon, to which the tides are
confefledly owing. See Tins.
From the laws of univerfal attraétion it has been inferred,
that thefe celeftial bodies muft a& upon the atmofphere, or
that they muft occafion a flux and reflux of the atmofphere,
as well as of the ocean. Hence it has been alleged, that
though we cannot difcover aerial tides, of ebb or flow, by
means of the barometer, becaufe columns of air of unequal
height, but different denfity, may have the fame preffure or
weight ; yet the protuberance in the atmofphere, which is
continually following the moon, mutt, they fay, of courfe
produce a motion in all parts, and fo produce a wind more or
lefs to every place, which, confpiring with or countera&ted
by the winds arifing from other caufes, makes them greater
or lefs. Several differtations to this purpofe were publifhed,
on occafion of the fubje€&t propofed by the Academy of
Sciences at Berlin, for the year 1746.
Although the atmofpherical air is much more variable than
water, and the a¢tion of the fun and moon upon it becomes
much lefs apparent to us, becaufe they muft frequently con-
cur with or be counteraéted by the much more powerful
effe&ts of heat and cold, of drynefs and moifture, of winds,
&c. fo that their aGtion upon the barometer has been long
difputed and even denied, (fee Moon, Influence of,) yet
that the moon in particular, as well as the fun, has fuch an
aétion has been for a confiderable time furmifed ; and of late
years it has, been in a degree obferved and rendered fenfi-
ble by means of very accurate and long-continued barome-
trical obfervations, and perceived only by taking a mean of
the obfervations of many years.
Toaldo, the learned aftronomer of Padua, after a variety
of obfervations made in the courfe of feveral years, found
reafon to affert, that, ceteris paribus, at the time of the
moon’s apogeum, the mercury in the barometer rifes the
0.105 of an inch higher than at the perigeum ; that at the
time of the quadratures, the mercury ftands 0.008 of an inch
higher than at the time of the fyzygies ; and that it ftands
0.022 of an inch higher when the moon in each lunation
comes neareft to our zenith, (meaning the zenith of Padua,
where the obfervations were made,) than when it goes
fartheft from it. Journal des Sciences Utiles.
In the feventh volume of the Philofophical Magazine,
there is a paper of LL, Howard, efq, which contains feveral
curious obfervations relative to this fubje&. This gentle.
man found, both from his own obfervations, and from an ex-
amination of the Meteorological Journal of the Royal So-
ciety, which is publifhed annually in the Philofophical Tranf-
actions, that the moon had a manifeft aétion upon the baro-
meter. ‘ It appears,’”’ he fays, ‘‘ to me evident, that the
atmofphere is fubjeét to a periodical change of gravity, by
which the barometer, on a mean of ten years, is depreffed at
leaft one-tenth of an inch while the moon is pafling’ from the
aur quarters
WIND.
quarters to the full and new ; and elevated, in the fame pro-
portion, during the return to the quarter.” A great fall of
the barometer generally takes place before high tides, efpe-
cially at the time of new or full moon.
The caufes, it is faid, which render the diurnal tide of
the atmofphere infenfible to us, may be the elafticity of the
air, and the interference of the much more powerful effeéts
of heat, cold, vapours, &c.
It has been calculated by D’Alembert, from the general
theory of gravitation, that the influence of the fun and
moon in their daily motions is fufficient to produce a conti-
nual eaft wind about the equator. So that, upon the whole,
we may reckon three principal daily tides, viz. two arifing
from the attra@tions of the fun and moon, and the third from
the heat of the fun alone: all which fometimes combine to-
gether, and form a prodigious tide.
In corroboration of the opinion of the influence of the
fun, and principally of the moon, in the produétion of
wind, we muft likewife mention the obfervations of Bacon,
Gaffendi, Dampier, Halley, &c.; namely, that the periods
of the yeat moft likely to have high winds are the two equi-
noxes ; that ftorms are more frequent at the time of new and
full moon, efpecially thofe new and full moons which hap-
n about the equinoxes ; that, at periods otherwife calm, a
all breeze takes place at the time of high water ; and that
a {mall movement in the atmofphere is generally perceived a
fhort time after the noon and the midnight of each day.
M. Mufchenbroeck, however, will not allow that the at-
tra@tion of the moon is the caufe of the general wind ; be-
caufe the eaft wind does not follow the motion of the moon
about the earth ; for in that cafe there would be more than
twenty-four changes, to which it would be fubject in the
courfe of a year, inftead of two. Introd. ad Phil. Nat.
vol. ii. p. 1102.
Some aétion in the prodution of wind may alfo be derived
from volcanoes, fermentations, evaporations, and efpecially
from the condenfation of vapours: for we find that, inrainy
weather, a confiderable wind frequently precedes the ap-
proach of every fingle cloud, and that the wind fubfides as
foon as the cloud has paffed over our zenith.
Wherever any of the above-mentioned caufes are conftantly
more predominant, asthe heat of the fun’ within the tropics,
there a certain dire€tion of the wind is more conftant ; and
where different caufes interfere at different and irregular pe-
riods, as in thofe places which are confiderably diftant from
the torrid zone, there the winds are more changeable and
uncertain.
In fhort, whatever difturbs the equilibrium of the atmo-
fphere, viz. the equal denfity or quantity of air at equal dif-
tances from the furface of the earth ; whatever accumulates
the air in one place, and diminifhes it in other places, muit
occafion a wind both in difturbing and in reftoring that
equilibrium, as above fated.
Mr. Henry Eeles, apprehending that the fun’s rarefying of
the air cannot fimply be the caufe of all the regular and irre-
gular.motions which we find in the atmofphere, afcribes them
toanother caufe, viz. the afcent and defcent of vapour and ex-
halation, attended by the eleétrical fire or fluid ; and on this
principle he has endeavoured to explain at large the general
phenomena of the weather and barometer. Phil. Tranf.
vol. xlix. art. 25. p. 124.
M. Briffon (Principes de Phyfique) alfo is of opinion
that eleétricity is the principal and more general caufe which
produces winds ; but Mr. Cavallois of a different opinion.
After making various obfervations on the nature and
theory of winds, Dr. Darwin recapitulates his opinions in
the following manner. 1. The north-eaft wind confilts of
9
air flowing from the north, where it feems to be occafionally
produced ; and has an apparent dire€tion from the eaft, owing
to its not having acquired in its journey the increafing velo-
city of the earth’s furface. Thefe winds are analogous to the
trade-winds between the tropics, and frequently continue in
the vernal months for four or fix weeks fogritrt with
a high barometer, and fair and frofty weather. They
fometimes confift of fouth-weft air, which had paffed by us
or over us, driven back by a new accumulation of air in the
north ; and they continue but a day or two, and are attended
with rain.
2. The fouth-weft wind confifts of air flowing from the
fouth, and feems occafionally abforbed at its arrival to the
more northern latitudes. It has a real direction from the
weft, owing to its not having loft in its journey the greater
velocity it had acquired from the earth’s furface from
whence it came. Thefe winds are analogous to the mon-
foons between the tropics, and frequently continue for
four or fix weeks together, with a low barometer, and rainy
weather. They fometimes confift of north-eaft air, which
had paffed by us, and which becomes retrograde by a
commencing deficiency of air in the north. Thefe winds
continue but a day or two, attended with fevere froft, with
a finking barometer; their cold being increafed by their
expanfion as they return into an incipient vacancy.
3- The north-weft wind confitts.firft of fouth-weft winds
which have been pafled over, been bent down, and driven
back towards the fouth by newly-generated northern air.
They continue but a day or two, and are attended with rain
or clouds. They confift of north-eaft winds bent down
from the higher parts of the atmofphere, and having: there
acquired a greater velocity from the earth’s furface are
froity and fair. They confift of north-eaft winds formed
into a vertical eddy, not a {piral one, with froft or fair.
4- The north winds confift firft of air flowing flowly from
the north, fo that they acquire the velocity of the earth’s
furface as they approach it; they are fair or frofty, but
feldom occur. They confift of retrograde fouth winds ;
thefe continue but a day or two, are preceded by fouth-weft
winds, and are generally fucceeded by north-eaft winds,
cloudy or rainy weather, the barometer rifing.
5- The fouth winds confift firft of air fowls flowing
from the fouth, lofing their previous wefterly velocity by
the friction of the earth’s furface as they approach it;
they are moift, but feldom occur. They confift of retro-
grade north winds; thefe continue but a day or two, and
are preceded by north-eaft winds, and are generally fuc-
ceeded by fouth-weft winds, colder, and the barometer
finking.
6. The eaft winds confift of air brought hattily from the
north, and not impelled farther fouthward, owing to a fudden
beginning abforption of air in the northern regions; they are
very cold, the barometer high, and are generally fucceeded
by fouth-weft winds.
7. The weft winds confift of air brought haftily from the
fouth, and checked from proceeding fords to the north,
by a beginning produétion of air in the northern regions ;
they are warm and moift, and generally fucceeded by north-
eaft winds. “oe confift of air bent downwards from the
higher regions of the atmofphere ; if this air be from the
fouth, and brought hattily, it becomes a wind of great velo-
city, moving perhaps 60 miles in an hour, and is warm and
rainy: if it confifts of northern air bent down it is of lefs
velocity, and cooler.
Various other interefting remarks and refletions on winds
may be feen in the notes to the Botanic Garden, by the fame
writer.
The
WIND.
"The induftry of fome late writers having brought the
theory of the production and motion of winds to fomewhat
of a mathematical demontftration ; we fhall here give it the
reader in that form.
Winns, Laws of the Produdtion of. If the {pring of the
air be weakened in any place, more than in the adjoining
places ; a wind will blow through the place where the di-
minution is.
For, 1. Since the air endeavours, by its elaftic force, to
expand itfelf every way ; if that force be lefs in one place
than another, the effort of the more againft the lefs elattic,
will be greater than the effort of the latter againft the
former. The lefs elaftic air, therefore, will refift with lefs
force than it is urged by the more elaftic : confequently,
the lefs elaftic will be driven out of its place, and the more
elaftic will fucceed.
If, now, the excefs of the {pring of the more elaftic above
that of the lefs elaftic air, be fuch as to occafion a little al-
teration in the barofcope ; the motion both of the air ex-
pelled, and that which fucceeds it, will become fenfible, é. e.
there will be a wind.
2. Hence, fince the fpring of the air increafes, as the
comprefling weight increafes, and comprefled air is denfer
than air lefs compreffed ; all winds blow into rarer air, out
of a place filled with a denfer.
3. Wherefore, fince a denfer air is fpecifically heavier
than a rarer; an extraordinary lightnefs of the air in any
place muft be attended with extraordinary winds or ftorms.
Now, an extraordinary fall of the mercury in the baro-
meter, fhewing an extraordinary lightnefs of the atmofphere,
it isno wonder if that foretels ftorms. See BAROMETER.
4. If the air be fuddenly condenfed in any place, its
{pring will be fuddenly diminifhed: hence, if this diminu-
tion be great enough to affect the barometer, there will a
wind blow through the condenfed air.
- But fince the air cannot be fuddenly condenfed, unlefs
it have before been much rarefied, there will a wind blow
through the air, as it cools, after having been violently
heated.
6. In like manner, if air be fuddenly rarefied, its {pring
is fuddenly increafed: wherefore, it will flow through the
contiguous air, not acted on by the rarefying force. A
wind, therefore, will blow out of a place, in which the air
is fuddenly rarefied ; and on this principle, in all probabi-
lity, it is, that,
7. Since the fun’s power in rarefying the air is noto-
rious, it muft neceflarily have a great influence on the gene-
ration of winds.
8. Moft caves are found to emit wind, either more or
lefs. M. Mufchenbroeck has enumerated a variety of
caufes that produce winds, exifting in the bowels of the
earth, on its furface, in the atmofphere, and above it. See
Intr. ad Phil. Nat. vol. ii. p. 1116, &c.
The rifing and changing of the wind are determined ex-
perimentally, by means of weather-cocks, placed on the tops
of houfes, &c. But thefe only indicate what paffes about
their own height, or near the furface of the earth: Wol-
fius affures us, from obfervations of feveral years, that the
higher winds, which drive the clouds, are different from the
lower ones, which move the weather-cocks. And Dr.
Derham obferves fomething not unlike this. Phyf. Theol.
lib. i. cap. 2.
The author laft-mentioned relates, upon comparing fe-
veral feries of obfervations made of the winds in divers
countries; wiz. England, Ireland, Switzerland, Italy,
France, New England, &c. that the winds in thofe fe-
veral places feldom agree ; but when they do, it is com-
monly when they are ftrong, and of long continuance in
the fame quarter; and more, he thinks, in the northerly
and eafterly than in other points. Alfo, that a ftrong wind
in one place is oftentimes a weak one in another, or mo-
derate, according as the places are nearer, or more remote.
Phil. Tranf. N° 267 and 321.
Winn, Laws of the Force and Velocity of. Wind being
only air in motion, and air being a fluid fubje@ to the laws
of other fluids, its force may be regularly brought to a pre-
cife computation: thus, ‘The ratio of the {pecific gra-
vity of any other fluid to that of air, together with the
{pace that fluid, impelled by the preffure of the air, moves
in any given time, being given ; we can determine the {pace
through which the air itfelf, a@ed on by the fame force,
will move in the fame time.’ By this rule :
1. As the fpecific gravity of air is to that of any other
fluid ; fo, reciprocally, is the {quare of the {pace, which
that fluid, impelled by any force, moves in any given
time, to the {quare of the {pace which the air, by the fame
impulfe, will move in the fame time.
Suppofing, therefore, the ratio of the fpecific gravity of
that other fluid to that of air, to be = by 3 the {pace de-
c
{eribed by the fluid to be called s; and that which the
air will defcribe by the fame impulfe, x. The rule gives~
PoP Ss Ale.
c
Hence, if we fuppofe water impelled by the given force,
to move two feet in a fecond of time, then will s = 2;
and fince the f{pecific gravity of water to the air is as
800 to 1, we fhall have 4 = 800, and c=13 confe-
quently, x = ,/ 800 xX 4 = 4/ 3200 = 57 feet nearly:
The velocity of the wind, therefore, to that of water;
moved by the fame power, will be as 57 to 2; i.e. if
ae move two feet in a fecond, the wind will fly 57
eet.
2. Add, that s = J = 3 and therefore the fpace
any fluid, impelled by any impreffion, moves in any time,
is determined, by finding a fourth proportional to the
twe numbers that exprefs the ratio of the fpecific gravi-
ties of the two fluids, and the fquare of the fpace the
wind moves in, in the given time. The fquare root of
that fourth proportional is the {pace required.
Mr. Mariotte, e. gr. found, by various experiments, that
a pretty ftrong wind moves 24 feet in a fecond of time,
which is at the rate of 1440 in a minute ; 7. e. at the -rate
of fomewhat more than 16 miles in an hour: wherefore, if
the {pace which the water, acted on by the fame force as
the air, will defcribe in the fame time, be required ; then
will c= 1, = 24, b= 800; and we fhall find 5s =
Jz
800
Derham eftimated the velocity of the wind in very great
ftorms at 66 feet per fecond; and de la Condamine at go3
feet per fecond.
3. * The velocity of wind being given, to determine the
prefflure required to produce that velocity ;”? we have
this rule. The fpace the wind moves in one fecond of
time, is to the height a fluid is to be raifed in an empty
tube, in order to have a preffure capable of producing
that velocity, in a ratio compounded of .the fpecific gra-
vity of the fluid to that of the air, and of quadruple the
gP2 altitude
— 274
= 34 nearly.
WIND.
altitude a body defcends in the firft fecond of time, to the
aforefaid {pace of the air.
Suppofe, ¢. gr. the {pace through which the air moves
in a fecond, a = 24 feet, or 288 inches; call the alti-
tude of the fluid x; and the ratio of mercury to air,
= eee t4 = ae and the altitude through which
a body defcends in the firt fecond of time, 16 feet 1
inch; then, by the theorem, we fhall have 288 : x ::
288 x. 288
ee
11200 x 762
= .o1, &c. of an inch. Hence we fee why a {mall
but fudden change in the barometer is followed with
violent winds. See an account of the principle upon which
thefe calculations are founded under the article WATER.
When the direétion of the wind is not perpendicular, but
oblique to the furface of the folid, then the force of the
former upon the latter will not be fo great as when the im-
pulfe is direét, and that for reafons which are eafily derived
from the theory of the refolution and compofition of forces,
and from the theory of dire&t and oblique impulfes. In
fhort, the general propofition for compound impulfes is, that
the effeGtive impulfe is as the furface, as the fquare of the
air’s velocity, as the fquare of the fine of the angle of inci-
dence, and as the fine of the obliquity of the folid’s motion
to the direG@tion of the impulfe, jointly ; for the alteration of
every one of thofe quantities will alter the effect in the fame
proportion. But thefe general rules, as we have already
more than once obferved, are fubje& to great variations ; fo
that their refults feldom coincide with thofe. of actual
experiments.
Philofophers have ufed various methods for determining
the velocity of the wind, which is very different at different
times. The method ufed by Dr. Derham was that of
letting light downy feathers fly in the wind, and accurately
obferving the diftance to which they were carried in any
number of half feconds. This method he preferred to that
of Dr. Hooke’s mola alata, or pneumatica. (See Phil. Tranf.
N° 24. and Birch’s Hift. Roy. Soc. vol. iv. p. 225.)
He tells us, that he thus meafured the velocity of the wind
in the great ftorm of Auguft, 1705, and by many experi-
ments et that it moved at the rate of thirty-three feet
per half-fecond, or of forty-five miles ser hour: whence he
concludes, that the moft vehement wind (as that of Novem-
ber, 1703) does not fly at the rate of above fifty or fixty
miles per hour, and that at a medium the velocity of wind is
at the rate of twelve or fifteen miles per hour. Phil. Tranf.
N° 313. or Abr. vol. iv. p. 411.
Mr. Brice obferves, that experiments with feathers are
fubje& to uncertainty: as they feldom or ever defcribe a
ftraight line, but defcribe a fort of {pirals, moving to the
right and left, and rifing to very different altitudes in their
progrefs. He, therefore, confiders the motion of a cloud,
or its fhadow, over the furface of the earth, as a much more
accurate meafure of the velocity of the wind. In this way
he found, that the wind, in a confiderable ftorm, moved at
the rate of 62.9 miles per hour ; and that, when it blew a
frefh gale, it moved in the fame time about twenty-one
miles; and that in a {mall breeze, the wind moved at the
rate of 9.9 miles per hour. Phil. Tranf. vol. lvi. p. 226.
But it has been obferved by Cavallo and others, that this
method is very fallacious, partly becaufe it is not known
whether the clouds do or do not move exa¢tly with the air
in which they float ; and partly becaufe the velocity of the
air in the region where the clouds float is by no means the
2
11200 X 762 : 288, and confequently x =
fame-with that of the air which is nearer to the furface of
the earth, and is fometimes quite contrary to it, as indicated
by the motion of the clouds themfelves. Others have efti-
mated the velocity of the wind by the changes effected by
it upon the motion of found, which muft of courfe be very
inaccurate. A yery fimple method of determining the ve-~
locity of the wind is that which M. Coulomb (Mem. de
Acad. Roy. 1781, p. 70.) employed in his experiments
on wind-mills, becaufe it requires neither the aid of inftru-
ments nor the trouble of calculation. ‘Two perfons were.
placed on a {mall elevation, at the diftance of 150 feet from
one another, in the direction of the wind ; and, while the
one obferved, the other meafured the time which a {mall and
light feather employed in removing through this fpace.
The diftance. between the two perfons, divided by the num-
ber of feconds, gave the velocity of the wind per fecond..
The beft method, fays Cavallo, of meafuring the velocity
of the wind, is by obferving the velocity of the fmoke of a
low chimney, or by eftimating the effe& it produces upon.
certain bodies, and thus may be determined its force as well as.
itsvelocity. We hall here obferve, that from the concurrence
of experiments made with various inftruments, and different
modes of calculation, it has been inferred, that in currents of
air, of the denomination which are expreffed in the 4th
column of the annexed table, the air moves at the rate of
fo many feet per fecond as are exprefled in the 2d column,
ors fo many miles fer hour as are exprefled in the rf
column.
A Taste of the different velocities and forces of the
winds, conftru€ted by Mr. Roufe with great care, from a
confiderable number of fats and experiments, and com-
municated to Mr. Smeaton, and firft publifhed by him in
the 51{t volume of the Philofophical Tranfaétions.
Velocity of the
Wind. Perpendicular
Force on one
fquare Foot,
inAvoirdupois
Pounds,
Common Appellations of the
. Forces of Winds.
= Feet in
one Second.
Hardly perceptible.
1-47
2-93
4.40
5-87
UPS
14.67
22.00
wiley
36.67
44.01
51-34
58.68
66.01
75-35
88.02
117.36
Juft perceptible.
Gentle pleafant wind.
Pleafant brifk gale.
Very brifk.
High wind.
Very high.
A ftorm or tempeft.
A great ftorm.
A hurricane. ,
A hurricane that tears
jee trees, and carries
buildings, &c. before it,
146.70
The force of the wind is as the {quare of its velocity ; as
Mr. Fergufon has fhewn by experiments on the whirling-
table ; and in moderate velocities this will hold very nearly,
Upon
WIND.
Upon this principle the numbers in the third column are cal-
culated. The propofition upon which this column has been
formed feems to be, that the impulfe of a current of air,
ftriking perpendicularly upon a given furface, with a cer-
tain velocity, is equal to the weight of a column of air
which has that furface for its bafe, and for its height the
fpace through which a body mutt fall, in order to acquire
that velocity of the air.
It is obferved, with regard to this table, that the evidence
for thofe numbers, where the velocity of the wind exceeds
fifty miles an hour, does not feem of equal authority with
that of thofe of fifty miles, or under. Phil. Tranf. vol. li.
p- 165.
De Hales found (Statical Eff. vol. ii. p. 326.) that
the air rufhed out of a pair of fmith’s bellows, at the rate of
68.74 feet in a fecond of time, when compreffed with a
force equal to the weight of one inch perpendicular depth
of mercury, lying on the whole upper furface of the bel-
lows. The velocity of the air, as it pafled out of the trunk
of his ventilators, was found to be at the rate of three thou-
fand feet in a minute; which is at the rate of thirty-four
miles in an hour. Dr. Hales fays, that the velocity with
which impelled air paffes out at any orifice may be deter-
mined by hanging a light valve over the nofe of a bellows,
by pliant leathern hinges, which will be much agitated and
lifted up from a perpendicular to a more than horizontal
pofition by the force of the rufhing air. ‘There is another
more accurate way, he fays, of eftimating the velocity of
air, viz. by holding the orifice of an inverted glafs fiphon
full of water, oppofite to the ftream of air, by which the
water will be depreffed in one leg, and raifed in the other,
in proportion to the force with which the water is impelled
by the air. Defcript. of Ventilators, 1743, p. 12, &c.
The velocity and force of the wind are determined ex-
perimentally by a peculiar machine, called an anemometer
or wind-meafurer. Of thefe there have been many, varioufly
conftru@ted. See ANEMoMETER, ANEMOSCOPE, and WIND-
Gage.
Winp, Qualities and Effeés of. 1. * A wind blowing
from the fea is always moift; in fummer, it is cold ; and
in winter, warm, unlefs the fea be frozen up.”? ‘This is
demonitrated thus: there is a vapour continually rifing
out of all water, (as appears even hence, that a quantity of
water, being left a little while in an open veffel, is found
fenfibly diminifhed,) but efpecially if it be expofed to the
fun’s rays; in which cafe, the evaporation is beyond all
expectation. By this means, the air incumbent on the fea
becomes impregnated with a quantity of vapour. But the
winds, blowing from off the fea, {weep thefe vapours along
with them ; and confequently they are always moitft.
Again, water in fummer, &c. conceives lefs heat than
terreftrial bodies, expofed to the fame rays of the fun, do;
but in winter, fea-water is warmer than the earth covered
with froft and fnow, &c. Wherefore, as the air contiguous
to any body is found to partake of its heat and cold, the
air contiguous to fea-water will be warmer in winter, and
colder in fummer, than that contiguous to the earth. Or
thus: vapours raifed from water by the fun’s warmth in
winter, are warmer than the air they rife in, (as appears
from the vapours condenfing, and becoming vifible, almoft
as foon as they are got out into air.) Frefh quantities of
vapour, therefore, continually warming the atmofphere over
the fea, will raife its heat beyond that of air over the land.
Again, the fun’s rays refleéted from the earth into the air,
in fummer, are much more than thofe from the water into
air: the air, therefore, over the earth, warmed by the re-
flection of more rays than that over water, is warmet's
Hence, £a-winds make thick, cloudy, hazy weather.
2. ** Winds, blowing from the continent, are always
dry ; in fummer, warm; and cold in winter.” For there
is much lefs vapour arifing from the earth, than from
water ; and, therefore, the air over the continent will be
impregnated with much fewer vapours. Add, that the
vapours, or exhalations, raifed by a great degree of heat
out of the earth, are much finer, and lefs fenfible, than thofe
from water. The wind, therefore, blowing over the conti-
nent, carries but little vapour with it, and is therefore dry.
Farther, the earth in fummer is warmer than water ex-
pofed to the fame rays of the fun. Hence, as the air
partakes of the heat of contiguous bodies, that over the
earth in fummer will be warmer than that over the water :
therefore, the winds, &c.
After the like manner it is fhewn, that the land-winds are
cold in winter. Hence, we fee why land-winds make clear
cold weather.
Our northerly and foutherly winds, however, which are
commonly efteemed the caufes of cold and warm weather,
Dr. Derham obferves, are really rather the effe& of the
cold or warmth of the atmofphere. Hence it is, that we
frequently fee a warm foutherly wind, on a fudden, changed
to the north, by the fall of {now or hail; and that in a
cold frofty morning, we fee the wind north, which after-
wards wheels about toward the foutherly quarter, when
the fun has well warmed the air ; and again, in the cold
evening, turns northerly, or eafterly. See Darwin’s Obfer-
vations /upra.
For the manner in which north-eafterly winds contribute
to blights, fee Bricur. For the effe& of winds on the
barometer and thermometer, fee BAROMETER, &c.
The utility of winds has been univerfally acknowledged.
The ancient Perfians, Phcenicians, Greeks, and Romans,
facrificed and ereé&ted temples to the winds; as we learn
from Voffius, Theolog. Gentil. lib. iii. part i. cap. 1.
Befides their ufe in moving bellows, mills, and other ma-
chines, applied in various ways to the fervice of mankind,
and the benefits refulting from them to navigation and
trade, they ferve to purify and refrefh the air, to convey
the heat or cold of one region to another, to produce a
regular circulation of vapours from the ocean to countries
remote from it, and to fupply, by wafting them in their
progrefs againft hills, &c. fprings and rivers.
Wind has been, by many authors, made the bafis of many
different difeafes: among others, Dr. Reyn has given it as
his opinion, in a Treatife on the Gout (De Arthritid.), that
flatufes, or wind inclofed between the periofteum and the
bone, are the true caufe of that difeafe; and accordingly,
that ail the methods of cure ought to tend to the expelling
of that wind.
He is alfo of opinion, that head-aches, palpitations of the
heart, tooth-ache, pleurify, convulfions, colics, and many
other difeafes, are originally owing to the fame caufe, and
only differ in regard to the place affeéted, and to the various
motions and determinations of the wind. The moyeablenefs
of the pain in gouty perfons from one part to another, he
looks on as a proof of this, and thinks that the curing of
the gout by burning moxa, or the cotton of the mug wort
leaves, upon it, is owing to its giving way to the wind in
the part to evaporate itfelf,
That thefe winds are cold, appears from the fhivering fits
which generally precede a paroxy{m of the gout ; and that
the fhiverings in the beginning of fevers, and before all
fits of agues, are owing to the fame caufe, is fuppofed by
this
WIND.
this author a natural conclufion from the former obfer-
vations.
Their differences, he fays, principally proceed from the
various ferments producing in us a variety of humours ;
which aéting upon one another, do in their effervefcences
create winds of various effeéts, and denominate difeafes
from the places which are the fcenes of their aftion. It is
on this account that the acupunétura, or pricking with
long needles, among the Chinefe, is of ufe: the Japanefe,
and other neighbouring nations, having no other cure for
moft difeafes than the pricking with the needle, and the
burning of the moxa on the part. ’
The hufbandman often fuffers extremely by high winds
in many different refpe&ts. Plantations of trees, at a {mall
diftance from the barns and houfes, are the beft fafeguard
againft their fuffering by winds; but they muft not be
planted fo near as that their fall, if it fhould happen, would
endanger them. Yews grow very flowly, otherwife they
are the beft of all trees for this defenfive plantation. Trees
fuffer by winds, being either broken or blown down by
them; but this may be in a great meafure prevented by
cutting off great part.of the heads and branches of them, in
places where they ftand moft expofed. F
Hops are the moft fubjeé& to be injured by winds of any
crop; but this may be in a great meafure prevented by a
high pale, or very thick thorn-hedge ; this will both keep
off the fpring wind, which nips the young buds, and be a
great fafeguard againft other winds that would tear the
plants from their poles. The poles fhould always be very
firm in the ground; and the beft fecurity to be added to
this, is a row of tall trees all round the ground.
Winds, attended with rain, do great injury to the corn,
by laying it flat to the ground. The beft method of pre-
venting this, is to keep up good enclofures ; and if the acci-
dent happens, the corn fhould be cut immediately, for it
never grows at all afterwards. It fhould be left on the
ground, in this cafe, fome time after the cutting, to harden
the grain inthe ear. Mortimer’s Hufbandry, p. 302.
Wisp, in Navigation, is the fame agitation of the air,
confidered as ferving for the motion of veffels on the water.
If the wind blows gently, it is called a breeze; if it
blows harder, it is called a gale, or a ftiff gale ; and if it blows
very hard, it is called a florm.
The following obfervations on the wind have been made
by {kilful feamen, and particularly by Dr. Halley.
1. Between the limits of 60°, viz. from 30° of north
latitude to 30° of fouth latitude, there is a conftant, or
almoft conftant, eaft wind through the year, blowing in
the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, called the trade-wind ;
which fee.
2. The trade-winds, near their northern limits, blow be-
tween the north and eaft ; and near their fouthern limits they
blow between the fouth and eatt.
The trade-wind feems to depend principally upon the
rarefa@tion of the air, which is occafioned by the heat of
the fun progreflively from the ea{t towards the weft. The
air which is rarefied, and, of courfe, elevated by the heat
of the fun immediately over it, is condenfed, and defcends
as foon as the fun is gone over another place to the weft of
the former ; then the air of the latter late is rarefied, and
the condenfed air of the former rufhes towards it, &c.
From the northern and fouthern parts of the world, the air
likewife runs to the place which is immediately under the
fun; but thofe dire¢tions, combining with the eafterly wind,
which blows nearer to the equator, form the above-mentioned
north-eafterly and fouth-eafterly winds on the borders of the
trade-wind. ;
3. Thefe general motions of the wind are difturbed:on
the continents, and near their coafts.
In places that are farther from the equator, the rarefac-
tion which arifes from the heat of the Ton, and from the
attraétion of the fun and moon, is lefs aGtive ; and is befides
influenced by a variety of local and accidental circumftances,
fuch as extenfive continents, mountains, rains, iflands, &c.
which difturb, interrupt, or totally change the direétion of
the wind. Hence, in thofe latitudes north and fouth,
which are beyond the limits of the trade-wind, or near the
coafts, the winds are very uncertain; nor has any good
theory been as yet formed refpe€ting them.
4. In fome parts of the Indian ocean there are periodical
winds, which are called Monfoons ; which fee.
For the explication of thefe, it is faid, that as the air,
which is cool and denfe, will force the warm rarefied air in
a continual ftream upwards, there it muft f{pread itfelf to
preferve the equilibrium. Therefore the upper courfe or
current of air muft be contrary to the under current ; for
the upper air muft move from thofe parts where the greateft
heat is ; and fo, by a kind of circulation, the N.E. trade-
wind below will be attended with a S.W. above; and a
S.E. below, with a N.W. above.
5. In the Atlantic ocean, near the coafts of Africa, at
about a hundred leagues from the fhore, between the lati-
tudes of 28° and ro° north, feamen conftantly meet with a
frefh gale of wind blowing from the N.E.
6. Thofe bound to the Caribbee iflands, acrofs the Atlan-
tic ocean, find, as they approach the American fide, that
the faid N.E. wind becomes eafterly ; or feldom blows
more than a point from the eaft, either to the northward or
fouthward. Thefe trade-winds, on the American fide, are
extended to 30°, 31°, or even to 32° of N. latitude; which
is about 4° farther than they extend on the African fide :
alfo to the fouthward of the equator, the trade-winds extend
three or four degrees farther toward the coaft of Brafil, on
the American fide, than they do near the Cape of Good
Hope, on the African fide.
7. Between the latitudes of 4° N. and 4° S., the wind
always blows between the fouth and eaft: on the African
fide, the winds are neareft the fouth ; and on the American
fide, neareft the eaft. In thefe feas, Dr. Halley obferved,
that when the wind was eaftward, the weather was gloomy,
dark, and rainy, with hard gales of wind; but when the
wind veered to the fouthward, the weather generally became
ferene, with gentle breezes, pd ae et toacalm. Thefe
winds are fomewhat changed by the feafons of the year;
for when the fun is far northward, the Brafil S.E. wind
turns to the fouth, and the N.E. wind to the eaft; and
when the fun is far fouth, the S.E. wind gets to the
eaft, and the N.E. winds on this fide of the equator veer
more to the north.
8. Along the coaft of Guinea, from Sierra Leone to
the ifland of St. Thomas, under the equator, which is above
five hundred leagues, the foutherly and fouth-wett winds
blow perpetually ; for the S.E. trade-wind, having pafled
the equator, and approaching the Guinea coaft within
eighty or a hundred leagues, inclines toward the fhore, and
becomes fouth, then S.E., and by degrees, as it comes near
the land, it veers about to fouth, $.S.W., and in with the
land it is S.W. and fometimes W.S.W. This traé& is fub-
je&t to frequent calms, violent fudden gufts of winds, called
tornadoes, blowing from all points of the horizon.
The wefterly wind on the coaft of Guinea is probably
owing
WIND.
owing to the nature and fituation of the land; which, being
a heated by the fun, rarefies the air exceedingly ;
ae the cooler and heavier air from over the fea will keep
rufhing in to reftore the equilibrium. ,
g. Between the fourth and tenth degrees of north latitude,
and between the longitudes of Cape Verd, and the eafternmoft
of the Cape Verd ifles, there is a tra€t of fea fubje& to
perpetual calms, attended with frequent thunder and light-
ning, and rains ; whence this part of the fea is called ¢ The
Rains.’ Ships in failing thefe fix degrees are faid to have
been fometimes detained whole months.
The caufe of this feems to be, that the wefterly winds
fetting in on this coaft, and meeting the general eatterly
wind in this traét, balance each other, and caufe the calms ;
and the vapour carried thither by the hotteft wind, meeting
the cooleft, is condenfed, and occafions the very frequent
rains.
The three laft obfervations account for two circumftances
which mariners experience in failing from Europe to India,
and in the Guinea trade. Rath,
The firf is the difficulty which fhips, in going to the
fouthward, efpecially in the months of July and Augutt,
find in paffing between the coaft of Guinea and Brafil,
although the breadth of this fea is more than five hundred
leagues. This happens, becaufe the S.E. winds at that
time of the year commonly extend fome degrees beyond the
ordinary limits of four degrees north latitude ; and befides
coming fo much foutherly, as to be fometimes fouth, fome-
times a point or two to the weft ; it then only remains to ply
to windward : and if, on the one fide, they fteer W.S.W.
they get a wind more and more eafterly ; but then there
is a danger of falling in with the Brafilian coaft, or fhoals ;
and if they fteer E.S.E. they fall into the neighbourhood of
the coaft of Guinea, from whence they cannot depart without
running eafterly as far as the ifland of St. Thomas; and this
is the conftant practice of all the Guinea fhips.
Secondly, With regard to all fhips departing from Guinea
for Europe, their dire&t courfe is northward; but on this
courfe they cannot go, becaufe the coaft bending nearly eaft
and.weft the land is to the northward : therefore, as the winds
on this coaft are generally between the S. and W.S.W., they
are obliged to iteer S.S.E. or S., and with thefe courfes
they run off the fhore ; but in fo doing they always find the
winds more and more contrary ; fo that when near the fhore
they can lie fouth, at a greater diftance they can make
no better than S.E., and afterwards E.S.E.; with which
courfes they commonly fetch the ifland of St. Thomas and
Cape Lopez, where, finding the winds to the eaftward of
the fouth, they fail wefterly with it, till coming to the lati-
tude of four degrees fouth, they there find the S.E. winds
blowing perpetually.
On account of thefe general winds, all thofe that ufe the
Welt India trade, even thofe bound to Virginia, reckon it
their beft courfe to get as foon as they can to the fouthward,
that fo they may be certain of a fair and frefh gale to run
before it to the weftward ; and for the fame reafon, thofe
homeward-bound from America endeavour to gain the lati-
tude of thirty degrees, where they firft find the winds begin
to be variable ; though the moft ordinary winds in the North
Atlantic ocean come from between the fouth and weft.
10.. Between the fouthern latitudes of ten and thirty
degrees in the Indian ocean, the general trade-wind about
the S.E. by S. is foifnd to blow all the year long in the
fame manner as in the like latitude in the Ethiopic ocean ;
and during the fix months from May to December, thefe
winds reach to within two degrees of the equator; but
during the other fix months, from November to June, a
N.W. wind blows in the tra@ lying between the third
and tenth degrees of fouthern latitude, in the meridian of
the north end of Madagafcar ; and between the fecond and
twelfth degree of fouth latitude, near the longitude of
Sumatra and Java.
11. In the traét between Sumatra and the African coatt,
and from three degrees of fouth latitude quite northward
to the Afiatic coafts, including the Arabian fea and the
gulf of Bengal, the monfoons blow from September to
April on the N.E., and from March to O@ober on the
S.W. In the former half year the wind is more fteady and
gentle, and the weather clearer than in the latter fix months 2
and the wind is more ftrong and fteady in the Arabian fea
than in the gulf of Bengal.
12. Between the ifland of Madagafcar and the coaft of
Africa, and thence northward as far as the equator, there
is a tract, in which, from April to O&ober, there is a con-
{tant frefh S.S.W. wind ; which to the northward changes
into the W.S.W. wind, blowing at that time in the Ara-
bian fea.
13. To the eaftward of Sumatra and Malacca on the north
of the equator, and along the coafts of Cambodia and
China, quite through the Philippines as far as Japan,
the monfoons blow northerly and foutherly ; the northern
fetting in about Ofober or November, and the fouthern
about May: thefe winds are not quite fo certain as thofe in
the Arabian feas.
14. Between Sumatra and Java to the weft, and New
Guinea to the eaft, the fame northerly and foutherly winds
are obferved ; but the firft half-year monfoon inclines to
the N.W., and the latter to the S.E. Thefe winds begin
a month or fix weeks after thofe in the Chinefe feas fet in,
and are quite as variable.
15. Thefe contrary winds do not fhift from one point to
its oppofite all at once: in fome places, the time of the
change is attended with calms; in others, by variable winds :
and it often happens on the fhores of Coromandel and
China, towards the end of the monfoons, that there are
mott violent ftorms, greatly refembling the hurricanes in the
Weft Indies; in which the wind is fo very ftrong, that
hardly any thing can refift its force.
All navigation in the Indian ocean mutt neceflarily be re-
gulated by thefe winds; for if mariners fhould delay their
voyages till the contrary monfoon begins, they mutt either
fail back, or go into harbour, and wait for the return of the
trade-wind..
16. The irregularities of the wind in countries which are
farther from the equator than thofe which have been men-
tioned above, or nearer to the poles of the earth, are fo
great that no particular period has as yet been difcovered,
excepting that in particular places certain winds are more
likely to blow than others. Thus at Liverpool the winds
are faid to be wefterly for near two-thirds of the year; in
the fouthern part of Italy, a fouth-eaft wind (called the
Sehirocco) blows more frequently than any other wind, &c.
17. The temperature of a country with refpe& to heat
or cold is increafed or diminifhed by winds, according as
they come from a hotter or colder part of the world. The
north and north-eafterly winds, in this country and all the
weftern parts of Europe, are reckoned cold and drying
winds. hey are cold, becaufe they come from the frozen
region of the north pole, or over a great tra@ of cold land.
Their drying quality is derived from their coming principally
over land, and from a well-known property of the air;
namely, that warm air can diffolve, and keep diflolved, a
9 greater
WIND.
greater quantity of water than colder air: hence the air
which comes from colder regions, being heated over warmer
countries, becomes a better folvent of moifture, and dries
up with greater energy the moift bodies it comes in conta
with; and, on the other hand, warm air coming into a
colder region depofits a quantity of the water it kept in fo-
lution, and occafions mifts, fogs, clouds, rains, &c. In
fhort,’? fays colonel Roy, “ the winds feem to be drier, denfer,
and colder, in proportion to the extent of land they pafs
over from the poles towards the equator; but they appear
to be more moift, warm, and light, in proportion to the ex-
tent of ocean they pafs over from the equator towards the
poles. Hence the humidity, warmth, and lightnefs, of the
Atlantic winds to the inhabitants of Europe. On the eatt
coafts of North America the feverity of the N.W. wind is
univerfally remarked ; and there can f{earcely be a doubt,
that the inhabitants of California, and other parts on the
weft fide of that great continent, will, like thofe on the
weft of Europe, feel the {trong effets of a N.E. wind.”
18. In warm countries, fometimes the winds, which blow
over a great traét of highly-heated land, become fo very
drying, fcorching, and fuffocating, as to produce dreadful
effe&s. Thefe winds, under the names of Blooms, Samiel, and
Solanos, are often felt in the deferts of Arabia, in the neigh-
bourhood of the Perfian gulf, in the interior of Africa, and
in fome other places. There are likewife in India, part of
China, part of Africa, and elfewhere, other winds, which
depofit fo much warm moifture as to foften, and aétually to
diffolve glue, falts, and almoft every article which is foluble
in water.
19. It is impoffible to give any adequate account of irre-
gular winds, efpecially of thofe fudden and violent gufts as
come on at very irregular periods, and generally continue
for a fhort time. They fometimes f{pread over an extenfive
tra of country, and at other times are confined within a
remarkably narrow fpace. ‘Their caufes are by no means
rightly underftood, though they have been vaguely attri-
buted to peculiar rarefa€tions, to the combined attraétions
of the fun and moon, to earthquakes, to eleétricity, &c.
They are called in general hurricanes, or they are the princi-
pal phenomenon of a hurricane, that is, of a violent ftorm.
Almoft every one of thofe violent winds is attended with
particular phenomena, fuch as droughts, or heavy rains, or
hail, or fnow, or thunder and lightning, or feveral of thofe
phenomena at once. They frequently fhift fuddenly from
one quarter of the horizon to another, and then come again
to the former point. In this cafe they are called sivas
In mountainous countries, the wind fometimes rages with
extreme violence, and the mountains generally exhibit figns
of the approaching ftorm. Thus, at the Cape of Good
Hope, there are four remarkable mountains, called Table
Land, or Mountain; Sugar Loaf, or the Lion’s Head ;
James Mount, or the Lion’s Rump; and Charles Mount,
called alfo the Devil’s Tower, or Devil’s Head, from the
violent f{qualls of wind which come from it. In the fummer
feafon Table Mountain is fometimes fuddenly covered with a
white cloud, called the Table-cloth; when this cloud feems
to roll down the fleep face of the mountain, it is a fure in-
dication of an approaching gale of wind from the S.E.,
which generally blows with great violence, and fometimes
continues a day or more, but in common is of fhort dura-
tion. On the firft appearance of this cloud, the fhips in
Table bay begin to prepare for it, by ftriking yards and
top-mafts, and making every thing as {nug as poflible. If,
in the morning, the cloud extends ion the Table to Mount
Charles, or the Devil’s Tower, which are almoft contiguous,
it is a general faying among feamen, that the old gentleman
is going to breakfalt; if in the middle of the day, that he
is going to dinner; and if in the evening, that the cloth is
{pread for fupper.
There are various other periodical winds: of thefe, how-
ever, that generally known by the name of Limbat, which
is common in the ifland of Cyprus, fhall only be mentioned
here. The period of this wind is five days: on the firft day,
it begins to blow at eight in the morning, and increafes tll
noon ; from thence it gradually weakens, and ceafes entirely
about three P.M. On the fecond day, it arifes at the fame
hour ; but it does not attain its greateft ftrength: till about
one in the afternoon, and ceafes at four. On the third day,
it begins as before; but it falls an hour later, On the re-
maining days, it follows the fame progreffion as on the third ;
but it is remarked, that a little before it ceafes, it becomes
extremely violent. Upon the N.W. fide of the above ifland,
this wind is confidered as a fea-breeze ; and upon the S.E.
as a land-breeze. See Winn, Qualities of, fupra. See alfo
Hurricanes, Tornapoes, and Wuiri-Wind. See+Phil.
Tranf. N° 183, or Abr. vol. iis'p.133, &c. Robertfon’s
Elem. of Nav. b. vi. f. 6. Cavallo’s Philof. vol. ii.
The winds are divided, with refpeé to the points of the
horizon from which they blow, into cardinal and collateral.
Winps, Cardinal, are thofe blowing from the four car-
dinal points ; eaft, weft, north, and fouth.
Thus, a wind that blows from the E. towards the W. is
called eaff wind; when it blows from the W. towards the
E., weff wind; when it blows from the N. to the S., it is
called north wind; and when it blows from the S. towards
the N., it is called /outh wind.
Winps, Collateral, are the intermediate winds between
any two cardinal winds. The number of thefe is infinite, as
the points from which they blow are; but only a few of
them are confidered in practice ; i.e. only a few of them
have their diftinguifhing names.
Thofe winds which deviate a little from the cardinal points
are called northerly, eafterly, foutherly, and wefterly winds.
But for the fake of greater diftinGtion, the {pace or arch
which lies between any two contiguous cardinal points, is
fuppofed, by the mariners, to be divided into eight equal
parts, or points, and each point into four equal parts, called
quarter-peints. So that the horizon is fappoled to be divided
into thirty-two principal points, which are called rhumés, or
winds, to each of which a particular name is affigned; and
thofe names are derived from the names of the adjacent car-
dinal points. See Compass.
The ancient Greeks, at firft, only ufed the four cardinal
ones; at length they took in four more. Vitruvius gives
us a table of twenty, befides the cardinals, which were in
ufe among the Romans.
The moderns, as their navigation is much more perfe&
than that of the ancients, have given names to twenty-eight
collateral winds, which they range into primary and /econdary ;
and the fecondary they fubdivide into thofe of the fig# and
fecond order. :
The Englifh names of the primary collateral winds and
points are compounded of the names of the cardinal ones,
north and fouth being flill prefixed.
The names of the fecondary collateral winds of the firft
order are compounded of the names of the cardinals, and
the adjacent primary one. Thofe of the fecond order are
compounded of the names of the cardinal, or the next ad-
jacent primary ; and the next cardinal, with the addition of
the word Jy. The Latins have diftin€& names for each; all
which are exprefled in the following Table.
WIND.
nn nc ee rar nnnn anInnISEEID SERIES ESRI nuns
Names of the Winds and Points of the Compafs. Diftances of
the Points,
&e. from
Englith. Latin and Greek. ‘| the North.
1. North. Septentrio, or Boreas. co of
Hyperboreas.
2. North by eaft. Hypaquilo. aru ‘rg
Gallicus.
3. North-north-eaft.| Adquilo. 22 30
North-eatt b Mefoboreas.
ai en Y Mefaquilo. 33 45
Supernas.
AréGapeliotes.
5. North-caft. | Borapeliotes. 45
Gracus.
G. Nog hcest By, Hypoczfias. 56 15
47. Eaft-north-eatt. Cefias, Hellefpontius.| 67 30
8. Eaft by north. a Sar 78 45
} fi Wo From the E.
Solanus, fubfolanus
9. Eaf. apeliotes. ; t oo!
H rus, or hy-
10. Eaft by fouth. ia ee , Prog d 5
11. Eaft-fouth-eatt. Eurus, or volturnus. | 22 30
. South-eaft b
ag ear 7 Z| Mefeurus. 3345
13. South-eaft. Notapeliotes, eurafter. | 45
aa eeu ings i Hypopheenix. 56 15
Phenix, pheenicias,
15. South-fouth-eaft. leuco-notus, gan- 67 + 30
geticus. ,
16. South by eatt. Mefophcenix. 78 45
From pee
17. South. Aufler, notus, meridies.| 0° of
Hypolibonotus, al-
18. South by weit. Ga ? yt ae
1g. South-fouth- Libonotus,notoliby-
weit. cus, auftro-africus. oA Be
“As¥ ao li Prt Mefolibonotus. 33. 45
Noto-zephyrus.
| 21. South-weft. Noto-libycus. 45
1 Africus.
| Hypolibs.
| 226 cree by Hypafricus. t 56 15
| ee Subvefperus.
{ 23. Weft-fouth-weft.| Libs. 67 30
Mefolibs.
24- Welt by fouth. Mefozephyrus. { 78 45
VoL. XXXVITI.
| Names of the Winds and Points of the Compafs. ae ae
Ee EE ee Oe DE edo from
| Englith. Latin and Greek. the Weft.
25. Weft. Hage ak favonius, eo
Hypargettes.
26. Welt by north. Hiypceaena: Tbe B05
Argeftes.
27. Wett-north-wett. Caurus, corus, 22 30
lapyx.
28. North-weft by Mefargeftes.
wett. Melson: 33 45
§ Zephyro-boreas, boro- \
29, Narth-sueh V__libycus, olympias. 45
Hypocircius.
o. North-weft b YP
3 Li Y } Semen ped \ 56 15
Slat kien Circius, thrafcias. 67 30
32. North by weit. Mefocircius. 78 45
Note.—Theancient namesare here, after Ricciolus, adapted
to the modern ones; not that the winds formerly denoted
by thofe were precifely the fame with thefe, (for the ancient
number and divifion being different from the modern, the
points they refer to will neceflarily be fomewhat different, )
but thefe are what come the nearett. Thus, Vitruvius, only
reckoning twenty-four winds, difpofes the points they refer
to in a different order ; as in the following Table.
Diftance
from North.
Diftance
Names of the Winds. from Eaft.
Names of the Winds.
I. Septentrio. oo 7 Solanus. °°
2. Gallicus. 15 8. Ornithias. 15
3. Supernas. 30 g- Cefias. 30
4. Aquilo. 45 10. Eurus. * 45
5- Boreas. 60 11. Volturnus. 60
6. Carbas. 75 12. Euronotus. 75
| Diftance Diftance
Names of the Winds. from South,
Names of the Winds. from Weft.
13. Aufler. oc | 19. Favonius. °°
14. Alfanus. 15 20. Etefie. 15
15. Libonotus. 30 21. Circius. 30
16. Africus. 45 22. Caurus. 45.
17. Subvefper. 60 23. Corus. 60
18. Argeftes. . Thrafcias.
Vhe
3Q
WIND.
The following Table thews the angles which every rhumb or point of the compafs makes with the meridian: by means
of which the dire@ion of the wind, &c. may be determined.
Nortu. Sout.
Plo
Foggia | ptewieaee |? srameie |” soc ep
Annan | un
Rasen > pp PwowWw | wnnvnv
Nn
aha a
Fas
on“ ~I
| Pee +
For the ufe of the winds in navigation, &c. fee Sarzine.
Winp, a difeafe in fheep of a very dangerous and dif-
trefling kind.
{t is obferved in the Shepherd’s Guide, that in this com-
plaint, the fheep, immediately after being clipped or fhorn,
appear to be in violent pain, their fides are fomewhat ex-
tended, and their breathing very fhort, the head is hung
down drooping, and they have a great averfion to moving
or walking. Thefe fymptoms continue to increafe until
the fheep dies, which is in a very few hours, unlefs a violent
purging comes on, which generally o immediate relief.
On inquiring for the name of this affe@tion, the writer fays,
he found it was called the wind, but where the feat of it
lay few could-tell him; fome thought it was in the head,
others in the lungs; and the remedies they applied were as
various as their opinions of the nature of the difeafe.
Not being fatisfied with thefe accounts, he endeavoured,
by infpeéting the carcafes of fheep that died of the dif-
eafe, to difcover the caufe and feat of the complaint.
On opening four fheep that died of the difeafe, he found all
12
73° 74
75 56
78 45 W. by N W. by S
81 34
84 22k
87 11
the inteftines rather diftended with flatus, but not in any
great degree. Their blood-veffels were very turgid, and of
a deep red, particularly thofe of the large inteftines, except-
ing the re€tum, or what is called the dum-gut, which had a
healthy appearance, as likewife had the ftomach, milt, caul,
liver, heart, lungs, and in fhort all the vifcera contained in
the cavity of the trunk. From thefe appearances he will
venture to fay, that the difeafe in Rosthies is a violent in-
flammation of the inteftines, perhaps in fome meafure arifing
from bruifes in fhearing, but more fo from lofing a warm
teh and being fuddenly expofed to cold air and cold
eeding.
He therefore recommends to farmers, that on the firft
appearances of the complaint they put the fheep into a flable
or other warm place, and immediately bleed it freely. Then
to bruife a quarter of an ounce of fome carminative feed,
fuch as carraway, anife, cummin, or fennel, and to mix
thefe with two ounces of Glauber’s purging falts, in a pint
of water, placing it on a fire, and making it boil for a few
minutes, then to flrain it off. ‘Then to add a quarter of an
ounce
WIN
ounce of powdered jalap, and while lukewarm to give the
fheep a quarter of ‘a pint of this liquor, well fhaken toge-
ther, every half hour till it dungs. It fhould have no food
or cold water until recovered, but a little warm water might
be of fervice in fome cafes.
This is a diforder which is in general fo fuddenly fatal,
that recourfe fhould be inftantly had to any remedy that
may have been found beneficial; but bleeding is probably
that on which the greateft dependence may be placed, with
calomel in fome inftances.
Winp, among Animals, is another name for the breath,
or rather for the power with which the lungs are endowed
in the exercife of their funGions, which in many cafes is a
fort of morbid affe&tion of them, efpecially in horfes, fwine,
calves, and fome others. Horfes are often thick-winded
and purfive, which is this ftate, and require much exercife
and management, and the other two are fometimes affected
in much the fame way.
Winn, in Rural Economy, aterm applied to a winch or
wince in fome places.
Winn, Frefh. See Fresu.
Wino, To haul the. See Haut.
Winp, Large, in the Sea Language. See Lance.
Winn, Quarter, at Sea. See QUARTER.
Winns, Reigning. See Reicnine.
Winps, Tropic. See Trave-Winds, and Winn fupra.
Winn, Side, at Sea, that which blows on the fide of the
fhip.
To Winp a Ship or Boat, in Sea Language, is to change
her pofition, by bringing the ftern to lie in the fituation of
the head, or dire&tly oppofite to its former fituation.
Winp, in the Manege. A horfe that carries in the wind,
is one that toffes his nofe as high as his ears, and does not
carry handfomely.
The difference between carrying in the wind and beat-
ing upon the hand is, that a horfe who beats upon the hand
fhakes his head, and refifts the bridle ; but he who carries
in the wind, puts up his head without fhaking, and only
fometimes beats upon the hand. he oppofite to carrying
in the wind is arming and carrying low.
Winn, Whirl. See Wuirt-Wind.
Winp, Colic. See Coxic.
Winv-Dropfy. See TyMPanirEs.
_ Winp-£gz, an addle egg, or an egg that has taken wind.
See Eae.
Winp-Faill denotes fruit blown off the tree by the
wind.
Winp-Flower, in Botany. See ANEMONE.
Winp-Furnace. See FURNACE.
Winv-Gage, in Pneumatics, an infirument ferving to de-
termine the velocity and force of the wind. See ANEMo-
METER, ANEMOSCOPE, and Laws of the Force, Sc. of the
Winxp fupra.
Dr. Lind, of Edinburgh, has contrived an apparatus of
this kind, which is fimple and eafy of conftruétion, and
which feems to be well adapted for meafuring the fotce of
the wind with a fufficient degree of accuracy. This in-
ftrument confifts of two glafs tubes A B, CD, ( Plate XV.
Pneumatics, fig. 9.) five or fix inches in length, and about
four-tenths of an inch in bore; which are conneéted toge-
ther like a fiphon, by a {mall bent glafs tube ab, the bore of
which is one-tenth of an inch in diameter. On the upper
end of the leg A B there is a tube of latten brafe, which is
Kneed or bent perpendicularly outwards, and has its mouth
open towards F ; on the other leg CD is a cover, with a
round hole G in the upper part of it, two-tenths of an inch
in diameter. This cover and the kneed tube are conneéted
WIN
together by a flip of brafs, ¢ d, which ftrengthens the whole
inftrument, and ferves to hold the feale HI. The kneed
tube and cover are fixed on with hard cement, or fealing-
wax. ‘To the fame tube is foldered a piece of brafs, e, with
a round hole in it, to receive the fteel fpindle K L, and at
f another fuch piece of brafs is foldered to the brafs hoop
g 4, which furrounds both legs of the inftrument. There is
a {mall fhoulder on the fpindle at f, upon which the initru-
ment refts, and a {mall nut /, to prevent it from being blown
off the {pindle by the wind. The whole inftrument is eafily
turned round upon the f{pindle by the wind, fo as always to
prefent the mouth of the kneed tube toward it. At the
end of the fpindle there is a ferew, by which it may be
{crewed to the top of a pott or ftand: it has alfo a hole at
L, to admit a {mall lever for {crewing it into wood with
greater facility. A thin plate of brafs £ is foldered on the
kneed tube, about half an inch above the round hole G, fo
as to prevent rain from falling into it. There is alfo a
crooked tube A B (fig. 10.), to be put occafionally upon
the mouth of the kneed tube F, in order to prevent rain
from being blown into the mouth of the wind-gage, when
it is left expofed to the rain.
This inftrument ferves to afcertain the force of the wind,
by filling the tube half full of water, and pufhing the fcale
a little up or down, till o upon the fcale, when the inftru-
ment is held perpendicularly, be on a line with the furface
of the water, in both legs of the wind-gage. The inftru-
ment being thus adjufted, hold it up perpendicularly, and
turning the mouth of the kneed tube toward the wind, ob-
ferve how much the water is depreffed by it in one leg, and
how much it is raifed in the other. The fum of the two
is the height of a column of water, which the wind is capa-
ble of fultaining at that time; and every body that is op-
pofed to that wind, will be preffed upon by a force equal to
the weight of a column of water, having its bafe equal to
the furface that is oppofed, and its height equal to the alti-
tude of the column of water fuftained by the wind in the
wind-gage. Hence the force of the wind upon any body,
where the furface oppofed to it is known, may be eafily
found ; and a ready comparifon may be made betwixt the
ftrength of one gale of wind, and that of another, by know-
ing the heights of the columns of water which the different
winds were capable of fuftaining. The heights of the co-
lumn in each leg will be equal, provided that the legs are
of equal bores; but unequal if their bores are unequal.
For fuppofe the legs equal, and the column of water
fuftained by the wind to be three inches, the water in the
leg which the wind blows into will be deprefled 12 inch
below o, and raifed as much in the other leg. But if the
bore of the leg which the wind blows into be double that
of the other, the water in that leg will be deprefled only
one inch, whilft it is raifed twice as much, or two inches,
in the other, and vice ver{a.
The force of the wind may likewife be meafured with
this inftrument, by filling it till the water runs out at G.
For if it be then held up to the wind as before, a quantity
of water will be thrown out ; and if both legs of the inftru-
ment are of the fame bore, the light of the column fuf-
tained will be equal to double the column of water in either
leg, or the fum of what is wanting in both legs. But if the
legs are of unequal bores, neither of thefe will give the true
height of the column of water which the wind fuftained.
For, obtaining in this cafe the true height, Dr. Lind has
fubjoined the requifite formule. The ufe of the {mall tube
of communication ab (fg. g.), is to check the undulation
of the water, fo that the height of it may be read off from
the fcale with eafe and certainty; and alfo to prevent the
Bonz water
WIN
water from being thrown up to a much greater or lefs alti-
tude than the true height of the column which the wind is
able at that time to fultain. The author has calculated a
table, by means of which, having the height of the column
of water fuftained in the wind-gage, the force of the wind
upon a foot fquare may be determined.
Force of the
tof | Wind on One
ater in| Foot Square 'Common Defignations of fuch Winds.
the Gage in Pounds
Avoirdupois.
62.500
II §7+293
To 52.083 . :
9 46.875 Molt violent eis we
8 41.667 Very great hurricane.
7 36.548 Great hurricane.
6 31.750 Hurricane.
5 26.041 Very great ftorm.
4 20.833 Great ftorm.
3 15.625 Storm.
2 10.416 Very high wind.
I 5-208 High wind.
0.5 2.604 Brifk gale.
o.1 0.521 Frefh breeze.
0.05 0.260 Pleafant wind.
0.025 0.030 A gentle wind.
When the height of the water is not exa€ly mentioned
in the table, then that height may be feparated into fuch
parts as are mentioned in the table, and the fum of the
forces anfwering to fuch parts will be the force of the
wind correfpondent to the height in queftion: thus, if the
height of the water be 4.6 inches; then this height is equal
to 4 + 0.5 + 0.1, which parts are all in the table; there-
fore, .
Inches. Pounds,
4 - 20.833
Ob ta 2.604
Or = 0.521
The fum is 23.958, which expreffes the force of the
wind when the height of the water in the gage is 4.6
inches.
Any alteration that can ufually take place in the tempe-
rature of the water, makes no fenfible difference in this in-
ftrument. ;
In frofty weather this gage cannot be ufed with common
water. At that time fome other liquor mutt be ufed, which
is not fo fubjeé&t to freeze ; and, upon the whole, a faturated
folution of common falt in water is the moft eligible: but
in that cafe, (fince the fpecific gravity of a faturated folu-
tion of falt is to that of pure water, as 1.244 to 1,) the
forces which are {tated in the preceding table muft be mul-
tiplied by 1.244. Thus, if in the preceding example the
faturated folution of falt had been ufed inftead of water
only, the force of the wind on a fquare foot would have
been 29.8 pounds.
When falt-water is ufed, the force of the wind, which is
ftated in the table, muft be increafed in the proportion of
the fpecific gravity of falt-water to that of, common water ;
thus, ufing the preceding example, we mutt fay, as 1 : 1.244
: 23-958 to a fourth proportional, which muft be found by
5
WIN
multiplying the fecond term by the third, and then dividing
the product by the firft term; but, the firft term being
unity, we need only multiply 23.958 by 1.244.
On the gth of May, 1775, Dr. Lind obferved, that
the wind fupported a column of water in his wind-gage
6,2, inches in height; and from his table it appeared,
that the force of the wind in this hurricane, which did
great damage to the gardens in his neighbourhood, was
pare to 34.921 pounds avoirdupois, on every fquare
oot.
If the velocity and denfity of the wind in any particular
cafe were accurately determined, this inftrument, which .
ives its force or momentum, would enable us to afcertain
fhe velocity in every other cafe, the denfity being known :
for the force of the wind is as the {quare of its velocity.
Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixv. part ii. art. 34. p. 353, &c-
Mr. Martin, from a hint firft fuggefted by Dr. Burton,
contrived an anemofcope, or wind-gage, of the following
conftruétion. ABCDEFGHI (fg. 11.) is an open
frame of wood, firmly fupported by the fhaft or poftern I.
In the two erofs pieces H K, LM, is moved an horizontal
axis Q M, by means of the four fails ad, cd, ef, gh, ina
proper manner, expofed to the wind. Upon this axis is
fixed a cone of wood M N O, upon which, as the fails move
round, a weight S is raifed by a ftring on its fuperficies,
proceeding from the {mall to the largeft end NO. Upon
the great end or bafe of the cone is fixed a ratchet-wheel
ik, in whofe teeth falls the click X, to prevent any retro-
grade motion from the depending weight.
From the ftru€ture of this machine, it is eafy to under-
ftand, that it may be accommodated to eftimate the variable
force of the wind, becaufe the force of the weight will con-
tinually increafe, as the ftring advances on the conical fur-
face, by acting at a greater diltance from the axis. And,
therefore, if {uch a weight be put on, on the fmalleft part
at M, as will juft keep the machine in equilibrio with the
weakeft wind; then as the wind becomes itronger, the
weight will be raifed in proportion, and the diameter of the
bafe of the cone N O may be fo large in comparifon of that
of the {maller end or axis at M, that the ftrongeft wind fhall
but juft raife the weight to the great end.
Thus, for example, let the diameter of the axis be to
that of the bafe of the cone NO as 1 to 28; thenif S be
a weight of one pound at M on the axis, it will be equiva-
lent to twenty-eight pounds, or } of an hundred, when
raifed to the greateft end. If, therefore, when the wind is
weakeft, it fupports one pound on the axle, it muft be
twenty-eight times as ftrong to raife the weight to the bafe
of the cone. Thus may a line or fcale of twenty-eight
equal parts be drawn on the fide of the cone, and the
ftrength of the wind will be indicated by that number
therein from which the ftring fhall at any time hang.
Furthermore, the {tring may be of fuch a fize, and the
cone of fuch a length, that there fhall be fixteen revolutions
of the {tring between each divifion of the fcale on the cone;
fo will the ftrength of the wind be expreffed in pounds and
ounces. And if greater exaétnefs be required, let the peri-
phery of the cone’s bafe be divided into fixteen equal parts;
then whenever the equilibrium happens, the ftring will leave
the conic furface again{t one of thofe divilions, and thus
fhew the force of the wind to a drachm avoirdupois weight.
Martin’s Phil. Brit. vol. ii. p. 211, &c.
M. Bouguer contrived a very fimple inftrument, by means
of which we may immediately difcover the force which the
wind exerts on a given furface. This is a hollow tube
AABB ( fg. 12.), in which a fpiral itring CD is fixed,
that may be more or Iefs comprefled by a rod FSD,
pafling
WIN
pie through a hole within the tube at AA; then
raving obferved to what degree different forces or given
weights are capable of comprefling the fpiral, mark
divifions on the rod in fuch a manner, that the mark
at S may indicate the weight requifite to force the {pring
into the fituation CD; afterwards join at right angles to
this rod at F, a plane furface E F E of a given area, either
greater or lefs, at pleafure ; then let this inftrument be op-
pofed to the wind, fo that it may ftrike the furface in the
direGions V E, VE, parallel to that of the rod, and the
mark at S will fhew the weight to which the force of the
wind is equivalent.
The ingenious profeffor Leflie (Enquiry into the Nature
and Propagation of Heat) having found, in the courfe of
his experiments on heat, that the refrigerant, or cooling
power of a current of air, is exa¢tly proportional to its ve-
locity, derives from this principle the con{tru€tion of a new
and fimple anemometer. “It is in reality nothing more,”
fays he, “* than a thermometer, only with its bulb larger
than ufual. Holding it in the open ftill air, the temperature
is marked: it is then warmed by the application of the
hand, and the time is noted which it takes to fink back to
the middle point. This I fhall term the fundamental mea-
fure of cooling. The fame obfervation is made on expofing
the bulb to the impreflion of the wind, and I fhall call the
time required for the bifection of the interval of tempera-
tures, the occafional meafure of cooling. After thefe pre-
liminaries, we have the following eafy rule: Divide the
fundamental by the occafional meafure of cooling, and the
excefs of the quotient above unit, being multiplied by 44,
will exprefs the velocity of the wind in miles per hour.
The bulb of the thermometer ought to be more than half
an inch in diameter, and may, for the fake of portability,
be filled with alcohol, tinged, as ufual, with archil. To
fimplify the obfervation, a fliding feale of equal parts may
be applied to the tube. When the bulb has acquired the
due temperature, the zero of the flide is fet oppofite to the
limit of the coloured liquor in the ftem; and after having
been heated, it again ftands at 20° in its defcent, the time
which it thence takes until it finks to 10° is meafured by a
ftop-watch. Extemporaneous calculation may be avoided,
by having a table engraved upon the fcale for the feries of
occafional intervals of- cooling.’
Winp-Gaill, a difeafe in horfes and fome other animals.
It is a puffy kind of {welling or tumour, which yields to
the preflure of the finger, but upon removing the preflure
recovers itfelf, and pufhes out as before. Thefe {wellings
have been thus named from a falfe notion of their contain-
ing nothing but air or wind. Thefe tumours are often
feated on both fides of the back-finew of a horfe, above
the fetlock on the fore-legs, but moft frequently on the
hind-legs. They are quite loofe and detached from the
parts on which they grow, and exhibit the fame figns where-
ever they are met with, whether in the hocks or about the
knees ; for thefe {wellings are not confined to the lower
limbs only, but appear in any of thofe parts of a horfe’s
body where the cellular membrane can be eafily feparated ;
and they exift, for the moft part, without occafioning any
pain. They are ufually caufed by riding on very hard
roads, or on dry hilly grounds. Sometimes travelling
horfes, when they are worked too young, before the limbs
are grown firm and vigorous, will have them. And Gibfon
obferves, that they fometimes proceed from conftitutional
weaknefs, efpecially in bulky horfes, that are fomewhat
under-limbed and flefhy about the fetlock-joint. Thefe, it
is faid, have been known to have wind-galls without any
firain, hard riding, or other ill ufage of any kind.
WIN
Tt has been obferved too, that when thefe tumours appear
upon the hind-legs they never caufe lamenefs, though fuch
horfes are often {tiff behind after riding. When on the
fore-legs they always make a horfe go lame at firft ; but
afterwards that tendernefs goes off in a great meafure, and
they feldom go lame, but ftiff, and inclinable to ftumble.
They Snesalin recover, however, with a day’s reft. Thofe
flatulent {wellings indeed that come in the ligaments of the
hocks are always troublefome, disfigure the animal, and,
unlefs fpeedily affifted, will caufe incurable lamenefs. At
firft they are but {mall, but in time they grow to the fize of
a pullet’s egg, perhaps, and pufh out on each fide of the
hollow of the hock. Swellings of the fame kind alfo ap-
pear before the knee, where they often precede a difeafed
joint. Very {mall fimilar fwellings under the fore part of
the knee, in the interftices of both fides of the joint, are
alfo dangerous ; but thefe feldom happen, and are ufually
caufed by fome violent ftrain, efpecially when a horfe falls
down upon a defcent with his whole weight upon his knees.
The other flatulent {wellings which horfes are fubjeét to
feldom caufe lamenefs, but are, for the moit part, eafily
cured. We mean thofe that arife in the interftices of the
large mufcles of the hips and thighs, which are diftended
like little bladders filled with air. Thefe come by ftrains
and over-exertion ; for draught-horfes are the moft fubje&
to them.
Wind-galls that proceed from mere weaknefs are feldom
curable, unlefs the conftitution can be improved; but we
often fee horfes that were fubje& to wind-galls when young,
get the better of them as they advance in age. The me-
thods of cure in thefe cafes is by means of blittering, firing,
and the ufe of aftringent applications.
As thefe are enlargements of the capfules, or bur/fe mucofz,
fituated between the tendons, that contain an oily lubricat-
ing fluid for the prevention of friction and to facilitate mo-
tion, arifing from long exertion producing inflammation of
them, and an increafed fecretion of the contained fluid,
they are capable of being eafily removed in their beginning
ftates, by reft and the ufe of blifters to the parts compofed
of cantharides and corrofive fublimate with olive oil; after-
wards turning the animals out to grafs or the ftraw-yard.
Or where this cannot be permitted, the parts may be ftrength-
ened by the ufe of a flannel roller, made and continued wet
by a wath compofed of equal parts of rong vinegar and
Goulard water, or the latter alone in fome cafes. If, how-
ever, the difeafe may have been negleGted, recourfe muft be
had to the hot iron; after which the bliftering fhould be
practifed as before advifed.
Winp-Gun. See Air-Gun.
Wixp-Hatch, in Mining, aterm ufed to exprefs the place
at which the ore is taken out of the mines.
The word hatch is the general term ufed by the miners
to exprefs an opening from the furface into the mine, or in
the attempting to find a mine.
Thus the word efay-haiches fignifies the openings made
in fearch of the trains of fhoad-ftones ; and the tin-hatch in
Cornwall is the name of the opening by which they defcend
into a tin-mine.
The word wind-hatch feems to be a corruption of winder-
hatch; for at thefe places they have a winder conveying
two buckets, the one conftantly up, the other conftantly
down ; the man below fills the bucket that defcends ; and
when that which afcends full is emptied at the mouth of
the hatch, the perfon who has the care of that part of the
work, delivers it empty to go down again. Phil. Tranf.
N° 69.
Winp-Hover, in Ornithology, the name of a fpecies of
hawk,
WIND-MILL.
hawk, called alfo by fome the fannel, but more ufually the
heftrel, and known among authors by the names of the fin-
nunculus and cenchris.
Winv-Jnfruments, in Mufic, are inftruments ‘played by
wind, chiefly by the breath ; in contradiftin@tion to ftringed-
inftruments, and inftruments of the pul/ative kind.
The wind-inftruments known to the ancients were, the
tibia, fies or fyringa of Pan, confifting of feven reeds,
joined fidewife ; alfo, organs, tube, cornua, and the lituus.
Thofe of the moderns are, the flute, bagpipe, hautboy, trum-
pet, &c. See INSTRUMENT, and Music.
Winp-Mill, in Mechanics, a machine which is put in
motion by the force of the wind. Wind-mills are in gene-
ral applied to the purpofe of grinding corn, but are occa-
fionally ufed to give motion to machines for raifing water,
fawing-mills, or for other purpofes. We fhall in this article
confider the wind-mill as a firft mover, or primum mobile,
which may be applied to many purpofes.
The invention of wind-mills is not of very remote date.
According to fome authors they were firft ufed in France
in the fixth century ; while others maintain that they were
brought to Europe in the time of the crufades, and that they
had long been employed in the Eaft, where the fearcity of
water precluded the application of that powerful agent to
machinery.
The wind-mill, though a common machine, has fome
things in it more ingenious than is ufually arr si
Add, that it is commonly allowed to have a degree of per-
fe€tion, which few of the popular engines have attained to,
and which the makers are but little aware of: though the
aid of mathematics has furnifhed ample matter for its im-
provement.
The vertical wind-mill, which is the kind in moft common
ufe, confifts of an axis or fhaft AB, (fig.1. Plate Il. Wind-
Mill,) placed in the dire&tion of the wind, and ufually in-
clining a little upwards from the horizontal line. At one
end of this, four long arms or yards, S, T, V, W, are fixed
perpendicular to the axis, and crofs each other at right
angles; into thefe arms {mall crofs-bars are mortifed at right
angles ; and other long bars are joined to them, which are
parallel to the length of the arms ; fo that the bars thterfe@
each other in the manner of lattice-work, and form a furface,
on which a cloth can be fpread to receive the a@tion of the
wind. Thefe are called the fails; they are in form of a tra-
pezium, and are ufually nine yards long and two wide.
The circular motion is produced by the obliquity of the
planes of thefe furfaces, from the plane in which all the four
arms are fituated ; by thefe means, when the wind blows in
the diretion of the axis, it does not impinge upon the fails
at right angles to their furfaces, but {trikes obliquely ; hence
the effort of the fail to recede from the wind, caufes it
to turn round with the common axis, and the four fails are
all made oblique in the fame dire@tion, fo as to unite their
efforts for the common object.
That the wind may aé& with the greateft efficiency upon
the fails, the wind-fhaft muft have the fame dire@tion as the
wind. But as this direGtion is perpetually changing, fome
apparatus is neceflary for bringing the wrindettiake and fails
into their proper pofition : this is done by turning the axis
and fails round in an horizontal direétion. There are two
methods of effecting this. Inthe old mills, like - fig. 1, the whole
of the mill or building which contains the machinery is fuftained
upon a vertical poft, firmly fixed as a ftand or foot, upon which
the whole machine can be turned by a lever, to prefent the
fails to any quarter of the horizon from whence the wind
blows; and hence thefe are called poft wind-mills, and are
necefigrily made of wood. The other kind, fig. 2, is called a
{mock-mill, in which only the dome-cap or head, which
contains the axis of the fails, and covers the great cog-
wheel, turns round horizontally ; the other parts of the
machinery being contained in a fixed building, which rifes
up in form of a conical tower of ere and is furmounted
by this moveable cap or dome, which is {upported on rollers,
fo as to turn round eafily.
As both the common methods of adjufting the wind-fhaft
require human affiftance, it would be very defirable that
the fame effe& fhould be produced folely by the aétion of
the wind. This may be done by fixing a large wooden vane
or weathercock at the extremity of a long horizontal arm,
which lies in the fame vertical plane with the wind-fhaft.
By thefe means, when the furface of the vane and its dif-
tance from the centre of motion are fufficiently great, a very
gentle breeze will exert a fufficient force upon the vane to
turn the machinery, and will always bring the fails and
wind-fhaft to their proper pofition. This weathercock, it
is evident, may be applied either to machines which have a
moveable roof, or to thofe which revolve upon a vertical
arbor. This method is praétifed in {mall machines; but a
vane of 'fufficient power to turn a large mill about would
be unwieldy. A much better method is therefore praétifed
in the beft mills, as we thall foon defcribe.
In a poft-mill the building mutt neceflarily be of {mall fize,
and it can only contain one pair of mill-ftones. For this pur-
pofe, a large cog-wheel is fixed upon the main-fhaft or axis
of the fails ; the cogs are placed in the face or flat furface of
the wheel, and a€& upon the teeth of a pinion, which is fixed
upon the vertical axis or fpindle of the mill-ftones. The
mill-houfe is of a retangular figure, but narrow in the
direGtion which is prefented to the wind: it is two ftories
high, the main-fhaft and mill-ftones being in the upper
chamber, whilft the lower is only ufed to contain facks of
flour, and alfo to receive the poft on which the mill turns
round horizontally to face the wind. ‘This poft is a very
ftrong tree, and is held perpendicularly by fixing it upon
the middle of long timbers, which form a large crofs on
ground, and are the bafement of the whole mill. The poit
1s fixed perpendicularly by means of feveral oblique braces,
extending from the ground-erofs to the middle part of the
poft; but ten or twelve feet of the upper end of the poft
muft be round, and clear from the obftruétion of the braces.
This part of the poft rifes up through the middle of the lower
chamber, in the floor of which a circular collar is formed,
to furround the lower part of the poft exa@tly. At the upper
end of the poft is a pivot or gudgeon, which enters into a
focket fixed in the middle of the upper floor, and to one of
the ftrongeft crofs-beams, becaufe this beam mutt fuftain the
whole weight of the mill. In this manner, the whole mill
can turn about upon the vertical poft, but remains always in
equilibrio. To make it firm, and prevent it from turning
about at every moment, a {trong framing is united by joints
to the back part of the mill-houfe, and defcends in a Hoping
dire€tion till it touches the ground: this is furnifhed wi
fteps, fo that it ferves as a broad ladder to afcend to the
mill ; but another ufe is to fteady the mill, becaufe the end
of this frame, which is very heavy, refts on the ground, and
fhort pofts are fixed in a circle round the mill at regular
intervals, to which the end of the ladder is faftened with
cords. In order to turn the mill about, a rope is faftened
to the end of the floping ladder, and is carried up to the top
of the mill in an me direction. By means of a ftrong
lever, or a tackle of pulleys, this rope can be fhortened, fo as
to lift up the ladder clear of the ground ; and then, by pufh-
ing it like a long lever, the whole mill is turned round. To
obtain more force, a {mall capftan is often provided to draw
a rope
WIND.-
a rope attached to the end of the ladder. ‘This capftan is
moveable, and is faftened at pleafure to any one of the pofts
which are fixed in the ground.
The internal mechanifm of a poft wind-mill is exhibited
in fig. 3. Plate Il. Wind-Mill. A H O is the upper room ;
Hoz the lower one; AB the axis paffing through the mill;
S, T, V, W, the fails, covered with canvas, fet obliquely to
the wind, and turning round in the order of the letters in
fg: 1; C the cog-wheel, having about forty-eight cogs,
which carry round the lantern E, having eight or nine
rounds, together with its {pindle GN; Kis the upper mill-
ftone, and L the lower one; QR is the bridge fup-
porting the axis or {pindle GN; this bridge is fupported
by the beams c and X Y, wedged up atc and Q; = Y is
the lifting-tree, which ftands upright; aé and ef are
levers, whofe centres of motion are a and u; f ghiisa
cord, witha ftone, i: it goes about the pins g and /, to wind
up and raife the ftone at pleafure. The fpindle ¢ N is
fixed to the upper mill-ftone K, by a apiece of iron called
the rynd, and fixed in the lower fide of the ftone, which is
the only one that turns about, and its whole weight refts
upon a hard ftone, fixed in the bridge Q R at N. The trundle
E, and axis Gt, may be taken away ; for it refts by its
lower part at ¢ by a {quare focket, and the top runs in the
edge of the beam w. By bearing down the end f of the
lever f e, 6 is raifed, which raifes Y, and this raifes Y X,
which lifts up the bridge Q R, with theaxis N G, and the
upper ftone K ; and thus the ftones are fet at any diftance.
The lower immoveable {tone is fixed upon ftrong beams, and
is breader than the upper one : the flouris conveyed through
the tunnel 2 o into a cheft; P is the hopper, into which is
put the corn, which runs along the {pout r into the hole ¢,
and fo falls between the ftones, where it is ground. The
axis Gis {quare, which fhaking the fpout r, as it goes
round, makes the corn run out ; rs is a itring going about
the pin s, and ferving to move the fpout nearer to or farther
from the axis, fo as to make the corn run fafter or flower,
according to the velocity and force of the wind. And
when the wind is great, the fails S$, T, V, W, are only in
part or one fide covered; or perhaps only one half of
two oppolite fails. ‘Toward the end B of the axis another
cog-wheel may be fixed, with a trundle and mill-ftones,
like that already defcribed ; fo that the fame axis moves
two ftones at’ once; and when only one pair is to grind,
the trundle E, and axis G~#, are taken out from the
other ; «y /is a girt or gripe of pliable wood, fixed at the
end »; and the other end / is tied to the lever £ m, moveable
about 4; and the end m being put down, draws the gripe
xy 1 clofe to the cog-wheel; and thus the motion of the
mill is flopped at pleafure; pq is a ladder for afcending to
the higher part of the mill; and the corn is drawn up by
means of a rope, rolled about the axis A B, when the mill
is at work.
The ftru€ture of the mill-ftones, or grinding parts, is the
fame as the water-mills. See Mixx.
Itis plain that this conftru€tion confines all the machinery
to the two chambers, or that part of the mill which
is poifed upon the vertical poft; hence this kind of wind-
mill is unfit for any other purpofes than that of grinding
corn, and for exprefling oil, becaufe there is fo little room
for the machinery. The Dutch, who are famous for wind-
mills, make them fometimes with a very large poft, which
has a hole down through the centre of it, like a trunk, and
through this, a perpendicular axis pafles to convey the
power of the mill down into a building below, and upon
the top of which, as a roof, the foundation-beams of the
MILL.
poft are fixed. (See fg. 4.) Inthis way, the mill is applied
to faw wood, or to make paper, or any other purpofe ; but
the conftru@tion is complicated, and lefs effeGtive than the
other kind of mill, in which only the head or top turns
round, as we fhall now defcribe.
The Smock-Mill.—This is the belt kind of mill, becaufe
the building which contains the machinery may be made of
any required dimenfions, the fails and turning cap being all
at the top of the houfe. Fig. 3. in Plate 1. Wind-Mill,
is a vertical fe€tion of one of thefe mills. K K are the
walls of the houfe, and O O ftrong timbers forming a roof
to it; upon thefe eight principal timbers H are ere&ted, to
form an oGtagonal pyramid of carpentry, the fides of which
are filled up by diagonal bracing, and {mall uprights to
nail the boarding to.
The four fails are fixed on an iron axis B N, by {crewing
them to an iron crofs formed at one end of it. Two of
thefe fails are marked A A; but the other two are end-
ways, and cannot be feen. Upon the axis within the mill
the cog-wheel C is fixed ; and this turns a trundle or lantern
D, fixed on the upper end of a ftrong vertical fhaft, E E,
extending from the top to the bottom of the mill, to turn
the machinery : on the lower end of it is a large weet oe
which turns two pinions, ¢ g, upon the fpindles of
mill-ftones 4 4. Thefe are on the fame conftruétion as thofe
defcribed in our article Mixx, to which we refer. At isa
wheel upon the main axis, giving motion to a pinion ona
horizontal fhaft or roller, £, which has a rope wrapped
upon it, to wind up the facks of corn. The wheel / alfo
turns a fimilar horizontal axis with feveral wheels, to receive
endlefs ropes for turning the bolting and dreffing machines.
We will now enter more fully into the mechanifm of the
upper part of the mill, which is called its head or cap,
marked G, and contains the axis BN. This is fupported
upon bearings, one being near its fails, and the other at
its extreme end, as is fhewn in fig. 5. Plate 11. Wind-Mill,
which is an horizontal feétion of the head, fhewing the cir-
cular kirb, or wooden ring, K, and the framing which is
bolted upon it to fupport the axis.
The conftru€tion of the axis is fhewn in fig. 6. of the
fame plate. It confifts of an oGagonal iron fhaft with two
cylindrical necks at c and d, where it refts upon its bearings.
At the end it has a kind of box, which has two mortifes,
e and f, through it in perpendicular direGtions to regeive the
fails. At the back of one of thefe mortifes, and the front of
the other, a projeting arm is left in the cafting to receive
{crew-bolts, which hold the fails faft in the mortifes. The
oa is fixed on by bolting its arms againft a flanch C,
caft on the axis. The fails are braced by a rope-ftay to
each arm, proceeding from the end of & pole, which is fixed
at the end of the caft-iron axis. Each fail is formed of a
fail-cloth, fpread upon a kind of lattice-work or framing,
compofed of rails mortifed into the arms of the fails. The
plane of this frame is inclined to the plane of the fails’ mo-
tion at fuch an angle, that the wind blowing in the dire@tion
of the axis acts upon the fails as inclined planes, and turns
them about with a power proportionate to the fize of the fails
and force of the wind. It is neceffary, as the wind changes its
direGtion, to turn the fails about, that the axis may be always
in the direction of the wind. (See fg. 3. Plate I.) This mo-
tion is effected by turning the head of the mill round upon
the fixed part, on a circle or kirb at the top of the frame com-
pofing the houfe of the mill. At the bottom of the frame of the
wood-cap is a circular or moveable kirb, between which and
the fixed kirb a number of rollers are placed ; and the move-
able kirb of the cap lies upon thefe rollers, which sre kept
equidiftant
WIND-MILL.
equidittant from each other by their pears a being fitted
into a circular hoop: by thefe means, though the head of the
mill with the wheels and fails weigh feveral tons, they can be
made to turn round to face the wind by a flight power.
The head is contrived to turn itfelf about whenever the wind
changes in the following manner:—A {mall pair of fails, or
fans, M, are fixed up in a frame L, proje€ting from the back
of the head: it hasa pinion of ten leaves upon its axis, engag-
ing in a wheel of 60 teeth upon an inclined axis 5; and this
has a pinion d of r2leavesat the other end of it, turning a bevil-
fed wheel of 72 teeth upon a vertical iron axis, at the lower
end of which is a pinion ¢ of 11 teeth: this works ina circle
of 120 cogs, fixed round on the outfide of the fixed kirb. By
thefe means, whenever the fan M is turned, it moves the head
of the mill flowly round, and with proportionate power.
Now if ever the wind varies in the leaft from the direétion
of the main fhaft of the fails, it a€&s obliquely upon the
vanes of the fan, and turns them round, at the fame time
fetting the head right again, fo that the axis points to the
wind. But when the axis is in this fituation, the wind blows
in the planes of the vanes of the fan, and has no effe& upon
them. The head of the mill is kept firmly in its place when
it turns about by rollers; the axles of which are bolted
to the infide of the framing of the head, and the rollers
apply to the infide of the fixed kirb: there are four of thefe
rollers. ‘The pivot at the upper end of the vertical fhaft is
{upported in a bearing bolted to a crofs-beam in the framing
of the head of the mill; and this is fixed precifely in the
centre of the head, that it may not vary in its fituation as
the head turns round. Many other things are fo evident in
the drawing as to need little farther explanation ; fuch as
the different floors of the building, and the circular gallery,
I I, all round the mill, for the miller to go round to take the
cloth off the fails in high winds, or when the mill is to ftop.
This is done by untying the cloth at the extremity of the
fail, and twifting it up like a rope; then tying the end of
it again to the lattice, in which ftate it prefents no furface to
the wind. At é isaroller turned round by a wheel /, fixed
on the middle part of the vertical fhaft: it is ufed to draw
up the facks of corn from the bottom of the mill into the
upper part, which is ufed as a ftore-houfe for the corn, be-
ing divided into as many compartments as the miller requires.
The mill-ftones are made the fame as thofe ufed in water-
mills. A pairof regulating balls are attached to the upper part
of the mill-ftone fpindle, to regulate the velocity of the mill.
The manner of applying this regulator is explained in fg. 5.
Plate \1. Wind-Mill. The lower end of the iron {pindle
F is fitted to a {quare, formed on the top of the mill-ftone
axis, and the pinion gg is fixed on the upper end, to give mo-
tion to the ftones: unmediately beneath the pinion two rods
are jointed, hanging downwards, having a heavy iron ball, /,
fixed faft on the lower end of each : two links are jointed to
the arms at m, and fufpend a collar, which is capable of
fliding freely up and down upon the — F. It is evident
that when the balls fly out from the {pindle by their centri-
fugal force, that the collar will be elevated, and the con-
trary when the balls approach the fpindle. The athe col-
lar is embraced by a fork formed at the end of a fteelyard,
lying horizontal, and fufpended by the rod p as a fulcrum ;
an iron rod g defcends from the extreme end of the fteelyard,
having its lower end formed to a hook, by which it is con-
ne&ted with a lever, r, whofe fulcrum iss ; this, by an iron
rod t, fufpends one end of the beam called the bridge, on
which the lower pivot of the mill-ftone axis refts, the other
end bearing on a fulcrum or centre. Now it follows from
this arrangement of levers, that by elevating the forked end
of the fteelyard, or the fliding collar, that the {pindle of
the ftones will be fuffered to defcend a very minute quantity.
This regulates the velocity of the mill, becaufe when the
wind increafes, and the motion of the mill is accelerated, the
balls fly out by the centrifugal force; this lets the upper
ftone down nearer to the lower, thereby increafing the re-
fiftance to the mill, and countera¢ting the increafed force of
the wind. On the other hand, if the wind falls, and the
mill moves more flowly in confequence, the balls fall toge-
ther, and let down the fliding collar; this raifes the ftone
up, and increafes the diftance between them, thereby dimi-
nifhing the refiftance ; for this purpofe, a weight o ( fig. 5-)
is hung upon the fteelyard, fufficient to elevate the ftone
whenever the clofing of the balls and confequent defcent of
the collar will permit it to do fo. There are feveral notches
made in the fteelyard for different pofitions of the fulcrum p
and rod g; by means of thefe the quantity of the regulation
can be adjufted to the following rule. If when the wind
blows ftronger the mill goes flower, contrary to the effe&
expected, it fhews that the regulation is too a¢tive ; then in-
creafe the leverage of the balls by fhortening the diftance
between the fulcrum p of the fteelyard and the fufpenfion
of the rod g, by fhifting either of them into different
notches. On the contrary, if the mill goes much fafter
when the wind increafes, it fhews that the regulation does
not ac fufficiently ; then increafe the diftance between the
rod g and the fulcrum f. If the whole limits of the
notches in the fteelyard fhould not be fufficient to effec
this, the ating length of the lever rs mult be increafed or
diminifhed by removing its fulcrum s to a greater or leffer
diftance from the fufpending-rod #; by means of this con-
trivance the miller is enabled, without mach inconvenience,
to regulate the velocity of the ftones to that degree which
is found beft for reducing the greateft quantity of grain to
flour, without damaging it by beatings as is the cafe when
the ftones move too quick.
Theory of the Motion of a Wind-Mill, with the Pofition of
its Sails or Vanes. —The angle which the furfaces of the fails
are to make with their common axis, that the wind may have
the greateft effeét, or the degree of weathering, as the mill-
wrights call it, is a matter of nice inquiry, and has much
employed the thoughts of the mathematicians.
To conceive why a wind-mill moves at all, the theory of
compound motions muft be fuppofed. A body moving
perpendicularly againft any furface, ftrikes it with all its
force. If it move parallel to the furface, it does not {trike
it at all: and if it move obliquely, its motion, being com-
pounded of the perpendicular and parallel motion, oaly a&s
on the furface, confidered as it is perpendicular, and only
drives it in the direétion of the perpendicular. So that
every oblique direétion of a motion is the diagonal ‘of a
parallelogram, whofe perpendicular and parallel direCtions
are the two fides. Add, that if a furface, which, being
ftruck obliquely, has only received the perpendicular direc-
tion, be faftened to fome other body, rs as that it cannot
urfue its perpendicular dire&tion, but muft change it for
fe other ; in that cafe, the perpendicular itfelf becomes
the diagonal of a new parallelogram, one of whofe fides is
the dire€tion which the furface may follow ; and the other,
that which it cannot.
Thus, a rudder faftened obliquely to the keel of a veffel,
being flruck by the current of water parallel to the keel,
and, of confequence, obliquely with regard to itfelf; it
will appear, by drawing the line of perpendicular impulfe,
that it tends to tear the rudder from the keel, and to c
it away: and that this direCtion, perpendicular to the rud-
der,
WIND-
der, is oblique to the keel. _The rudder, then, would be
carried off in an oblique direétion ; but as, in reality, it is
fo fecured, that it cannot be torn and carried off, we are
only to confider, in this compound motion, that of the two
direGtions wherewith it can move without being torn from
the keel; and leave the other, which would tear it off, as
ufelefs. .
Now, the direGtion in which it can move without parting
from the keel, is that which carries it circularly about its
extremity, as about a centre. So that the effeét of the
oblique impulfe of the water on the rudder is reduced, firft
to a perpendicular impreflion, which is again reduced to the
mere turning of the rudder round ; or, if the rudder be im-
moveable, to the turning of the veffel. Now, in an oblique
and compound motion, where only one of the dire€tions is
of fervice ; the greater ratio the other has to it, the lefs
effe& will the motion have, and vice verfd@. In examining
the compound motions of the rudder, we find, that the
more obliqne it is to the keel, the ratio of the direétion that
ferves to turn it to theother is the greater. But, on the other
hand, the more obliquely it is to the keel, and, of confe-
quence, to the courfe of the water which is fuppofed parallel
to it, the more weakly it ftrikes. The obliquity of the
rudder, therefore, has, at the fame time, both an advantage
and a difadvantage ; but as thofe are not equal, and as each
of them is ftill varying with every different pofition of the
rudder, they become complicated varioufly ; fo that fome-
times the one prevails, and fometimes the other.
It has been a point of inquiry to find the pofition of the
rudder, in which the advantage fhould be the greateft.
M. Renau, in his famous theory of the working of fhips,
has found, that the beft fituation of the rudder is, when
it makes an angle of fifty-five degrees with the keel. See
RuppeER.
If, now, a wind-mill, expofed dire@ly to the wind, fhould
have its four fails perpendicular to the common axis in which
they are fitted, they would receive the wind perpen-
dicularly; and it’ is vifible that impulfe would only
tend to overturn them. There is a neceffity, therefore,
to have them oblique to the common axis, that they may
receive the wind obliquely.
For the greater eafe, let us only confider one vertical fail.
The oblique impulfe of the wind on this fail is reducible
to a perpendicular impulfe; and that direétion, as the
fail cannot abfolutely keep to it, is compounded of two;
one of which tends to make it turn on its axis, and the
other to fall backwards. But it is only the firft of thefe
dire&tions that can be obeyed. Of confequence, the whole
impulfe of the wind on the fail has no other effe& but to
make it turn from right to left, or from left to right,
as its acute angle turns this way or that. And the ftruc-
ture of the machine is fo well contrived, that the three
other fails are determined, from the fame caufes, to move
the fame way.
The obliquity of the fails, with regard to their axis, has
precifely the fame advantage and difadvantage with the
obliquity of the rudder to the keel. And M. Parent,
feeking, by the new analyfis, the moft advantageous fitu-
ation of the fails on the axis, finds it precifely the fame angle
of fifty-five degrees.
For the farther illuftration of this point, let A B ( Plate II.
Wind-Mill, fig. 7.) be the axis of the mill, C D a fail, and its
angle of obliquity (viz. that which it makes with the axis)
be ECG;; thenif GC be the force of the wind in the di-
rect pofition of the fail, G E (the fine of the angle of inci-
dence G C E) will be the force of the wind in its oblique
polition; but the force of GE is refolvable into two
Vou. XX XVIII.
MILL.
others, EF and G F; of which the latter, being parallel to
the axis, avails nothing in turning the fails about it ; but the
other, EF, being perpendicular to it, is wholly fpent in
compelling the fail to turn round. The force of the wind
on the fail will be as the f{quare of the fine of incidence, or
as GE’; and if the area of the fail, and the velocity
of the wind, be fuppofed conftant, the force of the wind
in the direét pofition will be to that in the oblique
one, asGC to GE*; but when GE is the whole force,
that part which turns the fail is reprefented by EF;
andGE : EF(::GC:CE) :: GE? a
= to the force which turns the fail, when the whole
force is reprefentedby G E*. This expreffion seas
begins from nothing, when the angle of incidence begins
to be oblique, and increafes with the obliquity of the
faid angle to a certain number of degrees; becaufe
that part of the force which is parallel to the axis, be-
comes le{s in proportion to that which is perpendicular
to it; but after it has paffed this limit, it again de-
creafes, and becomes nothing, when the angle of incidence
vanifhes. There is, therefore, one certain pofition of the
fail, in which the force of the wind upon it is a maxi-
mum. In order to find this, put radius GC = a, EC=
x; and we have GE* = aa — x2, and confequently the
CE x GE? _
GC 33)
mum: therefore its fluxion aax — 3x*x=0: whence
@a= 3 x x, and fo x -/%
20.000000 — 0.477121
2
rithmic fine of the angle 35° 16/= CGE; and there-
fore the angle E CG = 54° 44', when the force of the
wind is a maximum. ‘Thus, alfo, if /m (fig. 7.) parallel
to the axis Q M, be equal to a, and reprefent the whole
force of the wind on the fail; this force is reduced to /n,
and this again to no, which aéts perpendicularly to the
axis, and turns the fail. This force, putting mu = x,
GaAxX—XxxXKX
force » which mutt be a mazi-
(in logarithms)
= 9.761439, which is the loga-
5 aax—x? "
is exprefled by i rao and thus, as before, when it
‘aa
I
is a maximum, x = “gi 4 Ve and the angle
Martin’s Phil. Brit. vol. i. p. 220,
Imn= 54° 4a!.
vol. 11. p. 212.
This angle, however, is only that which gives the wind
the eae force to put the fail in motion, but not the
angle which gives the force of the wind a maximum upon
the fail when in motion: for when the fail has a certain
degree of motion, it yields to the wind; and then that
angle muft be increafed, to give the wind its full effect.
Mr. Maclaurin, in his Fluxions, vol. ii. p. 734. has fhewn
how to determine this angle.
It may be obferved, that the increafe of this angle fhould
be different, according to the different velocities from
the axis to the extremity of the vane or fail. At the axis
it fhould be 54° 44', and thence continually increafe, giving
3R the
WIND-MILL.
the vane a twilt, and fo caufing each rib of the vane to lie
in a different plane.
It is obferved, that the ribs of the vane or fail ought to
decreafe in length from the axis to the extremity, giving
the vane a curvilineal form; fo that no part of the force
of any one rib be {pent upon the reft, but all move on
independent of each other. The twift above-mentioned,
and the diminution of the ribs, are exemplified in the wings
of birds. As the end of the fail neareft the axi$ cannot
move with the fame velocity which the tips or fartheft ends
have, although the wind aéts equally {trong upon them,
Mr. Fergufon (Leé. on Mechanics, p. 52.) fuggefts, that
perhaps a better pofition than that of ftretching them along
the arms dire@tly from the centre of motion, might be to
have them fet perpendicularly acrofs the farther ends of the
arms, and there adjufted lengthwife to the proper angle.
For, in that cafe, both ends of the fails would move with
nearly the fame velocity ; and being farther from the centre of
motion, they would have fo much the more power, and then
there would be no occafion for having them fo large as they
are generally made; which would render them lighter,
and, confequently, there would be fo much the lefs
fri&tion on the thick neck of the axle, when it turns in the
M. Parent confidered what figure the fails of a wind-mill
fhould have, to receive the greateft impulfe from the wind ;
and he determined it to be a feétor of an ellipfis, whofe
centre is that of the axis, or arbor, of the mill; and the
little femi-axis the height of thirty-two feet: as for the
ater, it follows neceflarily from the rule that dire¢ts the
jl to be inclined to the axis, in an angle of 55 degrees.
On this foundation he afflumes four fuch fails, each of
which is one-fourth of an ellipfis; which, he fhews, will
receive all the wind, and lofe none, as the common ones do.
Thefe four furfaces, multiplied by the lever with which the
wind a&s on one of them, exprefs the whole power the wind
has to move the machine, or the whole power the machine
has when in motion.
The fame manner of reafoning, applied to a common
wind-mill, whofe fails are reGtangular, and their length
about five times their breadth, fhews, that the elliptic wind-
mill has about feven times the power of the common
one.
A wind-mill with fix elliptic fails, he fhews, would ftill
have more power than one with only four. It would only
have the fame furface with the four, fince the four contain
the whole fpace of the ellipfis as well as the fix. But the
force of the fix would be greater than that of the four, in
the ratio of 245 to 231. If it were defired to have only
two fails, each being a femi-ellipfis, the furface would be
ftill the fame ; but the power would be diminifhed by near
one-third of that with fix fails, becaufe the greateft of
the fe€@tors would much fhorten the lever with which the
wind ads.
Beft Form and Proportion of re@angular Wind-Mills.—
As elliptical fails would be fomething fo new, that
there is Fttle room to expe they will come into common
ufe, the fame author has confidered which form, among the
re€tangular ones, will be the moft advantageous. And by
the method de maximis et minimis, he finds it very different
from the common ones.
The refult of this inquiry is, that the width of the reét-
angular fail fhould be nearly double its length ; whereas
the age is ufually made almoft five times the width.
Add, t as we call. length the dimenfion which is taken
from the centre of the axis, the greateft dimenfion of the
new re@tangular fail will be turned toward the axis, and the
II
fmalleft from it ; quite contrary to the pofition of the com-
mon be : Prat
The power of a wind-mill with four of thefe new re@-
angular fails, M. Parent fhews, will be to the power of Ger
elliptic fails, nearly as 1 3 to 233; which leaves a confiderable
advantage on the fide of the elliptic ones ; yet will the force
of the new reétangular fails be confiderably greater than that
of the common ones.
. Parent likewife confiders what number of the new
fails will be moft advantageous ; and finds, that the fewer
the fails, the more furface there will be, but the lefs
power. The ratio of the power of a wind-mill with fix
fails will be to another with four, nearly as 14 to 13. And
the power of another with four will be to that with two,
nearly as 13 to 9. ;
For a variety of curious experiments and obfervations
concerning the conftru€tion and effe&ts of wind-mill fails,
by the ingenious Mr. Smeaton, fee Phil. Tranf. vol. ii.
p- bg &e.
r. Smeaton’s experiments did not realize M. Parent’s
theory ; for he found the fails fixed at the angle of 55 de-
grees with the axis, to be the leaft advantageous of any
which he tried ; but if the fails are included from 72 to 75
degrees from the axis, or 15 to 18 degrees to the place of
their motion, the greateft effe& will be produced that can
be when the fails are plane furfaces.
He alfo found, that the elliptical fails, which’ intercept
the whole cylinder of wind, do not produce the te
eft effet, for want of proper interftices for the wind to
efcape.
The following maxims, deduced by Mr. Smeaton from
his experiments, contain the moft accurate information upon
the fubje&. 3
Maxim 1.—The velocity of wind-mill fails, whether un-
loaded or loaded, fo as to produce a maximum effe&, is
nearly as the velocity of the wind, their fhape and pofition
being the fame.
Maxim 2.—The load at eS ae is nearly, but
fomewhat lefs than, as the fquare of the velocity of the
wind, the fhape and pofition of the fails being the fame.
Maxim 3.—The effe&ts of the fame fails at a maximum
are nearly, but fomewhat lefs than, as the cubes of the velo-
city of the wind.
Maxim 4.—The load of the fame fails at the maximum
is nearly as the {quares, and their effeéts as the cubes of
their number of turns in a given time.
Maxim 5.—When fails are loaded, fo as to produce a
maximum at a given velocity, and the velocity of the wind
increafes, the load continuing the fame: 1{t, The increafe
of effeét, when the increafe of the velocity of the wind is
f{mall, will be nearly as the fquares of thofe velocities.
2dly, When the velocity of the wind is double, the effeéts
will be nearly as 10 to 274. But, 3dly, When the velo-
cities compared are more than double of that where the
given load produces a maximum, the effeéts increafe nearly
in the fimple ratio of the velocity of the wind.
Maxim 6.—In fails where the figure and pofitions are
fimilar, and the velocity of the wind the fame, the number
of turns inva given time will be reciprocally as the radius or
length of the fail.
Maxim 7.—The load at a maximum that fails of a fimilar
figure and pofition will overcome, at a given diftance from .
the centre of motion, will be as the cube of the radius.
Maxim 8.—The effects of fails of fimilar figure and pofi-
tion are as the {quare of the radius.
Maxim 9.—The velocities of the extremities of the
fails, in all their ufual pofitions, when unloaded, or even
loaded
WIND-MILL.
loaded to a maximum, are confiderably quicker than the
velocity of the wind.
Rules for modelling the Sails of Wind-Mills.—Fig. 4.
Plate 11. Wind-Miil, is a:front view of one of the four fails of
a wind-mill. The letters of reference will ferve to explain
the terms made ufe of in the following defcription.
1. The length of the arm or whip A A, reckoned from
the centre of the great fhaft B, to the outermoft bar 19,
governs all the reft.
2. The breadth of the face of the whip A, next the
centre, is one-thirtieth of the length of the whip ; its thick-
nefs at the fame end is three-fourths of the breadth; and
the back-fide is made parallel to the face for half the length
of the whip, or to the tenth bar; the {mall end of the whip
is fquare, and as its end is one-fixtieth of the length of the
whip, or half the breadth at the great end.
3. From the centre of the fhaft B, to the neareft bar 1
of the lattice, is one-feventh of the whip; the remaining
fpace of fix-fevenths of the whip is equally divided into
nineteen f{paces, fo as to make nineteen bars; one-ninth of
one of thefe {paces is equal to the mortifes for the bars, the
tenons of which are made fquare where they enter and go
through the whip, and confequently the mortifes muft be
{quare alfo.
4. To prepare the whip for mortifing, ftrike a gage-
{core at about three-fourths of an inch from the face on each
fide, and the gage-fcore, on the leading fide 4, 5, will give
the face of all the bars on that fide ; but on the other fide,
the faces of all the bars will fall deeper than the gage-fcore,
according to a certain rule. To find the {pace to be fet off
for this purpofe for each bar, conftru&t a fcale in the fol-
lowing manner.
5- Extend the compafles to any diftance at pleafure, fo
that fix times that extent may be greater than the breadth
of the whip at the feventh bar ; fet thofe fix {paces off upon
a ftraight line for a bafe, at the end of which raife a per-
pendicular ; fet off three {paces upon the perpendicular, and
divide the two fpaces that are fartheft from the bafe line
into fix equal parts each, fo that this quantity of two {paces
may be equally divided into twelve {paces marked out by
thirteen points; from each of thefe points draw.a kne to
the oppofite end of the bafe, as fo many rays to a centre,
and the feale is finifhed.
6. To apply this feale to any given cafe, fet off the
breadth of the whip at the laft bar, (that is, the bar at the
extremity of the fail,) from the centre of the f{cale along
the bafe towards the perpendicular ; and at this point raife
a perpendicular to cut the ray neareft to the bafe ; alfo fet off
the breadth of the whip at the feventh bar in the fame man-
ner, and at this point ereét another perpendicular to cut the
thirteenth radius. From the interfeétion of the perpendicular
(drawn upon the breadth of the laft bar) with the firft of
the thirteen radii, to the interfection of the other perpendicular
with the thirteenth radius, draw an oblique line cutting all
the reft, and the diftances of each of thefe laft-mentioned
points of interfeétion from the bafe line is the fpace which
the face of each bar is diftant from the gage-line on the
driving fide.
7- Thefe diftances give a different fet-off for each bar
till the feventh, which fame muft be fet off for all the reft
to the firft.
8. The mortifes muft be fquare to the leading fide of the
ip
g. When the mortifes are cut, let the face of the whip
be floped off fo as to agree with the face of the bars in
every part.
to. ‘Two-fifths of the whip are the length of the laft or
longeft bar.
11. Five-eighths of the longeft bar muft be on the driv-
ing fide of the whip, and three-eighths on the leading fide,
each being reckoned from the middle of the whip.
12. The proportion of the mortifes already given deter-
mines the fize of the bars at the mortifes, but their thick-
nefs muft be diminifhed each way, fo as to be only one-half
at the ends ; but the face mutt be kept of equal breadth all
the way.
13. The leading fide goes no farthet than the fourth bar,
and there only projeéts one-third of the projection of the
laft bar.
14. All the bars on the driving fide are made hollowing
in the arch of a circle, which begins to {pring one-third of
the length of the bars on the driving fide from the whip ;
and the {weep is fuch, that if a ftraight line is applied to
the face of the bar from the whip to the end, the face of
the bar fhould leave the ftraight line about the breadth of
the bar.
15. There ought to be three uplongs, as 3, 2, 10, fig.
Bliioldrivings ealitwwe to the leading Rds cattee Aine ts
ftrengthen the lattice.
Self-regulating wind-mills are thofe which adapt ‘them-
felves to the irregularities of the wind, by diminifhing or in-
creafing the furface on which the wind can aé to turn them
round. If the wind increafes in force, the furface expofed
to its action is diminifhed ; on the contrary, if it decreafes
in force, the furface will be increafed in the fame pro-
portion, fo as in fome meafure to render their motion
uniform.
The following felf-regulating wind-mill is ftated as the
invention of Mr. Andrew Mickle in 1772, the inventor of the
threfhing-machine. ‘The length of the fail was divided into
eleven compartments, by the bars forming a number of oblong
openings, which were each filled up by a {quare frame of
wood covered with canvas, and mounted on pivots at their
ends ; one pivot turning in a hole in the whip, and the other
in the bar which lies parallel to it, in the manner of a Venetian
blind: the pivots were not placed in the middle of the breadth
of the frames, but at one-third from that edge, towards the
fhaft or axis of the fails. On the end of each pivot which
enters the whip a {mall roller is fixed, round which a chain
pafles, and its end is attached to a fteel {pring, placed at
right angles to the whip, and in the direétion of the length
of the canvafled frames. Now, if the wind blows too hard,
it aéts to turn the frames edgeways, in which cafe the wind
paffes through the fails, and exerts lefs force to turn them
round ; but as foon as the wind becomes moderate, the fteel
{pring brings up the frames into a plane, prefenting their
whole furface to its a€tion. A rod of iron extends the
whole length of the whip, and is conneéted with the feveral
{prings, to afford the means of ftrengthening or diminifhin
their aétion, according to the feafon of the year. ‘This od
was formed into a ferew at its outer extremity, and a nut
put on to enable the miller to adjuit the ftrength of the
{prings conveniently, from the circular gallery furrounding
the outfide of the mill.
Mr. William Cubit of North Walfham, in the county of
Norfolk, took out a patent, in 1807, for a method of
equalizing the motion of wind-mill fails. It is fimilar to
Mr. Mickle’s, in the fails being made like a Venetian
blind; but inftead of the fprings, he applied racks and
Pinions on the ends of the blind pivots, and a fliding rod,
which paffed in a fmall hole made through the length of the
axis of the fails; the end of this rod within the mill was
3R2 made
WIND-MILL.
made into a rack, workiag in a wheel upon which a weight
was hung. By this means, when the wind blows too hard,
the blinds turn upon their pivots, and by the racks draw out
the rod which paffes through the axis, and raife the weight ;
but as foon as the wind abates, the weight brings the blinds
to their former pofition.
A patent was granted in 1804 to Mr. John Bywater of
Nottingham, for a method of clothing and unclothing the
fails of wind-mills while in motion. ‘The invention confifts
in a manner of rolling or folding up, and unfolding again,
the cloths of common wind-mill fails while in motion. It
is effected by placing a long roller in the dire€tion of the
length of the whip round which the cloth is rolled; the
inner end of the roller is furnifhed with a pinion, which
engages in the teeth of a circular ring of cogs fixed to the
fhaft-head, clofe behind the back-ftocks, with the liberty of
turning round independent of the fhaft. Another roller is
placed at the back-fide of the fail, round which feveral
cords pafs, and are conveyed oyer pulleys at the edge of
the fail, and then made faft to the cloth at different diftances
along its length. The objeét of this fecond roller is to
clothe the fail, in the fame manner as the firft-mentioned roller
unclothed it. ‘The inner end of the back roller is furnifhed
with a bevelled pinion, which aéts in the teeth of a ring of
cogs placed concentric with the one before defcribed, which
has alfo the liberty of turning round independent of the
fhaft. Suppofe the fails to be completely clothed, and
turning round by the wind, the two rings of cogs revolve
with the axis, and therefore produce no effe€& on the
pinions ; but if the wind blows too violent, and it becomes
neceflary to partly unclothe the fails, the miller pulls a cord
which is conneéted with a lever in the head of the mill.
This lever comes in conta& with a projeétion on the ring
of cogs belonging to the rollers, upon which the cloth winds.
Now it is evident, that if the ring of cogs is held fait, and
the fails continue to revolve, it will caufe the pinions to
turn round and roll up the cloth upon the rollers ; on the
contrary, if the wind falls, the fails will require to be more
clothed, which is effected by the fame lever being moved
farther, fo as to quit the ring of cogs it held before, and
hold the other faft, which wil put the rollers at the back of
the fails in motion, and by winding the cords upon them,
draw the cloth off the fail-roller, which increafes the furface
for the wind to a& upon. We have not entered into the
minute details of this invention, as given in the patent, for
it would have exceeded our limits, but only given a fuffi-
cient defcription to enable a perfon to underftand the means
of effeéting the regulation.
Horizontal Wind-Mills.—Thefe are of various kinds ;
but only one kind that we know of has been put to any
valuable ufe.
Horizontal wind-mills were a favourite {fpeculation a cen-
tury ago ; and the Theatrum of the celebrated Leopold con-
tain a great variety, but they are all upon one or other of
two principles. In one of thefe, a very large wheel, like a
water-wheel, is mounted with its axis in a perpendicular
dire&tion. It confifts of feveral circular wheels fixed upon
the axis; and it has large boards or vanes fixed parallel
to its axis, and arranged at equal diftances round the cir-
cular wheels. Upon thefe vanes the wind can a¢t to blow
the wheel round ; but if the wind were to aét upon the
vanes at both fides of the wheel at once, it would have no
tendency to turn the wheel round; hence one fide of the
wheel mutt be fheltered from the wind, whilft the other is
fubmitted to its full aGtion. For this purpofe, the whole
tvheel is inclofed within a large cylindrical framing of wood,
which is furnifhed with doors or fhutters on all fides to open
at pleafure, and admit the wind, or to fhut and ftop it. If
all the fhutters on one fide are open, whilft all thofe on the
oppofite fide are fhut, the wind, aéting with undiminifhed
force on the vanes at one fide, whilft the oppofite vanes are
under fhelter, turns the mill round ; but whenever the wind
changes, the difpofition of the open vanes muft be altered,
to admit the wind to ftrike upon the vanes of the wheel in
the diretion of a tangent to the circle in which the vanes
move. A horizontal wind-mill is thus defcribed in Leopold’s
Theatrum Machinarum for grinding corn with one pair of
ftones. A ftrong upright axis is fo poifed on a pivot at
the lower ends, and fuftained in a collar or bearing, as to
turn round. Into this feveral long arms are fixed, in the
manner of radii, and at the extreme ends of each arm a
vane is fixed, to receive the ation of the wind. Thefe
vanes are made of two or more moveable leaves, which
clofe up flat like a book, when they are at that fide of the
circle which moves in a dire€tion to advance towards the
wind ; fo that only the edges of the boards are oppofed to
the wind ; but when thefe vanes arrive at the oppofite fide
of the wheel, fo that the wind blows upon them, the leaves
fly open, and expofe their full furfaces to the wind, and
receive the impulfe thereof.
A horizontal wind-mill is deferibed by Dr. Hooke in the
Philofophical Colle&tions for 1681. It confitted of four
vanes mounted upon vertical axes, and arranged round in a
circle by the upper and lower pivots of the vanes bein
received into holes in the rims of two horizontal rae
fixed upon the fame vertical fhaft. The vanes were dif-
pofed in fuch a manner, that on one fide of the wheel each
vane prefented its furface to the wind, whilft the one on the
oppofite ftood edgeways, fo as to move through the air
without much refiltance. This was effe&ted by cog-wheels
placed on the lower pivots of the vanes, and fo arranged,
that as one vane turned round upon its pivots, the whole
number moved together, and the motion was given to them
by a cog-wheel fixed faft to the framing over the wheel,
but concentric with it. This wheel communicated, by
means of an intermediate wheel, with the wheels on the
axes of the vanes. s
The ation of this machine is as follows : — Suppofe
the wind blowing at the wheel; it aéts againft that vane
which is at right angles to its motion, to turn the wheel
round upon its axis. The oppofite vane prefenting its edge
to the wind oppofes very little refiftance. The motion of
the wheel upon its axis turns the vanes round upon their
pivots, by means of the fixed cog-wheel before defcribed ;
fo that by the time that one has paffed out of the di-
reétion of the wind, another arrives in the fame perpen-
dicular pofition; and when the wheel has made half a
revolution, the vane which ftood edgeways will be perpen-
dicular to the wind, and the one which before ftood per-
pendicular will be edgeways ; thus a continued motion is
produced without the wheel being cafed up. :
Horizontal wind-mills, which are inclofed in a houfe with
blinds on all fides, are very fully defcribed in Jacob Leo-
pold’s Theatrum Machinarum, 1724; but we believe they
were firft praétifed in this country by captain Hooper,
who ére&ted one at Margate, and another at Batterfea.
The latter is upon a very large feale, and is ufed for
grinding corn ; but at prefent it does not work with much
advantage, as the repairs are more confiderable in propor-
tion to the power it exerts, than in the mills with fails con-
ftru&ed in the common manner. :
In Plate Wind- Mill, fig. 1, is an upright fe€tion, and fig. 2.
10 a plan
WIN
a plen of the horizontal mill ere&ted at Margate by captain
Hooper. H H are the fide walls of an oftagonal building
which contains the machinery. Thefe walls are f{urmounted
by a ftrong timber-framing GG, of the fame form as the
building, and conneted at top by crofs-framing to fupport
the roof, and alfo the upper pivot of the main vertical fhaft
A A, which has three fets of arms, BB, CC, and DD,
framed upon it at that part which rifes above the height of
the walls. The arms are ftrengthened and fupported by
diagonal braces, and their extremities are bolted to oéta-
gonal wooden frames, round which the vanes or floats E E
are fixed, as feen in outline in fg. 2, fo as to form a large
wheel refembling a water-wheel, which is lefs than the fize
of the houfe by about eighteen inches all round. This
{pace is occupied by a number of vertical boards or blinds
FF, turning on pivots at top and bottom, and placed
oblique, fo as to overlap each other, and completely fhut
out the wind, and ftop the mill, by forming a clofe cafe
furrounding the wheel ; but they can be moved all together
upon their pivots to allow the wind to blow in the direc-
tion of a tangent upon the vanes on one fide of the wheel, at
the time the other fide is completely fhaded or defended by
the boarding. The pofition of the blinds is clearly fhewn at
FF, fg. 2. At the lower end of the vertical fhaft A A, a
large {pur-wheel aa is fixed, which gives motion to a
pinion c, upon a {mall vertical axis d, whofe upper pivot
turns in a bearing bolted to a girder of the floor N.
Above the pinion c, a {pur-wheel eis placed, to give motion
to two {mall pinions f, on the upper ends of the fpindles g
of the mill-ftones 4. Another pinion is fituated, at the op-
polite fide of the great fpur-wheel a a, to give motion to a
third pair of mill-ftones, which are ufed when-the wind is very
ftrong ; and then the wheel turns fo quick, as not to need
the extra wheel e to give the requifite velocity to the ftones.
The weight of the main vertical fhaft is borne by a {trong
timber 4, having a brafs box placed on it to receive the
lower pivot of the fhaft. It is fupported at its ends by
crofs-beams mortifed into the upright poits 42, as fhewn in
the plan, fig. 2. A floor, or roof, I I, is thrown acrofs the
top of the brick building, to proteét the machinery from
the weather ; and to prevent the rain blowing down the
opening through which the fhaft defcends, a broad cir-
cular hoop K is fixed to the floor, and is furrounded by
another hoop or cafe L, which is fixed to the arms D D of
the wheel. This laft is of fuch a fize, as exa@tly to go
over the hoop K, without touching it when the wheel turns
round. By this means, the rain is completely excluded
from the upper room M, which ferves as a granary,
being fitted up with bins mm, to contain the different forts
of grain which is raifed up by the fack-tackle.. A wheel i
is fixed on the main fhaft, having cogs proje@ting from
both fides. Thofe at the under fide work into a pinion
on the end of the roller 4, which is for the purpofe of draw-
. ing up facks. Another pinion is fituated above the wheel 7,
which has a roller projeéting out over the flap-doors feen
at p, in the fig. 2, to land the facks upon. The two pinions
mm, fig. 2, are turned by the great wheel aa, and are for
giving motion to the drefling and bolting machines, which
are placed upon the floor N, but are not fhewn in the
drawing, being exa@lly fimilar to the drefling-machines ufed
in all flour-mills. The cogs upon the great wheel a are not
fo broad as the rim itfelf, leaving a plain rim about three
inches broad. This is encompafled by a broad iron hoop,
which is made faft at one end to the upright poft 4; the
other being jointed to a ftrong lever 2, to the extreme end
of which a purchafe 0 is attached, and the fall is made faft
to iron pins on the top of a frame fixed to the ground.
WIN
This apparatus anfwers the purpofe gf the brake or gripe
ufed in common wind-mills to ftop their motion. By pull-
ing the fall of the purchafe o, it caufes the iron ftrap to
embrace the great wheel, and produce a refiftance fufficient
to {top the wheel. The mill can be regulated in its motion,
or ftopt entirely, by opening or fhutting the blinds F,
which furround the fan-wheel. They are all moved at
once by a circular ring of wood fituated juft beneath the
lower ends of the blinds upon the floor I I, being conneéted
with each blind by a fhort iron link. The ring is moved
round by a rack and fpindle, which defcend into the mill-
room below, for the convenience of the miller.
A fort of wind-mill has been long much employed in
Portugal, in which, from the difference in the conftru@tion
of the fails, it is fuppofed by fome, as lord Somerville,
who has infpeéted it when working, to poffefs a fuperiority
in having the broad part of the fail at the end of the levers
or booms; in confequence of which equal refiftance is
overcome with lefs length of branches: and that from this
fhortnefs a confiderable faving is made in the timber of
both the booms and fpindles, as well as in the height, firft
coft of the mills, and their future repairs.
The advantages of making ufe of thefe’ forts of
wind-mills in preference to others are, that as there are
four booms, as well as four mafts for the fails, they are
capable of being more eafily braced out to the wind, and in
cafe of a fudden gale or gut of it, are more eafily caft loofe
than in thofe of the common conftruétion; and that as
the fails in thefe mills are placed in the beft poffible direc-
tion by the booms, it is prefumed that a wind-mill built on
this plan and principle will do more work than any common
wind-mill with an equal quantity of canvafs. ;
Thefe forts of mills have alfo lately been very much im-
proved by conftru&ting and difpofing thofe furface parts
upon which the wind is intended to aét, in fuch a particular
manner, as that by alternately oppofing a refifting and non-
refifting furface, the whole force or impulfe may operate in
a direét manner upon the refifting fide of the fail or vane,
in proportion to its extent ; and that when the non-refifting
fide is returning againft thefe powers, the mill being fo
contrived that there is very little refiftance, however large
the furface. Thefe improvements, when applied to hori-
zontal wind-mills, the power of them, even with the fame
quantity of fail, or a&ting furface, may too be increafed or
diminifhed at pleafure, which is a circumitance of very
great utility and convenience in many cafes.
Winp-Pump, that fort of pump which is fo contrived
and formed as to be driven by the wind. Thefe kinds
of pumps are very ufeful for draining and lifting water
in many cafes, as where the depth of it is too great to ad-
mit of cutting drains, or the fuperftrata too loofe for form-
ing them, and when the height to which the water is to
be raifed is great. See Sprinc-Draining and SuRFACE-
Draining.
Winv-Row, in Agriculture, a term fignifying the green
parts or borders of a field, ug up, in order to carry the
earth on other land to mend it; fo called becaufe it is laid
in rows, and expofed to the wind. It alfo fignifies a row
of peats fet up to dry for fuel. Likewife a row of hay ex-
pofed to the wind and fun to get dry. And alfo of turfs
or {ward cut up in paring and burning.
The peats are fet up in thefe rows in an open manner, to
the height of two or three feet or more, that the wind may
pafs between and dry them. The rows of hay of this kind
are either fingle or double, the former for that which is in
the more grafly ftate, and the latter for that which has been
more made; and the work ‘is performed by different perfons
raking
WIN
raking the fpread hay in oppofite dire@tions towards them-
felves, and by fuch means forming a row between them of
double the extent of that of the fingle wind-row. See
Hay-Making.
The turf or fods for burning are fet up in thefe rows,
in leaning direGtions againft ah other, fo as to let the wind
readily pafs among and dry them in a quick manner for
burning.
Whins are fometimes, too, formed into wind-rows for
being burnt for the afhes. See Wuin-A/fbes.
Wixv-Sail, or VENTILATOR, in a Ship, is made of
canvas, and ufed for circulating frefh air between the decks,
and is in the form of a cylinder, or an obtufe-ending cone,
and is adapted to the fize of the fhip. Four breadths of
canvas are fewed together, and the outer felvages are joined
with an inch feam, Eeaving one cloth four feet fhort of the
top. A three-inch tabling goes round the top and bottom.
It is kept diftended by circular hoops, made of afh, fewed
to the infide, one at top, and one at every interval of fix
feet. The upper part, or top, is covered with canvas, and
a fmall rope fewed round the edge ; into which are {pliced,
at the quarters, the ends of two pieces of rope, that are
fewed up to the middle, and an eye formed by feizing the
bights. The length of a wind-fail is taken nine feet above
the deck, to three or four feet below the lower hatchway ;
the quantity of canvas is obtained by multiplying the num-
ber of cloths by the length.
Thefe, of hicks there are generally three or four in our
capital fhips of war, have the advantage of taking little
room, of requiring no labour in working, and of a fimple
contrivance, fo that they can fail in no hands. But their
powers are faid te be {mall in comparifon with thofe of
Dr. Hales’s ventilators: they cannot be put up in hard
gales of wind, and are of no efficacy in dead calms, when a
refrefhment of air is moft wanted. See VENTILATOR.
Winp-Sceed, in Botany. See ARcTOTIS.
Winp-Shock, a name given by our farmers to a diftem-
perature to which fruit-trees, and fometimes, timber-trees,
are fubje&.
It is a fort of bruife and fhiver throughout the whole fub-
ftance of the tree; but the bark being often not affeéted by
it, it is not feen on the outfide, while the infide is twifted
round and greatly injured.
It is by fome fuppofed to be occafioned by high winds ;
but others attribute it to lightning. ‘TThofe trees are moft
ufually affected by it, whofe boughs grow more out on one
fide than on the other.
The beft way of preventing this in valuable trees, is to
take care in the plantation that they are fheltered well, and
to cut them frequently in a regular manner while young.
The winds not only twift trees in this manner, but they
often throw them wholly down: in this cafe, the common
method is to cut up the tree for firing, or other ufes; but
if it be a tree that is worth preferving, and it be not broken
but only torn up by the roots, it may be proper to raife it
again by the following method :—Let a hole be dug deep
enough to receive its roots, in the place where they before
were ; let the ftraggling roots be cut off, and fome of the
branches, and part of the head of the tree; then let it be
raifed, and when the turn-up roots are replaced in the earth
in their natural fituation, let them be well covered, and the
hole filled up with rammed earth; the tree will, in this cafe,
row as well, and perhaps better, than before. If nature be
ft to herfelf, and the tree be not very large, the pulling off
the roots will raife it. Mortimer’s Hufbandry, vol. ii. p. 79.
Winp-Tackle Blocks, in a Ship. See Winvine-Tackle.
Winp-Taught, in Sea Language, denotes the fame as ftiff
WIN
in the wind. Too much rigging, high matts, or any thing
catching or holding wind aloft, is faid to hold a fhip wind-
taught ; by which they mean, that fhe ftoops too much in
her failing in a ftiff gale of wind.
Again, when a fhip rides in a main ftrefs of wind and
weather, they ftrike down her top-mafts, and bring her
yards down, which elfe would hold too much wind, or be
too much diftended and wind-taught.
Winp-Thrufh, in Ornithology, a name given by fome to
the red-wing, and fuppofed to be given from their generally
firft appearing with us in windy feafons; but it appears
more probably to be derived from the German name qwint-
troffel, or vine-thrufh, from its doing great mifchief there
in the vineyards, by eating and deftroying the grapes. Ray.
Winp-Tumours. See Tumour.
Winp-Ward, in Sea Language, denotes any thing to-
= that point from whence the wind blows, in refpe& of
a fhip.
Winp-Ward, Sailing to. See Saitinc.
ee ae Tide denotes a tide which runs againft the
wind.
Winp, in Geography, a river of America, which runs into
the Conneticut at Windfor.
Winp Gap, a pafs in the Blue Mountains of Pennfylvania.
WINDAGE of a Gua, is the difference between the
diameter of the bore and the diameter of the ball.
The windage is not the fame in England as it is abroad.
With us, if the diameter of the fhot is divided into twenty
equal parts, then the diameter of the bore is twenty-one of
thefe parts. The French fuppofe the diameter of the fhot
divided into twenty-fix parts, and the diameter of the bore
to be twenty-feven. Mr. Muller obferves, that the lefs
windage there is, the truer the fhot will go, and having lefs
room to bounce from one fide to another, the gun will not
be fpoiled fo foon. Accordingly, he divides the diameter
of the fhot into twenty-four equal parts, and makes the bore
twenty-five, which is a medium between the Englifh and
French method. Artillery, p. 84.
Dr. Hutton obferves, that if the windage be one-twentieth
of the calibre, which is the ufual fize, no lefs than one-third
or one-fourth of the powder efcapes, and is loft. As the
balls are often fmaller than the regulated fize, it frequently
happens, that half the powder is loft by unneceflary windage.
Dr. Hutton alfo recommends the diminifhing of the
windage. See Gunnery. .
WINDALA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Eaft
Bothnia ; 65 miles E. of afa.
WINDALL, a town of the ftate of Vermont; 22 miles
S.S.W. of Windfor.
WINDASS, Wannass, or WANLASS, an ancient term
in hunting. Thus, to drive the windafs fignifies the chafing
of a deer to a ftand, where one is ready with a bow, gun, or
to fhoot. This is one of the cuftomary fervices of fiefs.
~ Omnes illi qui tenuerunt in bondagii tenura,.
folebant vocari cuftumarii: & quotiefcunque Leia ad
venandum venerit, illi cuftumarii Bichant fugare windaflum,
ad ftabulum, in venatione ferarum beftiarum fecundum
quantitatem tenure fue.’”” MS. de Confuetud. Manerii de
Sutton Colfield, an. 3 Ed. II.
WINDALU, in Geography, a fea-port town of the duchy
of Courland, near the mouth of the Wera, on the Baltic.
It was the capital of a palatinate, and has a caftle, once the
refidence of the Livonian knights; the ftates of Courland
likewife held their affemblies here, which made it populous ;
but it is now much decayed, and chiefly fupported by fhip-
building, and exporting pitch, tar, wax, &c.; 8 oie
N.N.E. of Piltyn.
N. lat. 57° 10. E. long. 21° 32.
Wunpav.
WIN
Winpav. See Wera.
WINDECK, a town of France, in the department of
the Scheldt ; 9 miles S.S.E. of Ghent.—Alfo, a town of
the duchy of Berg; 21 miles E. of Bonn.
WINDECKEN, a town of Germany, in the county of
Hanau Munzenburg ; 4 miles N. of Hanau.
WINDELSBACH, a town of the margravate of
Anfpach ; 22 miles N.W. of Anfpach.
WINDER, in Agriculture, a term ufed provincially to
fignify to clean corn with a fan-machine. See Fan-
Machine.
Winver-Meb, in Ornithology, the name of a bird of
the larus, or gull-kind, the /arus cinerarius of Linneus, mo-
derately large, and defcribed by Aldrovandus under the name
of Jarus major.
Its head is remarkably large and thick, and is of a mot-
tled colour of white and grey ; its breaft and belly are alfo
variegated with the fame colours, but they are fomewhat
paler ; its beak is thick and ftrong, of a yellow colour, and
very fharp, and the opening of its mouth very wide; its
wings are variegated with white, grey, and chefnut colour,
and both thefe and the tail have much black in them ;. the
feet are webbed and yellow, the claws are fharp, and the
hinder toe larger than in moft birds of this kind. Ray’s
Zoology, p. 267.
WINDERS of Wool. See Woot-Winders.
WINDHAM, or Wymonpnam, in Geography, a town
of England, in the county of Norfolk, with a weekly
market on Friday. The chief trade of the place is making
wooden ware. In 1549, William Kett, one of the Norfolk
infurgents, was hanged on the fteeple of the church; 9
miles W.S.W. of Norwich. N. lat. 52° 34'. E. long.
1° 9,
Winpuam, a large poft-townfhip of Greene county, in
New York, comprifing all that part of the county on the
S. and W. of the fummit of the Catfbergs or Catfkill moun-
tains ; bounded N. by Durham, Cairo and Catfkill, E. by
the northern angle of Ulfter county, S. by Ulfter and a part
of Delaware counties, and W. by Delaware county. It
has a poft-office, and is about 24 miles in length, its
medial breadth being about 12 miles.
It is mountainous, with much good pafture-lands that
yield excellent dairy. It is watered by the Schoharie
ereek, which has feveral mill-feats and {mall branches.
Along thefe ftreams are fome alluvial lands, which are rich
and fertile. The view from the Catfbergs, over which -is
a road, is very grand and interefting. The W. part of
Windham is about 35 miles W. from Catfkill, its principal
market. The population confifts of 3965 perfons, and the
fenatorial eletors are 267.
Winbuam, a town of the ftate of Conneticut, on the
Thames. It is the chief town of a-county, to which it
gives name. The county contains 28,611 inhabitants, and
the town 2416; 63 miles S.W. of Bofton. N. lat. 41° 38'.
W. long. 72° 11/.—Alfo, a town of the ftate of Vermont,
in the county of Windham, with 782 inhabitants ; 20 miles
E. of Bennington.—Alfo, a.county in the S.E. part of the
ftate of Vermont, bordering on the Maffachufetts. It con-
tains 26,760 inhabitants.—Alfo, a poft-town of New Hamp-
fhire, in Rockingham county, with 743 inhabitants; 40
miles S.W. of Portf{mouth.
WINDING, twifting from an even furface, or not a
dire& plane.
Wiypine a Call, in Sea Language, denotes the a of
blowing or piping upon a boat{wain’s whittle, fo as to com-
municate the neceflary orders of hoifting, heaving, belaying,
flackening, &c. See CALL.
WIN
WinvincG-£ngine, in Mining, a machine employed to
wind or draw up corves or buckets out of a deep pit or
fhaft. There are feveral different machines employed for
this purpofe, and each has a different name.
The moft fimple winding-machine is a roller placed
horizontally over the pit, to wind up the rope, by which the
bucket is fufpended ; the roller is turned round by a handle
at each end. This fimple machine, which is called a wind-
lafs, wind-up, or roller, is commonly ufed for well-digging,
and formerly was the common machine for mines; but for
mining on the prefent fyftem more powerful machinery is
required. In Derbythire it is called a ftowfe, and the con-
ftruétion is very minutely dire&ted in the ancient mining-laws
of the diftri&, called ‘The King’s Field.’ A {mall model or
effigy of a ftowfe, conftruéted according to law, and fixed
up “ in fight of all men,”’ is ftill the fign of legal poffeffion
of a lead-mine, and one of thefe muft be conitantly main-
tained at every thirty-nine yards in length of the vein of ore;
for by thofe laws no man may work more than thirty-nine
yards, and it is fuppofed that each one of thefe is a feparate
working and drawing up of the ore from the mine.
With this fimple machine a man can work continually to
draw up a weight of 3750 pounds, at the rate of one foot
per minute, or any fmaller weight with a proportionably
quicker motion. This is a fair average of the ftrength of
man, which has been determined by a number of experi-
ments, as fhewn in our article Water. The radius of a
winch or handle fhould not be above fourteen inches, which
defcribes a circle of 7% feet circumference ; a man can turn
this round twenty times fer minute with convenience, and
the motion of his hands will therefore be 1462 feet per
minute, at which rate a man can exert a force of 254 pounds
according to our ftandard. ‘To apply a man’s force to the
greateft advantage, we muft not depart much from thefe
proportions ; but the load which is drawn up at one time
may be varied according to the diameter of the roller or
barrel on which the rope winds: for inftance, if this barrel
is feven inches diameter, it will draw up the weight only
one-fourth as faft as the man moves the handle ; and in con-
fequence the weight may be 4 x 254 = 102 pounds, and
this he will be able to wind up at the rate of thirty-feven
feet per minute. It is beft to employ two men, and make
the two handles at right angles to each other; the roller may
then be 14 inches diameter, and they can draw up the 102
pounds at the rate of 74 feet per minute. The roller fhould
have two ropes wrapped upon it in oppofite direGtions, and
a bucket being fufpended from each, one bucket will be
drawn up as the other is let down, and no time will be loft.
The next machine is the horfe-gin : it has a large drum or
barrel to wind up the rope; the barrel is mounted on a
vertical axis, which is provided with one or more long levers,
to the extreme ends of which a horfe is harnefled, and by
walking round in a circle, the barrel is turned round, and
the rope which defcends into the pit or fhaft, is wound up
by wrapping round the barrel. The gin is placed at a con-
venient diftance from the mouth of the pit, and the rope is
conduéted over a pulley at the top of the pit, to change the
direGtion from horizontal to vertical. The horfe-gin ufually
has two ropes wrapping round the barrel in oppofite direc-
tions, and one winds up as the other unwinds. The two
buckets or corves which are fufpended in the pit at the fame
time, go up and down alternately, one full and the other
empty, and the weight of the empty corve, which is de-
fcending, tends in fome meafure to balance that which is
coming up full.
The barrel muft be turned in a contrary direGtion every
time a bafket is drawn up, and for this purpofe the horfe .
turne
WINDING-
turned round every time, fo as to draw the barrel round in
one direétion the firft time, and in a reverfe dire€tion the
next time. The \orfe turns at the fame time that the
bafkets are unhooked and changed at the top and bottom
of the pit, and very little time is loft. A boy is required to
lead and dire& the horfe. In fome large horfe-machines
wheel-work is introduced, to communicate the motion of
the vertical axis of the horfe-levers to the barrel on which
the rope winds ; and this work may be fo contrived as to re-
verfe the motion of the barrel atv pleafure, although the
horfes always walk in the fame dire€tion.
In very deep pits an inconvenience is experienced from
the weight of the great length of rope which muft be em-
ployed; for the whole weight of this rope is added to the
weight of the loaded corve when it is at the bottom of the
pit ; and at the fame time, the other corve being at the tep
of.the pit, there is no length of rope on that fide to counter-
balance. -As the corve is drawn up from the bottom, the
other defcends into the pit; this fhortens the length of the
afcending rope, and increafes the defcending rope, fo that
by the time that the corve is half drawn up, the other is let
half down, and the weight of the rope is equally divided, fo as
to be in balance; but after this, the defcending rope becomes
the longeft, and its weight tends to weigh up the loaded
corve, and in very deep pits, the weight of the rope ex-
ceeds that of the corve fo as to draw it up: hence, there
is a great inequality in-the force required to turn the
machine. To remedy this, the barrel is often made of a
conical fhape, being {malleft in the middle, and larger to-
wards the upper and lower ends; the ends of the two ropes
are made faft to it in the middle, or at the fmalleft part, and
therefore the horfe has greater power when the corve is to
be drawn from the bottom, and all the length of rope is
added to its ee becaufe the rope winds on a {maller_
radius; but as the rope coils on the barrel, it winds on a
larger part of the cone, and the power or leverage diminithes ;
therefore, the horfe will draw up the corve with a rapidity
which increafes in proportion to the diminution of the load,
by the fhortening of the rope.
A very convenient mode of conftruéting a double conical
barrel is to fix two circular wheels upon the axis, one for the
top of the barrel, and the other for the bottom of the
fame. Two old cart-wheels are frequently employed for
this purpofe. The barrel on which the rope is wound is
formed by a number of ftraight pieces of wood, which are
fixed to the rims of the wheel, and extend from the upper
to the lower one. Thefe pieces are not fixed in a direétion
parallel to the vertical axis of the barrel, but are fixed crofs-
wife in an oblique direGtion, and thus form a barrel, which
is {mall in the middle, and larger at the ends. Whenacy-
lindrical drum is fixed upon he main fhaft to wind up the
rope, if the pit is deep, a counterbalance to the weight
of the rope mutt be applied to a {maller conical drum fixed
on the vertical axis above the great drum. The circumfer-
ence of the conical barrel is grooved with a fpiral groove,
like the fufee of a watch; upon this fufee a rope is applied,
which defcends into a {mall pit made on purpofe, and has a
counter-weight at the end of it: this balances the unequal
eo. a of the great rope, if the rapidity of the cone is pro-
perly proportioned. This anfwers very well for {mall depths ;
but for a deep pit, the fufee muft be placed on a feparate
barrel. This barrel may be placed horizontally over the pit
in which the balance-weight defcends, and mult have a wheel
upon, it to communicate by a rope with a wheel fixed upon
the vertical axis of the gin; by this means, the fame motion
is communicated to a f{piral, as if it was placed immediately
on the vertical axis,
MACHINE.
A perfe& equal motion is not neceflary for horfe-work,
and if it is not fo much in extremes as to ftrain the horfe in
one part of his journey, whilft he has nothing to do in an-
other, he will work very well. Gentle afcents and defcents
in a road are found as advantageous to the aétion of horfes
as aroad upon a perfeét flat. The following is the conftruc-
tion recommended by Mr. Smeaton for a two-horfe gin for
a lead-mine :—The horfe-track 36 feet diameter, and two
horfes are employed at once; the diameter of the drum
14 feet ; the weight to be drawn at once 53 cwt. or 644 Ibs.
exclufive of the bucket, becaufe there are two, and the one
ferves as a balance for the other ; depth of the pit 45 fathom,
or 270 feet; the girt of the rope 64inches. The counter-
balance for the unequal weight of the great rope is con-
{truéted as follows :—A bove the drum or rope-wheel,afimaller
one, or balance-drum of one-fourth the diameter of the
great drum, or 3 feet 6 inches, muft be firmly fixed to the
upright axis; alfo a little fhaft or pit muft be funk at acon-
venient diftance from the machine: if this is oppofite the
great pit, it will require lefs bracing to keep the fixed parts
of the framing at their proper diftances. A hole mutt be
made in the circumference of the {mall wheel, or balance-
drum, through which the end of a rope is paffed, and fe-
cured by a knot. This rope, which is for the counter-
weight, is to pafs over a pulley of 3 feet or more diameter,
fuch as is ufed to dire& the great ropes down the main fhaft ;
but it mutt be ftrongly and fubftantially fixed, becaufe there
will be a greater ftrain upon it. Over this pulley the ba-
lance-rope goes down into a little pit funk for che purpofe,
and a balance-weight is hung to it, which muft be double
the weightof 45 fathom of the main pit-rope, and it will
a& as a counter-weight to the great pit-rope. The counter-
weight muft not, however, go down fo as to touch the bot-
tom of the little-pit ; and it muft be fo regulated as to be
at the loweft point when the two buckets are at their meet-
ings, half way down the main pit. Hence, whichever way
the main drum turns round, the counter-weight will be
drawn up, and will arrive at the top when either of the
buckets arrive there : by this means, whatever be the weight
of the rope, though it exceeds the weight of matter in the
bucket, yet the horfe will always have fomething to draw ;
whereas in the old horfe-gins made at Newcattle, they had
no other method than turning the horfes at the point of equi-
librium ; and after that letting them draw the backward
way, which obliged them alfo to walk backwards, till
the bucket arrived at the top.
As a 64-inchrope is far more than equivalent to the weight
required to be drawn, the fame fort ot rope will do for the
counter-weight alfo ; but as there will be a great deal of
He nl at the hole where it is fixed to the little drum-wheel,
in coniequence of its bending alternately one way and then
the other, it will be proper to fortify it there with the white
leather made of horfes’ fkins, and the hole itfelf fhould be
rounded off on each fide, fo as to make the rope bend eafily.
In the finking of the little fhaft, if there is any particu-
lar advantage or obftacle, the depth may be greater or lefs
than a quarter part of the main fhaft; but then the fize of
the little drum and counter-weight muft be proportioned
accordingly. If praéticable, the pit had better be deeper ;
and if it was half the depth, then the little drum might be
half the diameter of the large one, and the counter-weight
would be no more than the weight of the rope in the great
pit. On account of the expence of the balance-pit, the
double conical drum, which requires no counter-weight, is
much preferable to any machine with a counter-weight,
In our article Water we have given the experiments on
the ftrength of horfes ; from which it appears that a proper
load
WINDING-
load for a horfe to work eight hours in a day is 22,000 Ibs.
avoirdupois, to be raifed one foot in a minute, or any {maller
weight to be drawn quicker in proportion ; hence the weight
of 644 lbs. may be drawn by two horfes at the rate of 71
feet per minute, or the whole depth of 45 fathoms in 33 mi-
nutes. The horfes will then walk in their circle rather more
than three miles per hour; but 24 miles is the beft pace.
Horfes are frequently loaded much more than this, and in-
deed one ftrong horfe may work this machine; but as he
could only work a fhort time each day, it is better to em-
ploy two.
When mines were funk to very great depths, the drawing
of the ore by horfe-gins became too expenfive, particu-
larly for coal-mines, and more effective winding-machines
were introduced. The water-gin was the firft of thefe.
The moft fimple of thefe is called a whimfey, and confifts
of a bucket, which is let down full of water, and by its
defcending force, draws up a loaded bafket or corve from
the bottom of the pit. (See Wuimsry.) This machine
requires a very confiderable fall of water, and it can rarely
be lefs than one-fourth or fixth of the whole depth from
which the coal or ore is to be drawn.
In cafes where the fall is fmaller, an over-fhot water-
wheel is employed ; and in order to make the wheel turn at
pleafure either way round, fo as to wind up or let down,
the wheel is made double ; that is, with two rows of buckets,
one row adapted to receive the water from a fpout, which
will caufe it to turn round in one dire&tion, and the other
row of buckets is fupplied with water from a different
{pout, and will turn the wheel in the oppofite dire¢tion.
Each {pout is provided with valves to ftop the ftream at
pleafure, and when one is open the other muft be fhut, and
thus the wheel may be made to turn either way round.
This is a very old invention, and is fully defcribed by Agri-
cola in his De Re Metallica, 1621. It was at one time in
very common ufe in the collieries, and they raifed up the
fupply of water for it by a pump applied to the beam
of the great iteam-engine, or fometimes by an engine on
purpofe.
Mr. Smeaton made a machine, in 1774, for drawing coals
at Griff, in Warwickfhire, by a water-wheel, in which the
motion of the wheel is always continued in the fame direc-
tion ; and by achange in the communication of the wheel-
work, the barrel is made either to draw up or to let down.
In1777 Mr. Smeaton made a larger machine for Long
Benton colliery, at Newcaftle, which is worked by the
water raifed by a fteam-engine on Newcomen’s principle.
The water-wheel and machinery are reprefented in Plate
Winding-Engine, in feveral different elevations. XX is the
over-fhot water-wheel, which is 30 feet in diameter : it is
mounted on a catt-iron axis, which is clearly reprefented in
the drawing. The water is delivered upon the wheel by a
{pout from a trough or ciftern, which is fupplied by the
pump of the fteam-engine. This trough is fupported on tall
piers of mafonry, one of which is fhewn in the fketch.
Upon the axis of the water-wheel are fixed two cog-wheels,
U V, of 88 cogs each, and the cogs are turned towards each
other; W isa trundle, which is fituated between the two
wheels, and is turned round by either of them, according as
itis placed ; but itis {maller in diameter than the {pace be-
tween the two wheels, fo that it cannot engage with both
wheels atthe fame time. The trundle is fixed at the extre-
mity of along fhaft, as fhewn in the plan, fig. 1 ; and the
oppofite end of this fhaft is conneéted with the barrel on
which the ropes are wound : this barrel is compofed of two
cones, joined together at their bafes. The ropes from the
barrel are conduéted over pulleys at the top of the pit, as
Vout. XX XVIII.
MACHINE.
fhewn in the elevation, fg. 2, and defcend into the fame.
The bafkets, or corves, in which the coals are brought up,
are hooked to the ends of the two ropes ; fo that by the
motion of the water-wheel one bafket is drawn up whilft
another is let down.
To regulate the motion of the machine, two brakes or
gripes are applied : one encompafles the great cog-wheel U,
which is fixed on the axis of the water-wheel, in the fame
manner as the brake of a wind-mill ; and in like manner, the
fixed circle or brake is provided with a lever, as fhewn in
Jg- 4, by means of which the brake can be drawn tight
round the wheel, and will then caufe fuch a fricion as to
{top the water-wheel and all the machine.
The other brake-wheel DC (jig. 1.) is fixed near the
end of the long axis, and has clogs or pieces of wood ap-
plied at the top. This piece of wood is fupported by a
lever A B, as fhewn in Jig. 2, A being the centre ; and to
the other end, B,a box E is fufpended, and contains as much
weight as will prefs the clog upon the wheel, with the force
neceflary to retain the corve from defcending when it is full
loaded. To enable the man at the mouth of the pit to
lower down the corve, a cord is faftened to the lever A B,
and is conduéted over the pulleys, g 4 and /, to the mouth
of the pit, where it hangs down in a knot, which the man
can always reach, and by pulling it, he raifes up the lever,
and releafes the wheel from the clog. To prevent acci-
dents, if the clog and lever A fhould fail to ftop the ma-
chine, another clog and lever F G are applied beneath the
wheel ; this lever is drawn upwards by a cord and a block
of pulleys O, which are attached to the lower part of the
weight for the upper lever. This cord is conduéted to the
pit’s mouth, and hangs down, fo that the man can always
reach it, and by pulling this, he compreffes both the upper
and lower clogs upon the wheel at the fame time, which
will be certain to ftop it even if it be in a rapid motion ;
but he only reforts to this lower clog on occafion, as the
curb-rein is ufed for a horfe ; the weight of the upper lever,
a a horfe’s bridle, being a fufficient check for common
ufe.
To make the machine wind cither up or» down, the
trundle W muft be changed from one of the wheels, U or
V, to the oppofite one, and this will caufe the barrel to
turn in an oppofite direction. The pivot of the trundle W
is fupported by the long upright beam fhewn in fg. 3,
which is moveable on a centre at the lower end, fo that by
inclining it to the right or left, the trundle may be engaged
with either of the wheels U or V. The requifite motion is
given to the upright beam by two tackles of pulleys ap-
plied to the upper end of the beam, as fhewn in fig. 3.
The ropes of both thefe tackles are faftened together,
and hang down in a loop in reach of a boy, who can pull it
either way, and make the trundle engage with either wheel,
fo as to wind up or let down the corves at pleafure. This
boy is always ftationed in a {mall room immediately over the
wheels U V, fo as to have the brake-lever, as well as the
upright lever, always at his command ; likewife the fhuttle
of the water-wheel, which is fixed, as is fhewn in fig. 3. A
lever is made to communicate with it, and from the oppo-
fite end of the lever a rod defcends into the room, fo that
the boy, by pulling it, can open or fhut the fhuttle at plea-
fure. This he muft do whenever the corve comes up, or
rather before ; and notice of the proper time is given by a
large knot in the main rope. The water being then fhut
off, the wheel will continue to turn by its momentum until
the corve comes fully up, but by that time will have di-
minifhed its velocity, fo that the application of the brake
will {top it without any ftrain: the man at the mouth of
3S the
WIN
the pit alfo applies the brake on the wheel CD. Imme-
dusty the motion ceafes, the boy pulls the tackle, which
difengages the trundle W from the wheel, but without en-
gaging it with the oppofite one, and in confequence the
barrel is detached from the water-wheel. A man now feizes
the corve with a long hook, like a fhepherd’s crook, and
draws it afide ; then another man releafes the clog or brake
on the wheel C D, and the wheel and the corve immediatel
defcend upon the ground at the fide of the pit. The ae
ley over the pit is raifed up to a confiderable height, be-
canfe the machine cannot be ftopped exaétly at the precife
fpot; but if the corve fhould be drawn up a few feet
higher than neceffary, no harm can enfue as foon as the full
corve is landed and exchanged for an empty one; and the
fame is done at the bottom of the pit. The boy throws the
trundle in gear with the oppofite wheel, then draws the
fhuttle to let the water flow upon the wheel, and the wheel
refumes its motion. 7
For the facility of ftopping the machine at the proper
moment, Mr. Smeaton applied a piece of machinery, which
he called a count-wheel. This received its motion from a
pinion of 15 teeth, fixed upon the extremity of the pivot of
the lantern W ; the pinion gave motion to a fmall cog-wheel
of 60 teeth, fituated between the two great cog-wheels U V,
being fixed at one end of an horizontal {pindle; and at the
oppofite end of it was a pinion of eight teeth, which gave
motion to the count-wheel. This wheel had 80 teeth, and
was fixed in a vertical pofition. It had affixed to its plane
two projecting pieces of iron, which operated upon a lever
that was conneéted with the lever which lets down or draws
up the fhuttle to regulate the flow of water upon the wheel.
Thefe projeGtions were fo fixed to the wheel as to be ca-
pable of regulation in fuch manner, that when the machine
had worked long enough to have brought up the corve to
the top of the pit, the proje€tion of the count-wheel would
feize the lever, and let fall the fhuttle fo as to ftop the
water-wheel at the proper moment, without any attention
on the part of the boy. This could be eafily regulated by
the pofition of the projeétion on the count-wheel, and when
once adjufted always operated correétly ; for as the count-
wheel turned only once for forty turns of the barrel, the
machine would therefore draw up a corve from the bottom
of the pit before the count-wheel made a complete turn.
As the two corves in the pit afcend and defcend mutually,
they mutt pafs each other at half the breadth of the pit ; and
it fometimes happens that they {trike together, and overfet
the coals. The beft remedy for this is to divide the pit in
two, or make two feparate pits, and the barrel may be
fituated between the two. As it is frequently impraéti-
cable to do fo, a {maller proje€@tion was applied in Mr.
Smeaton’s machine upon the count-wheel, which aéted in the
middle of the courfe upon the lever, and raifed it up fo as
to diminifh the opening of the water-fhuttle, and make the
machine move flowly at the moment when the corves met
and paffed each other: this prevented accidents.
The principal dimenfions of this machine were as fol-
low :—The cylinder of the fteam-engine 26 inches diameter,
and 5 feet 8 inches the length of ftroke. It made 14
ftrokes per minute. It was on the principle of Newcomen,
i.e. atmofpheric, with injeftion into the cylinder. The
pump was 184 inch bore, and 5 feet 8 inches ftroke: it
raifed the water 33 feet high. This water, being conveyed
in a trough to the machine, was delivered upon the water-
wheel, which was 30 feet diameter, with 72 buckets; its
caft-iron axis was 7 inches diameter ; the great cog-wheels
12 feet diameter, with 88 cogs; the trundle 20 cogs, fo
that the barrel turned 4.4 times for once of the water-
10
WIN
wheel. The barrel was 5 feet 3 inches diameter in the
middle, and 2 feet 114 inches diameter at the ends; the
whole length being 105 feet. Upon the circumference of
the barrel a fpiral Fine is traced, and a groove funk, which
receives half of the rope, to prevent the rope from flipping
on the barrel.
The depth of the pit was 165 yards; and it was found,
ona long courfe of experiments, that the total confumption
of coals was one corve of coals to draw up 824 corves from
that depth. The machine would draw 18 fcore of corves,
each containing 20 pecks and weighing 5% cwt., every
12 hours.
The more modern winding-engines by {team are upon a
much more fimple conftru€tion. The power of the fteam~
engine is applied at once to the barrel which winds up the
rope, with only one pair of cog-wheels ; viz. a large wheel
fixed on the axis of the barrel, and a {maller one on the axis
of the fly-wheel of the fteam-engine. Thefe engines are
frequently made on Newcomen’s principle, as the confump-
tion of coals is a fmall objet, but Mr. Watt’s engines are
more manageable. As the fteam-engine with a crank will
turn either way, according as it is fet in motion, it is very
well adapted for winding-machines ; the boys who manage
them are very dexterous in ftopping and turning them the
contrary way. See STEAM-Engine.
There are many ingenious contrivances for facilitating
the landing of the corves when they come up to the pit’s
mouth. The beft is a platform, which runs upon wheels,
and can be puthed over the pit’s mouth, when the corve is
drawn up, by means of a light carriage with one horfe,
which is backed on the platform beneath the corve, and
puthes the platform over the pit by the fame motion. The
corve is lowered down upon the carriage, and then the horfe
draws the corve away ; the fame motion withdraws the
platform from the pit’s mouth, ready to let down an empty
corve and draw up another full one.
In many modern pits, conduétors are fixed in the pit.
Thefe are perpendicular rods, and the bafkets have pro-
jeGting parts which embrace the conduétors, and guide the
corve regularly up or down the pit.
In many collieries flat ropes are ufed. Thefe are com-
pofed of four {mall ropes placed flat, fide by fide, and fewed
together by a packthread, which pierces all the four ropes,
When thefe flat ropes are ufed, a barrel or drum of {mall
fize is ufed, and the coils of the rope wind one upon the
other, fo as to form a fpiral, and increafes the diameter of
the effeétive barrel as the rope winds up, fo as to balance
the weight of the rope. This was invented by Mr. John
Curr, of Sheffield, who has feveral patents for machinery
for manufacturing fuch flat ropes, as they are extenfively
ufed in Yorkfhire.
In others, iron chains are ufed inftead of ropes, and are
found to anfwer extremely well.
Winpine of Cotton. See Corton Manufadure.
Winvine of Silk. See Manufadure of Sirk.
Winpine-Screw Fg i in Rural Economy, a con-
trivance of this fort, in which the weight is faid, in the
Gloucefterfhire Report on Agriculture, to be capable of
being gradually let down on the vats. It is thus deferibed : —
A ftrong platform, or fill, is raifed on four legs, about a foot
from the floor; near the edge is made a channel all round,
to carry off the whey asit is expreffed, by a lip, into the pan
or receiver. Two {trong fide-pofts are mortifed into the
fill, reaching about fix feet high ; acrofs.which, about four
fect high, is firmly faftened a ftrong bar, with an aperture
in the centre large enough to let in the ferew with eafe. This
{crew is fixed, at the lower part, into a heavy cubieal ftone
of
WIN
of two feet dimenfions, or nearly: the upper part of the
{crew, having pafled the perforation in the crofs-bar, enters
a nut or female fcrew, large in the middle, but worked off
at the two ends fine enough to be grafped by the hand: by
turning this nut, the weight is raifed or let down on the
cheefe-vats underneath.
Where ttones of the required weight and dimenfions are
not to be had, a wooden frame of the fame fize is ufed, which
is filled with fand, pebbles, or. rubble-ftones.
The fcrew part of this prefs has, in many dairies, been
lately fuperfeded by the adoption of an apparatus lefs fimple
in its conftruétion, though more eafily worked. In which,
on the right fide of the prefs, a third upright is raifed from
the floor, and conneéted by two crofs-bars, about a foot
long, with the upright poft parallel with it. About four
feet high, a cylinder of wood, from five to fix inches dia-
ameter, 1s inferted, pafling quite through the additional up-
right, but kept to its place by a fhoulder. To the end are
fixed four {pokes, or levers, or an iron handle, to which
manual power is applied. A ftrong rope is faftened to
and coiled round the cylinder, which pafling over a pulley
let lengthways into the upper bar, proceeds horizontally to
another pulley, fixed dire€tly over the centre of the weight,
and by an iron hook attached to it. Very moderate ftrength
will raife the weight, which in this conftruGtion flides with
grooves fitted to the fide-pofts. The mechanical powers
are varied in fome prefles by the ufe of a wheel of a foot or
eighteen inches diameter, inftead of the pulley; but the
effeé&t is fimilar. In either way of working the weight,
there is a fuperiority over the old prefs, and little difference
in the expence.
Winoine Siairs. See Srair.
Winpine of Wool, in Rural Economy, the practice of put-
ting it up into fleeces. ‘There is fome nicety required in this
operation ; all the loofe ragged parts are to beturned inwards,
fo as to form a neat folid fort of fleece, and all the dirty
parts removed. The work is done on a large table or bench
for the purpofe. In fome cafes of expert winders, four
hundred fleeces can be wound in the courfe of the day.
WINDISCH Freisrrirz, in Geography, a town of the
duchy of Stiria, on the river Plufeka ; 40 miles S. of Gratz.
N. lat. 46° 30'. E. long. 15° 28!.
Winxpiscu Gratz, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 18 miles
N.N.W. of Cilley. N. lat. 16° 35’. E. long. 15°.
Winpiscu Landfberg, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 12
miles E. of Cilley.
Winpiscu Mark, a part of Carniola, bordering on Hun-
gary and Croatia.
Winpiscu Matray, a town of the archbifhopric of Salz-
burg; 54 miles S.S.W. of Salzburg. N. lat. 46°55’. E.
long. 12° 36/.
WINDISH, a village of Switzerland, near Konigsfel-
den, at the conflux of the Aar and the Reufs, in the canton
of Berne, in which are found the ruins of the ancient city
of Vindoniffa, a fortrefs mentioned by Tacitus, which the
Romans made a place of arms to ftop the irruption of the
Germans, and 1s faid to have been the fee of a bifhop. It
was deftroyed in the 7th century ; 3 miles W. of Baden.
WINDISHGARTEN, a town of Auftria; 16 miles
S.W. of Bavarian Waidhoven.
WINDLASS, or Winpvace, a machine ufed for raifing
heavy weights, as guns, ftones, anchors, &c.
It is very fimple, confifting only of an axis, or roller,
fupported horizontally at the two ends by two pieces of
wood and a pulley. ‘The two pieces of wood meet at top ;
being placed diagonally, fo as to prop each other. The
axis, or roller, goes through the two pieces, and turns
WIN
in them. The pulley is faftened at top, where the pieces
oin.
, Laftly, there are two ftaves, or hand{pikes, which go
through the roller, by which it is turned ; and the rope,
bee comes over the pulley, is wound off and on the
ame.
Winprass, an horizontal machine, compofed of timber,
&c. and moft ufed in merchant-fhips for heaving up their
anchors in lieu of a capftan. The body of the windlafs is
octagonal, and is tapered from the middle to the ends by
given dimenfions. It is fawn from oak-timber of the beft
quality, and the length between the cheeks is in one piece.
But when fitted with an iron axle or fpindle in the middle,
it muft be in two pieces. The ends without the cheeks are
fitted with iron fpindles, and have a hoop driven over their
ends. The f{pindles muft be very accurately let into the
ends and middle of the body, that the axis of each may
exatly agree in a right line. A bolt is driven through the
body of the windlafs and each end of the fpindles. On
each end of the body is let on and fecurely bolted an iron
pall-hoop, with teeth or notches at every two or three inches.
The palls, which are iron, are fixed againft the aft-fides of
the pall-bits, and fall into the teeth or notches of the pall-
hoop, fo as to prevent it turning backwards when charged
by the effort of the cable, &c. Holes or mortifes are cut
through, along the middle of the windlafs on each {quare,
to admit the handfpikes, and each fquare of the body is
covered with elm or fir facings between the cheeks, on the
working fide in particular. It is fufpended by its axles or
{pindles in brafs rhodings, or gudgeons, which are let in and
bolted into a frame of oak-timber called the cheeks, which are
let down through the deck, and bolted to the pall-bits.
There are other methods of fitting windlafles, but this is
recommended as the bett.
Winorass-Cheeks, pieces of oak or elm faftened to the
fides of {mall veffels, and by which the ends of their wind-
laffes are fufpended.
WINDLE, in Geography, a townfhip of England, in
Lancafhire ; 10 miles N.E. of Liverpool.
WINDLESTRAW, in Agriculture, a term applied to
the naked items of the crefted dog’s-tail, and other natural
grafles.
It is obferved in the third volume of the Tranfaétions of
the Highland Society of Scotlandg that the common poa
there fometimes goes by the name of windleftraw-grafs. See
Grass, and Poa.
WINDMANNIA, in Botany. See WeinMAnnia.
WINDO, in Geography, a fea-port town of Sweden, in the
province of Smaland ; 85 miles N. of Calmar.
WINDORS, a town of the bifhopric of Paffau; 10 miles
W. of Paffau.
WINDOT Cnrerx, a river of America, which runs into
the Ohio, N. lat. 37° 59'. W. long. 86° 48).
WINDOW, g.d. Winv-poor, an aperture, or open
place, in the fide of a houfe, to let in the air and light.
Before glafs windows came into ufe, (for the antiquity and
firft introduétion of which, fee Giass,) the window cafe-
ments were commonly made of a tran{parent ftone, called
Specularis lapis, and thence called /pecularia ; and before the
Jpecularia, veils were the only defence they had againft the
weather. Pitifc. Lex. Antiq. in voc. Specularia.
We have various kinds and forms of windows ; as glafs-
windows, wire-windows, horn-windows, &c. Arched win-
dows, circular windows, elliptical windows, {quare and
flat windows, round windows, oval windows, Gothic win-
eae regular windows, ruftic windows; to which add fky-
ts. r
= 382 The
WIN
The chief rules with regard to windows are, 1. That
they be as few in number, and as moderate in dimenfions, as
may confift with other refpeéts ; inafmuch as all openings
are weakenings. j
2. That they be placed at a convenient diftance from the
angles, or corners of the building ; becaufe thofe parts ought
not to be opened and enfeebled, whofe office is to fupport
and faften all the reft of the building.
3. That care be taken the windows be all equal one with
another, in their rank and order ; fo that thofe on the right-
hand may anfwer to thofe on the left, and thofe above be
right over thofe below ; for this fituation of windows, will
riot only be handfome and uniform, but alfo, the void being
upon the void, and the full upon the full, it will be a
itrengthening to the whole fabric. ;
As to their dimenfions, care is to be ufed to give them
neither more nor lefs light than is needful ; therefore regard
is to be had to the bignefs of the rooms which are to receive
the light. It is evident, that a great room needs more light,
and, confequently, a greater window, than a little room ;
and ¢ contra.
The apertures of windows, in middle-fized houfes, may
be four and a half or five feet between the jambs; and in
the greater buildings, fix and a half or feven ae and their
height may be double their length at the leaft. But in
high rooms, or larger buildings, their height may be a
third, a fourth, or half their breadth, more than double the
length.
Sach are the proportions for windows of the firft ftory ;
and, according to thefe, muft thofe in. the upper ftory be
for breadth; but, as to height, they mutt diminifh ; the
fecond ftory may be one-third part lower than the firft ; and
the third ftory, one-fourth part lower than the fecond.
Winpows, Architrave. See ARCHITRAVE.
Winpows, Dormer, or Lutherns. See LurHerns, &c.
Winpows, Scenography of. See SCENOGRAPHY.
Winpows, Tranfom. See TRANsoM.
Winpow and Houfe Tax, is one of the affeffed taxes
transferred to the commiffioners for the affairs of taxes. The
duties charged annually with refpe& to the windows or lights
in every dwelling-houfe, (for which, fee Tax,) are fubjecét to
the following regulations.
All fkylights, and all windows or lights, however con-
ftructed, in Raircafes, rrets, cellars, eh and all other
parts of dwelling-houfes, to what ufe or purpofe foever
applied, and whether fuch windows or lights fhall be in the
exterior or interior parts of fuch dwelling-houfes, to be
charged to the faid duties.
Every window or light in any kitchen, cellar, es
buttery, pantry, larder, wafhhoufe, laundry, bakehoufe,
brewhoufe, and lodging-room, belonging to or occupied
with any dwelling-houfe, whether the fame fhall be within
or contiguous.to or disjoined from the body of fuch dwell-
ing-houfe, fhall be charged to the faid duties.
he faid duties to be charged yearly upon the occupier
or occupiers of the houfes, cottages, or tenements, in refpect
whereof the faid duties fhall be charged; and to be in force
for one whole year, from the sth day of April in the year
in which the fame fhall be charged, to be levied on them,
or on their ref{peétive executors or adminiftrators, except as
hereinafter. provided.
Where any change in the occupation of any houfe, cot-
tage, or tenement, fhall take place after the affeffment fhall
be made, then the faid duties fhall be levied upon and paid
by the occupier, landlord, or owner, for the time being, or
on both or all of them, according to their times or poflef-
fion thereof, without any new afleflment, notwithftanding
5
WIN
fuch change in the occupation for the year that fuch houfe
fhall have been affeffed : provided, that where-a tenant fhall
quit the fame, on the determination of the leafe or demife
after an affeffment made, and fhall have given notice thereof
to the affeffor, the duty fhall be difcharged by the commif-
fioners for this a& for the remainder of that year, in cafe it
fhall appear to them at the end of fuch year, that fuch
houfe, &c. fhall have continued wholly unoccupied during
the remainder of fuch year. ;
Where any dwelling-houfe is or fhall be let in different
apartments, tenements, lodgings, or landings, and fhall be
inhabited by two or more perfons or families, the fame fhall
neverthelefs be charged as if inhabited by one perfon or
family only ; and the landlord or owner {hall be deemed
and taken to be the occupier, and fhall be charged with
the faid duties : provided, that where the landlord fhall not
refide within the limits of the colle&tor, or the fame fhall
remain unpaid by him for twenty days after the fame is due,
the duties fo charged may be levied on the occupier. or occu-
piers re{peétively, and fuch payment fhall be deducted and
allowed out of the next payment on account of rent.
Every houfe, of which the keeping is left to the charge
of any perfon or fervant, fhall be fubje& to the like daties
as if it were inhabited by the owner or by a tenant ; and, if
fuch perfon,or fervant {hall not pay rates to the church and
poor, the faid duties fhall be paid by the refpeétive owners
or tenants of the faid houfe.
Every diftin& chamber or apartment in any of the inns
of court, or of chancery, or in any college or hall in either
of the univerfities of ‘Oxford or Cambridge, or any public
hofpital, being feverally occupied, fhall be fubje& to the
fame duties as if an entire houfe, which hall be paid by the
re{pective occupiers; provided, that every fuch chamber
or apartment, which fhall not contain more than feven win-
dows or lights, fhall be charged at the rate of 3s. 6d. for
every fuch window or light.
All dwelling-rooms in any hall or office whatever, belong-
ing to any Bt or to any body politic or corporate, or to
any company, lawfully charged with the payment of any
other taxes or parifh-rates, fhall be fubjeé& to thofe hereby
payable, and be refpectively charged as dwelling-houfes ; and
the perfon, &c. to whom the fame fhall belong fhall be
charged as the occupier or occupiers thereof.
When a partition or divifion between two or more win-
dows or lights, fixed in one frame, is of the breadth or {pace
of twelve inches, the window or light on each fide of fuch
partition or divifion fhall be charged as a difting&t window
or light. :
rey window extending fo far as to give light into more
rooms, landings, or ftories than one, fhall be reckoned and
charged as fo many feparate windows as there are rooms,
landings, or ftories enlightened thereby.
Every window or light, including the frame, partitions,
and divifions thereof, which by due admeafurement of the
whole {pace on the aperture of the wall of the houfe or build-
ing, on the outfide of fuch window or light, fhall exceed in
height twelve feet, or in breadth four feet nine inches, not
being lefs than three feet fix inches in height, fhall be
reckoned and charged as two windows or lights, except
fuch windows or lights as fhall have been made of greater
dimenfions at any time prior to April 5, 1785 ; except alfo
the windows or lights in fuch parts of dwelling-houfes as
are ufed for fhops, workfhops, and warehoufes, and except
the windows or lights in the public room of any houfe
licenfed to fell wine, ale, or other liquors by retail, which
fhall be ufed for the entertainment of gueits ; and the win-
dows or lights in farm-houfes. efpecially exempted from the
duties
WIN
duties in the feliedule marked (B.), or in any dwelling-
houfe not chargeable to the duties mentioned in the faid
fchedule. .
Where any dwelling-houfe fhall be divided into different
tenements, being diftin@& properties, every fuch tenement
fhall be fubje& to the fame duties as if the fame were an
entire houfe, which duties fhall be paid by the refpective
occupiers ; provided, that every fuch tenement, which fhall
not contain more than feven windows or lights, fhall be
charged at the rate of 3s. 6d. for every fuch window or
light ; and every fuch tenement in Scotland, which fhall not
contain more than feven windows or lights, fhall be charged
at the rate of 3s. for every fuch window or light.
The cafes in which windows are exempted are the fol-
lowing.
1. Any houfe belonging to his majefty, or any of the
royal family, and every public office, for which the duties
heretofore payable have been paid by his majefty or out of
the public revenue.
2. Any hofpital, charity-fchool, or houfe provided for the
reception and relief of poor perfons, except fuch apartments
therein as are or may be occupied by the officers or fervants
thereof, which fhall feverally be affeffed, and be fubjeét to
the faid duties as entire dwelling-houfes.
3. The windows in any room of a dwelling-houfe, licenfed
according to law as a chapel for the purpofes of divine
worfhip, and ufed for no other purpofe whatfoever.
Provided that every fuch hofpital, charity-{chool, houfe
for the reception and relief of poor perfons, or room licenfed
as a chapel as aforefaid, fhall be brought into charge by the
affeffor or affeffors, or in their default, by the furveyor or
infpeCtor, and fhall be ftated on the certificate of afleflments
as fuch ; and on due proof of the fa&t before the commiffioners
by the affeffors, it fhall be lawful for the commiffioners for
executing the {aid aé& to difcharge fuch hofpital, &c. from
the faid duties, or fuch part thereof as is hereby intended
to be exempted, in like manner as they are authorized to
difcharge the affeffment on poor perfons by this act, but not
otherwife.
4. The windows or lights, in any dairy or cheefe-room
belonging to and occupied with any dwelling-houfe, charge-
able with the faid duties, although the fame fhall be part
thereof, which fhall be ufed by the occupiers for the pur-
pofe of keeping butter or cheefe, being their own produce,
for fale or private ufe ; provided, that the windows or lights
in fuch dairies or cheefe-rooms fhall be made with fplines or
wooden laths, or iron bars, or wires, and wholly without
glals, and that the occupiers of the dwelling-houfes to which
uch dairies and’cheefe-rooms belong fhall caufe to be painted
on the outer door thereof, or on the outfide of the windows
thereof, or one of them, in large Roman letters, the words,
“ dairy, or cheefe-room,”’ as the cafe may require, and fhall
keep fuch words fo painted diftin@tly legible, during all
fuch time as fuch exemption fhall be claimed; and pro-
vided, that fuch dairies or cheefe-rooms fhall not be ever
ufed to dwell or to fleep in by any perfon, but fhall be
wholly kept for the feveral purpofes hereinbefore mentioned ;
and provided alfo, that an affeflment of all fuch windows or
lights fhall be duly made, and the faé be truly returned in
the manner direéted by this a€t, in other cafes of exemption
from the faid duties, fo that the number of windows fo to
be exempted may be afcertained, and the exemption be
allowed by the commiffioners for executing this a.
The provifions that refpect the exemptions of windows
from afleflment by 43 Geo. III. c. 161. are as follow.
Windows are to be ftopped up with ftone or brick, or the
fame kind of materials as the outfide of the houfe ; allow-
WIN
ance being made for thofe in the roof made of the fame ma-
terials with the outfide of the roof, or {topped up before the
commeéncement of this a&t ; or windows are not to be made,
reftored, or ftopped up without fix days’ previous notice
given to the furveyors, under a penalty of ro/.: and fur-
veyors are to charge windows newly made or reftored, and
omitted in the affeffmeut ; and the penalty on ftopping up
windows to elude payment is a charge on the occupier of the
tenement, at the rate of double the fum by which the affeff-
ment fhall be augmented, by reafon of fuch certificate, fub-
je& to appeal, provided it be proved to the fatisfaétion of
the commiffioners for executing this aét, that the fame win-
dows or lights were ref{peétively ftopped up according to
the direGtions of this at, previous to the commencement of
the year on which the faid affeffment shall or ought to have
been made.
The duty on dwelling-houfes (for which, fee Tax) com-
prehends every coach-houfe, ftable, brewhoufe, wafhhoufe,
laundry, woodhoufe, bakehoufe, dairy, and all other
offices, and all yards, courts, and curtilages, and gardens,
and pleafure-grounds, belonging to and occupied with any
dwelling-houfe, within the limits of one acre.
All fhops and warehoufes which are attached to the
dwelling-houfe, or have any communication therewith, fhall,
in charging the faid duties, be valued together with the
dwelling-houfe and the houfehold and other offices aforefaid
thereunto belonging, (except fuch warehoufes and buildings
upon or near adjoining to wharfs which are occupied by
perfons who carry on the bufinefs of wharfingers, and
who have dwelling-houfes upon the faid wharfs for the
refidence of themfelves or fervants employed upon the faid
wharfs. )
And alfo except fuch warehoufes as are diftin€ and fepa-
rate buildings, and not parts or parcels of fuch Shr
houfes, or the fhops attached thereto, but employed folely
for the purpofe of lodging goods, wares, and merchandize,
or for carrying on fome manufacture (notwithftanding the
fame may adjoin to or have communication with the dwelling-
houfe or fhop.)
Every chamber or apartment in any of the inns of court,
or of chancery, or in any college or hall in any of the uni-
verfities of Great Britain, being feverally occupied, fhall
be charged thereto as an entire houfe, and on the refpedtive
occupiers thereof.
Every hall or office whatever belonging to any perfon or
to any body politic or corporate, or to any company law-
fully charged with the payment of any other taxes or parifh-
rates, fhall be fubjeét to the duties as inhabited houfes ; and
the perfon, &c. to whom the fame fhall belong fhall be
charged as occupier.
Where any houfe fhall be let in different ftories, tene-
ments, lodgings, or landings, and fhall be inhabited by two
or more perfons or families, the fame fhall neverthelefs be
charged to the faid duties as if inhabited by one perfon
or family only, and the landlord or owner fhall be deemed
the occupier, and fhall be charged to the faid duties: pro-
vided, that where the landlord fhall not refide within the
limits of the colle&tor, or the fame fhall remain unpaid by
fuch landlord for the {pace of twenty days after the fame is
due, the duties fo charged may be levied on the occupier
or occupiers refpéétively ; and fuch payment fhall be de-
duéted and allowed out of the next payment on account
of rent.
No dwelling-houfe, or other fuch premifes as aforefaid,
fhall be eftimated or rated at any lefs annual value than
the rent or value at which the fame premifes ftand charged
in the laft rate made on or before the time of making the
afleflment
WIN
afleffment for the relief of the poor in the fame parifh or
place, under certain f{pecified reftriGtions with regard to
the poor rate.
Where any dwelling-houfe fhall be divided into different
tenements being diftint properties, every fuch tenement
fhall be fubje& to the fame duties as an entire houfe, which
duty fhall be paid by the occupiers refpe€tively.
The cafes of exemption are the following.
1. Any houfe belonging to his majeity, or any of the
royal family, and every public office which the duties
heretofore payable have been paid by his majefty, or out of
the public revenue.
2. Every dwelling-houfe, being a farm-houfe occupied
by a tenant, and bond fide ufed for the purpofes of huf-
bandry only.
3. Every dwelling-houfe, being a farm-houfe occupied by
the owner thereof, and bond fide ufed for the purpofes of
hufbandry only, which, together with the houfehold and other
offices aforefaid, fhall be valued under this a& at 10/. per
annum, or any lefs fum.
4. Any hofpital, charity-fehool, or houfe provided for
the reception or relief of poor perfons.
5- Every houfe whereof the keeping is committed to the
care of any perfon or fervant, who doth not pay rates to
the church and poor, and who refides therein for the pur-
pofe only of taking care thereof: provided, that an affeff-
ment fhall be duly made in every fuch cafe, and the fac
be truly returned in the manner direéted by this act in
other cafes of exemption from the faid duties, and the
exemption be allowed by the commiffioners for executing
this ad.
Any perfon inhabiting a dwelling-houfe, containing not
more than fix windows in the whole, fhall be exempted from
the duties in {chedule (A. ), in cafe fuch perfon fhall be on the
books of fuch parifh or place as receiving parochial relief ;
and fhall not be affeffed, or liable to be alfeffed to any of the
duties contained in fchedules (B.), (C.), (D.), or (E.) ;
which feveral exemptions fhall be proved or claimed in the
manner hereinafter mentioned.
And, in order to relieve fuch perfons who may be charged
to the feveral duties fet forth in the {chedules (A.) and (B.),
or either of them, it is enaéted, that where any fuch houfe,
cottage, or tenement, as is defcribed in the preceding claufe,
fhall be brought into charge, and the occupier thereof fhall
be entitled to the faid exemption by reafon of poverty, in
every fuch cafe, the affeffors fhall, on the certificate of affeff-
ment, fet oppofite the fum charged on the occupier thereof,
the fa& of his or her being poor, and hall return the fame,
together with the affeffment and a certificate, as hereinafter
mentioned, to the commiffioners for executing this a€& in the
diftri& where fuch afleffment fhall be made; who, before
allowing any fuch affeflment, or making any order thereupon,
fhall examine the affeffors, who fhall refpeétively attend them
for that purpofe, at fuch time as they fhall appoint, touching
the return fo made ;_ and if the faid commiffioners fhall, from
fuch examination, and from the certificate hereinafter men-
tioned, be fatisfied that any fuch occupier is entitled to fuch
exemption, they may, after fuch proof, {trike out the charge,
leaving his name, and the number of windows and rent of
fuch houfe in the afleflment, and every fuch occupier fhall
be exempted accordingly ; which exemption fhall, in the
like cafes, extend to, and fhall be allowed on all affeffments
on fuch poor perfons, of the duties payable at the time
of paffing this aét, which fhall have been, or fhall be made,
at any time after the commencement of the prefent year.
But before any fuch exemption or abatement fhall be al-
lowed, the affeflors fhall produce to the commiffioners a
WIN
certificate under the hands of five or more fubftantial honfe-
holders of fuch parifh or place, in vettry aflembled, of
whom the refident minifter fhall be one; but in cafe there
fhall be no fuch minifter refident therein, then at leaft two
or more churchwardens and overfeers of the poor of fuch
parifh or place fhall concur with fuch houfeholders in fuch
certificate, certifying thereby, that they have carefully ex-
amined the affeflment of the faid duties, and the allegations
therein made by the affeffors, touching fuch perfons who
fhall be therein itated to be poor, and that in their judg-
ment and belief the perfons therein certified to be poor are
entitled to be exempted by reafon of their poverty, and are
wholly unable to pay the duties affeffed upon them ; pro-
vided, that if in any parifh or place there fhall not be five
fubftantial houfeholders, then = certificate may be made
by the fubftantial houfeholders there refiding ; or if there
fhall be no churchwardens or overfeers, then the fame may
be granted by the refident minifter, or by any two church-
wardens or overfeers of any adjoining parifh or place, who
can certify the truth of fuch slam concurring therein
with the fubitantial houfeholders refiding in the parifh or
place where fuch affeflment fhall be made.
And where the occupier of any houfe, cottage, or tene-
ment, containing more than the number of windows or
lights before fpecified, fhall be brought into charge, and the
occupier thereof fhall, at the commencement of the year for
which fuch affeffment is made, be poor and indigent, or fhall
become fo during that year, in every fuch cafe, fuch occu-
pier may give notice thereof in writing, ftating the caufes to
the affeffor, or to the furveyor of the diftri€ in which fuch
houfe is fituate, annexing thereto a certificate, under the
hands of fuch perfons as aforefaid, certifying that, in their
judgment and belief, fuch perfon is jultly entitled to relief
on account of poverty for the caufes mentioned in fuch
notice ; and every affeffor fhall deliver the notices by him
received to fuch furveyor: and if fuch furveyor fhall be
fatisfied of the truth thereof, after due examination of the
faéts and circumftances, and that fuch perfon is unable to pay
the duties charged on him or her, and has no probable means
of bettering his or her condition within that year, he is
hereby required to certify the fame to the commiffioners ;
and if fuch furveyor fhall not be fatisfied, then, on notice
thereof to fuch occupier, he may appeal from fuch charge
to the commiffioners, giving ten days’ previous notice thereof
to the faid furveyor.
And in every cafe where the furveyor fhall certify to the
faid commiffioners that he is fatisfied of the truth of the claim
made by any fuch occupier, and that he is, and will be unable
to pay the duties charged on him or her within that year ;
or if, upon appeal, it fhall appear to the fatisfaétion of the
major part of the faid commiflioners prefent, on the oath of
fuch appellant, or by other lawful evidence on oath produced
by fuch appellant, that he or fhe is entitled to maintain fuch
appeal, and wholly unable to pay the duties charged on him
or her, the faid commiffioners may give {uch relief, either by
ftriking off the whole of the duty fo charged, or diminifhin
the fame, as to them fhall feem meet and neceflary ; an
which appeals, for the caufes in this claufe mentioned, may
be heard and determined, either on the days mentioned in
this a&t for hearing appeals in other cafes, or at the end of
the year, or any days to be appointed by the refpeétive
commiffioners for executing this a¢t ; which exemption fhall,
in the like cafes, extend to, and fhall be allowed on all
affeflments on fuch poor perfons of the duties payable at
the time of paffin this aét, which fhall have been or fhall
be made at any time after the commencement of the pre-
fent year.
Unoccupied
WIN
Unoccupied houfes are to be inferted in the affeflment,
and the affeffors, or the furveyors and infpeétors, are to cer-
tify when they become occupied; and the perfon occupy-
ing fhall give notice to the affeffor, furveyor, or infpeétor,
within twenty days after occupation, under a penalty of
g5/., and be liable to be charged for the reft of the pre-
ceding quarter ; and houfes becoming unoccupied after affefl-
ment are to be charged for the whole year, unlefs notice is
given. Notices are alfo to be given by occupiers of houfes
or managers of hofpitals, charity-{chools, poor-houfes, or
licenfed chapels, entitled to exemptions ; and the exemp-
tions are to be allowed by the commiffioners after exa-
mination. Burn’s Juftice, vol. vy. See Tax and Commu-
TATION.
Winpow, in Anatomy, &c. See FeNEsTRA.
WINDRUSH,, in Geography, a river of England, in the
cdunty of Oxford, which runs into the Thames, 5 miles
S.S.W. of Witney.
WINDSBACH, a town and citadel of Germany, in
the principality of Anfpach; 10 miles S.E. of Anfpach.
N. lat. 49° 13’. E. long. 10° 46!.
WINDSHEIM, atown of Bavaria. The inhabitants
are chiefly Lutherans. This town was imperial till 1802,
when it was given to the eleétor of Bavaria; 28 miles S.W.
of Wurzburg. N. lat. 49° 34!. E. long. 10° 26/.
WINDSOR, commonly called New Winpsor, to dif-
tinguifh it from a parifh named Old Windfor, a market and
borough town of Berkfhire, England, is eminent in the hif-
toric annals of the kingdom, on account of containing one
of the palaces of the fovereigns, and from the many diftin-
guifhed events which are identified with the place. Some
of our moft eminent military and chivalrous fovereigns have
made the caftle, or palace of Windfor, their chief refidence,
and confequently the f{cene of various celebrated fettivities,
tournaments, and national affemblies. In the annals of the
caftle, this is fully verified. When the Domefday-book
was compiled, the caftle, which had been then lately built
by William the Conqueror, was within the manor, and it is
probable within the parifh of Clewer, of which Windfor
was formerly a chapelry ; it afterwards became the feat of
an extenfive honor.
We are told by the Saxon Chronicle, that William the
Conqueror kept his Whitfuntide at Windfor in 10713 and
that a fynod was held there in 1072, wherein the province
of York was made fubject to Canterbury. It is probable,
that William Rufus kept his Whitfuntide at Windfor in
1095, his Chriftmas in 1096, and his Eafter in 1097:
but in all probability all thefe feftivals were held at the
palace at Old Windfor. Windfor-caftle feems to have
been intended by William the Conqueror more for a mili-
tary poft, for which by its fituation it was well adapted,
than for the refidence of himfelf and his fucceffors.
Several monarchs kept their Chriftmas and other feftivals
at Windfor ; on fome of which occafions there were tour-
naments and other chivalrous fétes performed. After the
contentions between Stephen and Maud, Windfor-caftle,
as the fecond fortrefs of the kingdom, was committed to
the cuftody of Richard de Lacy.
It appears that a new barbican, or out-work, was built
to the caftle by king Henry III. In 1263, during the
wars between that monarch and his barons, prince Edward
arrifoned Windfor-caftle with foreigners, who nearly de-
feured the,town, and did much injury to the furrounding
country. The fame year it was given up to the barons, and
the king made an order that Eleanor, wife of prince Ed-
ward, with her daughter and all her houfehold, fhould,
without delay, retire from the caftle.
WIN
A great tournament was held in Windfor-park on the
gth of July, in the fixth of king Edward I. That mo-
narch and his fucceffor, king Edward I1., refided frequently
at Windfor, where feveral of their children were born.
John, king of France, and his fon Philip, were prifoners
in Windfor-caftle. David, king of Scotland, is alfo faid to
have been prifoner there at the {ame time.
All hiftorians agree, that Windfor-caftle owes its magni-
ficent fabric to the affeétion which king Edward III. bore
to the place of his nativity. Walfingham relates, that in
1334, he built a chamber, which he called the round table,
200 feet in diameter: this, by other accounts, appears to
have been only a temporary ftructure. Holingfhed fays, that
in 1359, “ the king fet workmen in hand, to take down much
old buildings belonging to the caftle of Windfor, and caufed
divers other fair and fumptuous works to be fet up in and
about the fame caftle, fo that almoft all the mafons and
carpenters, that were of any account within the land, were
fent for, and employed on the fame works.” But it ap-
pears that various commiffions for appointing furveyors
and imprefling workmen had been iffued fome years before ;
and that in 1356, William of Wykeham, then one of the
king’s chaplains, was made clerk of the works with ample
powers, and a fee of one fhilling a day whilft at Windfor,
and two fhillings when he went elfewhere upon bufinefs:
his clerk had a falary of three fhillings a week. In 13595
the archite&t’s powers were further enlarged, and he was
appointed keeper of the manors of Old and New Windfor.
The next year 360 workmen were impreffed to be em-
ployed on the buildings at the king’s wages, fome of whom
having clandeftinely left Windfor, and engaged in other
employments for greater wages, writs were iffued to prevent
perfons employing them, on pain of forfeiting all their
goods and chattels, and to commit fuch of the workmen as
fhould be apprehended to Newgate. The plague having
carried off a great number of the king’s workmen in 1362,
new writs were iffued to the fheriffs of feveral counties to
imprefs 302 mafons and diggers of {tone to be employed in
the king’s works. The counties of York, Salop, and
Devon, were to furnifh fixty men each. Glaziers were im-
prefled in the year 1363 ; very few commiflions were iffued
after the year 1369, and none after 1373, fo that it may be
prefumed that this noble work was then completed ; com-
prifing the king’s palace, the great hall of St. George, the
lodgings on the eaft and fouth fides of the upper ward, the
round tower, the chapel of St. George, the canon’s houfes
in the lower ward, and the whole circumference of the
walls, with the towers and gates.
The appeal of high treafon, brought by the duke of
Lancafter againft Thomas Mowbray, duke of Norfolk, in
1398, was heard by king Richard II., ona fcaffold ere&ted
within the caftle at Windfor, when, it being found impoffi-
ble to reconcile the opponents, a day of combat was ap-
pointed to take place at Coventry. The caftle continued
to be the occafional refidence of our monarchs, who fram
time to time made various alterations in the buildings, par-
ticularly king Henry VII. Windfor-caitle was garrifoned by
the parliament, foon after the breaking out of the civil war be-
tween Charles and his fubjeéts ; and colonel Venn, who was
afterwards one of the king’s judges, was appointed the go-
vernor. Prince Rupert made an unfuccefsful attack upon
it in the autumn of 1642. The caftle continued under the
jurifdiction of parliament during the war, and in the year
1648 became the prifon of its unfortunate monarch. Judge
Jenkyns was aifo a prifoner here for feveral years ; whence
he was removed to Wallingford, in 1656.
Upon the Reftoration, king Charles II. finding the build.
ings
WINDSOR.
ings of the caftle much dilapidated by plunder and negleé,
caufed it to be thoroughly repaired and richly furnifhed.
During the greater part of his reign, he made Windfor his
fummer refidence. King James II. in 1687 received the
pope’s nuncio at Windfor-caftle. Queen Anne, when prin-
cefs of Denmark, lived in a {mall houfe adjoining the little
park, and was very partial to Windfor.
During the reign of his prefent majefty, Windfor-caftle
has undergone confiderable improvements, under the direc-
tion of the late James Wyatt, efq. furveyor-general of his
majefty’s works.
The caftle confifts of two courts, between which is the
keep, or round tower. The upper court contains on the
north fide the {tate apartments, chapel, and the hall of St.
George. The eaft and fouth fides have been lately fitted
up for the refidence of their majefties and the royal family.
Our limits will not allow us to enter into a detail of the
magnificent rooms which conftitute the ftate apartments, or
of dwelling on the valuable colle&tion of pictures therein
contained.
St. George’s hall, on the north fide of the upper ward,
was built by king Edward III., as a refeGtory for the
knights companions of the garter: it isa noble room 108
feet in length. The ceiling and walls are painted by Verrio;
the fubjeéts are the triumphs of the warlike founder, and
his brave fon, Edward the Black Prince.
In the area of the upper court is a bronze ftatue of
king Charles II. on horfeback, executed by Stada at the
expence of the munificent Tobias Rutftat.
On the north fide of the caftle is the terrace made by
queen Elizabeth, which was extended by king Charles IT.
along the eaft and fouth fides: its whole length is 1870 feet,
and it may be regarded as the nobleft walk of the kind in
Europe, as well as the moft interefting in fituation.
The chapel of St. George is fituated on the north fide
of the lower court of the caftle. King Henry I. built a
chapel at Windfor, dedicated to St. Edward the Confeflor,
and placed in it eighty canons, who were maintained out
of the king’s exchequer. This chapel appears to have
been rebuilt, or confidetably enlarged and decorated, by
king Henry III. : that monarch, in the year 1243, iffued
a commiffion to Walter de Gray, archbifhop of York,
to expedite the works at the king’s chapel at Windfor,
direGting that the workmen fhould proceed as well in
winter as in fummer, till the whole was completed ; that
a lofty wooden roof, like the roof of the new work at
Lichfield, fhould be made to appear like ftone-work, with
good calling and painting: that the chapel fhould be co-
vered with lead, and four gilded images be put up in it,
where the king had before direéted images of the fame kind
to be placed; and that a ftone turret fhould be made in
front of the chapel of fufficient fize to hold three or four
bells. Some remains of Henry III.’s buildings, as may be
prefumed by the ftyle of the arches and architeétural deco-
rations, may be feen on the fouth fide of the dean’s cloifters,
and at the eaft end of the chapel behind the altar.
King Edward III., who had been baptized at Windfor,
rebuilt St. Edward’s chapel there, and dedicated the new
flruéture to the Virgin Mary and St. George. In the year
1349, he augmented the number of canons to twenty-three,
befides a warden; and appointed 24 poor knights, for all
of whom he built habitations, and gratited land for their fu
port. In 1351, the bifhop of Winchefter made biti beaes
alterations in the college; and Henry IV. changed the
title of warden to that of dean.
The prefent {plendid and truly interefting chapel of St.
George may be regarded as the moft perfeé&t and moft
beautiful pile of ecclefiaftical archite@ture in the kingdom.
It was commenced by king Edward IV. and committed to
the fuperintendance of Richard Beauchamp, bifhop of Sa-
lifbury. The work was not completed till the reign of
king Henry VIII.: the beautiful roof of the choir was
put up in the year 1508. Sir Reginald Bray, prime minif-
ter to king Henry VIL., and one of the knights companions
of the order of the garter, who died in 1502, fucceeded
bifhop Beauchamp in the fuperintendance of this great
work, and was a liberal contributor to the building of the
choir and other parts of the fabric: his cognizance is fre-
quently repeated on the roof of the choir, as are the royal
arms and thofe of feveral noble families with the order of
the garter. The rood loft and lanthorn were ereé&ed in
1516; the prefent organ-gallery and fereen at the end of
the choir are of Coade’s artificial ftone. The ftalls of the
knights companions, which are very richly carved in wood,
exhibit the names and arms of the feveral illuftrious and
noble perfons by whom they have been refpettively filled.
The altar-piece, which reprefents the Laft Supper, is
by Mr. Weit, from whofe defigns the eaft window, repre-
fenting the Refurreétion of our Saviour, was executed in
painted glafs by Jarvis and Foreft, and put up in 1788:
the expence of the latter was about 4000/. Another win-
dow by the fame artifts difplay the angels appearing to our
Saviour. Moft of thefe improvements, as well as feveral
others in the chapel and caitle, have been executed under
the patronage, and partly at the expence, of his prefent ma-
jefty. Beneath the choir repofe the remains of Henry VIII.,
his queen, lady Seymour, and king Charles I. Henry VI.
was alfo interred in this chapel ; alfo his rival and fucceffor,
Edward VI.
At the eaft end of the fouth aifle is the Lincoln chapel,
which contains the monument of Edward, earl of Lincoln,
lord high admiral of England for thirty years, who died in
1584. Sir Henry Clinton, bart., a defcendant of the earl
of Lincoln, was buried in this chapel in 1795. In the
fame aifle is an elegant chantry chapel, built by John Oxen-
bridge, canon of Windfor. Farther weft is a chapel built
by Dr. Oliver King, bifhop of Bath and Wells, who died
in 1492.
In the middle of the fouth aifle is a fpacious chapel,
founded by fir Reginald Bray, who died in 1502, and is
here interred : his arms and creft appear in feveral parts of
the chapel, particularly in the beautiful fcreen which fepa-
rates it from the aifle.
At the weit end of the fouth aifle is the Beaufort cha-
pel, in which is an altar-tomb with the effigies of the
founder, Charles Somerfet, earl of Worcefter, who died in
1526, and shis lady ; and a {plendid monument, fupported
by Corinthian pillars, to the memory of Henry, the firft
duke of Beaufort, who died in 1699.
Near the fouth door of the choir is interred Charles,
duke of Suffolk, a favourite minifter and brother-in-law of
king Henry VIII., who died in 1545.
On the weit fide of the choir-door in the north aifle is a
chapel built by Elizabeth, wife of William, lord Hattings,
who is buried here.
At the eaft end of the chapel is a diftinét though attached
building, called the tomb-houfe, which was commenced by
Henry VII. and intended for his burial place. It was
granted by Henry VIII. to cardinal Wolfey, who began
a fumptuous monument for himfelf within its walls. This
was deftroyed in the civil wars. James II. fitted up the
building as a Roman Catholic chapel ; and publicly attended
the celebration of mafs. After that monarch’s deceafe the
chapel was deferted; but in 1800 his prefentt majefty gave
orders
WIN
orders for it to be repaired, beautified, and appropriated for
the interment of his family. The princefs Mary and the
princefs Charlotte of Wales have been committed to its
vault. On the north and eaft fides of the chapel are houfes
and lodgings for the dean and canons. The fouth and weit
fides of the lower ward are occupied by houfes appro-
priated to the poor knights.
Between the two wards or courts of the caftle is the
keep, or round tower, for the refidence of the governor of the
caftle. It confifts of a lofty, artificial, conical mount, fur-
rounded by a moat, and furmounted by a ftrong fortified
tower, which is approached by a flight of 100 fteps. The
circumference of the whole caftle is 4180 feet; its length
from eaft to weft 1480 feet; and the area, exclufive of terrace
walks, is about twelve acres.
On the fouth fide of the caftle is a modern manfion, called
the Queen’s-lodge, where the royal family refided for feve-
ral years; but it is now unoccupied. About half a mile
S.E. of the caftle is Frogmore, a modern feat belonging to
the queen. It is principally noted for its beautiful garden.
To the fouth and weft of the town is Windfor Fore/t,
which formerly was computed to meafure 120 miles in cir-
cuit. At prefent it is about 56 miles. A part of this,
called the great park, confifts of 93800 acres. The little
park, on the north and eaft fides of the caftle, contains
about 500 acres.
Windfor is a large irregular town, difpofed on the fides
of a hill, and at its bafe, on the fouthern banks of the
Thames. In 1276 it was declared a free borough by king
Edward I., who granted to the burgeffes a mercatorial
guild, and various privileges and exemptions. He contfti-
tuted it the county-town. King Edward IV. incorporated
the burgeffes by the name of mayor, bailiffs, and burgefles.
By the laft charter of king Charles II., the corporate
body is made to confift of twenty-eight or thirty members.
A weekly market is held by royal grant, as well as three
annual fairs. Near the centre of the town is a guildhall or
town-houfe, which was built in 1666.
This borough fent two members to parliament in the
reign of Edward I.; but omitted making any returns from
1340 to 1446. ‘The right of eleétion has frequently been
contefted, but was finally fettled to be vefted in all the in-
habitant houfeholders not receiving alms. Windfor has
continued to increafe in population for the laft 300 years.
In 1555, there appears to have been 1000 perfons ; in 1801,
they amounted to 3461 ; and in 1811 to 6155, who occupied
tosthoufes. The parifh-church is a {pacious building, and
part of it ancient, though it was formerly only a chapel
fubordinate to the church of Clewer. In it are feveral old
monuments. On the weft fide of the town are extenfive
barracks, and an hofpital for fick foldiers.
Winpsor, Old, a village about two miles S.E. of New
Windfor, was a place of fome confequence at the time of
the Domefday-furvey, as by that record it is {tated to con-
tain 95 houfes, which paid gabel tax to the crown. Some
of the Saxon kings had a palace here, and Edward the Con-
feffor fometimes kept his court at this place. After Wil-
liam the Conqueror had ereéted a caftle at New Windfor,
the old palace and the furrounding houfes were gradually
deferted. A great part of Windfor-park is within the pa-
rifh of Old Windfor, and includes three lodges: 1. The great
lodge built in the reign of Charles I. and occupied by the
illuitrious William, duke of Cumberland; 2. The little
lodge or dairy, occupied by the deputy ranger; and 3. The
manor lodge near Virginia water. Beaumont lodge, the
feat of lord vifcount Afhbrooke, was originally built by
lord Weymouth, who died in 1705. ‘There are other fa-
Vou. XXXVIII.
WIN
mily manfions and villas in this parifh; one of which was
lately fitted up and occafionally occupied by the prineefs
Elizabeth, now princefs Homberg.— The Magna Bri-
tannia, by S. Lyfons and the Rev. D. Lyfons, Berkshire,
4to. 1806. The Beauties of England, &c. vol. i. by
J. Britton, F.S.A. and E. W. Brayley, 8vo. 1801. The
Hiftory of Windfor and ‘its Neighbourhood, by J. Hake-
will, Archite&, 4to. 1813. This elegant volume contains
accounts and views of feveral places in the vicinity of
Windfor. The Hiftory of the Royal Refidences, 4to.
1817, by J. Pyne, a very handfome and interefting work,
contains feveral views of the ftate apartments in Windfor-
caftle. The Archite&tural Antiquities of Great Britain;
4 vols. 4to. by J. Britton, contains feveral views, and a full
hiftory and defcription of St. George’s chapel.
Winpsor, a large townfhip in the fouth-eaft corner of
Broome county, New York, ere&ted in 1807 from the eaft
part of Chenango; fituated 15 miles E. of Chenango
bounded north by Chenango county, eaft by Delaware
county, fouth by the ftate of Pennfylvania, and weft by
Chenango. Its extent is nearly 15 miles fquare, and it has
two poflt-offices. It is traverfed by the Sufquehanna river.
In 1810 it had eleven faw-mills, feven grain-mills, a fulling-
mill, and carding-machine, eight fchool-houfes, one hots
of worlhip, a population of 1960 fouls, 138 eleétors, and.
nearly 300 families.
Winpsor, a town of Nova Scotia; 25 miles N.W. of
Halifax.—Alfo, a town of the ftate of Vermont, capital of
a county of the fame name, which contains 34,877 in-
habitants; the town contains 2757 inhabitants; g2 miles
N.W. of Bofton. N. lat. 43° 33’. W. long. 72° 22/!.—
Alfo, a town of the ftate of Conneéticut, on the welt fide
of the Conneéticut river, in the county of Hartford, with
2868 inhabitants; 3 miles N. of Hartford.—Alfo, a town
of Maffachufetts, in the county of Berkfhire, with 1108
inhabitants; 136 miles W. of Bofton.—Alfo, a townfhip
of Pennfylvania, in Berks county, with 1358 inhabitants ;
70 miles W. of Philadelphia.—Alfo, a townfhip of Penn-
fylvania, in York county, with 1739 inhabitants.—Alfo, a
town of New Hampfhire, in the county of Hillfborough,
with 238 inhabitants.—Alfo, a town of North Carolina;
23 miles S.W. of Edenton.—Alfo, a townfhip of Lower
Canada, on the St. Francis.
Winpsor, Ea/?, a town of New Jerfey, in Middlefex
county, with 1747 inhabitants.—Alfo, a town of the
United States of America, 1n Conneéticut, on the eaft fide
of the Conneticut, oppofite Windfor, with 3081 inhabitants.
Winpsor, Wel, a town of New Jerfey, in Middlefex
county, with 1714 inhabitants.
Winpsor, New, a pott-townfhip of Orange county,
New York, on the weft bank of the Hudfon; 100 miles S.
of Albany ; bounded north by Montgomery and Newburgh,
eaft by the Hudfon, fouth by Cornwall and Blooming-
grove, weit by Money and Wallkill. Its medial ex-
tent eaft and weft is eight miles, and north near four, giving
an area of about 30 {quare miles. Its population in 1810
confifted of 2331 perfons, and its fenatorial electors were
147- It has two poft-offices, viz. the village of New
Windfor, pleafantly fituated on the weft bank of the Hud-
fon, and having confiderable trade ; and Little Britain, faid
to be difcontinued in 1813. This townfhip has feveral
mill-ftreams, and the land is occupied chiefly by farmers, who
enjoy much of the independence refulting from profperous
induftry. The whole is well watered by {prings and brooks.
Winpsor Foreff. See Winpsor.
Winpsor River, a river of the ftate of Conneéticut,
which runs into the Conneéticut, 4 miles N. of Hartford.
2 10 WInpsor
WIN
Wsnpsor Bean, in Agriculture and Gardening.
Bran, and Vicia.
WINDTBERG, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Holftein ; 4 miles S.S.E. of Meldorp.
WINDTHAAG, or Winptae, a town of Autftria ;
3 miles E. of Bavarian Waidhoven.
WINDWARD Passace, a name given to a courfe
from the fouth-eaft angle of the ifland of Jamaica, in the
Welt Indies, and extending from 160 leagues to the north
fide of Crooked ifland, in the Bahamas. Ships have often
failed through this channel, from the north part of it to the
ifland of Cuba, or the gulf of Mexico, notwithftanding the
common opinion, on account of the current which is againft
it, that they keep the Bahama fhore on board, and that they
meet with the wind in fummer for the moft part of the
channel eafterly, which, with a counter current on fhore,
puthes them eafily through it.
Winxpwarp J/lands, in oppofition to Leeward. Thefe
iflands in the Welt Indies extend from Martinico to Tobago.
See West Invres.
Winpwarp Point, a cape on the north-eaft coaft of the
ifland of St. Chriftopher. N. lat. 17° 23'. W. long. 62° 22.
WINDY Tumours. See Tumour.
WINE, the fermented juice of the grape. The name is
alfo applied to the fermented juice of other fubacid fruits.
It is impoffible to fix the era when mankind firft dif-
covered fermented. liquors. Some hiftorians have afcribed
the difcovery to Noah, others to Saturn, others to Bacchus,
&c. In fhort, almoft every country in which the vine is
indigenous has boafted of fome individual or native deity,
to whom the honour has been attributed ; and if we refle&
upon the fimplicity of the proceffes effentially neceffary to
be had recourfe to in making wine, it will appear exceed-
ingly probable that the difcovery was not made by one
perfon or country exclufively, but by different individuals
and nations at very different periods. A poet has elegantly
reprefented wine as a recompence given by the deity for the
miferies brought upon mankind by the general deluge :
“
See
Deus nobis felicia vini /
Dona dedit, triftes hominum quo munere fovit,
Reliquias ; mundi folatus vite ruinam.””
Predium Rufticum.
Different kinds of wine were known at a very early
period ; and as civilization and luxury advanced, the number
was greatly extended. Hence the cultivation of the vine
became an objet of importance, and many new varieties
were produced, which, favoured by foil and fituation, ren-
dered particular places more famous than others, Thus the
ancient Romans not only poffeffed a great variety of native
wines, but, in the days of their greateft fplendour, thofe
alfo of diftant and ftill more favoured climes, as the Vinum
Chium, Lefbium, Leucadium, Rhodium, &c. &c. See Pliny,
xiv. 6.
Little is known refpeGting the modes of manufacturing
fome of the moft patrol of the ancient wines. The
a proceffes, however, did not perhaps differ much
rom thofe at prefent in ufe. The fruit was colleéed,
bruifed by the bet, and fubjeGed to preffure, as now prac-
tifed. The juice that firft flowed {pontaneoufly was called
areuwroroy by the Greeks, and by the Romans vinum primarium 5
fuch as was cbtained by preffure was denominated dsuregioy,
or vinum fecundarium, and confidered as’ inferior.
Both Greeks and Romans appear to have frequently con-
centrated their wines, either by {pontaneous evaporation, or
by boiling. For the former purpofe, the wine was fome-
times introduced into bladders or large jars, and expofed in
WIN
the chimney to the heat of the fire, or in the upper parts of
the houfe to the heat of the fun. Sometimes the fruit was
converted into raifins by drying, and the wine prepared
from fuch fruit was denominated pafum. At other times
the muff was reduced by boiling to one-half. This formed
the vinum defrudum: cneabosally even to one-third, when
it was termed Sapa. (See Pliny, xiv. 9.) By one or per-
haps more of thefe methods, the wines were reduced to the
ftate of fyrup, or in fome inftances even to drynefs, and
were capable of being preferved for a very long time. Thus
Ariftotle ftates, that the Arcadian wines required to be
diluted with water before they were drank, as indeed was
the cafe with moft of the ancient wines; and Pliny {peaks
of wines as thick as honey, which it was neceflary to dif-
folve in warm water, and filter through linen, before they
were ufed. This was the cafe with the wine of Cecuba,
according to Martial :
«“ Turbida folicito tranfmittere Czcuba facco.”’
Pliny mentions Staphylus as the firft who mixed wine
with water; but Atheneus gives the credit of it to Am-
phitryon, king of Athens. On this occafion a fable was
invented, that Bacchus, having been ftruck by a thunder-
bolt, and being all inflamed, was prefently caft into the
nymphs’ bath, to be extinguifhed.
‘Thefe remarks, however, are applied by the above au-
thors chiefly to very old wines. Thus the wine compared
by Pliny to honey had been made two hundred years be-
fore, in the time of conful Opimius: indeed wines of a
hundred years old, and upwards, feem not to have been
uncommon among the luxurious citizens of ancient Rome.
(See Hor. od. iil. 14. 18. Juvenal, v. 34.) And fimilar
allufions will be found in various other authors. Seven
years was the fhorteft period, according to Ariftotle and
Galen, for keeping a wine before it was fe for drinking.
Among the Romans, the age of wines was, as it were,
the criterion of their goodnefs. Horace, in his odes, which
one may call Bacchic fongs, boalts of his drinking Falernian
wine, born, as it were, with him, or which reckoned its
age from the fame confuls.
The age of wine has been reckoned by leaves: thus they
fay, wine of two, four, or fix leaves, to fignify a wine
that was two, four, or fix years old; taking each new leaf
put forth by the vine, fince the wine was made, for a year,
The moderns keep no wine to fuch an age as that mentioned
by Pliny. Where they are kept the Bie 5 as in Italy
and Germany, there are fcarce any to be found of above
fifteen leaves. In France, the wines that keep beft, as
thofe of Dijon, Nantz, and Orleans, are reckoned fuper-
annuated at five or fix years old.
Wine kept in a cool vault, and well fecured from the ex-
ternal air, will preferve its texture entire in all the conftituent
parts, and fufficiently ftrong for many years, as appears not
only from old wines, but other foreign fermente: liquors,
particularly thofe of China, prepared from a decoétion of
rice, which being well clofed down in the veffel, and buried
deep under grouad, will continue, for a long feries of years,
rich, ia and goods as the hiftories of that country
univerfally agree in affuring us.
Sir Edward Barry, in his Obfervations, hiftorical, criti-
cal, and medical, on the Wines of the Ancients, fuggefts,
that our beft modern wines, efpecially thofe of a Aelitane
texture and flavour, may be more effeétually preferved in
earthen veffels of a larger fize than our bottles, well glazed
externally and internally: that dry fand is pAieesie for
covering the bottles in the binns to faw-duft; and that a
{mall
WINE.
fmall anti-cellar, built before all large cellars, would be a
confiderable defence and improvement.
The ancients were fond of giving their wines an artificial
flavour, and for this purpofe they introduced pitch, turpen-
tine, and different herbs into the muff; a practice {till fol-
lowed by the modern Greeks. Plin. ubi /upra.
Such are the principal faé&ts known refpeéting the cele-
brated ancient wines, which, as Chaptal juitly remarks,
appear in general to have rather deferved the name of extrads
or fyrups than wines. They muft have been {weet and little
fermented, and confequently have contained a very {mall
proportion of alcohol. Indeed it is difficult to fuppofe how
they could contain any fpirit whatever, or poffefs in confe-
quence any intoxicating properties.
The above remarks, however, can be only applicable to
thofe wines which the refinements of luxury or caprice had
rendered valuable, from their uncommon occurrence, or the
difficulty with which they were procured. It is certain that
the ancients were well acquainted with the fermentative pro-
eefs, and ordinarily took advantage of it in the formation
of their wines: hence it is extremely probable that the wines
ufed in the primitive ftates of fociety, and perhaps at all
times by the common people, confifted fimply of the fer-
mented juice of the grape, and therefore differed in no
refpeéts whatever from the wines in common ufe at the pre-
fent time.
General Principles of Wine-making.—We fhall confider this
interefting fubje&t under two principal points of view:
ft, The manufacture of wine from grapes ; and 2d, From
other fruits.
1. The manufacturing of wine from grapes is liable to be
influenced by a great variety of circumftances, fuch as cli-
mate, foil, afpedt, feafon, &c.; of fome of the moft important
of which we fhall take a curfory view.
The vine isa native of the middle regions of the temperate
zone, that is to fay, between the latitudes of 25° and 50°,
and here only does it flourifh and mature its fruit in abfolute
perfection. Indeed a belt comprifed between the latitudes
of 40° and 50°, may be faid to include all the moit cele-
brated vineyards of the northern hemifphere ; thofe, namely,
of Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Auftria, Styria, Carin-
thia, Hungary, Tranfylvania, and part of Greece. The
vine grows beyond the latitude of 50°, but its juices
are auftere, and without the requifite degree of faccharine
matter to form good wine. The fine aromatic odour and
flavour of its fruit alfo are not developed much beyond this
latitude. In the fouthern hemifphere, which is colder than
the northern, the vine flourifhes fomewhat nearer the
equator. ¢
The vine grows in every foil, but that which is light and
gravelly is beft adapted for its cultivation. It flourifhes ex-
tremely well alfo in volcanic countries. Thus fome of the
beft wines in Italy are made in the neighbourhood of Vefu-
vius. The famous Tokay wine is allo made in a volcanic
diftri&, as are feveral of the beft French wines ; many parts
of the fouth of France bearing evident marks of extin&
volcanoes. The vine alfo flourifhes well in primitive coun-
tries, and efpecially among the debris of granite rocks: thus
the celebrated Hermitage wine is made from a foil of this
defcription.
The fame climate, foil, and mode of culture, however,
often produce wines of very different qualities. Pofition and
afpeG alone, all other circumftances being the fame, make
a prodigious difference. The fame vineyard, for example,
according as its different parts have a northern or fouthern
afpe&t, will produce wines of oppofite charaGters, as will
alfo the fame hill, at its top, middle, and bottom. The
afpe& moft favourable for a vineyard is upon a rifing
ground or hill facing the fouth-eaft, and the fituation fhould
not be too con‘ined :
i4
apertos
Bacchus amat colles.”?
If the foil be not favourable for the vine no art can make
it fo. Manure of different forts will indeed render the fruit
more abundant, but the wine will fuffer in quality. The
beft manure is {tated to be the dung’ of pigeons or poultry.
Burnt fea-wrack alfo is a favourite manure with fome. Fat
and putrid manures are abfolutely to be rejeted, as they
deftroy the wine altogether, by vitiating its flavour.
The qualities of wines are very much affeGted by the fea-
fons. In cloudy and wet feafons the wine is always inferior.
Rain is moft to be dreaded at the feafon of the vintage.
Moderate rains juft after the feafon of bloom are of great ad-
vantage, and caufe the fruit to {well very rapidly. Rough
winds are very prejudicial to vineyards. Mitts are {till more
fo, efpecially during the feafon of bloom, as they are apt to
deftroy the flower, and confequently the fruit: the reafon
of this is perhaps not very evident, but it feems to depend in
part upon the rapid evaporation of the moifture left by the
fogs, when the fun breaks through them, and the great and
fudden change of temperature which takes place in confe-
quence. Too great a degree of heat is injurious to the vine ;
the perfeGtion of their fruit, as well obferved by: Chaptal,
depends upon a due equilibrium between the quantity of
water affording aliment to the plant, and the degree of heat
neceflary to elaborate this water into its juices.
Towards the northern limits of the vine country, the
plants are always fupported on poles, and in cold and wet
feafons they fometimes {trip off the leaves, or twift the ftalks
of the clufters, in order to fupprefs vegetation and facilitate
the ripening of the grapes. ‘The latter praétice was not
unknown to the ancients: ‘ Ut dulcia preterea fierent, af-
fervabant uvas diutius in vite, pediculo intorto.”’ Pliny. But
in warmer climates, on the contrary, the earth requires to be
fhielded from the heat, and here the vine is generally left to
fpread over the ground, and thus by its foliage to proteé&t
the foil, as well as its fruit, from the direét rays of the
fun. With refpe& to the beft methods of pruning and train-
ing vines, fee the articles Vinx, and ViTis.
Of the Vintage.—It is of the utmoft importance in the
manufacture of wines, to attend to the precife moment when
the grapes have arrived at their full maturity ; and then, and
not before, ought the vintage in general to commence.
This may be known, according to Chaptal, by the follow-
ing figns.
1. The green end of the clufter becomes brown.
2. The clufter becomes pendant.
3. The feed lofes its hardnefs, and the {kin becomes thin
and tranfparent.
4. The clufter and feeds are eafily detached.
5. The juice is fweet, bland, thick, and clammy.
6. The kernels of the feeds are free from glutinous
matter.
The fall of the leaves denotes rather the approach of win-
ter than the maturity of the fruit, efpecially in the more
northern climates. This therefore is a fallacious fign. Ne-
verthelefs, when the froft has been fo fevere as to deftroy
the leaves, it will feldom be proper to delay the vintage much
longer, as the fruit can hardly be expeéted after this to be-
come ripe; and by delay it may ftand a chance of being
fpoiled entirely. :
On the contrary, in the manufaGture of particular wines,
the grapes are permitted to remain till they wither, or they
Ey ie are
WINE.
are gathered and dried in the fun. Thus the celebrated
Tokay wine is made of dried fruit, as are alfo many of the
lufcious wines of Italy. Some of the French wines like-
wife are made with fruit that has been fuffered to ripen
and wither upon the vines.
It is defirable in general that the weather fhould be fet-
tled, and the foil and fruit dry during the vintage. It is
therefore recommended to abftain from gathering till the
fun has difperfed the dew. Asa general rule, this is proper ;
but in Champagne they commence gathering the fruit before
the fun is riferi, and ceafe their labours about nine o’clock,
unlefs there be a fog, when they continue to gather all day ;
by thefe means they improve the whitenefs and brifknefs of
their wine, which are the qualities that chiefly render them
celebrated. They alfo increafe their quantity. Thus it is
found in Champagne, that they gain a tun in every twenty-
four where they colle& the fruit moift with dew, and a great
deal more if there happens to be a fog.
When the fruit is ripe, a proper number of ex rienced
hands fhould be procured, fo as to be able, ina fingle eo to
fill the fermenting tub or vat, in order to enfure an uniform
degree of fermentation. Women are commonly employed
for the purpofe, but the prefence of an intelligent male over-
feer is abfolutely neceffary. In fome parts of France the
fruit is feparated with fciffors; in others with the nail; and
in Champagne they ufe a knife. The fciffors is undoubtedly
preferable, as it does not fhake the ftock. The ripe fruit
only fhould be colleéted, if the obje& be to make good
wine, and what is unripe or decayed fhould be carefully re-
jeGted ; indeed they have always two or three feparate vin-
tages in thofe countries, where they are careful of the qua-
lity of their wines ; and the wine made firft is always confi-
dered the beft. In thofe parts, on the contrary, where the
wine is chiefly diftilled, as in Languedoc and Provence,
they ufually colle& all the fruit indifcriminately at one time.
In fome diftri@s, where the fineft wines are made, as in
Bourdeaux, &c. the fruit is carefully picked, and only the
prime of the clufters taken. On the contrary, they care-
fully avoid having the fruit too ripe in Champagne, and other
diftrits where fparkling wines are chicfly manufa&tured, and
prefer the prefence of a certain proportion of unripe fruit.
It need fearcely be remarked, that the greateft care fhould
be taken to prevent the fruit from being bruifed or other-
wife damaged.
The next important ftep is the management of the fruit
after it has been colle€&ted. In different countries different
preliminary fteps are purfued before the fruit is fubmitted
to preflure. Thus in Spain, efpecially in the neighbour-
hood of St. Lucar, they leave the fruit expofed for two
days to the rays of the fun. In Lorraine, part of Italy,
in Calabria, and the ifland of Cyprus, as before obferved,
they dry the fruit completely, and. this is the cafe in the
manufa@ture of all the rich white wines.
A queftion that has been much agitated is, whether it be
advantageous to ftrip the grapes from the ftalks and remove
the latter, or fuffer them to remain. Both thefe methods have
their adyocates ; but Chaptal remarks very properly that
neither ought to be followed exclufively. It is trues the fame
celebrated chemift obferves, that the {tems have a rough and
auftere tafte; but this appearsto be of advantage to fome wines,
efpecially thofe made in the more northern diftriéts, where the
flight aftringency imparted by the ftems correéts their infipidi-
ty, and appears to have the property of making them keep
better, perhaps by rendering the fermentation more complete.
In the neighbourhood of Bourdeaux, indeed, they remove
the ftalks fom the red grapes in the manufa€turing of their
beft wines, but they modify that part of the procaliija fome
degree according to the ripenefs of the fruit: when the
fruit is unripe, or has been injured by the froft, they remove
nearly the whole of the ftalks, but if the fruit be over-ripe
they leave a very large proportion of them. A certain por-
tion, however, is always permitted to remain with the view of
facilitating the fermentative procefs, and rendering it more
perfe&. From the white grapes, the ftalks are never re-
moved. In fhort, in the colder diftri&ts, where the wines
are of an inferior quality, or where the objeét is to render
the wines as {trong as poflible, with the view of diftilling them,
the ftems in general do not require to be removed ; but im
warmer countries, where the finer-flavoured and richer wines
are manufaétured, every thing liable to affeét thefe defirable
qualities is to be carefully removed, and the ftems among the
reft. The ftems are feparated in various ways: fometimes
by agitating the grapes in the veflels in which they are de-
pofited with three-pronged forks, fometimes by coarfe fieves
made of oziers, &c.
The next important ftep is bruifing the fruit, which is
garal performed by treading them with the feet in per-
orated tubs or bafkets placed over the wat or tub deftined
to receive the muft. This mode of bruifing grapes, though
as ancient perhaps as wine-making itfelf, is very imperfedt,
as a great deal or the fruit remains unbroken. In England
we fhould adopt the ufe of machinery.
Of Fermentation, the Circumftances affeGing it, Phenomena,
Produ&s, &c.—The juice, or muff, as it is termed, is no fooner
in the vat than it ufually begins to ferment. The vat is a
capacious veffel made of wood or fometimes of mafonry, and
its fize correfponds, or ought to correfpond, with the quan-
tity of wine to be made. Before it is ufed, it requires to
be thoroughly wafhed, and its fides in France are ufually
covered with lime, which has the effeét of faturating a por-
tion of the malic and other acids which exift in abundance
in the mu/t.
The fermentative procefs has been already defcribed (fee
FERMENTATION ); we fhall therefore be very brief upon the
{ubje& here, and confine our attention principally to a con-
cife recapitulation of the particulars, in order to prefent
our readers with a general and conneéted view of the art of
wine-making.
The vinous fermentation is influenced by feveral circum-
ftances, fuch as temperature, prefence of the air, the volume
of the muft, &c. The muft of the grape requires a tem-
perature of at leaft 55°, to enable it to commence the fer-
mentative procefs. Some have denied that the prefence
of the air is neceffary to fermentation. The recent ex-
periments of Gay Luffac, however, feem to prove the
reverfe. This celebrated chemift found that the muft
would not begin to ferment in clofe veffels, but that
the introduétion of a little oxygen inftantly fet it going;
the oxygen being firft rapidly abforbed.. Perhaps we may
explain the oppofite conclufions of different experimentalifts
upon this fubje&, by fuppofing that the prefence of oxygen,
though oa to enable the muft to commence ferment-
ation, is not neceflary to fupport it afterwards. The fer-
mentative procefs is much influenced by the bulk or quantity
of the muft. It is.a well-eftablifhed fa&t, that the greater
the quantity the more violent is the fermentation. n ex-
perienced manufacturer of wine, therefore, will take care to
proportion the quantity of muft to the qualities of his fruit,
or rather perhaps to thofe of the wine which it is his obje&
to procure: the fweeter and more lufcious the mutt, the
ey the quantity in general, which it will be proper to
ubmit to the fermentative procefs in one mafs.
Other important circumitances which influence the fer-
mentative procefs are the requifite quantities and due relative
proportions
WINE,
roportions to one another of the neceflary principles. The
eet and fermentative principles, tartar and water, are
the principles (as explained under the article FERMENTATION)
effential to the production of wine. The {weeteft grapes do
not always make the beft wine, nor atually contain the
greateft proportion of fugar, at leaft of real fugar, fuch as
is proper for the formation of alcohol. An experienced
tafte, it is faid, can readily diftinguifh between a really /ac-
charine grape and a _/weet grape; and confequently pronounce
@ priori whether it be adapted for making good wine or not.
Pure faccharine matter, however, will not ferment alone,
but requires a certain proportion of other principles to put
it in motion. When the muft contains too large a proportion
of water, the fermentative procefs is feeble, and the wine is
confequently bad. The ancients obviated this, as we before
mentioned, by boiling the muft; a praétice {till fometimes
followed in the northern diftriéts, efpecially in wet feafons.
The fame objet is gained alfo by drying the fruit; and
fometimes by the introduétion of lime into the vat. The
juice of the grape always contains a certain proportion of
tartar. This quantity is greater in general as the quantity
of fugar is lefs. If the juice contains too large a propor-
tion of fugar in relation to the tartar, it is cuftomary to add
a portion of the latter principle. On the contrary, if the
faccharine principle be deficient and the tartar in excefs,
fugar is to be added.
The fermentative procefs is accompanied by the produc-
tion of heat, by the difengagement of carbonic acid gas,
and the formation of alcohol. ‘Thefe phenomena have been
already difcuffed under the article above alluded to. An-
other important circumftance, however, which takes place
during this procefs, 1s the colouring of the mu. The
juice of the black grape, as well as of the white, is nearly
colourlefs; and if the fermentation be not permitted to take
place in conta& with the hufls or marc, a colourlefs wine is
obtained in all cafes. The colour of red wines is derived
from the marc; by permitting the wine to ferment in contact
with it, the colouring principle of the marc or hufks being
foluble in alcohol. Hence, when alcohol begins to be de-
veloped by the fermentative procefs, it ats upon the colour-
ing principle and diffolves it, and the muft becomes coloured.
The following are the principal fa&ts conneGted with this part
of the fubje&. The wine is more coloured the longer the
fermentative procefs is continued, and vice verfa. The wine
is more coloured in proportion as the fruit is more ripe and
lefs watery. Wine obtained by preffure is more coloured
than other wine, and laftly wines manufactured in the fouth
are in general deeper coloured than thofe produced in more
northern diftriéts. ‘
Great attention and pra@tical knowledge are required in
managing the fermentation properly, as on this important
procefs depend entirely the future qualities of the wines.
The fame fruit in different feafons, and from various caufes,
requires to be managed differently ; and almoft every kind
of wine requires a different, and, in fome cafes, even an
oppofite, mode of treatment. Thus the fine bouguet of Bur-
gundy is completely diflipated by a too violent or lafting
fermentation ; while, on the contrary, the fermentation of the
firong wines of Languedoc, celebrated chiefly for the quan-
tity of alcohol which they contain, ought to be long and
complete. In Champagne, as we formerly mentioned, they
colle& the fruit deftined to form their white wines while moitt
with dew or mift : on the contrary, in the manufa@ture of their
red wines, they prefer fruit as dry as poffible. In the for-
mer cafe, the fermentative procefs is fo languid, as often to
require a gentle heat ; in the latter, fo violent, as to require
to be moderated. Weak wines ought in general to be fer-
mented in eafks; {trong wines in the vat. No general rules,
however, can be given that will apply in all inftances ; but
the proceffes muft be varied according to circumftances, and
the judgment of the manufacturer.
‘The fermentative procefs, for obvious réafons, is moft
difficult to manage in the northern diftri€ts, where the fruit
is more imperfeét. ‘To encourage the procefs, they fome-
times introduce a little warm mult to the bottom of the vat
by means of along funnel. They alfo agitate it frequently,
and to preferve a due degree of temperature, cover the vat
with blankets, or heat the room artificially.
The theory or rationale of the fermentative procefs has
been explained, as far as it is known, under the article Fzr-
MENTATION, before alluded to; we fhall therefore pafs it over
entirely here, and confine our attention to pra¢tical points
only.
A moft material point in the manufature of wines is to
know the precife moment when the fermentative procefs has
been carried far enough, and the means neceflary to prevent
its getting farther than this point. In the wine countries al-
moit every manufacturer boafts of his knowledge in thefe
particulars, and often adopts different methods. Chaptal
lays down the following rules to be attended to.
1. The wine ought to ferment fo much the lefs time as it
contains lefs faccharine matter. Thus the light wines of
Burgundy require to ferment no longer than from fix to
twelve hours.
2. The muft ought to ferment alefs time in the vat when it
is intended to retain the carbonic acid gas, and make {parkling
wines. In this cafe, the muft is feldom left longer in the vat
than twenty-four hours before it is put into cafks ; and fre-
quently it is introduced into the cafks as foon as it is fepa-
rated from the fruit; by thefe means the fermentation is
checked, and the carbonic acid gas prevented from efcaping.
3. The fermentation ought to be of fhorter duration, in pro-
portion asit is the obje& to obtain wines more free from colour.
This fhould be, therefore, particularly attended to in the ma-
nufaéture of thofe wines where the abfence of colour is az
effential requifite.
4. The fermentative procefs is more ative in warm wea-
ther, and when the mafs is large, &c. than under the oppo-
fite circumftances ; and therefore, ceteris paribus, is fooner
completed. :
5. When the obje€ is to preferve to the wine the original
perfumed flavour of the grape, the fermentation requires ta
be checked fooner than under ordinary circumftances.
6. On the contrary, the fermentation requires to be con-
tinued longer in proportion as the’muft ‘is more thick, and
the faccharine matter more abundant.
7. It will alfo require to be longer when the object is to
manufacture wines for diftillation.
8. It will be longer in cold weather, and efpecially if the
fruit has been gathered on a very cold day.
g. Laftly, it will be longer in proportion as it is the ob-
ject to make a deeper coloured wine.
Thefe principles fteadily kept in view will perhaps be fuf-
ficient, with a little praétice, to enable any perfon of ordi-
nary knowledge and powers of obfervation to decide upon
the important points in queftion.
Great care is requifite in the preparation of the cafks for
receiving the wine. When they are new, they will fpoil its
flavour if not prevented. For this purpofe, boiling-water,
holding falt in folution, is introduced into them, which is
frequently agitated, and permitted to remain in them a long
time. After this they are to be wafhed out with a portion
of boiling muft in a ftate of fermentation, or fometimes with
a little wine, &c. If the cafks are old but {weet, the top is
2 merely
WINE.
merely taken out, and the tartar removed ; they are then
wafhed well with warm water. If the cafks have acquired
a bad odour, Chaptal recommends to commit them to the
flames ; for though it may be poflible to cover in fome de-
gree their bad odours, yet they are very likely to re-appear
and {poil the wine.
The veflels being ready, the wine is introduced into them,
for which purpofe it is drawn off from the vat by a cock
laced a few inches above the bottom into an open veffel,
Eom whence it is conveyed to the cafks, That portion of
the wine reiting immediately over the mutt is termed /urmont
ia Burgundy... This is carefully defecated, as it contti-
tutes the moft delicate and paleft of the wine. The liquor
is drawn off till the head comes in conta& with the mare.
The head is then carefully removed, and the marc is fub-
jeGted to repeated preflure. The wine thus farther obtained
is ufually mixed with the reft. That produced by the firft
preffure is ftrongeft ; that obtained by the laft is ufually more
harfh and coloured. Sometimes, however, when it is the
obje& to make vinegar, the mare is prefled but once. At
other times, they keep the wine obtained by all the different
preffures in feparate cafks. In Champagne they ufually mix
together the wines obtained by the different preflures, though
they are known by different names. The wines obtained
without any preffure, or a very flight one, they call vins gris ;
thofe obtained by the firft and fecond preffure, eil de perdrix ;
thofe by the third, vin de taille, which are moft coloured,
though fufficiently agreeable.
The marc is employed in various ways in the different dif-
triéts. Some fubmit it to diftillation ; others, efpecially
in the vicinity of Montpellier, prepare verdigris from it ;
others vinegar, In fome diftri@s, they feed cattle with it ;
in others, they burn it for the fake of the potafh it yields, &c.
Of the Management of the Wine in the Cafks——The wine
receives its laft degree of elaboration in the cafks ; this con-
fifts in a fort of fermentative procefs, to which the name of
infenfible fermentation has been applied. Almoft immediately
ter the wine isintroduced into the cafks, a {cum begins to
be formed upon its top, and efcapes by the bung-hole, which
at firft requires to be covered flightly only with a leaf or
tile. In proportion asthe fermentation fubfides, the mafs of
wine diminifhes in bulk ; and they watch this cautioufly, in
order to fupply its place from time to time with new wine,
fo as to keep the cafk always full: this procefs is denomi-
nated in France ouiller, which may be rendered filling Ki
In fome diftri€ts they _fil/ up every day during the firft month,
every other day during the fecond, and every eight days
afterwards, till the time of racking. This is the method
they adopt with the wines of Hermitage. In Champagne
they permit the vins gris to ferment in cafks for ten or twelve
days, and when the ebullition has ceafed, they clofe the
bung-hole, leaving, however, a {mall {pigot-hole by its fide,
which is permitted to remain open for eight or ten days
longer ; after which they clofe this with a plug, in fuch a
manner as to be able to open it at pleafure. When
the nom are introduced, they fil up every eighth da
by the fpigot, for twenty-five days. After this every fit-
teenth day, for one or two months ; and finally, every two
months during the whole time the wine remains in the cellar,
When the feafon has been wet and unfavourable, and the
wines want body, or when it has been dry and hot, and
they are too rich, twenty-five days after they have been
made, they roll the cafks five or fix times, in order to mix
the grounds, and re-excite the fermentative procefs, and this
7 repeat every eighth day for a month.
he fermentation of the Champagne wines, which are de-
figned to be brifk and fparkling, is very long and tedious.
It is generally underftood that they will be {parkling, pro-
vided they are bottled any time ee tes aeeend
the following May, and that the nearer the vintage the
brifker they will be. It is, however, generally taken for
granted, that they will be fufficiently Coking if bottled
about the middle of March. Wines begin to fparkle in
about fix weeks after they have been battled thofe, how-
ever, produced on mountains become fparkling fooner
than others. Wines bottled in June and July will be
very litle fparkling, and quite /fill if bottled fo late as
OGober and November.
In Burgundy, after the fermentation has relaxed in the
cafk, they put in a bung pierced with a {mall hole, in which
they introduce a plug that can be eafily removed at pleafure,
in order to fuffer the gas that may be extricated to efcape.
In the diftri& of Bourdeaux, they begin to fll up eight or
ten days after the wine has been introduced into the cafk.
A month after this they introduce the bung, and fill up
every eight days. At firft they bung the cafks loofely,
and then faften them down by degrees, without run-
ning any rifk. The white wines are racked and fulphured
in December, and thefe require much more care than the
red wines, from their containing more fediment, and their
being more liable to become ropy. The red wines are not
racked till towards February or March, ayd as thefe are
much more apt to become Our than the white wines, they
require to be kept in cooler cellars during the fummer.
There are, fome who, after the fecond racking, turn the
cafks fo as to place the bung on one fide; and thus
the cafks being hermetically fealed from there being no
lofs, there is no need of filling up. They then rack off
annually, at any time of the year they find it convenient.
Methods nearly fimilar are adopted in other wine coun-
tries; hence it will be needlefs to repeat them. We hall,
however, give a fhort account of the methods followed in
the manufa@ture of Port, Madeira, and Sherry, the moft
popular wines of this country.
In Oporto, the complete fermentation of the muft takes
place in the vat. The wine is then introduced into large tuns,
capable of holding twenty-five pipes each ; and at this ftage
the brandy is added according to the judgment of the ma-
nufaCturer.
In Madeira, the fecond or infenfible fermentation is car-
ried on in cafks, and the wine is racked from them at the end
of three or four months, at which time a portion of the
brandy is added. ‘The remainder is referved to be mixed at
the time of exportation.
In the manufaGture of Sherry, the grapes are firlt flightly
dried, and {prinkled with quick-lime. They are then wetted
with brandy on being introduced into the prefs, and a por-
tion of brandy is added to the mutt before the fermentation
commences. The fubfequent procefles confift in repeated
rackings at intervals of a month or two, till March, brandy
being added at each racking.
The obje& of racking ae wines is to feparate the dregs
confifting of tartar, &c, depofited from the wine, and which,
if left, are liable to render it four, by re-exciting from time
to time the fermentation. The tendency to fermentation is
counteraéted by a procefs termed /u/phuring, and the {pon-
taneous feparation of the dregs is rendered more complete by
CLARIFICATION, which fee. See alfo Fuyine and Forcine.
The /ulphuring of wines confifts in impregnating them
with the vapours of burning fulphur, or fulphurous acid, and
is generally effeéted by burning fulphur-matches in the cafks.
(See Marcuine.) Thefe matches are made in different
ways, aromatics being fometimes mixed with the fulphur ;
but the fulphur is the only ufeful and neceflary ingredient,
Sometimes
: WINE.
Sometimes a wine highly impregnated with fulphurous acid is
prepared, a little af which mixed with the reft anfwers the
purpofe of burning matches in the cafk. Other fubftances,
according to Dr. Macculloch, anfwer the fame purpofe as
Julphuring ; namely, the black oxyd of manganefe, and parti-
cularly the /ulphite of potafb. A drachm of which falt is
fufficient for a pipe of wine, and is very effe@ual in counter-
aéting the fermentative procefs. ‘The theory of thefe pro-
cefles is very obfcure.
We have before obferved that the mere racking of wines is
not fufficient to render them pure, and various methods are
adopted at the racking periods to render this operation more
effeGtual, and thefe altogether conftitute the proce{s termed
clarification.
Lord Bacon mentions a praétice among the ancients of
putting wine into veffels well ftopped, and letting it down
intothe fea. That this practice is very ancient is manifeft
from the difcourfe of Plutarch (Queft. Nat. 27.) about the
efficacy of cold upon mutt.
Different periods, as before-mentioned, are chofen in dif-
ferent diftriéts for racking wines. Thus the wines of Her-
mitage are racked in March and September, thofe of Cham-
pagne about the middle of O&ober, the middle of February,
and the latter end of March. If poffible, a ferene and fet-
tled ftate of the atmofphere, and a dry and cold day, fhould
be chofen for the purpofe, as the wine is always turbid in
damp clofe weather, and during the prevalence of foutherly
winds.
In racking wines, it isin general defirable to expofe them
as little as poffible to the atmofpheric air. In fome diftricts,
a fyphon is employed for the purpofe. In Champagne they
ufe a fort of pump. Dr. Macculloch recommends that the
wine.fhould be transferred from one cafk to another by means
of a leather hofe, and this method is undoubtedly preferable.
For clarifying wines, a great variety of fubftances are em-
ployed. Ifinglafs and albumen either from eggs or blood
are the moft common ; but gum, ftarch, rice, milk, the
fhavings of beech-wood, gypfum, fand, &c. are ufed in dif-
ferent wine countries. An ounce of ifinglafs, or about
eighteen or twenty whites of eggs, are fufficient for one
hundred gallons of wine.
Two very important circumftances in the practice of wine-
making require yet to be mentioned ; thefe are the medication
of wines, and the means of remedying thofe difeafes to which
they are liable.
The medication of wines confifts in altering the colour,
the flavour, or the ftrength of any given wine, or in fo mixing
two or more together, as to produce a compound differing
from, or fuperior to, either. It is difficult to give any gene-
ral rules for this purpofe, and the proper management of the
proceffes depends chiefly upon the experience and tafte of
the maker.
It generally happens that when two wines are mixed, the
fermentative procefs is partially renewed, or the mixture is
technically faid to fret, whence the pra¢tice itfelf has derived
the name of fretting in. Mixed wines appear to unite into
one durable arid homogeneous liquor, only in confequence of
this fermentation. It is therefore defirable, if poffible, to
mix wines only at thofe periods when they both fhew a ten-
dency to fretting, which, according to Chaptal, in the wine
countries, appears to be at three principal feafons of the
year, viz. when the vines begin to fhoot, when they are in
flower, and when the fruit begins to acquire colour. The
wines being then proportioned according to the fancy or
experience of the eal, a ftrong fermentation is excited,
which is {till farther affifted by agitation. The wine thus
becomes homogeneous, and fhews no more tendency to far-
iI
ther change than if it had been originally produced by one
operation ; and the repetition of the procefles of fining and
racking renders it perfeé.
In wine countries, particular wines, diftinguifhed either by
their ftrength, harfhnefs, colour, or flavour, are often ma-
nufaétured for mixing with others, and are applied ac-
cording to circumftances. For making fuch wines, dif-
ferent fruit and peculiar management are often reforted to.
The ufual faults of wines requiring correétion are, Sweetnefs,
drynefs bordering on acidity, and excefs or defeét of brifk-
nefs. Conneéted alfo with this part of the fubjeé are the
means of imparting to wine colour, flavour, and Strength, and
other remarkable properties. Sweetne/s arifes from the
prefence of too much faccharine matter, and may be gene-
rally remedied by prolonging the fermentation. On the
contrary, when the fermentation has been carried fo far as
to decompofe the whole of the fugar, the wine is faid to
be dry ; and if the original quantity of fugar has been rather
defective, it will have a ftrong tendency to become four.
The remedy in this cafe is, to add fugar, or fometimes
brandy. The modes of enfuring a due degree of brifknefs
in thofe wines intended to poffefs this quality have been
already pointed out.
Many of the proceffes followed in imparting colour,
flavour, flrength, &c. to wines, are unknown to the public, and
confined to the cellars of the manufa@turer or the merchant.
The general principles, however, are fufficiently obvious.
The roughne/s and colour of red wines are derived, as we
formerly ftated, from the hufks of the fruit; and when it is
wifhed to impart thefe qualities in a higher degree, the
manufacturers fometimes mix a certain portion of wild and
high-coloured grapes with the other fruit. At other times,
various aftringent and coloured drugs are employed, as
catechu, kino, logwood, &c.: popular ingredients are the
juices of floes or elderberries. The chips of oak and
beech-wood are alfo employed. With refpe& to yellow
tints, thefe can be all accurately imitated by means of burnt
fugar. As to flavours, in general thofe which are foreign
and unufual are commonly unpleafant. Cuftom, however,
has reconciled us to many. The ancients, as formerly men-
tioned, feem to have been much more accuftomed to arti-
ficial flavours than the moderns, and the moft in requeft
was the turpentine or refinous flavour, which was imparted
by means of chips of fir-wood, a practice ftill followed in.
modern Greece. In Madeira wines, as well as thofe of
Xeres and San Lucar, it is the praétice at prefent to ufe
{weet and bitter almonds ; hence the nutty flavour of thefe
wines. In Egypt, the flower of the vine itfelf has been
employed from time immemorial, and is {till ufed in different
wine countries ; its odour is very like that of miguonette,
which may be doubtlefs fubftituted for it. Rafpberries,
orris-root, elder-flowers, worm-wood, and a variety of other
fubftances, are employed for a fimilar purpofe. In ufing
thefe different articles, the eftablifhed praétice is to fufpend
the flavouring ingredients in the cafk a few days during the
ftage of infenfible fermentation ; by which means their
flavour is retained without a chance of being diffipated.
Where the /frength of wine is deficient, brandy is added,
according to circumftances ; and to render the mixture of
this more complete, it fhould be added while: the procefs
of infenfible fermentation is going on. If there be a necef-
fity to add it after the wine is completed, it fhould then be
managed by the fretting-in*procefs.
The laft of the circumftances conneéted with wine-making
: = means of obviating thofe difeafes to which wines are
iable.
One of the moft common difeafes of weak wines is acidity.
Strong
WINE.
merely taken out, and the tartar removed ; they are then
wafhed well with warm water. If the cafks have acquired
a bad odour, Chaptal recommends to commit them to the
flames ; for though it may be poflible to cover in fome de-
gree their bad odours, yet they are very likely to re-appear
and fpoil the wine.
The veflels being ready, the wine is introduced into them,
for which purpofe it is drawn off from the vat by a cock
peed a few inches above the bottom into an open veffel,
rom whence it is conveyed to the cafks. That portion of
the wine reiting immediately over the mutt is termed /urmont
ia Burgundy. This is carefully defecated, as it contti-
tutes the moft delicate and paleft of the wine. The liquor
is drawn off till the head comes in conta& with the mare.
The head is then carefully removed, and the marc is fub-
jeGted to repeated preflure. The wine thus farther obtained
is ufually mixed with the reft. That produced by the firft
preflure is ftrongeft ; that obtained by the laft is ufually more
harfh and coloured. Sometimes, however, when it is the
obje& to make vinegar, the mare is prefled but once. At
r times, they keep the wine obtained by all the different
preffures in feparate cafks. In Champagne they ufually mix
together the wines obtained by the different preflures, though
they are known by different names. The wines obtained
without any preffure, or a very flight one, they call vins gris
thofe obtained by the firft and fecond preffure, ail de perdrix 5
thofe by the third, vin de taille, which are moft coloured,
though fufficiently agreeable.
The marc is employed in various ways in the different dif-
tricts. Some fubmit it to diftillation ; others, efpecially
in the vicinity of Montpellier, prepare verdigris from it ;
others vinegar, In fome diftri€s, they feed cattle with it ;
in others, they burn it for the fake of the potafh it yields, &c.
Of the Management of the Wine in the Cafks.—The wine
receives its laft degree of elaboration in the cafks ; this con-
fifts in a fort of fermentative procefs, to which the name of
infenfitl fermentation has been applied. Almoft immediately
ter the wine isintroduced into the cafks, a {cum begins to
be formed upon its top, and efcapes by the bung-hole, which
at firft requires to be covered flightly only with a leaf or
tile. In proportion asthe fermentation {ubfides, the mafs of
wine diminifhes in bulk ; and they watch this cautioufly, in
order to fupply its place from time to time with new wine,
fo as to keep the cafk always full: this procefs is denomi-
nated in France ouiller, which may be rendered filing A
In fome diftriéts they fill up every day during the firft month,
every other day during the fecond, and every eight days
afterwards, till the time of racking. This is the method
they adopt with the wines of Hermitage. In Champagne
they permit the vins gris to ferment in cafks for ten or twelve
days, and when the ebullition has ceafed, they clofe the
bung-hole, leaving, however, a {mall {pigot-hole by its fide,
which is permitted to remain open for eight or ten days
longer ; after which they clofe dius with a plug, in fuch a
manner as to be able to open it at pleafure. When
the bungs are introduced, they fil up every eighth da
by the f{pigot, for twenty-five days. After this every fif-
teenth day, for one or two months ; and finally, every two
months during the whole time the wine remains in the cellar.
When the feafon has been wet and unfavourable, and the
wines want body, or when it has been dry and hot, and
they are too rich, twenty-five days after they have been
made, they roll the cafks five or fix times, in order to mix
the grounds, and re-excite the fermentative procefs, and this
they repeat every eighth day for a month.
¢ fermentation of the Champagne wines, which are de-
figned to be brifk and fparkling, is very long and tedious.
It is generally underftood that they will be f{parkling, pro-
vided they are bottled any time between the vintage and
the following May, and that the nearer the vintage the
brifker they will be. It is, however, generally taken for
granted, that they will be fufficiently frarkling if bottled
about the middle of March. Wines begin to fparkle in
about fix weeks after they have been boealeds thofe, how-
ever, produced on mountains become fparkling fooner
than others. Wines bottled in June and July will be
very little fparkling, and quite fill if bottled fo late as
O@ober and November.
In Burgundy, after the fermentation has relaxed in the
cafk, they put in a bung pierced with a {mall hole, in which
they introduce a plug that can be eafily removed at pleafure,
in order to fuffer the gas that may be extricated to efcape.
In the diftri& of Bourdeaux, they begin to All up eight or
ten days after the wine has been introduced into the cafk.
A month after this they introduce the bung, and fill up
every eight days. At firft they bung the cafks loofely,
and then faften them down by degrees, without run-
ning any rifk. The white wines are racked and fulphured
in December, and thefe require much more care than the
red wines, from their containing more fediment, and their
being more liable to become ropy. The red wines are not
racked till towards February or March, agd as thefe are
much more apt to become or than the white wines, they
require to be kept in cooler cellars during the fummer.
There are, fome who, after the fecond racking, turn the
cafks fo as to place the bung on one fide; and thus
the cafks being hermetically fealed from there being no
lofs, there is no need of filing up. They then a off
annually, at any time of the year they find it convenient.
Methods nearly fimilar are adopted in other wine coun-
tries; hence it will be needlefs to repeat them. We fhall,
however, give a fhort account of the methods followed in
the manufacture of Port, Madeira, and Sherry, the moft
popular wines of this country.
In Oporto, the complete fermentation of the muft takes
place in the vat. The wine is then introduced into large tuns,
capable of holding twenty-five pipes each ; and at this ftage
the brandy is added according to the judgment of the ma-
nufaCturer.
In Madeira, the fecond or infenfible fermentation is car-
ried on in cafks, and the wine is racked from them at the end
of three or four months, at which time a portion of the
brandy is added. ‘The remainder is referved to be mixed at
the time of exportation.
In the manufacture of Sherry, the grapes are firft flightly
dried, and {prinkled with quick-lime. They are then wetted
with brandy on being introduced into the prefs, and a por-
tion of brandy is added to the mutt before the fermentation
commences. The fubfequent procefles confift in repeated
rackings at intervals of a month or two, till March, brandy
being added at each racking,
The obje& of racking = wines is to feparate the dregs
confifting of tartar, &c, depofited from the wine, and which,
if left, are liable to render it four, by re-exciting from time
to time the fermentation. The tendency to fermentation is
counteraéted by a procefs termed /u/phuring, and the {pon-
taneous feparation of the dregs is rendered more complete by
CLARIFICATION, which fee. See alfo Finine and Forcine.
The /ulphuring of wines confifts in impregnating them
with the vapours of burning fulphur, or fulphurous acid, and
is generally effected by burning fulphur-matches in the cafks.
(See Marcuine.) Thefe matches are made in different
ways, aromatics being fometimes mixed with the fulphur ;
but the fulphur is the only ufeful and neceflary ingredient,
Sometimes
WINE.
Sometimes a wine highly impregnated with fulphurous acid is
prepared, a little a which mixed with the reft anfwers the
purpofe of burning matches in the cafk.. Other fubftances,
according to Dr. Macculloch, anfwer the fame purpofe as
Julphuring ; namely, the black oxyd of mangane/e, and parti-
cularly the /ulphite of potafb. A drachm of which falt is
fufficient for a pipe of wine, and is very effeQual in counter-
ating the fermentative procefs. The theory of thefe pro-
ceffes is very obfcure. ;
We have before obferved that the mere racking of wines is
not fufficient to render them pure, and various methods are
adopted at the racking periods to render this operation more
effeGtual, and thefe altogether conftitute the proce{s termed
clarification. ‘
Lord Bacon mentions a practice among the ancients of
putting wine into veflels well ftopped, and letting it down
intothe fea. That this praétice is very ancient is manifett
from the difcourfe of Plutarch (Queft. Nat. 27.) about the
efficacy of cold upon mutt. a.
Different periods, as before-mentioned, are chofen in dif-
ferent diftriéts for racking wines. Thus the wines of Her-
mitage are racked in March and September, thofe of Cham-
pagne about the middle of O&ober, the middle of February,
and the latter end of March. If poffible, a ferene and fet-
tled ftate of the atmofphere, and a dry and cold day, fhould
be chofen for the purpofe, as the wine is always turbid in
damp clofe weather, and during the prevalence of foutherly
winds.
In racking wines, it is in general defirable to expofe them
as little as poffible to the atmofpheric air. In fome diftricts,
a fyphon is employed for the purpofe. In Champagne they
ufe a fort of pump. Dr. Macculloch recommends that the
wine.fhould be transferred from one cafk to another by means
of a leather hofe, and this method is undoubtedly preferable.
For clarifying wines, a great variety of fubftances are em-
ployed. Ifinglafs and albumen either from eggs or blood
are the moft common ; but gum, ftarch, rice, milk, the
fhavings of beech-wood, gypfum, fand, &c. are ufed in dif-
ferent wine countries. An ounce of ifinglafs, or about
eighteen or twenty whites of eggs, are fufficient for one
hundred gallons of wine. ] P
Two very important circumitances in the practice of wine-
making require yet to be mentioned ; thefe are the medication
of wines, and the means of remedying thofe difeafes to which
they are liable.
The medication of wines confifts in altering the colour,
the flavour, or the ftrength of any given wine, or in fo mixing
two or more together, as to produce a compound differing
from, or fuperior to, either. It is difficult to give any gene-
ral rules for this purpofe, and the proper management of the
proceffes depends chiefly upon the experience and tafte of
the maker.
It generally happens that when two wines are mixed, the
fermentative procefs is partially renewed, or the mixture is
technically faid to fret, whence the pra¢tice itfelf has derived
the name of fretting in. Mixed wines appear to unite into
one durable arid homogeneous liquor, only in confequence of
this fermentation. It is therefore defirable, if poffible, to
mix wines only at thofe periods when they both fhew a ten-
dency to fretting, which, according to Chaptal, in the wine
countries, appears to be at three principal feafons of the
year, viz. when the vines begin to fhoot, when they are in
flower, and when the fruit begins to acquire colour. The
wines being then proportioned according to the fancy or
experience of the aaa, a ftrong fermentation is excited,
which is {till farther affifted by agitation. The wine thus
becomes homogeneous, and fhews no more tendency to far-
iI
ther change than if it had been originally produced by one
operation ; and the repetition of the proceffes of fining and
racking renders it perfeét.
In wine countries, particular wines, diftinguifhed either by
their ftrength, harfhnefs, colour, or flavour, are often ma-
nufactured for mixing with others, and are applied ac-
cording to circumftances. For making fuch wines, dif-
ferent fruit and peculiar management are often reforted to.
The ufual faults of wines requiring corre¢tion are, Sweetnefs,
drynefs bordering on acidity, and excefs or defe& of brifk-
nefs. Conneéed alfo with this part of the fubje@ are the
means of imparting to wine colour, flavour, and Strength, and
other remarkable properties. Sweetne/s arifes from the
prefence of too much faccharine matter, and may be gene-
rally remedied by prolonging the fermentation. On the
contrary, when the fermentation has been carried fo far as
to decompofe the whole of the fugar, the wine is faid to
be dry ; and if the original quantity of fugar has been rather
defective, it will have a ftrong tendency to become four.
The remedy in this cafe is, to add fugar, or fometimes
brandy. ‘The modes of enfuring a due degree of brifknefs
in thofe wines intended to poffefs this quality have been
already pointed out.
Many of the proceffes followed in imparting colour,
flavour, firength, &c. to wines, are unknown to the public, and
confined to the cellars of the manufa@turer or the merchant.
The general principles, however, are fufficiently obvious.
The roughnefs and colour of red wines are derived, as we
formerly ftated, from the hufks of the fruit ; and when it is
wifhed to impart thefe qualities in a higher degree, the
manufacturers fometimes mix a certain portion of wild and
high-coloured grapes with the other fruit. At other times,
various aftringent and coloured drugs are employed, as
catechu, kino, logwood, &c. : popular ingredients are the
juices of floes or elderberries. The chips of oak and
beech-wood are alfo employed. With refpe& to yellow
tints, thefe can be all accurately imitated by means of burnt
fugar. As to flavours, in general thofe which are foreign
and unufual are commonly unpleafant. Cuftom, however,
has reconciled us to many. The ancients, as formerly men-
tioned, feem to have been much more accuftomed to arti-
ficial flavours than the moderns, and the moft in requeft
was the turpentine or refinous flavour, which was imparted
by means of chips of fir-wood, a praétice {till followed in
modern Greece. In Madeira wines, as well as thofe of
Xeres and San Lucar, it is the praétice at prefent to ufe
{weet and bitter almonds ; hence the nutty flavour of thefe
wines. In Egypt, the flower of the vine itfelf has been
employed from time immemorial, and is {till ufed in different
wine countries ; its odour is very like that of miguonette,
which may be doubtlefs fubftituted for it. Rafpberries,
orris-root, elder-flowers, worm-wood, and a variety of other
fubftances, are employed for a fimilar purpofe. In ufing
thefe different articles, the eftablifhed pra@tice is to fufpend
the flavouring ingredients in the cafk a few days during the
ftage of infenfible fermentation ; by which means their
flavour is retained without a chance of being diffipated.
Where the /rength of wine is deficient, brandy is added,
according to circumftances ; and to render the mixture of
this more complete, it fhould be added while: the procefs
of infenfible fermentation is going on. If there be a necef-
fity to add it after the wine is completed, it fhould then be
managed by the fretting-in*procefs.
The laft of the circumftances conneéted with wine-making
Z A means of obviating thofe difeafes to which wines are
iable.
One of the moft common difeafes of weak wines is acidity.
Strong
WINE.
Strong wines, for obvious reafons, feldom become four.
When acidity is prefent only in a very flight degree, it may
be palliated confiderably by fugar, or by the addition of mutt
concentrated by boiling. It is obvious, however, that the acid
can only be got rid of by neutralizing or deftroying it. For
this purpofe, the alkalies and alkaline earths have been em-
ployed, but they impart a difagreeable flavour to the wine.
Of thefe fub{tances, lime is the fafeft and beft. It was for-
merly the practice to employ lead, in fome form or other,
for counteraéting acidity in wines; but we truft that this
murderous practice has been long fince laid afide. Ropi-
nefs is another difeafe to which wines are liable. This
occurs more particularly in thofe which contain a good deal
of extra¢tive matter. It may be much relieved, and fome-
times cured, by expofing the bottles to the fun and air, by
agitating and fubfequently uncorking them, by adding a {mall
quantity of vegetable acid, and by fining. ‘The laft difeafe
we fhall notice is perhaps the moft formidable of any,
namely, a mufline/s, or other ill flavour communicated by
the cafk or cork. This appears to be, in general, abfo-
lutely incurable, though it may be fometimes diminifhed by
agitating the wine in contaét with the air, or by the intro-
duGtion of common air or carbonic acid by pumping. Such
is a fummary account of wine-making from grapes, as
praétifed in the countries where that delicious fruit comes
to perfeétion, and more efpecially in France. (See Birch’s
Hitt. of the Royal Society, vol. i. p.156.) We come now
to confider, .
2.° The Manufatturing of Wines from other Fruits, or
artificial Wines.—In the above fketch we have endeavoured
to prefent our readers with a general view of the principles
of wine-making, at the fame time that we defcribed the
praGtice. Thefe principles are equally applicable to the
manufature of wine from all forts of fruit ; we fhall there-
fore take the prefent opportunity of briefly recapitulating
them here, as they cannot be too ftrongly imprefled upon
the memory, and as they at the fame time conttitute the moft
appropriate introduétion to the prefent fection that occurs
to us.
The juice of the grape confifts of a large proportion of
water, holding in folution certain proportions of faccharine
matter, of the fweet or fermenting principle, which appears to
be a modification of the faccharine principle, of various acids,
efpecially the tartaric and malic, and of various ill-defined
extraGive matters. Thefe principles, left to themfelves for
a fhort time in a medium temperature, foon begin to re-aét
upon one another, and fome of them at length undergo re-
markable changes. This procefs is termed fermentation,
and conftitutes the grand principle of wine-making. When
this procefs has begun to fubfide, it will be found that the
ater portion of the faccharine principle has difappeared,
and that its place is fupplied by a correfponding portion
of ardent fpirit or alcohol. This is the moft ftriking feature
of the change that has taken place, but all the other prin-
ciples of the juice or muff appear to have undergone like-
wife fome change either in quality or quantity. In fhort,
the {weet and crude juice of the grape is found to be con-
verted into wine.
In this ftate, the wine is introduced into cafks, where it
undergoes further changes, and is matured by a modification
of the fermentative procefs, which has been called the infen-
Sible fermentation. ‘This is a moft important ftep in the
procefs of wine-making, as by different modes of manage-
ment in this ftage almoft the whole of that infinite variety
which exifts among wines is produced. Here alfo it is
that all foreign fubftances defigned to impart flavour, &c.
to wines are in general introduced with the greateft pro-
priety. When the infenfible fermentation has been carried to
the point defired, it is checked by the proceffes of racking,
fulphuring, clarification, &c.; and thus the wine is rendered
capable of being preferved at any point or ftate we choofe.
Let us now apply thefe principles to the manufaéture of
wines from other fruits.
_ We ftart upon the grounds that artificial wines are
intended to be imitations of wines prepared from grapes.
In the firft place, therefore, we have to prepare a
juice or muft fimilar to the juice or muft of the grape
in its general compofition. Now, no fruit whatever
yields a juice precifely fimilar to that of the grape.
In our northern climate more efpecially, the faccharine
principle, which is the fundamental principle in wine-
making, exifts in very minute proportion in moft «fruits.
It mutt be, therefore, fupplied artificially. The tartaric
acid, or rather tartar, which appears to be another effential
principle in wine-making, is likewife wanting in moft of
our fruits. This, therefore, muft be fupplied. On the
contrary, other principles, and particularly the malic acid,
appear to exift in too large a proportion in moft of our
fruits, which, in their natural ftate, are thus better adapted
for making cyders than wines. To get rid of the malic acid,
and to prevent its deteriorating effects, as well as the dete-
riorating effeéts of other foreign principles, is difficult, or
perhaps impoflible ; and this will doubtlefs always render arti-
ficial wines in general inferior to thofe of the grape, though
very near approaches may be made by judicious manage-
ment. ;
_The praétical mode of obviating thefe difficulties is to
dilute the juice of the fruit to fuch a degree, that a given
quantity of it when diluted fhall contain no more of the
malic acid, for example, than a given quantity of the juice
of the grape ; and, as before obferved, to fupply artificially
the two grand principles, fugar and tartar, which are wanting.
Having thus prepared an artificial muft, as nearly refembling
in its compofition that of the grape as poffible, the appli-
cation of the other principles will be obvious, as we have
eet! to do but to manage, in general, all the fubfequent
procefles precifely as if we were operating upon the mutt of
the grape. We hall now, therefore, defcend from generals
to particulars, and, after having made a few pa upon
our native fruits, endeavour to point out the modes in which
- more important foreign wines may be beft imitated by
them.
Fancy or caprice has led to the formation of wine from an
infinite variety of fubftances, and almoft every good houfe-
wife boafts of fome favourite receipt for making wines from
what nature never intended for the purpofe. Such com-
pounds hardly deferve the name of qwine ; we fhall, therefore,
principally confine our attention to fruits. The follow-
ing are the domeftic fruits moft ufually employed for the
purpofe :
Goofeberry, and three varieties of currant.
Strawberry, rafpberry, blackberry, mulberry.
Sloe, damfon, elderberry.
Quince, cherry.
Britifh grapes.
To them may be added the foreign fruits
Raifins.
Orange, lemon.
The goofeberry and currant are of all others the fruits
moft commonly employed for the fabrication of artificial
wines; and, perhaps, upon the whole, they are beit
adapted for the purpofe. When ufed in their green fate,
both goofeberry and currant may be made to form light
brifk
WINE.
brifk wines, falling little fhort of Champagne. Ripe
goofeberries are capable of making {weet or dry wines; but
thefe are commonly ill-flavoured, particularly if the hufk
has not been carefully excluded. Ripe currants, if pro-
perly managed, make much better wines than goofeberries.
Thefe fruits are much improved, according to Dr. Maccul-
loch, by boiling previoufly to fermentation. This, he
ftates, is particularly the cafe with the black currant,
which, when thus managed, is capable of making a wine
clofely refembling fome of the beft of the fweet Cape wines.
The ftrawberry and rafpberry are capable of making
both dry and {weet wines of agreeable quality. As com-
monly managed, however, their peculiar flavour is diflipated
in the procefs ; hence, as Dr. Macculloch obferves, little is
ained by their ufe to compenfate for their comparatively
igh price. A fimple infufion of thefe fruits, in any
flavourlefs currant wine during the period of infenfible fer-
mentation, will, with greater cheapnefs and certainty,
enfure the produétion of their peculiar flavour. The
blackberry and mulberry are capable of making coloured
wines, if managed with that view: they are deficient, how-
ever, in the aftringent principle ; neverthelefs, they may be
occafionally employed with advantage when a particular
objec is to be gained. '
The floe and damfon are fo affociated in qualities, that
nearly the fame refults are obtained from both. Their
juice is acid and aftringent ; and hence they are qualified
only for making dry wines. By a due admixture of cur-
rants or elderberries with floes or damfons, wines not much
unlike the inferior kinds of port are often produced. ‘The
elderberry is capable of making an excellent red wine. Its
cheapnefs alfo recommends it. It does not, indeed, poflefs
any great degree of flavour, but it poflefles no bad one,
which is a negative property often of great importance in
artificial wine-making.
The quince, from its analogy to the apple and pear, is
better qualifjed for making a ipecies of cyder than wine.
The cherry produces a wine of no very peculiar character.
If ufed, care fhould be taken not to bruife too many of the
ftones, otherwife a difagreeable bitter tafte will be im-
parted to the wine.
Grapes of Britifh growth are capable of making ex-
cellent {parkling and other wines, by the addition of fugar.
Dr. Macculloch informs us, that he has fucceeded in making
wines from immature grapes and fugar fo clofely refembling
Champagne, Grave, Rhenifh, and Mofelle, that the bett
judges could not diftinguifh them from foreign wines. ‘The
grapes may be ufed in any ftate, however immature ; when
even but half grown and perfe¢tly hard they fucceed com-
pletely.
The cottagers in Suffex, fays Dr. Macculloch, are in the
habit of making wine, almoft annually, from the produce
of vines trained on the walls of their houfes. Many indi-
viduals through various parts of the fouthern counties, and
even as far north as Derbyfhire, pra@tife the fame with fuc-
cefs. But the experiment is well known to have been made
for many years on a large feale, and with complete refults,
at Pain’s-hill, by the Hon. Charles Hamilton, in a fituation
with refpeét to foil and expofure of which parallel in-
itances are to be fourd throughout the country, and pro-
duced ‘from land of no value whatever for the ordinary pur-
pofes of agriculture. That our anceftors made wine from
the produce of their vineyards there can be no doubt, and
Dr. M. juftly remarks, that we can {till make by far better
wine from our grapes, even as produced at prefent, than
from any other fruit whatever. Thefe, therefore, are cogent
reafons for the cultivation of the vine, efpecially as, the Bie
Vou. XXXVIII.
gentleman obferves, we might, with care, inure and domeiti-
cate to our climate many of the richer and more delicate
varieties of fouthern latitudes. See Vin, and VARIETIES ;
under the laft of which articles fome interefting experiments
on this fubjeét are related.
Raifins are extenfively ufed in this country for making
domeftic wines, and alfo for the fraudulent imitation and
adulteration of foreign wines, although not a native fruit ;
therefore they deferve to be mentioned here. When pro-
perly managed, they are capable of making a pure and
flavourlefs vinous fluid, well adapted for receiving any
flavour which may be required, and thus of imitating many
wines of foreign growth. See the clofe of this article.
The orange and lemon are likewife ufed for making do-
meftic wines. Upon the whole, however, they are not very
well adapted forthe purpofe, as they contain too much acid,
and too little of the extraétive and of the fweet or fer-
mentative principle.
From what has been faid of the manufaéture of wine from
grapes, our readers will obferve, that different methods
are purfued, according to the kind of wine which it is in-
tended to make. Now thefe remarks are equally appli-
cable to artificial wines, in the manufacture of which it is
abfolutely neceflary that the maker fhould determine before-
hand upon the kind of wine which it is his obje€& to pro-
duce, and to modify his procefles accordingly. We may,
with Dr. Macculloch, confider wines as of four general de-
feriptions : /weet wines; /parkling or effervefcing wines; dry
and light wines, analogous to hock, grave, and Rhenifh, in
which the faccharine principle is entirely decompoled during
fermentation ; and laitly, dry and /rong wines, as Madeira
and fherry. ;
Thofe of the firft and moft fimple clafs are the /zucet wines,
or thofe in which the fermentative procefs has been incom-
plete. It is to this clafs that by far the greater number of
our artificial wines bear the greateft refemblance ; a refem-
blance, fays Dr. M., fo general as to fhew that few makers of
this article poflefs fufficient knowledge of the art to enable
themfelves to iteer clear of what may be firmly called the
radical defe&t of domeftic wines. Sweet wittes may be made
from almoft any ripe fruits. 'Thofe moft generally em-
ployed, however, are the goofeberry and currant. We
fhall fuppofe that we wifh to make the quantity of ten
gallons of fweet wine from one or other of thefe fruits.
For this purpofe, the following are the proportions and other
circumftances to be attended to. Forty pounds of fruit
are to be introduced in a clean and fufficiently capacious
tub, in which it is to be bruifed in fucceflive portions, by a
prefiure fufficient to crufh the berries without breaking the
feeds, or if goofeberries be employed, without materially
compreffing the fkins. Four gallons of water are then to
, be poured into the veffel, and the contents are to be care-
fully ftirred and {queezed in the hand until the whole of the
juice and pulp are feparated from the folid matters. ‘The
materials are then to be permitted to remain at reft for a
period of from fix to twenty-four hours, when they are to
be ftrained through a coarfe bag by as much force as can
be conveniently applied to them. One gallon of frefh
water may afterwards be pafled through the marc, for the
purpofe of removing any foluble matter which may have re-
mained confined. From thirty to forty pounds of fugar,
according to the defired ftrength and {weetnefs of the wine,
and about fix ounces of cream of tartar, or, what is better,
crude tartar, are now to be difiolved in the juice thus pro-
cured, and the total bulk of the fluid made up with water,
to the amount of ten gallons and a half.
The liquor thus obtained is the artificial mu/f, which is
3U equivalent
WINE.
equivalent to the juice of the grape. It is now to be intro-
duced into a tub of fufficient capacity, tvhich is to be well
covered, and placed in a temperature varying from 55° to
60°. Here it is to remain two or three days, more or lefs,
according to the fymptoms of fermentation which it may
fhew, and from this tub it is to be drawn off into the cafk,
where the fermentative procefs is intended to be brought to
the point defired. As the fermentative procefs proceeds the
bulk of the liquor diminifhes, and its place muft be fup-
plied from time to time by the fuperfluous portion of mutt
made for the purpofe, fo as to keep the liquor always near
the bung-hole. When the fermentation has fubfided a little,
the bung may be driven in, taking care, however, to leave a
{mall hole open by its fide, which may be ftopped with a
peg, and opened occafionally to give vent to any air that
may be generated.
When the wine has arrived at the defired point of {weet-
nefs, &c. it muft be racked and clarified in the manner de-
{cribed in the former part of this article; and thefe pro-
ceffes muft be repeated, and the cafks fulphured, if necef-
fary, in order to prevent the fermentative procefs from pro-
ceeding farther. In general, however, one racking in the
following December or January will be fufficient, after
which it may be kept in the cafk for any length of time, or
it may be bottled without the ufual precautions. A fine
ferene and cold day fhould be chofen for thefe operations.
Sometimes the fermentative procefs will ftop before the wine
has arrived at the defired point, in which cafe it may be
commonly eafily re-excited by raifing the temperature,
and fhaking the cafk ; or, if thefe fail, by having recourfe to
the means ecieds defcribed for that purpofe.
By attending to thefe general direétions, {weet wines may
be made from other fruits, care being taken to increafe or
diminifh the quantity of fugar according to the natural
{weetnefs of the fruit employed.
The fecond general defcription of wines comprehends the
brifk or fparkling wines; which may be, at the fametime, either
fweet or comparatively dry, Ourreaders will recollect the me-
thods adopted in Champagne, and other countries where they
manufaéture {parkling wines from the grape, and which are de-
{cribed in the former part of this article. Now thefe principles
are to be held in view in the manufaGture of artificial wines in-
tended to poffefs fimilar properties. The fruits moft generally
employed for forming wines of this defcription, are the imma-
ture goofeberry and currant; fometimes alfo immature grapes,
and even vine leaves are made ufe of for a fimilar purpofe,
but grapes are doubtlefs preferable when they can be pro-
cured. Wines of this defcription are more difficult to be
made than the laft, at leaft they require much more care.
If goofeberries are employed, they mutt be gathered when
they have nearly attained their full growth, but before they
have fhewn the Jeaft tendency to ripen. The variety of
goofeberry is perhaps indifferent, but it will be advifable to
avoid the ufe of thofe, which in their ripe ftate have the
higheft flavour. Dr. Macculloch recommends the green
bath as among the beft. Thofe which are unfound, as well as
the remains of the bloffom and footftalk, fhould be carefully
removed. Forty pounds of this fruit, thirty pounds of fine
white fugar, and about fix ounces of tartar, are fufficient for
making ten gallons of wine. All the preliminary procefles are
to be conducted precifely in the fame manner as thofe above-
deferibed for making {weet wines. The muff, however,
ought to remain in the fermenting tub for about twenty-
four hours, or two days only, when it is to be transferred to
the cafk, and the proceffes of filling up, &c. managed as
before, except that the wooden peg or {pile muft be perma-
nenthy tightened as foon as the danger of burfling the calk
9
has fubfided. The wine thus made may commonly remains
during the winter in a cool cellar, as it is no longer neceflary
to excite the fermenting procefs. To enfure its finenefs,
however, it is a good practice to draw it towards the end
of December into a frefh cafk, fo as to feparate the lees;
and if at this time it fhould prove too {weet, inflead of
decanting, it will be better to flir up the lees fo as to renew
the fermenting procefs, taking care alfo to increafe the tem-
perature at the fame time. At whatever time the wine has
been decanted, it is to be fined with ifinglafs in the ufual
manner. Sometimes it will be neceflary to decant it a
fecond and even a third time into a frefh cafk. All thefe
operations fhould take place, as formerly mentioned, in dry
cool weather, and the wine mutt, at any rate, be finally bot-
tledin March. If immature currants be employed, which are
perhaps upon the whole preferable to goofeberries, the fame
proportion of fruit, fugar, and tartar, and the fame modes
of management, may be had recourfe to ; care being taken
to feparate carefully the ftalks of the currants. If grapes be
ufed for the purpofe, they may be fafely taken of different de-
grees of ripenefs, ncr is it neceffary to attend to the feleétion of
any particular variety. The fame proportions of fruit and
fugar will be proper as when goofeberries and currants are
employed, but the tartar mutt be omitted. The hufks alfo
may be permitted to ferment with the liquor in the vat.
The fubfequent management is to be precifely the fame as
that defcribed above. An excellent wine of the prefent de-
{cription may be made from the leaves and tendrils of the
vine. About forty pounds of thefe, and twenty-five or
thirty pounds of fugar, will be fufficient for ten gallons of
wine. To prepare it, feven or eight gallons of boiling
water are to be poured upon the leaves in a tub, and per-~
mitted to remain for twenty-four hours. The liquor being
poured off, the leaves muft be ftrongly prefled, and fubfe-
quently wafhed with another gallon of water. The fugar
and the remainder of the water are then to be added, and the
fermentative and all the fubfequent procefles conducted pre-
cifely the fame as before. The prefent clafs of wines, if
the procefs has been fuccefsful, (which is not always the
cafe, ) is brifk, and precifely fimilar in their qualities ( flavour
excepted) to the wines of Champagne, with the flrength of
the belt Sicily.
The third variety of wines is that of which hock, grave,
and Rhenifh may be taken as examples. In thefe the fac-
charine principle is entirely overcome by a complete fer-
mentation, while their future change is prevented by a eare-
ful application of the proceffes laid down for the preferv-
ation of wines of this elafs. Makers of domeftic wines have
rarely, fays Dr+ Macculloch, fucceeded in imitating thefe
wines. The reafons obvioufly are, the great difproportion
of the fugar to the fubfequent fermentation in the firft in-
ftance ; and that want of the after-management, the negleé&
of which foon configns thefe wines to the vinegar caiflk, if
chance fhould even at firft have produced fuccefs. In
making thefe wines, the relative proportion of fruit and fugar
in common ufe muft be materially altered, and the fermenta-
tive procefs be conduéted in a very careful manner. The
fubfequent proceffes alfo of racking, fulphuring, and fining,
mutt be pra¢tifed with great affiduity, in order to preferve
thefe wines after we have fucceeded in making them. Dr.
Macculloch ftates, from his experience, that thefe wines may
be fuccefsfully imitated, and that they conftitute fome of the
very beft of thofe which can be made from domettic fruit.
The proportion of fruit (generally of immature fruit) to the
fugar, in the manufacturing of {weet wines, mult be the
greateft. The bung muft remain open, but the fluid within
muf not be allowed to efeape, while, if the fermentation pro-
ceeds
WINE,
ceeds languidly, it muft be accelerated by heat and agitation.
If, when it is finifhed, the wine continues too {weet, it may
be bunged down till the {pring without racking or fining,
when the fermentation muft again be renewed. The re-
newal of the fermentation may alfo be effeéted by adding
fome frefh juice of the fame fruit. At whatever time, and
under whatever of thefe procefles, it has become dry, it is
to be carefully fined and racked into a fulphured cafk, and
bottled, after being once more carefully fined.
The fourth and laft clafs of wines confifts of thofe which are
both dry in their quality, and {trong in their nature ; fuch are,
Madeira, fherry, &c.; the theory of thefe, from what has
been faid, will be fufficiently apparent. With due atten-
tion to the fermentative procefs, {uch wines may be made of
the requifite degree of ftrength without brandy. By means
of this, however, if managed as formerly directed, the
operator has it always in his power to produce wines of any
required degree of {trength.
We need not here repeat the methods of imparting dif-
ferent flavours to domeftic wines, or of correéting their
faults, fince they differ in no refpeé&t from thofe recom-
mended to be adopted in the manufaCture of wines from
grapes, to which therefore we refer.
The following general remarks upon the fabrication of
domeftic wines, will not perhaps prove uninterefting to our
readers.
The great radical defe& in the manufacture of domettic
wines, is ufing too {mall a proportion of fruit compared
with the fugar employed. It is this circumftance chiefly
which renders the fermentative procefs incomplete, and
thus imparts that {weet and mawkifh tafte to our domeftic
wines, which renders them intolerable to many people, and
even to all, perhaps, without the addition of brandy. The
proportions of fruit and fugar given above may be confidered
as mean ftandards, which may be varied either way, accord-
ing to circumftances and the nature of the wine intended
to be produced. A very fuperior clafs of fruit wines may
be manufactured by ufing the juices of our different fruits,
either alone or very flightly diluted with water.
We mentioned that fome fruits, and efpecially the black
currant, were much improved by boiling. For this pur-
pofe, it will be fufficient that the fruit be fimply brought
to the boiling point before ufing it, the water in the veffel
being fo managed as to avoid any rifk in burning. The
black currant thus treated, and fubfequently managed upon
the principles we have endeavoured to lay down, is capable
of making a wine very nearly refembling fome of the beft
{weet Cape wines.
The fermentative procefs being rendered tardy and in-
complete, by the improper adjuftment of the fugar to the
fruit, is frequently endeavoured to be excited by yeaf:
nothing can be more injudicious than this. Yea/? invariably
fpoils wines, by imparting to them a flavour that nothing
will ever overcome. The only ferment to be employed in
wine-making, is that furnifhed by nature ; and when this is
‘defeGtive, as is fometimes the cafe in eur domettic fruits,
the ferment of the grape muft be fupplied artificially. This
may be done by introducing a certain proportion of crude
tartar, the dofe of which may vary from one to fix per cent.
without materially affeGting the wine, as a great proportion
of what efcapes decompofition will be fubfequently de-
pofited. All fruits, except the grape, will require more or
lefs of tartar.
The laft circumftance we fhall notice is the introduétion
of brandy, or other fpirit, into domeftic wines. As com-
monly manufactured, they often require, as we have juft
fated, this addition to render them tolerable. We truft,
however, that from the attention that has been lately paid
to the fubje& of artificial wines, the modes of manufaéturing
them will be better underftood, and that this will no longer
be the cafe. Fine wines are invariably f{poiled by the addi-
tion of ardent fpirit, which feems to have the effe@ of
flowly decompofing them, and thus of deftroying that deli-
cate, lively, and briflk favour, fo eminently poffeffed by all
natural wines. Hence it is feldom or never ufed in wine
countries; or rather it is confined to the manufacture of
thofe wines deftined for this country, where only this bar-
barous praétice is tolerated. We again repeat, that if the
fruit and fugar be duly adjufted to one another, and the
fermentative procefs be properly managed, an infinitely
better wine will be produced without the ufe of brandy,
than can ever be produced with it.
General Chemical Properties and Compofition of Wines.—
The juice of the grape, as we formerly mentioned, confifts
of a large proportion of water, of certain proportions of
the faccharine and fermentative principles, of various acids,
efpecially the tartaric, and fome ill-defined extraétive prin-
ciples. Thefe were ftated during the fermentative procefs
to undergo different remarkable changes, one of the moft
important of which is the converfion of the faccharine
principle into alcohol. The nature of the other changes
are not fo well underftood, nor does the little we know at
prefent of the compofition of wines throw any very fatif-
factory light upon the fubje€&t. One principle indeed, viz.
the fermentative principle, does not exift in perfeét wines, and
therefore muft be decompofed or feparated during the pro-
cefs of fermentation. The principles formed in wines may
perhaps be arranged under the four following heads:
1. Acids ; 2. Extradive and colouring matters; 3. Effential
oils; and 4. Alcohol. Water is not mentioned, becaufe it
forms the bafis of all potable fluids, and confequently of
wines.
1. Acids.—All acids have the property of reddening
turnfole or litmus papers, and therefore contain more or
lefs of a free acid. The acids found in wines are, the tar-
taric, the malic, the citric, the carbonic, and occafionally
the acetic.
The tartaric acid, in combination with potafh, or ¢artar, as
it is ufually termed, exifts in great abundance in the juice
of grapes, as formerly ftated, and appears to be one of its
moft important ingredients. A large proportion of this
tartar is doubtlefs decompofed during the fermentative
proceffes, and a confiderable quantity of what remains is
fubfequently depofited in the cafks or veffels in which the
wine is kept, conftituting what is termed the cruff. It ap-
pears probable, however, that the whole is not feparated, and
confequently, as Dr. Thomfon juitly remarks, that wines are
never entirely deftitute of tartar. Satisfa€tory experiments,
however, upon an extenfive fcale, are at prefent wanting upon
this part of the fubject. The malic acid, according to the ex-
periments of Chaptal, exifts in the greater number of wines, if
not in all, and that in much greater proportion than any other
acid. If this be really the cafe, it is probably, in part at
leaft, a produ& of fermentation, for the juice of grapes ap-
pears to contain very little of this acid. Traces of the citric
acid were found by Chaptal to exift in fome wines. This
acid alfo exifts in the juice of the grape, but in {mall quantity.
All wines that have the property of effervefcing, or {parkling,
when poured from the bottle into a glafs, contain carbonic
acid. Champagne, for example, owes its charaéteriftic pro-
perties to thisacid. Sparkling wines are ufually. weak, and
contain lefs alcohol than ufual, for reafons that have been
already explained. The acetic acid is not an effential in-
gredient of wine, nor in faét ought it ever to exiftin it. If
3U 2: the
WINE.
the fermentation, however, be permitted to go too far, this
acid will be formed, and hente it occafionally occurs in in-
ferior wines.
2. Extrafive and colouring Matters.—Thefe ill-defined
fubftances exift more or lefs in all wines. Their properties,
however, are not well afcertained, nor are they probably
uniformly the fame in every inftance. They have a ten-
dency to feparate {pontaneoufly, and along with the tartar
form what is termed the cru/?; hence, as wines become older,
from their containing lefs of thefe matters, they ufually
become paler. Thele extraGtive matters may be alfo fepa-
rated artificially by means of animal charcoal, the fubacetate
of lead, and even partially in fome inftances by lime-water,
or the heat of the fun. The colouring matter, as we for-
merly noticed, is not derived from the juice of the grape,
but from its hufk.
3. Effential Oils.—Wines, though effentially the fame in
their general compofition, are diftinguifhed from one another
principally by their flavour and odour, no lefs than by the
proportion of alcohol they may contain. Now their fenfible
perties evidently depend upon fome volatile and fugacious
principle, which has been confidered to be analogous to an
effential oil. This principle is fometimes derived imme-
diately from the fruit, as, for example, in the wines made
from the Frontignac and Mufcat grape. At other times, it
is the produ& of fermentation. Thus the finer flavours of
claret, hermitage, and Burgundy, bear no refemblance to
thofe of the grapes, from whence they are formed. Very
often, as before ftated, the principles of odour and flavour are
communicated to wines artificially, by the introdu@tion of
foreign ingredients, as orris-root, grape, and elder-flowers
a ie &c. The menftruum of this volatile principle
is doubtlefs, in moft inftances, the alcohol contained in wines;
but its quantity is fo minute as to be incapable of fepa-
ration.
4. Alcohol.—The charatteriftic ingredient of wines j
alcohol. Indeed, wines may be sonfideved as more mort 4
dilute folutions of alcohol, impregnated with different
flavouring fubftances, anda little acid. There have been great
differences of opinion in what ftate alcohol exifts in ea
Some chemifts maintain, that alcohol does not exift ready
formed in wines, but that its elements only exift in a pecu-
liar ftate, and that their union is determined, and confe-
quently alcohol formed, by the a& of diftillation. This
opinion was advanced by Fabroni, and feems to have been
adopted by fome fubfequent writers. Mr. Brande, how-
ever, has fhewn by very decifive experiments, that all wines
contain alcohol ready formed, and that this fluid is merely
feparated during the diftillation of thefe liquors; and his ex-
periments have been fince fully confirmed by Gay Luffac.
The following Table, reprefenting the Quantity of Alcohol and other Principles in different Wines, is taken from
Dr. Thomfon’s Chemiftry, though it was compiled originally by Neumann. The refults are not abfolutely to be
relied upon, as the ftate of chemical Knowledge, at the time Neumann wrote, was very imperfect.
Highly reétified
A Quart of contains Sit.
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Vin de Grave
Hermitage
Madeira
Malmfey
Vino de monte Pulciano
Mofelle
Mufcadine
Neufchatel
Palm fec
Pontac
Old Rhenifh
Rhenifh
Salamanca
Sherry
Spanith
Vino Tinto
Tokay
Tyrol red wine
Red wine
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WINE.
The following Table has been given by Mr. Brande,
reprefenting the quantity by meafure of alcohol, {p.
gt. .825, contained in different wines, and other fermented
hiquors. The wines were all genuine.
Proportion of
Spirit per Cent.
by Meafure.
Te plsiflea p.- - - - - - - 26.47
Ditto - - - - - - - 24.35
Average - - - 25-41
2. Raifin wine - - - - - - 26.40
Ditto - - au Wee - - - 25.97
Ditto - - - - - - - 23-20
Average - - - 25.12
3- Marfala eiitek Hit NS Wate Sythe anArrs6eZ0
Ditto - - - - - - - 25.05
Average - - - 25.09
4. Port. - - - - - - - 25-83
Ditto - - - - - - - 24.29
Ditto - - ~ - - - - 23.71
Ditto - - - - - - - 2339
Ditto - Srna d - any ote - 22.30
Ditto - - - - - - - 21-40
Ditto - - - - - - - 19.00
Average - - - 22.96
5. Madeira - - - - - - 24.42
Ditto - - - - - - - 23.93
Ditto (Sercial) =? Vinnie Aue Aiaote @itkao
Ditto - - - - - - - 19.24
Average - - - 22.27
6. Currant wine - - - - - 20.55
q- Sherry - - - - - - 19.81
Ditto - - - - - - - 19.83
Ditto - - - - - - - 18.79
Dib Opponent ry Shyetyi erties ase s 18.25
Average - - - 19.17
8. Teneriffe - - - - - - 19-79
g. Colares - - - - - - 19-75
Yoo dsacnyma(Chrift se) peti gas, Givens 19.70
11. Conftantia white - - - - - 19.75
12. Ditto red - - ahh - - 18.92
13- Lifbon - . - - = . 18.94
14. Malaga kept fince 1666 - - - 18.94.
15. Bucellas - - Pash gee - 18.49
16. Madeira red - - - - - 22.30
Ditto - - - - - - - 18.40
Average - - - 20.35
17. Cape Mufchat - Spe) ae he - 18.25
18. Cape Madeira - - - - - 22.94
Ditto - - - - - - - 20.50
Ditto - - - . - 18.11
Average = Men AS he zOs5t
19. Grape wine - - SA ee - - 18.11
zo. Calcavella - - - - - - 19.20
Ditto - = 4S - - - - 18.10
Average - - 18.65
21. Vidonia - - - - - - 19:25
22. Albaflora -~ = - - - - 17.26
23. Malaga ie, Ad i alps mi y\sie 17.26
24. White hermitage = - - - : 17-43
25- Roufillon mores yw eh hlshaleae Bere ain hangs08
Ditto - tf ae - - - 17.26
Average = tone - 18.13
26. Claret Chateau Margot - - bul orn 17-11
Ditto - SR Pre cent bee) ae 16.32
- - - 14.08
Ditto Lafite. - . >
Proportion of
Spirit per Cent.
by Meafure.
Claret Lafite - - - ~ - = 12.91
Average - hers 15.10
27» Malmfey Madeira sit! yin - - 16.40
28. Lunel - - 4 - “ : 4 15-52
29. Sheraaz - = = - ~ = 15-52
30. Syracufe 4 es 2 é “ 4 15.28
31. Sauterne - - : = = = 14.22
32. Burgundy = 2 = i = 2 16.60
Ditto - = = : = < 3 15.22
Ditto - - - - - - “ 14.53
Ditto - = = 4 a a E 11.95
Average = < ~ 14.57
galletas ation las ioaeath racneee 14337
Ditto - | eo eae 13-00
Ditto (old in sae = Saja fe - 8.88
: verage - - - 12.08
34. Nice - £ & e = = z 14.63
35- Barfac - = - = = > e 13.86
36; tT enti += ~ Ee = - = - 13.30
37. Champagne ({till) - - - - 13.80
Ditto ({parkling) - - - - - 12.80
Ditto - = = : - = « 12.56
Dittoy (iced) Aes tie wats only say © 11.30
Average - - - 12.61
38. Red hermitage - - * - - 12.32
39. Vin de grave - - - - = 13.94.
Ditto - > - - - - - 12.80
Average - - - 13.37
40. Frontignac - = * a 2 = 12.79
41. Cote Rotie - - - - - - 12.32
42. Goofeberry wine - - - - - 11.84
43. Orange wine (average of fix famples made eas
by a London manufa@turer) - - ‘t i
44. Tokay - - 3 = = = 3 9.88
45. Elder wine = -- = EH HOE 8 8.79
Other fermented Liquors.
1. Cyder, higheft average - - - - 9-87
Ditto, loweft average - - - - 5-21
2. Perry, average of four famples - - 7-26
3. Mead - - - Fie - - "Qe
4. Ale (Burton) - - - - - 8.88
Ditto (Edinburgh) - - - - 6.20
Ditto tDorchele) - - - - 5-56
Average - - - 6.87
5. Brown ftout - at Re - - . 6.80
6. London porter (average) are ia 4-20
Ditto {mall beer (ditto) nile SES 2 1.28
7. Brandy - - - - os ie 53-39
8. Rum - - - - - - : 53-68
. Gin - 2 - Ey we Lites.)
10. Scotch whifkey - - PE MMnr Abe oii y ee Y-
11. Irifh ditto + - - - =| vai seG0
12. Hollands (genuine) - - - - 56,00
On the Ufes of Wine in a Dietetic and Medicinal Point of
View.—Mankind in every ftage of civilization and fociety
betray a propenfity for fermented liquors. This indeed is
fo ftrongly marked, that fome have been induced to confider
it as the refult of an inftin@tive faculty, and confequently
have been led to fuppofe that fermented liquors are the pro-
per and natural drink of the human race. Others, on the
contrary, have contended that fermented liquors are of no
real ufe to mankind, and are often even productive of much
pofitive
WINE.
pofitive evil, and henee have arrived at a conclufion diame-
trically oppofite to the former. It is difficult to decide be-
tween thefe opinions. We confefs, however, that we do
not think it neceflary, on the one hand, to have recourfe to
the fuppofition of an inftinétive faculty to account for
wine-drinking ; nor, on the other, do we believe that the
moderate ode of natural wines is produétive of any bad
efle&s. The propenfity for ftrong drinks feems explicable
upon the general principle that all animals feel'a pleafure in
living fafler, or, as it were, crowding a greater portion of
exiftence into a fhorter {pace than natural ; an effeé&t in fome
degree produced by the exciting effeés of fuch liquors.
As to the bad effeéts too frequently produced by fermented
liquors, they may, in almoft every inftance, be fairly traced
te the badnefs of their quality, or to an excefs in quantity.
While, however, we do not objeé&t to the moderate ufe of
what providence has fo liberally beitowed upon us, no one
can obje& more ftrongly than ourfelves to its abufe. The
melancholy effeéts of habitual intoxication are too well
known to require particular defcription here. Severely do
the viGims of this degrading propenfity fuffer in mind,
body, and fortune; nor are their fufferings confined to them-
felves, but entailed upon their ill-fated pofterity. For
proofs of thefe pofitions, we refer our readers to the articles
Gout, Carcutus, Apoptexy, Erirepsy, Insanity, &c.
&c. in this work, where they will find thefe and other dif-
eafes juftly ranked among the moft.painful and diftrefling to
which humanity is liable, frequently afcribed to habitual in-
temperance as their caufe.
But putting out of the queftion thefe effeéts of drunken.
nefs, what a horrible pi€ture of moral depravity does it pre-
fent for a man to fit down deliberately, day after day, with
the profeffed obje& of annihilating his intelle&tual faculties,
and thus degrading himfelf below the vileft of the brute
creation! And even fuppofing he has arrived at the en-
viable point of being able to {wallow two or three bottles
without lofing his fenfes, and that this quantity hasbecome ne-
ceflary to his comfort, nay even perhaps to his very exiftence,
to what a wretched ftate of dependence has he reduced his
bloated carcafe; what a tax is fuch a being upon fociety,
who, to prolong a loathfome exiftence, is obliged to confume
daily in an unneceflary fuperfluity more than is fufficient to
fupport a whole family for a week! See DRUNKENNESS.
With refpeé to the operation of different wines upon the
animal economy, they vary exceedingly according to their
properties. New wines in general are unwholefome, and
often prove purgative. Sweet wines are upon the whole
perhaps the not wholefome, and, where the tafte has not
been previoufly vitiated, doubtlefs the moft agreeable.
Weak and acid wines are very apt to difagree with the fto-
mach, efpecially when that organ has been accuftomed to
ftronger wines. Hence an _occafional debauch with fuch
wines is notorious for inducing a fit of the gout, efpecially
in this country, where the ufual wines are immoderately
ftrong. The fame is true alfo, though perhaps in a fome-
what lefs degree, with the effervefcing wines. Red wines,
in general, are of a more aftringent and tonic nature than
white wines, and commonly contain more fpirit. There are,
however, many exceptions to this rule.
It will be feen by confulting the above table, that port,
Madeira, and fherry, the three wines in moft common ufe in
this country, contain from one-fourth to one-fifth of their
bulk of alcohol. A perfon, therefore, who takes: his
bottle of wine every day, will thus take nearly half a pint of
alcohol, or almoft a pint of pure brandy! This at firft
fight will appear almoft incredible, efpecially as the fame
perfon would not perhaps be able to take a fimilar quantity
of ardent fpirit, either diluted with water, or in any other
way. Some have concluded from this circumftance that the
above experiments are not to be relied upon; but from the
manner in which they were conducted there is no reafon to
doubt their general accuracy ; the faét therefore remains to
be explained. The moft probable explanation is, that the
alcohol in the wine is in fome ftate of combination, which
prevents its immediate a€tion upon the ftomach, and thus
renders it liable to be digefted or altered in its properties be-
fore it can exert its fpecific effets. The peculiar nature,
however, of this ftate of combination is at prefent unknown.
What renders this opinion the more probable is, that fome
bad wines, and efpecially domeftic wines, which are often
little better than mere mixtures of brandy and water, exert
much more effe&t upon the animal economy than fine old
wines, though they may not contain nearly fo much
{pirit.
With refpe& to the medicinal ufes of fermented liquors,
when cordials are required, wines are by far the moft effi-
cient of the whole tribe, and of thefe port wine is perhaps
the beft. For full information on this head, we refer our
readers to the articles Fever, GANGRENE, and Analogous
Difeafes of Desuity. See Chaptal’s excellent Effay on the
Manufaéture of Wines, Annales de Chimie, vol. xxxvi.
and xxxvii. Dr. Macculloch’s Effay on Wine-making.
~ Brande’s Effays in Phil. Tranf. for 1811 and 1813,
Cs
For the diftillation of wines, fee DisTILLATION.
Wine being a liquor moftly of foreign produce, the dif-
ferent names, forms, kinds, diftinétions, &c. of it are bor-
rowed from the countries where it is produced, particularly
France.
Wine, in France, is diftinguifhed, from the feyeral de-
grees and fteps of its preparation, into
Merre-goutte, mother-drop ; which is the virgin wine, or
that which runs of itfelf out of a tap of the vat, in which
the grapes-are laid, before the vintager enters to tread, or
ftamp, the grapes.
Mufl, furmuft, or flum, is the wine, or liquor, in the vat,
after the grapes have been trodden, or ftamped. ,
ce tae Wine, Vin de Preffurage, is that {queezed with
a prefs out of the Grapes, when half-bruifed by the treading.
The hufks left of the grapes are called rape, murk, or
marc; by throwing water upon which, and prefling them
afrefh, they make a liquor for fervants’ ufe, anfwerable to
our cyder-kin, and called boiffon ; which is alfo of fome
ufe in medicine, for the cure of diforders occafioned by
vifcid humours.
Sweet Wine, Vin doux, is that which has not yet worked,
or fermented. This is turbid, and has an agreeable and
very faccharine tafte. It is very laxative, when drunk too
freely, or by perfons difpofed to diarrheas, it is apt to oc-
cafion thefe diforders. Its confiftence is fomewhat lefs fluid
than that of water, and it becomes almoft of a pitchy
thicknefs when dried.
Bouru, that which has been prevented working, by caft-
ing in cold water.
Cuve, or worked wine, that which has been let work in
the vat, to give it a colour.
Cuit, or boiled wine, that which has had a boiling before
it worked ; and which, by thefe means, ftill retains its native
{weetnefs.
Paffé, or flrained wine, a fort of raifin-wine, made by
eg dry grapes in water, and letting it ferment of
itfelf.
_ Wines are alfo diftinguifhed with regard to their colour,
into white wine, red wine, claret wine, pale wine, rofe or
blac
WINE.
black wine. And, with regard to their country, or the
foil which produces them, into French wines, Spanifh wines,
Rhenifh wines, Hungarian wines, Greek wines, Canary wines,
&c. And, more particularly, into Port wine, Madeira
wine, Burgundy wine, Champagne wine, Falernian wine,
Tokay wine, Schiras or Sheraaz wine, &c.
Wines, again, are diftinguifhed, with regard to their qua-
lity, into /qweet wines, rough or dry wines, and rich or
lufcious wines, vins de liqueur ; of which laft fome are ex-
ceedingly fweet, others {weet and poignant ; and all chiefly
ufed by way of a dram after meals, &c.
Such are French, Frontignac, Madeira, the Canary, the
Hungary, Tokay, the Italian Montefiafcone, the Perfian
Schiras, the Malmfey wines of Candia, Chio, Lefbos, Te-
nedos, and other iflands of the Archipelago, which an-
ciently belonged to the Greeks, but now to the Turks.
Thefe are fometimes called Greek wines, and fometimes
Turkey wines.
The chief wines drank in Europe are as follow. 1. The
Madeira ifland, and Palma, one of the Canaries, afford
two kinds: the firft called Madeira fec, the latter, which is
the richelt and beft of the two, Canary or Palm fec. The
name /ec (corruptly written /ack) fignifies dry ; thofe wines
being made from half-dried grapes. There is another fort
of fee wine, prepared about Xeres, in Spain, and hence
called, according to our orthography, Sherris, or Sherry.
2. The wines of Candia and Greece are of common ufe in
Italy. Malm/ey was formerly the produce of thofe parts only,
but-is now brought chiefly ie Spain : itis a {weet wine, of
a golden or brownifh-yellow colour, and to this is applied
an Italian proverb, fignifying, Manna to the mouth, and bal-
fam to the brain. Al\moft all the wines ufed in the Venetian
territories come from Greece and the Morea. 3. Italy pro-
duces the vino Greco, which is a gold-coloured unétuous
wine, of a pungent fweetnefs, the growth of mount Vefu-
vius, but much fophifticated by the Neapolitans. In the
neighbourhood of mount Vefuvius is made the Mangiaguerra
wine, anda thick, blackifh one, called Verracia; and at the
foot of the hill the delicious vino vergine. The king-
dom of Naples affords the Campania or Pau/filippo, Mu/-
catel,: Salernitan, and other excellent wines, and alfo the
Chiarello, much drank at Rome. But the principal is
the red, fat, fweet, and grateful poignant one, called °
Lachryma Chrifti. 4. The Ecclefiaftical State produces
the bright, pleafant /bano, and the fweet Montefiafcone,
a yellowifh not very ftrong wine, refembling good Flo-
rence, &c. 5. In Tufcany are the excellent white and
red Florence; the celebrated hot, ftrong, red wine, de
Monte Pulciano, &c. 6. In Lombardy, the Modenefe and
Montferrat are tolerable ; between Nizza and Savona 1s pro-
duced an incomparable Mu/cadine. 7. Piedmont and part
of Savoy have excellent light wines. 8. The Sicilian, Sar-
dinian, and Corfican wines are alfo good. 9. Moft of the
Spanifh wines are compofed of fermented or half-fermented
wine mixed with infpiffated muft, and varioufly manufac-
tured, or of an infufion of dry grapes in weak muft. Of
thefe wines, there are a few in Germany, as the Alicant,
which is a thick, ftrong, very fweet, and almoft naufeous
wine, Sherry, Spanifh, Malmfey, &c. 10. In Portugal
there is plenty of red Port, which is much drank in Eng-
land. The bett Vino tinto, a blackifh-red wine ufed by the
coopers for colouring other wines, is faid to be the produce
of Portugal. This kingdom alfo deals largely in Madeira.
11. In France there is a great variety of wines; of which
the ftrong, fweet, full-bodied, fpirituous ones, are called
Vins de liqueur. Languedoc and Provence afford the
{weeteft wines, and the fame provinees, with Champagne
and Burgundy, the ftrongeft; the wines of the northerm
parts, as Picardy and Bourdeaux, are the worft, and thofe
about the middle of the kingdom, as Paris and Orleans, of
a middling kind. The moft celebrated of the French wines
are, Champagne, Burgundy, Vin de beaune, or partridge-eye,
Frontiniac, Hermitage, &c. 12. In Switzerland, the beft
wines are, the Neufchatel, Valteline, Lacote, and Reiff: the
Valteline {traw-wine, fo called from the grapes being laid for
fome time upon ftraw before they are preffed, is particu-
larly celebrated. 13. The dry-grape wines of the Upper
Hungary are in general excellent, and much fuperior to
thofe of the Lower. (See Tokay.) 14. Among tlhe
German wines, thofe of Tyrol are very delicate, but do not
keep. 15. Of Auftrian wines, thofe of Klofler-Newburg
and Brofenberg are deemed the beft : and there are alfo good
wines in other parts of the Imperial dominions. 16. In the
Palatinate, the beft wine is that of Worms, efpecially the
fort called Women’s Milk. 17. Among the more efteemed
German wines may be reckoned alfo Rhenifh, Mayne, Mo-
Jfelle, Neckar, and Elfafs: a certain writer calls the Rhenifh
made in Hockheim (Hock) the prince of the wines of
Germany.
Wine is alfo varioufly denominated, according to its
ftate, circumftances, qualities, &c. e. g.
Natural Wine, is {uch as comes from the grape, without
farther mixture, or fophittication.
Brewed Wine, or Adulterated, is that in which fome
drug is added, to give it ftrength, finenefs, flavour, brifknefs,
{weetnefs, or fome other quality which is wanted.
Pricked Wine, or Eager, is that turned fourifh.
An eafy method of recovering pricked wines may be
learned from the following experiment :—Take a bottle of red
port that is pricked, add to it half an ounce of tartarized
{pirit of wine ; fhake the liquor well together, and fet it by
for a few days, and it will be found very remarkably altered
for the better.
This experiment depends upon the ufeful doérine of
acids and alkalies. All perfect wines have naturally fome
acidity, and when this acidity prevails too much, the wine
is faid to be pricked, which is truly a ftate of the wine
tending to vinegar: but the introdu@tion of a fine alkaline
falt, fuch as that of tartar, imbibed by fpirit of wine, has a
dire&t power of taking off the acidity, and the fpirit of wine
alfo contributes to this, as a great prefervative in general of
wines. If this operation be dexteroufly performed, pricked
wines may be abfolutely recovered by it, and remain faleable
for fome time: and the fame method may be ufed to malt-
liquors juft turned four. Shaw’s Leétures, p. 214.
Flat Wine, is that fallen weak and vapid, for want of
being drank in time.
Sulphured Wine, is that put in cafks in which fulphur
has been burnt ; in order to fit it for keeping, or for car-
riage by fea.
Colour, is a thick wine, of a very deep colour, ferving
to dye the wines that are too pale, &c. as the black wine in
ufe among vintners. See WINE /upra.
“ The method of converting white wines into red, fo much
practifed by the modern wine-coopers, is this; put four
ounces of turnfole rags into an earthen veflel, and pour upon
them a pint of boiling water; cover the veffel clofe, and
leave it to cool; {train off the liquor, which will be of a
fine deep red, inclining to purple. A {mall proportion of
this colours a large quantity of wine. This tin@ture might
be either made in brandy, or mixed with it, or elfe made
into a fyrup, with fugar for keeping. A common way
with the wine-coopers is to infufe the rags cold in wine for
a night or more, and then wring them out with their a
t
WINE.
but the inconveniency of this method ts, that it gives the
wine a difagreeable tafte, or what is commonly called the
tafte of the rag, whence the wines, thus coloured, ufually
pafs among Ha. for preffed wines, which have all this
tafte from the canvas rags in which the lees are preffed.
The way of extraéting this tinéture, as here direted, is
not attended with this inconvenience ; but it loads the wine
with water; and if made into a fyrup, or mixed in brandy,
it would load the wine with things not wanted, fince the
colour alone is required. Hence the colouring of wines has
always its inconveniences. In thofe countries which do not
afford the tinging grape, which affords a blood-red juice,
wherewith the wines of France are often ftained, in defeé
of this, the juice of elderberries is ufed, and fometimes log-
wood is ufed at Oporto.
The colour, afforded by the method here propofed, gives
wines the tinge of the Bourdeaux red, not the Port; whence
the foreign coopers are often diftrefled for want of a proper
colouring for red wines in bad years. This might perhaps
be fupplied by an extra made by boiling ftick-lack in
water. The {kins of tinged grapes might alfo be ufed,
and the matter of the turnfole procured in a folid form,
not imbibed in rags. Shaw’s Letures, p. 211.
Chip Wine, is that poured on chips of beech-wood, to
fine or foften it.
Rape Wine, is that put in a cafk half-full of frefh iepeens
picked for the purpofe, to recover the ftrength, brifknefs,
&c. which it had loft by keeping, &c.
Burnt Wine, is that boiled up with fugar, and fome-
times with a little fpice.
There is alfo a fort of Malmfey wine made by boiling
of mufcadine.
Wives, Condenfing of, a phrafe ufed by Stahl, and fome
other writers, to exprefs what’ is more ufually called the
concentrating of them, that is, the freeing of them from
the fuperfluous humidity which they contain, and by thefe
means rendering them more rich and noble, freeing them
from their: taftelefs part, reducing them to a fmaller bulk,
and thus making them fitter for tranfportation, and finally
rendering them more durable in their perfeét fate, and much
lefs fubje& to the various accidents that make them decay.
See ConcENTRATION.
Various methods have been attempted for the effeCting of
this, as by means of heat and evaporation, or by percolation,
&c. and great objeGtions found in the way of all of them,
except the lateft, brought into ufe by Stahl, and fince re-
¢ommended greatly to the world by Dr. Shaw in his Che-
mical Effays.
If any kind of wine, but particularly fuch as has never
been adulterated, be, in a fufficient quantity, as that of a
allon or more, expofed to a fufficient degree of cold in
fty weather, or be put in any place where ice continues
all the year, as in our ice-houfes, and there fuffered to
freeze, the fuperfluous water that was originally contained
in the wine will be frozen into ice, and will leave the pro-
per and truly-effential part of the wine unfrozen, unlefs the
degree of cold fhould be very intenfe, or the wine but
weak and poor. This is the principle on which Stahl
founds his whole fy{tem of condenfing wine by cold.
When the froft is moderate, the experiment has no dif-
ficulty, becaufe not above a third or fourth part of the
fuperfluous water will be frozen in a whole night; but if
the cold be very intenfe, the beft way is, at the end of a few
hours, when a tolerable quantity of ice is formed, to pour
out the remaining fluid liquor and fet it in another veflel to
freeze again by itfelf.
If the veffel, that thus by degrees receives, the feveral
10
parcels of the condenfed wine, be fuffered to ftand in the
cold freezing place where the operation is performed, the
quantity lying thin in the ing out, or otherwife, will
be very apt to freeze anew ; if it be fet in a warm
place, fome of this aqueous part thaws again, and fo weakens
the reft. The condenfed wine, therefore, fhould be emptied
in fome place of moderate degree as to cold or heat, a
neither the ice may diffolve, nor the yinous fubftance mixed
among it be congealed. But the beft expedient of all is to
perform the operation with a large quantity of wine, or
that of feveral gallons, where the utmoft exaétnefs, or the
bei of a trifling wafte, needs not be regarded.
If the wine now once concentrated fhould, by a long
continuance in the freezing cold, be again congealed to the
utmoft (unlefs the cold were very fevere indeed), and then
again be drained from its ice, there, foon after this, falls to
the bottom of the veffel a pure white powder or tartar, and
even the icy part afterwards depofits alfo a little of the fame
fubftance after thawing; and after ftanding two or three
days, there is always more and more of this tartar preci-
pitated, and that conftantly the more in proportion as the
wine was moré auftere, or lefs adulterated with fugar,
brandy, or the like ; for thefe things contain no tartar.
The ice of the fecond operation on a quantity of wine
differs in nothing from that of the firft, provided only that
the wine was poured clear off from it, before the ice is fet
to melt, by which means it diffolves into a clear phlegm.
This fhews the excellency of the operation; as it lofes not
its efficacy upon repetition, but brings away mere water as
well at lait as at firft, without robbing the wine of any of
its genuine or truly valuable parts. The remaining un-
frozen liquor is a real concentrated wine, as appears by its
colour, confiftence, tafte, and {mell, and is a€tually become
a nobler and richer wine than could have been procured
without fuch a contrivance.
This operation, though it be perfe& in regard to wine,
yet does not fucceed fo well in regard to the malt-liquors.
The experiment has been fairly tried by Stahl on a gallon
of {trong malt-drink, and the fuccefs was as follows :—The
ice feparated in the firft operation, when thawed by heat,
refolved into a liquor of the colour and tafte of {mall-beer ;
and the fecond concentration afforded an ice of much the
fame kind, which might have paffed for ordinary {mall-beer,
but for a flafhy watery tafte that. manifeftly predominated
init. The liquor unfrozen was but a pint and a half by
meafure, but it was extremely rich and thick, and feemed
very {trong and fpirituous, and perfectly aromatic, or
highly flavoured. The confiftence was fomething like that
of a thin fyrup, and it had a pleafing foftnefs that fheathed
the acrimony of the fpirit, and covered the bitter tafte of
the hop.
The mucilaginous nature, which is predominant in all
malt-liquors, occafions a great inaccuracy in this experiment,
as not fuffering the water to run clear, or be feparated from
the richer tinéture of the malt, nor letting the condenfed
liquor be obtained clean from the ice ; but as the lofs occa-
fioned by this is not great, and the liquor is much cheaper
than wine, if this fhould ever come into ufe in the large way,
the thawed liquor of the ice m¥ght be ufed again in a new
brewing, and fo the lofs of that part of the ftrength which
was carried away by the freezing be recovered.
Wines in general may by this method be reduced to any
degree of vinofity or perfection. Thus, for example, if a
wine of a moderate ftrength hath a third part of its water
taken away, in form of ice, by congelation, the remaining
part will thereby be doubled in ftrength and goodnefs : for
if we allow, in the better forts of wine, that one-third part,
which
WINE.
which is near the truth, is truly good or vinous, and two-
third parts are nothing but water, one-third part of the
good wine being blended among the two-third parts of
water, of no ftrength or value; it follows, that if one of
thefe third parts of water be taken away, and all the wine
left, that which was before but one-third wine, is now one-
half wine, no way reduced in its ftrength, and therefore the
-whole muft be ftronger in that proportion. ;
But if this operation of congelation be carried to the
utmoft, and be praétifed on a large quantity of wine, and
with a very intenfe cold, and the ice taken away feveral
times, and the wine, thus freed from a part of its water,
again and again expofed, it will be found that good wines
will be reduced to one-fixth part of their original quantity :
and the vintner will eafily find out the ufe of this remaining
fixth part, which is a true quinteffence of wine, and will be
of the utmoft benefit, by mixing it in {mall quantities with
poor and low-flavoured wines, to meliorate and improve
them; and even to convert the low-flavoured and leaft
valuable ones into thofe very wines from which this con-
denfed part was procured.
This method is not praéticable to advantage in the wine
countries alone. Dr. ‘Shaw aflures us, that he has himfelf
experimented it here, and with the ufe of proper freezing
mixtures has reduced wines in England to a much {maller
quantity, in proportion to the whole, than in the ftrongeft
of Stahl’s experiments. It is evident, that by how much
the quantity is {maller, by fo much it is richer and ftronger,
provided that the operation has been properly performed.
The doétor affures us, the noble effence or rob, thus pre-
pared, is capable of working almoft miracles, by turning
water into wine, and the like ; but that, in order to its fuc-
ceeding well, there requires great care in the operator, when
the congelation is repeated the laft times. Shaw’s Chem.
Eff. Stahl’s Schediafm. de Concentrat. Vin.
Wink, Clarification of. See CLARiFicaTion, and WINE
upra.
avis Colouring of. See Wine Colour, and Wine
Supra.
Wine, Lining of. See Frnine, and WINE /upra.
This operation is practifed in Germany in the following
manner: they have in fome vaults three or four ftoves,
which they heat very hot: others make fires almoft before
every vat; by which means the mult is made to ferment
with great vehemence. When the ebullition, fermentation,
and working ceafe, they let the wine ftand, and then rack
it. This fining is only ufed in cold years, when the wine
happens to be green.
Wine, Forcing of. See Forcine.
Wine, Domeffic. See WINE fupra.
In the Mufeum Rufticum we have the following dire@tions
for making raifin wine: put thirty gallons of foft water
into a veffel at leaft one-third bigger than fufficient to con-
tain that quantity ; and add to it one hundred weight of
Malaga raifins, grofsly picked from their ftalks. Mix the
whole well together, and cover it partly with a linen cloth.
When it has ftood a little while in a warm place, it will
begin to ferment, and muft be well ftirred about twice in
twenty-four hours, for twelve or fourteen days. When the
{weetnefs is nearly gone off, and the fermentation much
abated, which will be perceived by the fubfiding and reft
of the raifins, ftrain off the fluid, prefling it, firit by the
hand, and afterwards by a prefs, out of the raifins. Let
this liquor be put into a found wine-cafk, well dried and
warmed, adding eight pounds of Lifbon fugar, and a little
yeaft, and referving part of the liquor to be added from
time to time, as the decline of the. fermentation will give
You. XXXVITI.
room. In this ftate, the liquor muft remain for a month,
with the bung-hole open ; and having filled the veffel with
the referved liquor, let it be clofely ftopped, and kept for
a year or longer, and then bottled off. At the end of a
year and a half it may be drank, but will improve for four
or five years.
Some faving may be made in the expence, by diminifhing
the quantity of raifins, and increafing that of the fugar, in
the proportion of four pounds of raifins for one of fugar ;
or by diminifhing the proportion of both raifins and ingats
and adding clean malt-fpirits, when the bung of the catk is
clofed up. Any other large raifins may be ufed, as well as
the Malaga; but the thinner the fkins and the f{weeter the
pulp, the ftronger will be the wine.
If this wine be perfectly fermented, and kept a long time,
fo that no {weetnefs remain, it will refemble Madeira.
An artificial Frontignac may be made of this wine, in
which the proportion of fugar or of malt-fpirits to the raifins
is large, and the whole body weaker: the mufcadel flavour
being communicated by an infufion of the flowers of mea-
dow-fweet. In the making of this artificial Frontignac, the
ferment: fhould be ftopped, by clofing the eafk and adding
the {pirit, while a confiderable degree of fweetnefs remains,
and the wine may be drank after it has been a little while in
the bottles. :
Cyprus wine may be imitated by the fame means, ufing
three or four pounds more of fugar than the quantity above
prefcribed, and ftopping the fermentation while a'confider-
able degree of {weetnefs remains.
Artificial Mountain may be made by preferving a {malt
degree of fweetnefs, giving the nut-like flavour, and keep-
ing the beft kind of the above wine to adue age. The
flavour may be obtained by the infufion of the Florentine
orris-root, powdered, with a very {mall proportion of orange
and lemon peel ; and the wine may be rendered more dry or
{weet, by continuing the fermentation for a greater or lefs
time, and adding a correfponding proportion of clean malt-
fpirits, when the fermentation is ftopped fooner, The add-
ing of fome of the ftony feeds of the raifins well bruifed will
give the nut-like flavour; and the putting in a part of the
ftalks will add a fharpnefs, found generally in this kind of
wine.
The racy tafte of Canary, commonly called fack, may be
counterfeited by the addition of a proper quantity of the
juice of white currant-berries to the wine, made with a large
proportion of fugar to the raifins, and left very {weet in the
fermentation. But it is faid that a f{pirit, diftilled from the
leaves of clary and clean malt-f{pirits, put to the wine, will
give it a very ftrong refemblance of fack. It is faid alfo,
that the juice of the bramble-berries, added to the mixture
of the wine, before the fermentation, will give both the
colour and flavour of claret: but in this cafe the quantity of
raifins fhould be confiderably diminifhed, and that of the
fugar increafed, as the fermentation muft be continued till
the {weetnefs be wholly deftroyed.
Wines of this kind fhould be kept at leaft a year before
they are drank. See Sweets.
Wine, Extemporaneous. A hundred weight of good
treacle will produce, according to the art of the diftiller,
from four to feven gallons of pure alcohol; that is, from
eight to fourteen gallons of the common-proof melaffes
fpirit. The ftill-bottoms have many yfes. The diftillers
feald and recover their mufty cafks with them, and they
may be ufed for all thofe purpofes of cleanfing where argol
is required. Mr. Boyle’s acid fpirit of wine, or a {pirit
very like it, may alfo be procured from them, and a matter
x analogous
WINE.
analogous to that Becher calls the media /ubjlantia vini.
This liquor gives a durable extemporaneous wine.
Wire, Stooming of. See Sroominc.
Wives, Low, in Dijiillation, a term applied to the liquor
which firft comes over, when the wa/h is fubjected to dif-
tillation, and which is concentrated by a fecond operation.
See DisTmeLaTIon.
Wines, Medicinal or Medicated, in Pharmacy, a term
applied to thofe preparations, confilting of wine holding
different aétive ingredients in folution. They were for-
merly very numerous, but at prefent their number is very
limited. See Vixum, under which article thofe at prefent
in ufe are defcribed.
Wrxe, Lees of, are the impurities of it, or the thick
fediment remaining at the bottom of the cafks, when the
wine is drawn out.
The diftillation of wine-lees into fpirit is condu&ed very
much in the fame manner with that of the malt-wafh, when
diftilled with the mealy part in it: the principal difference
is on this account, that the oil of the malt being very nau-
feous and difagreeable, the utmoft care is to be ufed to keep
it back in all the proceffes of primary diftillation, and of
reGtification; whereas, on the other hand, the oil of the
wine-lees being a very agreeable and pleafant one, as much
care as poflible is to be taken to bring it over with the fpirit.
Glauber has written a peculiar treatife on this fubjeé, in
which, without touching upon the moit advantageous pro-
duGtion of all, he has proved the work to be fo very profit-
able, that the whole ufually paffes for one of his wild flights,
rather than a folid bufinefs.
The method of diftilling a liquid ley for its fpirit is a
thing univerfally known; but the advantageous thing, on
this bafis, is the diftilling of a dry ley preffed and pre-
ferved, and the managing of the bufinefs in fuch a-manner
as at firft or laft to procure and feparate all its valuable
parts. The folid ley, here mentioned, is that ufually fold
to the hatters in England, and is the fame thing that in
France and other wine countries the vinegar-makers difpofe
of in cakes, after they have preffed out all the wine, and which
was afterwards burnt, and makes what Lemery and others
call cineres clavellati; and the Englith gravelled afbes, a fixed
alkaline falt-like potafh.
This ley, when ufed for diftilling, fhould be that of the
French wines, and either fuch as is newly prefled, or has
been well fecured by packing in a clofe manner in tight
cafks, with fome proper contrivance of dry fand, or the
like, to keep its external furface from the contaét of the
air, which is very apt to corrupt or putrefy it.
If this ley is intended to be an many months, it will be
very proper to fecure it by fprinkling the layers as they are
packed up witha little brandy. The expence of this is no-
thing, for the brandy is recovered again in the operation.
Shaw. :
Wrue, Oil of, a very precious liquid, kept as a fecret in
the hands of fome dealers in fpirits, and ufed to give the
brandy flavour to fpirits of lefs price. It is certain that all
the f{pirits we ufe take their flavour from the effential oil of
the fubftance they are made from; that of malt is very nau-
feous and offenfive, and renders the {pirit horribly aches
able, if not carefully kept back in the diftillation of it ; that
of the grape, on the other hand, is extremely agreeable,
and is what gives the delicious flavour to French brandy:
this, therefore, is to be carefully brought over among the
{pirits in diftillation.
This is that oil of wine fo much’celebrated among our
diftillers, and is for their ufe made feparate, and is of fuch
effet, that half an ounce of it will determine: a pure and
clear malt {pirit to be French brandy, fo as to ftand the teft
of the nice palate, and all the trials that can be invented,
provided the oil and the fpirit have both been carefully
made.
The manner of making the oil is this: they take fome
cakes of ary wine-lees, fuch as are ufed by our hatters, and
diffolving them in fix or eight times their weight of water,
they diftil the liquor with a flow fire, and feparate the oil
by the feparating pot, referving for this nice ufe only that
which comes over firft, the oil that follows being coarfer,
and more refinous. To render this bufinefs perfeétly fuc-
cefsful, there muft be feveral things obferved: 1. The ley
mult be of the right kind, that is, of the fame nature with
the French brandy propofed to be imitated. 2. The malt-
{pirit muft be extremely pure. 3. The dofe of the oil muft
be very well proportioned., And, 4. The whole mutt be
artificially united into one fimple and homogene liquor.
Thefe cautions all regard only the tafte, and befides thefe,
in order to come up to a nice counterfeit, feveral other par-
ticulars muft be attended to; fuch as the colour, proof,
tenacity, foftnefs, and the like; fo that, in fhort, the opera-
tion has too much nicety in it to be hit off by every ordinary
dealer. When this fine oil of wine is procured, it may be
mixed into a quinteffence, with pure diftilled alcohol, or
the totally inflammable fpirit of wine, to prevent its growing
diftafteful, rancid, or refinous; and thus it may be long
preferved in full poffeffion of its favour and virtues.
The ftill-bottoms, or remaining matter after the diftilla-
tion of this oil, will yield many productions to advantage,
particularly tartar, and falt of tartar, as alfo an empyreu-
matic oil, and a volatile falt, like that of animals. Some
kind of lees afford all thefe in much greater quantity than
others ; the lees of Canary and Mountain wines yield ve
little of them ; and, indeed, fearce any tartar or fixed falt
at all; but the white French lees of thofe thin wines that
afford the ordinary brandies, yield them all very copioufly,
infomuch that fometimes a fingle hogfhead of dry and las -
preffed lees will afford, by this procefs, three gallons of
brandy, forty pounds of clean tartar, a large proportion of
empyreumatic oil, and volatile falt, befide full four pounds
of good falt of tartar. It is not to be expected, however,
that every parcel of this ley fhould yield fully in this pro-
portion. Shaw’s Effay on Dittillery.
Wine, Piece of. See Piece. :
Wine-Prefs, a machine contrived to fqueeze the juice
out of grapes, and confifting of feveral pieces of timber,
varioufly difpofed, which compofe three bodies of timber-
work, clofely united to the axis, which ferves as a fwing,
by which it may be moved by the vice. Of thefe there
are different fizes as well as different conftrudtions.
Wine, Prifage of. See PRisace.
Wine, Racking of. See Rack, and Wine /upra.
Wine, Spirit of. See Sprrir.
Wrne-Spirit, aterm ufed by our diftillers, and which may
feem to mean the fame thing with the phrafe /pirit of
wine; but they are taken in very different fenfes in the
trade.
Spirit of wine is the name given to the common malt-
{pirit, when reduced to an alcohol, or totally inflamma-
ble itate; but the phrafe wine-/pirt is ufed to exprefs
a very clean and fine fpirit, of the ordinary proof-ftrength,
and made in England from wines of foreign growth.
The way of producing it is by fimple diftillation ; and it
is never reétified any higher than common bubble-proof.
The feveral wines o different natures, yield very different
proportions of fpirit; but in general the ftrongeft yield
one-fourth, the weakeft in fpirits one-eighth part of proof.
{pirit ;
WINE.
fpirit ; that is, they contain from a fixteenth to an eighth
part of their quantity of pure alcohol.
Wines that are a little four ferve not at all the worfe for
the purpofes of the diftiller; they rather give a greater
vinolity to the produce. This vinofity is a thing of great
ufe in the wine-f{pirit, whofe principal ufe is to mix with
another that is tartarized, or with a malt-fpirit, rendered
alkaline by the common method of reétification. All the
wine-fpirits made in England, even thofe from the French
wines, appear very greatly different from the common
French brandy; and this has given our diftillers a
notion that there is fome fecret art practifed in France,
for giving the agreeable flavour to that fpirit; but this
is without foundation.
When we diftil Sicilian or Spanifh wines, we do not
produce Sicilian or Spanifh brandies ; and the true reafon
of this is, that the wines which they diftil on the {pot
into brandy, are very different from thofe which they
export as wines.
Thofe they diftil are fo poor and thin, that they will not
keep many months, nor can poffibly bear exportation.
If we had in England thofe poor wines they diftil into
brandy near Bourdeaux, Cognac, or up the Loire, there
is no doubt that the fpirit we made from them would be
univerfally allowed to be French brandy. We have proof
of this from fome of the Scotch diftilleries, where they,
with no peculiar art, or fecret method, procure from
fome of the poor pricked and damaged wines received
here, brandy fo nearly refembling that of France, that
a good judge will fcarcely be able to make the diftinc-
tion. Wine-fpirits and brandies, therefore, are the fame
thing, only with this difference, that the former is the
produét of a rich wine, and the latter of a poor one ; or,
at the utmoft, they differ only as our two home produéts,
the cyder-fpirit and the crab-{pirit, do.
The wine-fpirit, diftilled in England, is not eafy to be
had pure and unmixed at our dittillers, nor under a price
almoit equal to that of French brandy; fo that if it
ever be required out of the trade, it is as well to ufe the
French brandy, which will, in all cafes, ferve the fame
purpofes, unlefs where a high flavour or a copious effen-
tial oil are required. All other fpirits are carefully di-
vefted of their oil in the reétifications; but the wine-
fpirit is coveted only for its oil, and all that can be ob-
tained is preferved in this, its principal ufe being to give a
flavour to a worfe fpirit, and to cover the tafte of a dif-
agreeable oil in it.
When a cafk of wine chances to turn four in private
hands, it is worth while to diftil it for the fpirit. The
lees, alfo, if in any confiderable quantity, will yield fuch
a proportion of the fame fort of fpirit, as to render it
worth while; and as the high flavour is not required
in this intent, it will be beft to draw off the fpirit very
gently, either by the cold or hot ftill, and afterwards it
may be reétified without any addition, and reduced to
the ftandard-ftrength of proof. It thus makes a very
clean and pleafant fpirit, though very different from the
brandy from the fame country whence the wine came.
Shaw’s Effay on Dittillery. See Sprrit.
Wine, Philofophic Spirit of, in the writings of fome che-
mifts and phyficians, a phrafe that often occurs as the
name of a liquid prepared from wine, and endued with
very remarkable properties.
It is generally fuppofed that this was the fame fort of
liquor, which we at this time call by the name of fpirit of
wine; but this is a very erroneous opinion, and has led
many into errors, about the operations in which it was
concerned. It was truly no diftilled liquor, but the fpi-
rituous parts of wine condenfed and concentrated by the
freezing of the more aqueous part.
Wine Vinegar, Method of making of. See Vinzcar.
Wine, Laws relating to.
Wine may be imported only in Britifh-built fhips, or
veflels of the built of that country of which the wine is the
produce, legally navigated; or in fhips the built of the
country in Europe under the dominion of the fovereign or
ftate in Europe, of which the wine is the produce, or of
the ufual place of fhipping. Penalty, forfeiture of the
wine and the fhip. 12 Car. II. c. 18. and 27 Geo. III.
CulGs
No other than Rhenifh wine may be imported from the
Netherlands or Germany, on forfeiture of fhip and goods.
13 & 14 Car. II. c. 11. But wine, the produce of Hun-
gary, may come from Hambro’; alfo wine, the produce of
Hungary, the Auftrian dominions, or any part of Ger-
many, may come from the Auftrian Netherlands, or any
place fubje&t to the emperor of Germany or houfe of
Auttria. 1 Ann. ftat. 1. c.12. and 22 Geo. III. c. 78.
Wine may not be imported in veffels under fixty tons bur-
then: wine and veffel forfeited. 24 Geo. III. c. 47.
26 Geo. III. c. 59. and 45 Geo. III. c. 121. Spanifh
and Portugal wines may not be imported in any cafk con-
taining lefs than a hogfhead, except for private ufe.
18 Geo. III. c. 27. and 25 Geo. III. c. 69. French
wine the fame; and, except French wine in bottles, from
France, Guernfey, Jerfey, or Alderney. 18 Geo. III.
c. 27. and 27 Geo. III. c. 13. By the 5 Ann. c. 27.4
hogfhead is to contain 63 gallons, or 231 cubical inches of
wine. Wine (i.e. not Spanifh nor Portugal) may not be
imported in flafks, bottles, or cafks, containing lefs than
25 gallons, except of the produce of the dominions of the
grand duke of Tufcany, in open flafks, or any part of the
Levant, and alfo wine for private ufe. 1 Geo. II. ftat. 2.
c. 17. and 25 Geo. III. c. 69. Wine may be imported in
cafes containing fix dozen reputed quart bottles at the
leaft. 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 83. 42 Geo. III. c. 44.
and 45 Geo. III. c. 121. Five reputed quart bottles
deemed a gallon in charging duty. Wine not to be im-
ported unlefs accompanied by a manifeft, attefted by the
conful at the place of fhipment. 26 Geo. III. c. 4o.
Wine mutt be entered at the cuftom-houfe and excife-office
within 20 days after the fhip has reported, or it may be
fold for the duties, and muft be removed from the quays in
to days. 26 Geo. III.c. 59. and 35 Geo. III. c. 118s
Wine landed without payment of duty is forfeited
(20 Geo. III. c. 59.) ; but wine may be warehoufed under
{chedule B, without payment at the time of entry of the
duties due on importation, on the importer giving bond to
export the fame, or pay the duties within 12 months. But
duty muft be paid when taken out, on any excefs or defi-
ciency, from the quantity taken at the time of landing ; and
no wine to be warehoufed in cafks lefs than 45 gallons.
43 Geo. III. c. 132. Wine that has been warehoufed
may be exported, and wine that has paid duty may be
fhipped for drawback; but muft be packed in the pre-
fence of the proper excife-officers, and the cafks to be
fealed with their official feals, and if they are afterwards
damaged or broken, the party offending to forfeit 5o/. for
each cafk or package. Due notice to be given in writing
of the times of packing and fhipping. 26 Geo. III.c. 59.
{. 46,47. The exporter to give bond before fhipping
that the fame fhall be exported to the place entered for, and
fhall not be relanded or unfhipped. To be landed in Great
Britain, on forfeiture. 26 Geo. III. c. 59. f. 48.
3X 2 35 Geo.
WIN
35 Geo. III. c. 118. Wine may be exported to Douglas,
in the Ifle of Man, in Britith veffels of 50 tons, by licence
of the commiffioners of the cuftoms. 52 Geo. III. c. 140.
All the duties paid upon wine fhipped for the actual
confumption of officers of the navy on board fhip, to be
drawn back according to the following proportions.
33 Geo. III. c. 48. ‘
?
Nw MV
2" put og
Admiral 2 Ae eA Fe
Vice-admiral - - - .
Rear-admiral - . -
Captain of a firft and fecond rat .
Captain of a third, fourth, and fifth rate
Captain of every inferior fhip - -
Lieut. and other officer in commiffion
ct, Shr be eG
Officers of marines to be allowed half a ton per annum.
53 Geo. III.c. 44. But to be hipped only at the ports
of London, Rocheiter, Dover, Dartmouth, Portfmouth, &c.
Officers may remove their ftock from one fhip to another,
and difpofe of it to other officers. 38 Geo. III. c. 33.
Dealers in foreign wine to enter their premifes at the
excife-office, on penalty of 100/. for every place not en-
tered, and forfeiture of the wine foundtherein. 26 Geo. III.
c. 59. f.12. Dealers to have the words ‘Dealers in
foreign Wines’ painted over their doors, on penalty of 5o/.
fe&. 15. Retailers to have the word ‘ Wine’ exhibited in
fome confpicuous part of their premifes, on penalty of ten
fhillings. 30 Geo. II. c. 19. and 32 Geo. II.-c. 19.
Dealers to take out a licence, to be renewed ten days before
the expiration of every year, on penalty of 10o/.; but not
to apply to auctioneers felling wine by au€tion. 26 Geo. III.
c- §9. Retailers of foreign wines, and dealers in {weets or
Brith’ wines, to take out licences alfo; and felling them
after its expiration, and before renewed, fubjects them to
5ol. penalty. 30 Geo. III. c. 18. Retailers not to fell
wine in their houfes, unlefs they have a beer licence granted
by the magiftrates, on penalty of 2o/. (See paar gir sine
Officers may enter at any time to take an account of the
ftock, but if they go in the night they muft be attended
with a conftable. The party refuling them admittance, or
obftruGting them, forfeits 1oo/. 26 Geo. III. c. 59.
f. 17. No wine to be brought into a dealer’s poffeflion
without a permit, and dealers to mark on a confpicuous
part the content of each cafk. 26 Geo. III. c. 59. f. 32.
Any excefs in dealer’s ftock from the account laft taken,
after deduGting the quantity fold and entered in their
books, deemed not to have paid duty, and is forfeited, and
double the value. 26 Geo. III. c.5. f. 59. 27 Geo. III.
c. 31. Different kinds of wine and liquors, (cyder,
fpirits, &c.) to be kept feparate. 26 Geo. III. c. 59.
42 Geo. III.c.93. And no dealer in foreign wine to have
any {weets or Britifh wines in his poffeffion. Penalty tos.
er gallon. 26 Geo. III. Account of wine daily fold to
¢ kept, and no quantity above three gallons to be removed
without permit, on forfeiture of the fame, and the carriage
and horfes. 26 Geo. III. e. 59. 42 Geo. III. c. 95.
Wine, in poffeffion of perfons not dealers, may have permits
granted for its removal, on proving to the fatisfaétion of
the commiffioners of excife, or the colletor or fupervifor of
the diflri€t, that the duties have been paid, 26 Geo. III.
c. 59. f. 33. Permits not ufed to be returned to the
officer, on penalty of treble the value of the wine. 26 Geo. III.
c. 59. {. 37, 38; and perfons forging or counterfeiting
them to forfeit soo/. Ibid. fe&. 39.
For the laws relating to low wines and domeftic wines,
fee DisTiLLER, and Sweets.
WIN
Wrz of Squills. See Squirts.
Wine-Meafure. See Measure, and Laws relating to
Wine /upra.
Wixe-Fiy, in Natural Hiflory, the name of a {mall black
fly, found in empty wine-cafks, and about wine-lees, and
called by the Latins, Bibio.
It is produced of a {mall red worm, very common in the
fediment of wine.
The drippings of wine or beer veffels, the preflings of
the wine or tapi prefs, the pots in which honey has been
kept, and in which a little remains fticking to the fides,
and turning four, all afford vaft numbers of a {mall fpe-
cies of worm or maggot. This is of a white colour,
and has two hooks placed near the head; in fhort, it re-
fembles in all the parts the maggot of the common
flefh-fly. Multitudes of thefe fmall creatures live and
move very brifkly about in thefe fubftances for feveral
weeks together; but at the end of that time, when they
have arrived at their full growth, they enter into the
nymph-ftate under a covering or cafe made of their own
fkin, which dries, and becomes of a brown colour.
After eight or ten days in this ftate, the cafe is opened
by the falling off of a {mall piece at the end, and the fly
makes its way out. The fly is extremely fmall when
its wings are not extended.
It does not exceed the fize of the head of a middling
pin; it is however very beautiful; the breaft and-body
are yellow, the reticulated eyes are red, and the wings
have all the rainbow-colours. The beft way of procur-
ing thefe little flies, which make a very beautiful mi-
crofcope obje&, is to keep the matter, in which the
worms are placed, in a glafs, covered down with a pa-
per; as foon as the cover is taken off, at the time of their
being in the fly-ftate, they rife up at once in the form of
a cloud; enough of them for obfervation will however
remain about the fides of the veffel. When examined, they
are found to have all the regular parts of the larger flies ;
their antenne are oval and flatted, and their legs, and every
other part, are as elegantly perfe&t, as they are feen to be
in the moft elegant large fly.
It is not known whether they are oviparous or viviparous ;
but this is to be obferved, that they give us great light
into the origin of animalcules in different fluids.
Since we fee in thefe the evident courfe of nature in their
origin, what prevents but that there may be numbers of
flies yet {maller then thefe, whofe eggs may be depofited in
the fluids in which we find our microfcope animalcules.
Reaum. Hitt. Inf. vol. ix. p. 82.
WINEBAGO, in Geography, a lake of North America.
N. lat. 43° 50’. W. long. 87° 46’.
Wixesaco River, a river of America, which runs from
Winebago lake to Green bay into lake Michigan. The
Winebago Indians inhabit near this river and lake, in about
N. lat. 43° to 44°. W. long. 84° to 89°.
WINEBAGOES Casrxe, an Indian fettlement in
North America, near Winebago lake.
WINEE or Brack River, a river of South Carolina.
See BLack River.
WINERSTA, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Gothland ;
18 miles N.W. of Linkioping.
WING, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiology, is generally
ufed for any appendage to a feed, which ferves to affift in
its flight through the air. In this fenfe, the feathery
crown of the Dandelion, and other fyngenefious plants ;
the membranous expanfion at the top of the fcabious feed,
fo curioufly and varioufly conftruéted in different {pecies ;
the long feathery awn of the S#pa; and the delicate filky
plumage
WIN
plumage of many feeds among the order of Coniorte, are
jultly denominated wings. In a more limited and technical
fenfe, the A/a, or wing, properly fo called, is a thin mem-
branous expanfion, enabling the feeds to flutter to a {mall
diftance from their native capfule, rather than to fly very
far. Such is found in EmporHrium, GREVILLEA, BANK-
sta, Concuium, (fee thofe articles,) as well as in our
Englifh genera RuinantHus and SpPERGULA; in the
latter we believe this part to vary, in degree at leaft.
Gertner meant to confine the term a/a to a membranous
expanfion of the upper part of a feed, or feed-veflel, but he
has not adhered to this intention. Winged capfules,
which do not burft, are feen in the Afh and the Maple.
One which does burft occurs in the curious exotic genus
Brconia. The feeds of fome umbelliferous plants, as
Tuarsta, have feveral wings ; thefe are always lateral and
longitudinal in that natural order; but it is far more gene-
ral for them to be folitary. When the wing encompafles
the feed, as in the beautiful inftance of Bignonia echinata,
figured in Gertner, t. 52, that author properly adopts the
term a/a, and yet the expanfion to which it applies is really
a margo membranaceus, (membranous expanfion,) furround-
ing the feed entirely, except at the very bafe.
The appellation of wing is given alfo to any membra-
nous or leafy dilatation of a footftalk, or of the angles of a
ftem, branch, or flower-ftalk, as well as of a calyx. The
wings of a papilionaceous corolla are the two lateral petals,
both alike, which embrace the bafe of the keel, and are
fheltered by the ftandard. Thefe fpread remarkably in fine
weather. They differ greatly in fize and fhape in different
genera. See PAPILIONACER.
Wine, in Geography, a village of England, in Bucking-
hamfhire, with 993 inhabitants; 7 miles N.E. of Aylef-
bury.—Alfo, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland; 40
miles E. of Gotheburg.
Wina, in Ornithology. See Featuer, and Fiyine.
The wings are adapted for flight in all birds, except the
dodo, oftriches, great awk, and the penguins, whofe wings
are too fhort for the ufe of flying: but in the dodo and
oftrich, when extended, they ferve to accelerate their motion
in running ; and in penguins perform the office of fins, in
{wimming or diving. The wings have near their end an
appendage covered with four or five feathers, called the
baftard wings: the lefler coverts are the fe@rices: the
greater coverts are thofe which lie beneath the former, and
cover the quill-feathers and the fecondaries. The quill-
feathers, or primores, {pring from the firft bones of the
wings, are ten in number, and broader on their inner than
exterior fides: the fecondaries are thofe that arife from the
fecond part, or cubitus, are about eighteen in number, and
equally broad on both fides. The primary and fecondary
wing-feathers are called remiges. The tertials are a tuft
of feathers placed beyond the fecondaries, near the junétion
of the wings with the body. This, in water-fowl, is gene-
rally longer than the fecondaries, and cuneiform. The
fcapulars are a tuft of long feathers arifing near the junétion
of the wings with the body, and lie along the fides of the
back, but may be eafily diftinguifhed, and raifed with one’s
finger. The inner coverts are thofe that clothe the under
fide of the wing.
The wings of fome birds are inftruments of offence: the
anhima of Marcgrave has two {trong {pines in the front of
each wing ; a fpecies of plover has a fingle one on each ;
as haye alfo the whole tribe of jacana, and the gambo, or
{pur-winged goofe of Willughby. Pennant’s Genera of
Birds, pref. p. 4.
Wines, among the Fly-cla/s, afford feveral fubordinate
12
WIN
diltin@tions of the genera of thofe animals, under the ancient
general claffes.
Several {pecies of flies, while they are in a ftate of reft,
or only walking, fhew feveral regularly diftin&t manners
of carrying their wings. The much greater numbers,
however, carry them in a parallel or plain pofition : fome
being perpendicular to the length of the body without
covering it, others covering the body without covering
one another: the wings of others crofs one another on the
body of the animal, fome of which round themfelves there,
the upper wing being more elevated on the middle of the
body than on the fides. Some flies have their wings placed
on their backs, and applied againft one another, in a per-
pendicular pofition: the wings of others are applied
obliquely againit their fides, and meet above the bodv of
their inner edges, forming a kind of hollow roof under
which the body is placed ; others form at their jun@ion on
the back a flat depreffed roof, and others have them meet-
ing under their bellies.
The ftruéture of the wings of different flies might alfo
furnifh matter of farther diftin@ions. The greater part of
them are of a fine ftru€ture, and reprefent the fineft gauze,
and are equally tranfparent, or nearly fo, in all parts.
Some flies, however, have wings of a lefs degree of tranf-
parence, and fome even opaque ones. Others of the four-
winged flies have obfcure {pots alfo diftributed near their
very tran{parent texture ; fuch are the wings of the fcorpion-
fly ; and fome of the two-winged flies have wings partly
opaque, partly pellucid, the opaque {pots being {eparated
by tranfparent lines. Reaumur’s Hift. Inf. vol. iv. p. 136,
&c.
Wives of Butterflies. The beautiful wings of this genus
of infeéts are diftinguifhed from thofe of the fly-kind, by
their not being thin and tranfparent, like them, but thicker
and opaque. This opacity in them is owing only to the
duit which comes off from them, and {ticks to the fingers
in handling them, and it is alfo to this duft that they
owe all their beautiful variety of colours. The earlier
naturalifts, for this reafon, diftinguifhed thefe infe&ts by
the appellation of fuch as had farinaceous wings. The
ufe of the microfcope has taught us, that this duft is not
the refult of fome other fubftance broken into fragments ;
but every particle of it is a regularly figured body, made
for the place and order it has in the covering of the wing.
The feveral fpecies of butterflies, and even the different
parts of the fame wing, afford thefe bodies of different
fhapes and figures. Moft of the authors who have written
of microfcopic objeéts, have given the figures of the prin-
cipal varieties of thefe ; but no one has given fo many as
Bonani in his Micrographia, in which work the figures of
the various kinds take up four quarto plates.
It has been the general cuftom of authors to call thefe
feathers ; but they are by M. Reaumur, with much greater
juftice, called fcales. Their ftru€ture has no refemblance
to that of feathers, for they are little flat and thin bodies,
of more or lefs length, and always having a fhort pedicle
which enters into the fubftance of the wing.
When the wing of a butterfly is viewed by a microfcope,
the arrangement of thefe feveral bodies in it is feen to be
extremely beautiful and regular. The fcales lie as regu-
larly and evenly one over another, as the tiles on a houfe
or the fcales on the fith-kind, every feries of them covering
a {mall part of that feries which runs below it. The upper
and under part of the wing are equally furnifhed with thefe,
and there is no fpecies of this creature, in every wing of
which there are not feveral figures of thefe fcales in feveral
parts.
The
WIN
The ftru@ture of the wing itfelf which fupports thefe
feveral feales, hairs, &c. is very worthy our attention. In
order to examine this, it is neceflary to rub off all the duft
or feales. ‘We then find that the wing itfelf is framed of
feveral large and ftrong ribs, which all take their origin at
that part where the wing is fixed to the body, and thence
extend themfelves along the feveral fides of the wing.
The largeft and thickeft of thefe furrounds the outer edge
of the wing, the largeft next to this extends itfelf round the
interior edge, and the others dire& their courfe along the
middle of the wing, and then divaricate, and become rami-
fied in the manner of the ribs in the leaves of plants. The
fubfiance which conneéts and fills up the {paces between
thefe ribs, is of fo peculiar a nature, that it is not eafy to
find any name to defign it by, at leait there is no fubftance
that enters the compofition of the bodies of the larger ani-
mals, that is at all analogous to it: it is a white fubttance,
tranfparent and friable, and feems indeed to differ in nothing
from that of the large and thick ribs, but in that it is ex-
tended into thin plates; but this is faying but little toward
the determining what it really is, fince we are as much at a
lofs to know by what name to call the fubftance they are
compofed of. Malpighi, indeed, calls them bones; but
though they do ferve in the place of bones, rendering the
wing firm and ftrong, without making it heavy, and are,
when cut i AP , found to be hollow; yet, when
itriGly examined, they do not appear to have any thing of
the ftru€ture of bones, but appear rather of the fubftance
of feales, or of that fort of imperfeét fcales, of which the
covering of thofe infeé&ts which we call cruftaceous is
compofed.
The wings of butterflies, thus large, and thus light, are
very well able to fuftain them a long time in the air, and thus
they might be expected to fly better than moft other infeés ;
but many people have obferved the irregular manner in
which thefe infe&ts ufually fly, which is not ftraight for-
ward, but up and down, and to one fide and the other:
this has been fuppofed owing to fome imperfection of the
wings; but, in reality, it is their great perfection that
enables the creatures to do this, and this manner of flying is
abfolutely neceffary to the prefervation of their life, as birds
of many kinds are continually after them while they are on
the wing; and it is a pleafant fight to obferve in what
manner this fort of dodging motion in the butterfly dif-
appoints the bird that flies ftraight at it, and often preferves
it fafely for a long way together.
The beautiful variety of colours, feen in the wings of
thefe infeéts, is owing to the fcales and feathers. Reau-
mur’s Hift. Inf. vol. i. part i. p. 255, &c.
Wines of Gnats. Thefe are of a a curious ftru€ture,
and well worthy the ufe of the microfcope, to fee them.
diftinGly.
It is well known that on touching the wings of butter-
flies, a coloured powder is left on the fingers, which,
though to the naked eye it appear a mere fhapelefs duft,
yet when examined by the microfcope, it is found to be
very regularly-figured Lemttifal bodies, encompafled with a
furbelow of long feathers, and with veins or ribs that feem
to ftrengthen them, in form of feathers or fcales, or fome-
times befet with prickles: thefe are of various figures, and
all of them very elegant. The generality of flies have no-
thing of this kind; but the clofe examination of the wings
of gnat will fhew, that they are not wholly deftitute of
them ; they are’much more fparingly beftowed indeed upon
the gnat than on the butterfly, but then they are arranged
with great regularity. Between the ribs of the wings there
is extended a very thin tranfparent membrane, full of little
WIN
black fharp-pointed hairs, ranged throughout with the ut-
mott regularity. The wings in different forts of gnats are
very different : fome have a border of long feathers, others
of fhort ones, and others have none at all. Reaumur’s
Hift. Inf. vol. iv. p. 577. Baker’s Microfc. 8vo. 1743,
Pp» 204.
Wixcs, Warbling of the. See Wanrsiinc.
‘ Wines, in Heraldry, are borne fometimes fingle, fome-
times in pairs, in which cafe they are called conjoined; when
the points are downward, they are faid to be inverted;
when up, elevated.
Wix6s, in Gardening, &c. denote fuch branches of trees,
or other plants, as grow up afide of each other.
Quintiny fays, the term is particularly applied to arti-
chokes, whofe wings, or ale, are the leffer heads, or fruits,
that grow up with the principal one on the fame ftalk.
Wives, dle, inthe Military Art, are the two flanks, or
extremes of an army, ranged in form of battle; being the
right and left fides dane 2 and including the main body.
The cavalry are always pofted in the wings, i.e. on the
flanks, on the right and teh fides of each line; to cover the
foot in the middle.
Pan, one of Bacchus’s captains, is faid to have been the
firft inventor of this method of ranging an army ; whence,
fay they, it is, that the ancients painted him with horns on
his head; what we call wings, being by them called cornua,
horns. This at leaft is certain, that the method of arranging
in wings is very ancient, The Romans, we know, ufed
the term ale, or wings, for two bodies of men in their
army ; one on the right, the other on the left, confifting
each of four hundred horfe, and four thoufand two hundred
foot ufually, and wholly made up of confederate troops.
Thefe were defigned to cover the Roman army, as the
wings of a bird cover its body. :
The troops in thefe wings they called alares, and alares
copia ; and we, at this day, diftinguifh our armies into the
main body, the right and /eft wings.
Wines are alfo ufed for two files, that terminate each
battalion, or fquadron, on the right and left. The pikes
ufed to be ranged in the middle, and the mufqueteers in the
wings. ‘
Winas, in Fortification, denote the longer fides of horn-
works, crown-works, tenailles, and the lke outworks, in-
cluding the ramparts and parapets, with which they are:
—- on the right and left, from the gorge to their
ront.
Thefe wings, or fides, are capable of being flanked,
either with the body of the place, if they ftand not too far
diftant, or with certain redoubts; or with a traverfe made
in the ditch.
Wins, ina Ship, the places next the fide upon the orlop,
ufually parted off in fhips of war, that the carpenter and his
crew may have free accefs round the fhip in time of action,
to plug up fhot-holes, &c.
Wives are alfo the fkirts or extremities of a fleet, when
it is ranged into a line a-breaft, or when bearing away upon
two fides of an angle.
It is ufual alfo to extend the wings of a fleet in the day-
time, in order to difcover any enemy which may fall into
their track. To prevent feparation, however, they are
commonly fummoned to draw nearer to the centre of the
{quadron before night, by a fignal from the commander-
in-chief, which is afterwards repeated by fhips in the in-
tervals. Falconer.
W1nG-Tran/om, the uppermott tranfom in the {tern-frame
of a fhip, &c., upon which the peels of the counter-timbers
are relted. It is by fome called the main-tranfom.
WInGs,
i WIN
Wines, Goofe. See Goose.
Wine, St. Michael’s, is the name of a military order in
Portugal, inftituted, according to the Jefuit Mendo, in
1165; or, according to di Michieli, in his Teforo Militar.
de Cavalleria, in 1171. Its inftitutor was Alphonfus
Henry I. king of Portugal ; and the occafion was a victory
ained by him over the king of Savil, and his Saracens ;
or which he thought himfelf beholden to St. Michael,
whom he had chofen for his patron in the war againft the
infidels.
The banner they bore was a wing refembling that of the
archangel, of a purple colour, encompaffed with rays of
gold. Their rule was that of St. Benediét ; the vow they
made was to defend the Chriftian religion, and the borders
of the kingdom, and to proteét orphans. Their motto,
Quts ut Deus ! ;
Winc-Walls, of a bridge or lock, are fplaying-walls for
diminifhing the width of the canal to fuch bridge or lock,
and for keeping up the banks.
WINGE, in Geography, a river of France, which runs
into, the Demer, 2 miles W. of Arfchot.
WINGED, in Botany, a term applied to fuch ftems of
plants as are furnifhed, all their length, with a fort of mem-
branous appendage.
Several kinds of thiftles have winged ftalks and branches.
Wincep Leaves are fuch as confift of divers little leaves,
ranged in the fame direGtion, on each fide of a rib or tftalk,
fo as to appear no more than one and the fame leaf. Such
are the leaves of agrimony, acacia, afh, &c. See Winc.
Wincep Seeds are fuch as have down or hairs on them,
by which the wind taking hold blows them to a diftance.
Wincep Stalk. See Starx.
Wixcrp, in Heraldry, is applied to a bird when its wings
are of a different colour, or metal, from the body.
Winged is alfo applied to any thing reprefented with
wings, though contrary to its nature; as winged or flying ,
hart, &c.
WINGER, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the pro-
vince of Aggerhuus; 2 miles S. of Kong{winger.
WINGHAM, a village and parith in the hundred of its
own name, and lathe of St. Auguitine, in the county of
Kent, England, is fituated 34 miles E. from Maidftone, and
62 E. by S. from London. A college of a provoft and
fix fecular canons was projeéted here by Kilwardby, arch-
bifhop of Canterbury, but fettled and endowed by his fuc-
ceffor, Peckham, in 1286. It was valued at 84/. per annum
at the general fuppreflion. By Edward VI. the college,
with the patronage of the church and all tythes, were
granted to fir Henry Palmer. The building, now called the
college, and which formed the manfion of the Palmers,
appears to have been the provoft’s lodge. The church con-
tains memorials of the Palmers and the Oxendens, who
have a feat at Deane, in the parifh. A double row of ftalls
ftill exifts in the chancel. Wingham gives a title to earl
Cowper, who, however, has no eftate in the parifh. It
gave birth to Henry de Wingham, chancellor of England,
bifhop of Winchefter, and afterwards of London. In 1811
’ the inhabitants of the parifh were 859, who occupied 162
houfes.—Beauties of England, Kent, by E. W. Brayley.
Wincuam’s Jfland, a {mall ifland in the North Paeific
ocean, near the W. coaft of North America; 3 miles N.W.
of Kaye’s ifland. N. lat. 60° 4’. E. long. 215° 46).
WINGROD, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia;
16 miles N.W. of Sniatyn.
WINHALL, a townfhip of Vermont, in the county of
Bennington, with 429 inhabitants; 30 miles N.E. of Ben-
nington.
WIN
WININGEN, a town of France, in the department of
the Rhine and Mofelle, on the N. fide of the Mofelle ; 5
miles W. of Coblentz.
WINKEL, a town of France, in the department of
Mont Tonnerre ; 14 miles W. of Mentz.
WINKELMAN, 4#éé Joun, in Biography, a German
antiquary, was born at Stendal, in the Mark of Branden-
burg, in 1718. Although born in very humble life, he
fortunately enjoyed favourable opportunities of cultivating
his talents in that department in which he afterwards
attained to eminence. He had arrived at the age of 37
years before he was known to the public as an author.
His firft work was ‘ RefleGtions on the Imitation of the
Greeks in Painting and Sculpture ;”? and it was received in
a manner that very much contributed to eftablifh his repu-
tation. At the court of Auguftus, king of Poland, he was
profelyted to the Catholic faith, more, as fome have faid,
by arguments addreffed to his worldly intereft, than to his
{piritual welfare. It is certain, however, that he much
wifhed to vifit Italy for the fake of examining thofe matter-
pieces of art that were to be found in that country. With
this view he left Drefden, and in paffing through Florence
in 1756, he made a defcriptive catalogue of the antiquities
in the colle&tion of the celebrated baron de Stofch, which
feemed to introduce him with advantage to Rome, whither
he proceeded towards the clofe of this year. His acquaint-
ance with the famous painter Mengs, Bianconi, and feveral
other ingenious artifts, forwarded his accefs to two of the
moft celebrated literary men at Rome, cardinal Paffionei
and the prelate Giaconelli; from whofe library and learning
he derived much ufeful information, fo that he was foon ac-
knowledged as a man of fine tafte, and a diftinguifhed con-
noiffeur in works of art. Affuming the ecclefiaftical habit,
he fucceeded the abbé Venuti as keeper of the pope’s
cabinet of antiquities; and he was alfo appointed copyift
in the library of the Vatican. Under the patronage of the
pope, who increafed his income out of his privy-purfe, he
completed his Hiftory of Art among the Ancients, and then
left Rome in 1768 to vifit his friends in Germany, and to
revife his work to be tranflated into French by M.- Touf-
faint of Berlin. On his return to Rome by way of Triefte,
he was affaffinated, in June 1768, by a wretch who had
joined him on the road, and who had fo far gained his con-
fidence, that he had fhewn him fome gold medals and valuable
prefents which he had received at Vienna. ‘ Abbé Win-
kelman,” fays one of his biographers, “* was of the middle
fize, with a very low forehead, a fharp nofe, and black hollow
eyes, which gave him rather a gloomy appearance. An
ardent and impetuous difpofition often hurried him into
extremes. Naturally enthufiaftic, he frequently indulged
an extravagant imagination ; but as he pofleffed a ftrong
and folid judgment, he knew how to give things their juit
value. In confequence of this turn of mind, as well as a
negleéted education, he was a ftranger to cautious referve.
If he was bold in his decifions as an author, he was ftill
more fo in his converfation, and often made his friends
tremble for his temerity.”” The tranflation of his Hiftory
of the Arts was completed only in part by Touffaint.
Another French tranflation was publifhed by Huber, pro-
feffor at Leipfic. It is faid that the laft French tranflation
is far preferable to the firft, as it was made from an enlarged
edition of the original, printed at Vienna in 1776, after a
MS. left by the author. Among the other works of
Winkelman were, “ Letters on the Difcoveries made at
Herculaneum,”’ tranflated into Englifh by Mr. Gough;
“* Unpublifhed Monuments of Antiquity, fuch as Statues,
ancient Paintings, engraved Stones, Bas-Reliefs, in a
an
WIN
and Terra Cotta,” of which there is a French tranflation
from the Italian, Paris, 1808, 3 vols. 4to. with plates; * On
Allegory, or Treatifes on that Subje&t,”’ 2 Bg 8vo. ; and
‘* Remarks on the Archite&ture of the Ancients,’’? 8vo.
Winkelman’s “ Letters to his Friends’? were publifhed in
German, in 2 vols. 8vo., with an account of his life pre-
fixed by Heyne. Nouv. Di&. Hift. Gen. Biog.
WINKOOP?’s Bay, or Wine Cooper’s Bay, in Geogra-
$y, a large bay on the fouth coaft of Java. S. lat. 7° 5'.
- long. 106° 38).
Winxoopr’s J/land, a {mall ifland near the fouth coaft of
Java. S. lat. 7° 28/. E. long. 106° 36’.
Wixkoop’s Point, a cape on the fouth coalt of Java.
S. lat. 7° 25'. E.long. 106° 36).
WINLATON, a townfhip of Durham; 6 miles W. of
Newcattle.
WINNEBAGO. See Wivesaco.
WINNENBURG, a citadel of France, in the depart-
ment of the Sarre, which heretofore gave name to a lordfhip
within the archbifhopric of Treves; 1 mile N.W. of
Cocheim.
WINNENDEN, a town of Wurtemberg. In the
year 1693, this town was laid in afhes by the French; 12
miles E-N.E. of Stuttgart. N. lat. 48° 53'. E. long.
301.
WINNICZA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw ; 32 miles N.N.W. of Braclaw.
WINNING or Hay, in Agriculture, a term fometimes
applied to the operation of making hay in certain ftates of
the weather. See Hay-Making.
WINNINGE, in Geography, a river of Lancafhire,
which runs into the Lune, 6 miles N.E. of Lancatter.
WINNINGEN, a town of Weftphalia, in the princi-
pality of Halberitadt ; 4 miles N, of Afcherfleben.
WINNIPEG, or Winiric, a lake of Upper Louifi-
ana, being the great refervoir of feveral large rivers, and
fuppofed to be the largeft of the inland feas, near the heads
of the Miffiflippi, which difcharges itfelf by the river
Nelfon into Hudfon’s bay. It is conneéted with other
lakes to the N.W., and has, from the riyers entering into
it, an inconfiderable portage to the waters of lake Supe-
rior. This lake is faid to be 240 miles in length, and from
g0 to 100 in breadth, though in fome places it is hardly
five. N. lat. 52° 10! W. long. 97° 30!.
Wixnieec or Winipic River, a large body of water, in-
terfperfed with numerous iflands, caufing various channels,
and interruptions of portages and rapids. ‘The lake Du
Bois difcharges itfelf at both ends of an ifland, on which is
the carrying-place out of the lake, and which is named
Portage du Rat, in N. lat. 49° 37’, and W. long. 94° 25',
about 50 paceslong, and forms this river. In fome parts,
the river has the appearance of lakes, with fleady currents :
its winding courfe to the Dalles is eftimated at miles ; to
the Great Décharge 254 miles, which is a long carrying¢
place for the goods; from thence to the Little Décharge
14 mile; to the Tunejatine Portage 24 miles; then to its
alet or rocky portage, 70 yards; 23% miles to the Tune
lanche, near which is a fall of from four to five feet ; 34
miles to Portage de I’Ifle, where is a trading port, and
about 11 miles on the N. fhore a trading eftablifhment,
which is the road, in boats, to Albany river, and from thence
to Hudfon’s bay. There is alfo a communication with
lake Superior, through what is called the Nipigoes country,
that enters the lake Winipic above 35 leagues E. of the
Grande Portage. Mackenzie’s Voyages, &c. Introd. p. 60.
Wiwnirrc, Little, a lake of North America, 80 miles
fong and 15 wide, N. lat. 52°10’, W. long. 100° 15/,
WIN
WINNIPISIOGEE, or Wrnnirissioker, a lake of
New Hamphhire ; 80 miles N. of Bofton. N. lat. 43° 35’.
W. tong. 71° 18/.
WINNOV, in Agriculture, fignifies to fan, or feparate
corn from the chaff by wind.
WINNOWING, and Winnowinc-Machine. See Fan-
Machine, and Turesuinc-Machine.
WINNSBOROUGH,, in Geography, a town of South
Carolina; 30 miles N. of Columbia. N. lat. 34° 28/.
W. long. 81° 15).
WINNY Hay, in Agriculture, a term applied to hay in
fome conditions of it. See Hay.
WINSCHOTE, or Winscuorren, in Geography, a
town of Holland, in the department of Groningen, near
which the Spaniards were defeated by Louis, brother to
the prince of Orange, on the 24th of May 1568. The
Spaniards loft 2500 men, all their baggage, and fix pieces of
cannon. This was the firft battle fought on account of
the Revolution, and gave the prince a happy prefage of
fuccefs ; 19 miles E. of Groningen.
WINSDER, a river of Norfolk, which runs into the
Yare, 12 miles W.N.W. of Norwich.
WINSEN am ver A cter, a town of Weiltphalia, in
the principality of Luneburg, on the Aller ; 6 miles below
Zell.
Wunsen am der Luhe,a town of Weltphalia, in the prin-
cipality of Luneburg, on an ifland in the lake; 12 miles
S.E. of Hamburg.
WINSLOW, James Benicnus, in Biography, an emi-
nent anatomift, was born in 1669 at Odenfee, in the ifle of
Funen, and having ftudied a year under Borrichius, was
fent with a penfion from the king of Denmark to feek im-
provement in the principal univerfities of Europe. In 1698
he became a pupil of the celebrated anatomift Duverney at
Paris, and during his refidence in this capital, he abjured
Proteftantifm, and was confirmed by Boffuet, affuming in
addition to his own baptifmal name that of his converter,
Benignus. Haller denominates Winflow “ fimple and fu-
perftitious,’”’ and of courfe his converfion to the Catholic
faith afforded no great occafion for triumph. | This event,
however, detached him from his family and native country,
and was the means of fixing his abode in France, where the
patronage of Boffuet was hi hly favourable to his advance-
ment, and ferved to obtain br him the degree of doétor in
1705. In1707 Duverney recommended him to be an eléve
of anatomy in the Academy of Sciences. He afterwards
read le¢tures of anatomy and furgery for Duverney at the
royal garden; and in 1743 was promoted to the profeffor-
fhip in this inftitution. In the meanwhile, he communicated
feveral papers on anatomical and phyfiological fubjé&s to
the Academy of Sciences, by which body, as well as by
the Royal Society of Berlin, he was admitted into the num-
ber of affociates. His great work, mentioned by Haller
as fuperfeding all former compofitions of anatomy, and en-
titled “* Expofition Anatomique de la Stru€ture du Corps
Humain,”’ firft appeared at Paris in 1732, 4to. It was fre-
quently reprinted, and tranflated into various languages ;
and is ftill regarded as of ftandard authority. Winflow
planned, but never finifhed, a larger work, of which this was
merely an abridgment, and he was alfo the author of dif-
putations and treatifes on particular topics. He died in
1760 at the advanced age of gt. Haller. Eloy. Gen,
Biog.
raw in Geography, a market-town in the county of
Buckingham, England, 64 miles from Buckingham, and 51
N.W. from London. The market, now inconfiderable, was
granted in 1235 to the abbot of St, Alban’s, lord of the
manor,
WIN
manor, by king Offa. The manor is now the property of
William Selby, efq., who has a feat in the town. The
parifh-church, a fpacious firu€ture confifting of a nave,
two aifles, a chancel, and a tower, contains no monuments of
note. According to the population return of 1811, the
houfes in the parifh were 223, and the inhabitants 1222.
Here is a {mall market on Thurfdays, and five annual
fairs.—Magna Britannia, by the Rev. D. Lyfons and S.
Lyfons, efg. 4to. 1806.
WinsLow, a town of the province of Maine, on the
Kennebeck, in the county of the fame name, containing 658
inhabitants ; 88 miles N.N.E. of Portland.
WINSTER, a {mall market-town in the hundred of
High Peak, and county of Derby, England, is fituated 5 miles
W. by N. from Matlock, and 152 miles N.N.W. from
London: The manor belonged to Henry de Ferrars when
the Domefday-furvey was taken. At a later period it was
held by the Mountjoys, who were fucceeded by the Mey-
nells. The latter fold it to the freeholders in the reign of
queen Elizabeth. The town affords nothing worthy of par-
ticular notice. It has a chapel of eafe to the parifh of
Youlgrave, of which Winfter forms a part; and alfo a
chapel for the Wefleyan Methodifts. A market is held on
Saturdays, which appears to be by prefcription ; for there
is no grant of it on record: till lately here was an annual
fair, but.it is now difcontinued. ‘The population return of
the year 1811 {tates Winfter to contain 217 houfes, and 852
mhabitants ; the latter are chiefly employed in the mining
bufinefs, and in the inferior branches of the cotton trade.
On the commons, in the vicinity of the town, are feveral
cairns, or ftone barrows, and alfo two or three barrows of
earth: in one of the latter, which was opened in the year
1768, two glafs veflels were difcovered, about nine inches in
height, containing a pint of water, of a light green colour,
and very limpid. With thefe a filver‘collar or bracelet was
found, together with fome fmall well-wrought ornaments,
feveral beads of glafs and earth, and remains of brafs clafps
and hinges, with pieces of wood, that feemed to have be-
longed to a box in which the ornaments had been depofited.
Thefe antiquities induced Mr. King to fuppofe the barrow
to have been raifed over fome Briton of diftin@tion, though
long after the Romans were in poffeffion of the ifland.—
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. iii. Derbyfhire ; by
_ J. Britton and E. W. Brayley, 1803. Lyfons? Magna
Britannia, vol. v. Derbyfhire, 1817.
Wrnster, a river of the county of Lancafter, which
runs into the Ken, at its mouth.
WINTBERG, a town of Pruffia, on the Curifch Haff ;
14 miles N. of Preckol.
WINTENAU, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 2 miles
S. of Marburg.
WINTER, , in Biography, a German opera com-
pofer, of great abilities, who fucceeded Bianchi at our
Lyric theatre in 1803 ; during which year he produced, in
1803-4, the mufic of the ballet of Achille and Deidamia,
and for Mrs. Billington’s benefit.
Winter, one of the four feafons or quarters of the
year.
Winter properly commences on the day when the fun’s
diftance from the zenith of the place is the greateft, and
ends on the day when its diftance is at a mean between
the greateft and leatt.
Notwithftanding the coldnefs of this feafon, it is proved,
in aftronomy, that the fun is really nearer to the earth in
winter than in fummer. The reafon of the decay of heat,
&c. fee under Heat:
Under the equator, the winter, as well as the other fea-
Voi. XXXVIII.
WIN
fons, return twice every year; but all other places have
only one winter in the year ; which, in the northern hemi-
{phere, begins when the fun is in the tropic of Capricorn ;
and in the fouthern hemifphere, when in the tropic of
Cancer: fo that all places in the fame hemifphere have
their winter at the fame time.
Winter Management of Flowers, in Gardening, among
florifts, moftly confifts in placing them in proper fituations
and expofures, in properly prote¢ting them, in duly earth-
ing them on the approach of the {pring feafon, and fome
other matters of lefs confequence. Different kinds of flower-
plants require different forts of management in thefe refpects ;
but in thofe of the primrofe kind, efpecially in the auricula,
(fee Auricuta and Primua,) the plants, after being
placed out in proper frames, in a full fouthern expofure,
from about the middle of O€tober throughout the winter,
and having a rather warm proteétion given them the whole
of that time, when the weather is fevere, fhould in all the
autumnal and winter months, until the beginning of April, or
later, be expofed during the day to the full open air, by
wholly removing the glaffes, except in the time of very
heavy rains, and fevere frofts or ftorms, though the com-
mon praétice is that of keeping them on, and oat letting in
air by raifing the lights behind. In the mid-winter feafan
they fhould be kept very dry, as fevere froft has in that cafe
lefs effe& on the roots ; confequently, when rain obliges the
lights to be kept on, they fhould be raifed behind. Heavy
rain, or much wet, is very prejudicial and fometimes de-
{truGtive to thefe plants, which are otherwife hardy. Much
expofure to the free air in dry weather has likewife great
effe& on the richnefs and brilliancy of their ground albaes
and good {pring bloom, as well as on their health, vigour,
and hardinefs. In the afternoon, as about four o’clock,
however, the plants fhould be covered by the lights at this
feafon in a clofe manner, and have two or three thicknefles
of ‘mats thrown over them, to ‘remain until about nine
o’clock on the morning following, when, fhould there not
be rain, hail, or fnow, they may be expofed to the full open
air as above; but in the contrary circumftances, the mats
fhould only be removed fo as to give light, air being plenti-
fully let in behind. In the two beginning months of the
year much muft depend on the ftate of the weather ; when
mild and open, the plants may be managed nearly as above ;
but in fevere froft and fnow much more caution mutt be
ufed in regard to expofure, fo as not to have the mould of
the pots much frozen, as the bloom is now beginning to form,
and would be injured thereby ; but in long frofts air fhould
be let in as much as poffible in the above manner, and light
be given, with the influence of the fun, when there is any,
in the middle of the day ; the plants being always clofely fhut
and covered up by three o’clock in the afternoon. Though the
plants fhould be very dry, they fhould have but little water,
either in rain, or from the watering-pot, in the two pre-
ceding months, and only a {mall quantity, or fome {mall
light foutherly fhowers in thefe, fo as to render the ground
in a moderately moift condition. Towards the middle or
end of February, the plants fhould be dreffed, cleaned, and
new-earthed with frefh mould for the {pring, when there is
mild open weather, removing thofe from the {mall pots into
larger, and expofing them fully to the gentle rains and
fhowers, but conftantly defending them well from frofts,
hail, and florms, as they now begin to fhoot new fibres more
quickly, and to grow faft. This manner of managing them
fhould be continued until nearly the middle of March, after
which they fhould be covered more warmly in the nights,
for fear of frofts, and that they may be bloomed very
fine.
BW, From
WIN
From the middle period of the above month, and through
the following, they muft alfo be defended from froft, in
order to promote the coming bloom. Great care and atten-
tion are e pecially neceflary for blooming the plants well from
the above time in March to near the end of the eee |
month, as in this time they will moftly attain their greate
perfetion and beauty. Itis only neceffary, as it is thought,
for blooming fuch flower-plants in the greateft perfetion, to
have them continually under glafs, night and day, for about
twenty-four of the laft days, as they will then have their
middle pips well expanded. In very ftrong fun they mutt
be flightly fhaded by a thin mat, but in other cafes they may
be thrown open and expofed to the full free air.
After the beginning of April, as the fifth or fixth, the
glaffes of the frames are to be kept completely over the
plants night and day, until they are in full bloom, only let-
ting in proper fupplies of air from behind the frames, and
giving the fhade of old thin mats when neceflary. This
mode is to be purfued to about the middle of this month ;
but the plants are not to be over-haftened in their bloom by
too much fun, as that may fade their fine colours ; but in
fuch cafes they muft be removed from the full fouthern ex-
pofure to a full eaftern one, though by no means yet to
a northern afpeét, as that would endanger their bloom ; if
the feafon be fuitable, the proteétion of a privet-hedge,
wall, or paling-fence, is the moft proper, being covered by
hand-glaffes ; when about the end of the month, they may
be removed to a northern expofure on ftages, or in other
proper places.
In this finifhing blooming eaftern expofure, all the mats
and other coverings fhould be taken off from the glaffes that
are placed over the flowers, about feven o’clock in the morn-
ing, and in funny weather the plants be fhaded from about
nine to twelve or one, the thin mats being then removed.
The covering-glafles are to be prepared by well wafhing,
and other means.
The flowers in blooming are moftly much benefited by
having a fouth-weft expofure as much as poffible, and by
carefully attending to the north and north-eaft winds, as well
as by receiving all mild moderate rains from about the begin-
ning of February until towards the end of March, In the
latter part of this time, before the truffes are too forward,
and the-bloffoms open, three or four hours rather heavy mild
rain greatly promotes the {welling of the pips, and much
increafes the fize of the foliage, efpecially if care be taken
immediately after it is over to fhut the flowers clofe down,
and cover them up in a warm manner, as below. Watering
them from a pot with a fine rofe in a warm funny day all
over the leaves in the afternoon, in the manner of rain, and
dire&tly covering them up warmly while the fun is upon
them, has likewife been found beneficial. They are now, too,
to be well guarded from late frofts, as they are fo foon de-
ftroyed by them.
In the late winter, or early {pring, night-covering, as from
the middle of the above month, the following mode has
been found highly beneficial, in not only repelling the cold
frofty night-air, but in affifting the bloom, and preventing
its being checked in any way thereby.
The heat at this period being ufually from about forty-
five to fifty degrees in the day-time, the flowers may be ex-
pofed to the open air init, and in covering them in for the
night, be kept nearly to that ftate; which is only to be
effe&ted by an artificiat covering of fome fort or other, for
other forts of heat do not anfwer the purpofe; as thofe
of the warm blanket, horfe-cloth, fheep-fkin, and other
fimilar kinds, laid next to the glafles, over which mats may
be placed fo as fully to protect the flowers, and keep the
WIN
other coverings from being injured by rain or other wetnefé:
Where wood-frames and che brick bee are ufed, it is ts
often neceflary to have hay, fern, ftraw, or fome other fuck
material, applied on the outfides of them, to guard againft
the penetration of the cold frofty air, as is otherwife liable
to be the cafe in fevere feafons. But fuch full coverings
fhould not be had recourfe to in the winter feafon fooner than
about the middle of March, as they might not only injure
the fine ftrong blooming plants, but eountera& the good
effe& they are intended to have in affifting nature to gra-
dually bloom the flowers in fine condition as the feafon ap-
proaches. The keeping the flowers fo warm on the nights
at this period of the fan is f{uppofed to prevent any check
to the vegetation of the plants; and another great effect
which it has is, that as foon as the pips open, they proceed
vigoroufly, expand freely, and come out level, fine, and
nearly flat ; while, if they once get a complete chill by cold
night air, their bloffoms will not expand flat, but on the con-
trary, ruffle or furbelow.
In the leaves of the auricula and fome other kinds of
plants, there is as much variety produced by thefe means in
the fhades of their green as in the colours of their flowers.
The green of the leaves, or gra/s, asit is termed, in this fort
of flower-plants, fhould conitantly be that which affords the
beft contraft, and has the moft power in fetting off the
flower to which it belongs. Different varieties in the fhape
of the leaves alfo proceed from the nature of the culture and
management, as well as from the raifing them from feed.
They have from thefe caufes leaves with imooth even edges,
with thick and flefhy edges, and with thin edges. Thefe
varieties in the leaves of fuch plants are often ol ienportatiée
to the florift in different ways. -In the grafs or green leaves
of thefe plants, there is likewife fome variety in the mealy
duft or farina which is upon them: in fome the whole plant
is nearly covered with it ; but thofe with blueith or pea-green
leaves are commonly the moft powdered with this fort of
duft, which contributes not only to the beauty of the
plants, but ferves in fome degree to preferve them from the
effects of the fcorching heat of the fun during the fummer
feafon.
The different other fine flower-plants are to have fome-
thing of the fame fort of winter-management purfued for
them, only making proper allowances and diftinétions, in fo
far as their differences in the nature of their growths or
other habits are concerned.
The diverfities of the auricula, as well as moft other
flower-plants, owe their prefent perfection, in a great .mea-
fure, to the care, ingenuity, cultivation, and management
of the florift-gardener, and fome of thofe private indivi-
duals who cultivate flowers for the amufement and delight
which they afford. By thefe means, this and many other
forts have been wonderfully improved, which were at firft
fingle and fimple, and their variety, fize, and beauty, have
been increafed in an aftonifhing manner. ‘The fportivenefs
of nature has likewife done much, as is evident in fo many
flower-plants ; as in the daify, ranunculus, the anemone, the
ftock, the wall-flower, the pink, the carnation, the Siberian
larkfpur, and a vaft many more.
There is, indeed, fomething extraordinary in the great
and uncommon diverfity of the colours, and the differences
of the fhades and hues of this as well as fome other flowers ;
and it is not lefs fingular or true that out of more than an
hundred flowers of this fort, which are raifed from feed in
this way, there will not, perhaps, be two which are exa@ly
alike ; and that yet, in all thefe deviations, the changes take
place in the moft naturally pleafing, agreeable, and un-
thought-of manner poffible.
By
WIN
By attention to proper winter and other management, ftill
taore diverfity and variety may moft probably be produced
an this and different other flowers.
Winter, among Printers, that part of the printing-
prefs, ferving to fuftain the carriage, &c. See PRINTING-
Prefs.
Winrer’s-Bark, Cortex WinTERI, or WINTERANUS,
Wintera Aromatica; which fee. See Cortex.
This is one of the largeft foreft-trees upon Terra del
Fuego, often rifing to the height of fifty feet. Dr. Solan-
der has given an accurate botanical defcription of it, illuf-
trated by a figure, in Med. Obf. and Inq. vol. v. p. 46,
&c. Its leaves are ever-green, fmooth, oval, and entire ;
the flowers confift of feven petals, with from fifteen to
thirty ftamina, and from three to fix germina, terminating
in as many ftigmata; each germen becomes a {eed-veflel,
containing feveral feeds: the bark of the trunk of the tree
is externally grey, and very little wrinkled. The pieces of
this bark brought over by the Dolphin are about three or
four inches fquare, of different degrees of thicknefs, from
one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch. It is of a dark
brown cinnamon colour, an aromatic {mell if rubbed, and
of a hot, pungent, {picy tafte, which is lafting on the palate,
though imparted flowly. A watery infufion of it ftruck a
black colour with a folution of green vitriol. An infufion
of two ounces, coarfely powdered, yielded on evaporation
two drachms and twenty-four grains of extraé&t: the fame
quantity, with reCtified {pirit, afforded two drachms of
extract.
This bark, though much celebrated as an antifcorbutic
by the firft difcoverers, is unknown in the practice of phy-
fic ; the canella alba, (fee CANELLA,) which is totally dif-
ferent from it, having been confounded with it in the fhops;
and no quantity having been brought to Europe, except as
a curiofity, till the return of the fhips fent out on an expe-
dition to the South feas. It has been thought to be a ufeful
antifcorbutic ; but it feems to poffefs in this re{pe& no ad-
vantage over the other pungent aromatics, and it is now
generally fuperfeded by the canella alba.
From fome experiments on this bark by Dr. Morris, it
appears to be an aftringent of a particular kind, and there-
fore likely to be of ufe in feveral manufactures ; and that
water is the proper diffolvent of it.
It is hoped that this tree, no lefs ufeful than elegant,
may be cultivated in our country, where it would probably
grow luxuriantly, as in a much warmer region than its own,
and furnifh, not only a valuable ever-green, bearing our fe-
vereft winters, but alfo a valuable medicine. Med. Obferv.
ubt upra.
INTER-Barley, in Agriculture, a term applied to an ex-
cellent fort, which is put into the ground in the autumn,
and which ftands the winter. It is acd by fome farmers
to be very produétive in its nature, and when made into
malt to form a much ftronger fort than that which is pro-
duced from common barley.
In fome diftri&ts, it is a good deal fown and cultivated as
an early fheep-feed, in which intention it often anfwers very
well. See BaRLey.
Winrer-Berry. See Prusos.
WintTer-Bloom. See AZALEA.
WinTeR-Cherry. See Puysaris Alkekengi.
Winter-Crefes. See Erysimum Barbarea.
WintTeER-Crops, in Agriculture, a term ufed to fignify all
fuch as are put into the foil to. grow or rife at that time of
the year, which are capable of withitanding that fevere fea-
fon, or which can be converted to the purpofe of fodder for
animals at that inclement and neceffitous period.
WIN
Winter-Fallow. See Fariow.
WinTeEr-Garden, a term often applied to that kind of
ornamental garden which is chiefly for ufe and amufement
at that feafon of the year. It has been advifed by Mr.
Loudon, that a winter-garden fhould contain all fuch trees,
fhrubs, plants, and other vegetable produétions, as are in a
ftate of perfeétion, or retaining their beauty and verdure, at
and during this feafon, in the moft complete manner ; as
moft of the ever-green tribe or clafs of trees and fhrubs,
many flowering plants, as the aconite, fnow-drop, Chrift-
mas-rofe, and feveral others of fimilar kinds; that thefe
fhould be grouped and arranged in the natural manner in
{uch garden-grounds ;-and that a dry gravel or other fimilar
kind of walk fhould be condu@ed throughout, or carried
round-about the whole, in the view of being walked upon
at this feafon without inconvenience ; that thefe forts of
gardens fhould be fituated near the manfion or refidence, in
order that they may be comfortably and conveniently ap-
proached in the different winter months; and that the con-
fervatory too, as well as fome other fuch houfes, fhould be
placed in them.
WinTER-Green, in Botany. See Pyrowa.
The greater round-leaved winter-green, or pyrola rotundi-
folia major, is generally brought over from Switzerland with
other vulnerary plants, in which clafs it is ranged, and by
fome greatly commended. Miller.
WintTeErR-Green, toy Focus See Karmra.
Winter-Green, with Chickweed Flowers. See TRIEN-
TALIS.
-Winter-Heyning, in our Statutes, a feafon’ between the
eleventh day of November, and the three-and-twentieth
of April, which is excepted from the liberty of common-
ing in the foreft of Dean, &c. Stat. 20 Car. II. cap. 3.
Blount.
Winter-Pears, in Gardening, fuch as will keep, and are
ready for ufe in that feafon, It has been fuggefted in a
paper in the fecond volume of the ‘* Memoirs of the Cale-
donian Horticultural Society,”? that in the cultivation of
pears of this fort, thofe of the /by-bearing forts fhould be
carefully avoided ; that they fhould be fuited as much as
poflible to the nature of the climate or region where they
are to be grown; that they fhould have their fituation in
a proper expofure, and in a proper foil; that they fhould be
well pruned, trained, and managed, in all other re{pe&ts;
that thofe kinds which can be moft depended on be had
recourfe to; that new varieties may probably be raifed
from feed with advantage in this view ; and that endeavours
neu be made to bring into ufe any good late forts of this
ruit.
The number of winter-pears in the northern parts of this
ifland are fuppofed to be fcanty indeed. That if the few
that have been favourably fpoken of by fome cannot be
had, there are not, it is believed, above five more to be
depended on in thefe fituations; which are thefe, the fwan-
egg, achan, brier-bufh, the John Monteth, and to which may
be added the muirfowl-egg, which keeps there much longer
than the fwan-egg, and muft be allowed ta bea winter-pear,
though commonly fet down as an autumn fruit. The fwan-
egg has there, it is faid, never kept good longer than the
end of November, while the muirfowl has fometimes re-
mained in good prefervation until towards the end of April.
In the then laft feafon they were taken from the tree, it is
faid, fooner than ufual ; confequently were earlier ripe or
fit to eat, and of courfe have decayed more f{peedily, than
ordinary. They were, however, perfeétly good until to-
wards the end of January in the following year, after which
they fpoiled in avery fudden manner. ‘The muirfowlegg
3% 2 may
WIN
may alfo, however, with great fafety, be allowed to remain
on the tree ten or twelve days longer than the fwan-egg ;
the leaves of the latter, too, fall, it is faid, much fooner than
thofe of the former.
On walls, in different proper afpeéts, the following forts
of winter-pears have, it is faid, been recommended to be
planted : the creflanne, the colmar, the boncretien d’hyver,
the chaumontelle, and fome others, which are certainly ex-
cellent pears, but that fome of them are /by-bearers, and
others do not ripen well in thefe parts, except inthe moft
favourable fituations. Some have found the four following
forts particularly ufeful on walls, efpecially in high fitua-
tions in thofe northern parts of the country where the
other finer forts do not ripen in a proper manner; the green
air, muirfowl-egg, fwan-egg, and winter achan. But it
is noticed, that the fecond and the laft of thefe forts of
pears, when planted as ftaudards, produce not only better
crops, but fruit of a higher flavour. Many other forts are
mentioned by different writers as very good winter-pears
for the purpofe of cultivation in thefe and other places; as
may be feen in the above ufeful paper.
Winter-Proud, in Agriculture, a term applied provin-
elally to fuch winter-wheat, or other crop, as puts on a
more green and luxuriant growth and appearance than it is
able to maintain and fupport in the following fummer fea-
fon ; or in which the tillering fhoots, branches, or ramifica-
tions of the feed-grain, become too numerous to be nou-
rifhed and brought to maturity in confequence of the pre-
vious over-exertion of the foil or land. In thefe cafes, the
crops decline during the {pring and fummer months, and at
the harveft time yield imperfeétly, falling much below the
quantity afforded by fuch crops as had a more backward
appearance in the winter feafon.
It is of courfe always of advantage to have thefe forts of
crops in rather a backward {tate in the winter period of the
ear.
. Wrinter-Quarters. See QUARTERS.
Wintsr-Rig, among Hu/bandmen, fignifies to fallow or
till the land in winter.
Winter-Solflice. See Soistice.
WINTERA, in Botany, is fo called in memory of the
companion of fir Francis Drake, captain William Winter,
who brought the bark, of the firft {pecies, from the ftraits
of Magellan in 1579, and introduced it to the mek sep
of European phyficians, as a valuable tonic, more efpecially
ufeful in the feurvy. Linnsus, meaning to commemorate
this difcovery, eftablifhed a genus by the name of Winterana,
G. Pl. 238, the bark of which he conceived to be what
captain Winter introduced. But the Linnean plant is the
Canella alba, to the fru&tification of which alone the de-
fcription applies. Browne had already founded this genus,
by thename of CANELLA, (fee that article, ) and Swartz, as
well as Murray, have confirmed it. Meanwhile Fortter,
having found and inveftigated the fruétification of the
Winter’s-bark tree, defcribed it by the name of Drimys,
alluding to its hot and pungent flavour. This is retained
by the younger Linnzus in his Supplementum, with a remark
properl difting withing it from the Canella alba, though his
father, like prof. Bergius, Mat. Med. v. 1. 381, had con-
founded them. Finally Murray, in Linn. Sy/i. Veg. ed. 14,
aware of thefe various errors and mifconceptions, very pro-
perly eftablifhes Browne’s genus, by its right denomination,
Canella, and reftores Winter’s name to the plant to which it
properly belongs, and with which Linnaus intended to affo-
ciate it.
which is the more judicious, as his
Winterana of Linnzus. The name
12
—~ is not really the
¢ has chofen is now,
ftamina clavata.
Murray, however, prefers Wintera to Winterana, |
WIN
except by an accidental miftake of De Candolle in chrono-
logy, univerfally adopted. Perhaps Winteria would have
been better ; but we refrain from embroiling the fubject
with any further alteration, of what has received the fanc-
tion of fuch men as Murray and Schreber.—Murr. in Linn.
Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 507. Forft. Prodr. 86. Schreb.
Gen. 368. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2.1239. Mart. Mill. Di&.
v. 4 (Drimys; Forft. Nov. Gen. t.42.. G. Forft.
Nov. A&. Upf. v. 3. 181. Linn. Suppl. 43. Lamarck
Illuitr. t.494. De Cand. Syft. v. 1. 442. Drymis;
Juff. 280. Lamarck Di&. v. 2. 330.)—Clafs and order,
PolyandriaTetragynia. Nat. Ord. Magnolia, Juff.
Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, fplitting
into two or three fegments. Cor. Petals fix, or more,
ovate, {preading. Stam. Filaments numerous, fhorter than:
the corolla, dilated upwards; anthers terminal, of two la-
teral ovate cells, feparate at the bafe, converging at their
points. Pi/?. Germens four to eight, crowded, obovate ;
ityles none; ftigmas depreffed, flat. Peric. Berries four to
eight, ovate, fomewhat triangular. Seeds feveral, difpofed
in two rows.
Eff. Ch. Calyx fplitting unequally. Petals numerous.
Stamens club-fhaped, with terminal two-lobed anthers.
Styles none. Berries fuperior, aggregate. Seeds feveral,
in a double row.
Obf. Willdenow copies what we fufpe& may be a
cafual error of the younger Linneus, germina clavata, for
De Candolle, who defcribes two new
{pecies, firft gave a corre& account of the arrangement of
the feeds, an important circumftance in this natural order.
His obfervations, confirming thofe of Linneus, fhew the
petals to be indeterminate in number. Poflibly the line is
not drawn diftin@ly between them and the famens, of which
Nymphaea affords another inftance, fo that an inner feries of
{maller petals may occafionally occur.
1. W. aromatica. Officinal Winter’s-bark. Murray
nt. Willd, noi. Mart. n. 1. Forft. Pl. Magell. 24.
t.7. Comm. Goett. v. 9. 34. t-7- Soland. in Med. Obf.
and Eng. v. 5. 41. t- 1. Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 257.
(Drimys Winteri; Forft. AG@. Upf. v. 3.181. Linn.
Suppl. 269. Winteranus cortex ; Cluf. Exot. 75. Dale
Pharmac. 324. Laurifolia_ magellanica, cortice acri;
Bauh. Pin. 461. ‘¢ Periclymenum reGtum, foliis laurinis, cor-
tice aromatico acri; Sloane in Phil. Tranf. v. 17. 923. t.1.
f. 1, 2.”’)—Leaves elliptical, obtufe, coriaceous. Flower-
ftalks aggregate, terminal. Piftils about four.—Native of
the country on both fides of the itraits of Magellan, in
valleys expofed to the fun, where it was firft obferved by
captain Winter, and has fince been found by feveral follow-
ing navigators, but no one has brought living plants or
feeds to Fittcaee This is a free of sata BO fize, often 50
feet high, with twifted knotty branches, and a thick rugged
bark, of an aromatic {mell, and pungent permanent flavour.
This bark is not much ufed in practice at prefent, there being
many drugs of equal, or fuperior, powers ; as the Canella alba,
which has taken its place, and caufed the botanical miftake
above-mentioned. (See Wrvrer’s Bark.) The leaves are al-
ternate, crowded about the ends of the branches, ever-green,
two or three inches long, and one and a half wide, thick and
rigid, entire, fomewhat revolute, with a ftout midrib, and
{carcely vifible veins, very fmooth on both fides ; fomewhat
laucous, but not invariably or permanently fo, beneath.
ootflalks broad and thick, {mooth, half or three-quarters of
an inch long. Svipulas none. Flower-flalks at the ends of
the branches, two or three together, fimple or three-cleft,
{mooth, not half the length of the leaves, accompanied at
their bafe by feveral ovate, pale, deciduous bradeas. yy ay
maller
WIN
fmaller than a hawthorn bloffom, white. Calyx reddifh,
unequally three-lobed. Berries from three to fix, each with
four triangular feeds. By the above fynonyms to this fpe-
cies it appears, that even G. Forfter, who with his father
eftablifhed the genus and unexceptionable name of Drimys,
gave way to thofe eminent botanifts who wifhed to retain
the rhemory of the original difcoverer. Indeed the name of
Winter may claim even a right of priority, though a mif-
take attended its commemoration and publication by Lin-
neus, in his Gen. Pl. We truft our amiable friend M. De
Candolle will forgive our not»joining with him, in overturn-
ing what has been finally fettled, with the approbation of
all the world. If chronology is to be our abfolute guide,
without attention to fenfe, or expediency, the nomenclature
of botany muft relapfe into its priftine barbarifm, and in
this cafe Bauhin’s name Laurifolia thould have been adopted.
Even on this ground, weak as it is, we can however defend
the name we have retained ; for Clufius’s Winteranus cortex,
erroneoufly printed Cortex Winteranus by De Candolle, may
be confidered as the firft commemoration of captain Winter,
being the firft publication of any thing relating to the
genus in quettion.
2. W. granadenfiss |New Granada Winter’s-bark.
Murr. n. 2. Willd. n.2. .Mart. n.2. ‘ Humb. et
Bonpl. Pl. Aiquinox. y. 1. 205. t. 58. Lozano in Sem.
Noy. Gran. for 1809, 180.”? (Drimys granadenfis ; Linn.
Suppl. 269. De Cand. n. 3.)—Leaves elliptic-lanceolate,
obtufe. Flower-ftalks axillary, folitary. Piftils eight.—
Sent by Mutis from New Granada. It grows on the moft
lofty mountains of that country, Quito, &c. The #ree is
18 or 20 feet high, with round branches, more ftraight,
and lefs rugged, than the foregoing. Leaves four or five
inches long, and near one inch and a half broad, obtufe, not
acute, fcarcely revolute, perfetly fmooth; very glaucous
beneath, like thofe of Magnolia glauca, the longer-leaved
variety of which they greatly refemble. Foot/falks {mooth,
an inch long. Flower-/alks fometimes nearly the length of
the leaves, always half as long, fimple, divided, or three-
eleft. Flowers twice the fize of W. arematica, with about
£2 petals, and a deeply three-cleft calyx. Berries fix or
eight, obovate, fometimes confluent, each with from four to
fix feeds. The Sarg is aromatic, like the former. The
younger Linneus imagined this to be a variety of that {pe-
cies, caufed by a warmer climate. They are indeed more
nearly related than appears at firft fight, and yet we can
fearcely think they belong to one {pecies, though well
aware that the /eaves, in this natural order, are liable to
vary confiderably in fhape ; witnefs the Magnolia juft men-
tioned, if more than one fpecies be not confounded under
that name.
3. W.chilenfis. Chili Winter’s-bark. (Drimys chilenfis ;
De Cand. n. 4.)—Leaves oblong-obovate ; glaucous be-
neath, Flower-{talks either aggregate or compound, axil-
lary. Piftils five or fix.—Gathered by Dombey, in marfhy
fituations in Chili. A tall /brub, with a very aromatic bark,
and round branches. Leaves nearly obovate, coriaceous,
very {mooth, tapering at the bafe, on fhort ftalks, refem-
bling the foliage of Magnolia glauca. Flower-flalks axillary ;
fometimes very fhort, bearing an umbel of four or five
elongated fimple ftalks; fometimes four or five fimple ones
all together, each an inch long at moft, fingle-flowered.
Calyx m two or three ovate blunt divifiens, not foon deci-
duouvs, and perhaps lafting till the fruit isripe. Petals fix
to nine, oblong, bluntifh, twice the length of the calyx.
Stamens very fhort. Germens five or fix, ovate, crowded, on
a fmall globofe receptacle. Berries oval, rather compreffed,
abtufe. De Candolle.
WIN
4. W. mexicana. Mexican Winter’s-bark. _(Drimys
mexicana ; De Cand. n.5.. ‘ Moc. et Seffé PI. Mex. ined.
t....”?) — Leaves oblong-lanceolate, pointed at each end.
Flower-ftalks elongated, umbellate, four-flowered. Petals
twenty to twenty-four, acute. Germens four.—Native of
Mexico. A /hrub, with round branches, terminating in a
{harp bud, as in the Magnolie. Leaves ftalked, tapering at
each end. Common flower-/lalks an inch, or an inch and a
half long, divided at the top into an umbel of four long,
fingle-flowered, partial flalks. Calyx divided, permanent,
concave. Petals white, {preading, oblong, in a double row.
Stamens very fhort. Berries four, or, from occafional abor-
tion, only two or three, obovate, tapering at the bafe, of
a blueifh-violet colour. De Candolle from a coloured
drawing.
5- W. axillaris. Small-flowered Winter’s-bark. Forft.
Prodr, 42. Willd. n.3. Mart. n. 3. (Drimys axillaris ;
Linn. Suppl. 270. Forft. A@. Upf. v. 3. 182. De Cand.
n.I. Lamarck f. 2, copied from Forft. Nov. Gen. t. 42.
f, a—/. )—Leaves obovate, pointed, reticulated with veins.
Flower-ftalks fimple, aggregate, thread-fhaped. Calyx or-
bicular, lobed, reflexed.—Native of woods in New Zealand.
A. tree, with round branches, rough to the touch, but not
warty. Leaves on ftalks rather above half an inch long,
broadly obovate, tapering to a bluntifh point, {mooth, more
thin and membranous than in any of the other fpecies, co-
pioufly reticulated with innumerable veins, not obfervable in
any of thofe; their length three or four inches, breadth
two ; their under fide glaucous when young only, Flower-
Jlalks two or three together, feldom folitary, from the bofoms
of moft of the leaves, fimple, very flender, each bearing a
{mall green flower. Calyx difcoid, foon reflexed, about a
line broad, litting into two principal, and two fmaller,
lobes, not differing in any particular refpe&t from the divi-
fions of the calyx of the other fpecies, though Forfter’s
figure has mifled De Candolle to fuppofe otherwife. Petals
fix, oblong, flat, equal, four times the length of the calyx.
Stamens about fixteen. Germens four, turbinate, all perfeétly
and evidently diftin@, in the numerous flowers of the Lin-
nzan {pecimen ; fo that Forfter might well wonder how
the younger Linnzus, who had this very {pecimen before
him, could make a ‘ folitary piftil”? a part of the f{pecific
charaéter. Stigmas dilated, peltate, terminal. Berries four,
globofe, black, with a tawny pulp, lodging four ovate,
acute, fomewhat triangular, gibbous feeds. The flavour of
the whole plant, efpecially of the bark, is extremely acrid
and pungent. G. Forffer.
WINTERANA. See Canenta, and WinTERA fupra.
WINTERBERG, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Weitphalia; 37 miles S. of Paderborn, N. lat. 51° 11.
E. long. 8° 30/.
Win tersere, or Winberg, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Prachatitz; 10 miles W. of Prachatitz. N. lat.
49° 2!. E. long. 13° 39/. ;
WINTERBURG, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Rhine and Mofelle; 10 miles W.N.W. of
Creutznach.
WINTERHAM, a place in Virginia, where black-lead
is found ; 30 miles N. of Richmond.
WINTERHAUSEN, a town of the duchy of Wurz-
burg, on the Maine; 4 miles S. of Wurzburg.
WINTERINGHAM, a town of England, in the
county of Lincoln; 166 miles N. of London.
WINTERTHUR, atown of Switzerland, in the caaton
of Zurich. This was formerly an imperial town. In the
year 1467, it was mortgaged to the canton of Zurich, and
by fubfequent treaties entirely eeded, fince which Winter-
thur
WIN j
thur has acknowledged Zurich for its fovereign. It is go-
verned, however, by a magiltracy and police of its own.
The government is ariftocratical ; the f{upreme power, in all
things not interfering with the claims of Zurich, refiding in
the Great and Little council, in all criminal proceedings
thefe two tribunals unite, and pafs fentence of death without
appeal. In civil caufes, an appeal lies from the Little to
the Great council. In all cafes refpeéting the burghers,
appeals may be carried from the town-court to the council
of magiftracy, and no farther; but if either of the parties
be a foreigner, an appeal lies from the council to the fenate
of Zurich. A bailiff from this latter place likewife refides
here, but without any authority over the town, excepting
that of affifting at the ceremony of an annual homage paid
to Zurich by the burghers on St. Alban’s day. In cafe of
a war, Winterthur furnifhes Zurich with 200 men, either
burghers or dependents, but to ferve under its own colours.
Except in the articles of filk manufa€ture, and the eftablifh-
ment of a printing-prefs fo profitable to Zurich, the com-
merce of Winterthur is under no reftraint. The principal
manufaCtures are, muflin, printed cottons, and cloth: it has
fome vitriol works; and the earthen-ware made here, par-
ticularly the white, together with its painted ftoves, are in
great repute for their beauty and durablenefs. The town is
f{mall, and the inhabitants, who are about 2000, are very in-
duftrious. The fchools are well endowed and regulated.
Ober Winterthur, or Upper Winterthur, is a {mall village
near the town, on the high road leading to Frauenfeld, on
the {cite of the ancient Vitodurum, which was a Roman
ftation. Here are found the foundations of ancient walls
and numerous Roman coins and medals. The caftle of
Kyburgh, feated on an eminence overlooking Winterthur,
is a pifturefque objet ; 14 miles N.E. of Zurich.
WINTERTON, a town of England, in Lincolnhhire ;
9 miles N.N.W. of Glanford Brigs—Alfo, a town of
England, in the county of Norfolk, near the coatt. The
market is difcontinued ; 7 miles N. of Yarmouth.
Winterton Ne/s, a cape on the E. coaft of the county
of Norfolk, on which is a light-houfe ; ‘10 miles N. of Yar-
mouth. N. lat. 52° 44!. E. long. 1° 41’.
WINTFELDEN, a town of France, in the department
of the Upper Rhine; 10 miles S.W. of Colmar.
WINTHAG, a town of Auftria; 6 miles N.E. of
Frey ftadt.
WINTHROP, a poft-town of the province of Maine,
in the county of Kennebeck, with 1444 inhabitants; 57
miles N. of Portland.
Wixturop’s Bay, a bay on the N. coaft of eva vee
WINTON, a county of United America, in the ftate of
South Carolina.—Alfo, a poft-town of North Carolina; 30
miles E. of Halifax.
WINTONIZ Rorvtvus. See Rotutus.
WINTZENBERG, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in
the principality of Neiffe; 5 miles S.E. of Grotkau.
WINTZENHEIM, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Rhine ; 3 miles W. of Colmar.
WINTZIG, a town of Silefia, in the principality of
Wohlau ; 9 miles E.N.E. of Steinau. N. lat. 51° 27!.
E. long. 16° 36).
WINWEILEAR, a town of France, in the department
of Mont Tonnerre ; 24 miles N-E. of Deux Ponts.
WINWOOD, Sir Ratpn, in Biography, a ftatefman in
the reign of James I., was born at Aynho in Northampton-
fhire, about the year 15€4, “educated at St. John’s college,
Oxford, and having paff.d through feveral ftages of prefer-
ment, wat chofen proétor of the univerfity in 1592. After
having fultaine® everal diplomatic charaéters and miffions,
WIR
he was made fecretary of ftate in 1614, which office he
occupied till his death in 1617. ‘ He was married, and
left one fon. Sir Ralph was an accomplifhed gentleman,
well acquainted with bufinefs, and particularly converfant
with commercial and military affairs.”” A work, intitled
“ Memorials of Affairs of State in the Reign of Queen
Elizabeth and King James I., collected chiefly from the
Original Papers of the Right Honourable Sir Ralph Win-
wood, Knt. &c. &c.’’ was publifhed in 1725 by Edmund
Sawyer, efq. in 3 vols. fol., and contained a valuable record
of the political tranfa@tions of thofe times. Biog. Brit.
WINYAH,, in Geography, a county of South Carolina.
WINZAH Harsouvr, a bay on the coaft of South
Carolina, a little to the N. of the mouth of the Santee. N.
lat. 33° 12!.
WINZER, a town of Bavaria, on the Danube ; 9 miles
S.S.E. of Deckendorf.
WIOCHIST, among the Jndian Natives of Virginia,
is their prieft, who is alfo generally their phyfician; and
is the perfon in the greateft honour amongft them, next
pa tag king, or great war-captain. Phil. Tranf. N° 454.
ect. 1.
WIOGRODEK, in Geography, a town of Poland, in
Volhynia; 14 miles E.S.E. of Kreminiek.
WIP, a town of Pruffia, on the Curifch Haff; 23 miles
S.W. of Tilfit.
WIPACH, a town of the duchy of Carniola; 5 miles
S. of Hydria.
WIPE, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Smaland ;
28 miles N.E. of Konigfberg.—Alfo, a river of Proffia,
which runs into the Curifch Haff, 10 miles E.N.E. of
Labiau.
WIPFELN, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg; 5
miles N.N.W. of Volckach.
WIPPELSPACH, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 17
miles S.W. of Voithberg. a Ber
WIPPER, a river of Germany, which rifes in the county
of Mark, about 6 miles S.S.W. of Lunfchede, pafles by
Wipperfurt, Elberfeld, Solingen, &c. and runs into the
Rhine, between Cologn and Zons.—Alfo, a river of Thu-
ringia, which rifes 2 miles N. of Dingelftadt, and runs into
the Unftrutt, 4 miles N.E. of Kindelbrucken.—Alfo, a
river of Pomerania, which runs into the Baltic below
Rugerwalde.—Alfo, a river of Saxony, which runs into the
Saal near Bernberg.
WIPPERAU, a river of Weftphalia, which runs into
the Ilmenau, near Ultzen.
WIPPERFURT, a town of the duchy of Berg; 27
miles S.E. of Duffeldorf. N. lat. 51° 5/. E. long.
7° 27).
WIPPINGEN, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Friburg ; 12 miles S.S.W, of Friburg.
WIPPRA, a town of Weftphalia, in the county of
Mansfeld, on the Wipper; 10 miles W.N.W. of Eifz-
leben. N. lat. 51° 30’. E. long. 11° 30!.
WIRBEN, a town of Weitphalia, late in the Old Mark
of Brandenburg, on the left fide of the Elbe; 12 miles N.
of Stendal.
WIRBENTHAL. See WurpentHAt.
WIRDOIS, a town of Sweden, in North Finland; 65
miles N.N.E. of Biorneborg.
WIRE, in the Mechanic Arts, is a very ufeful prepara-
tion of different metals, in form of a regular and even thread,
which can be obtained in very great lengths, and of any re-
quired fize or fhape.
Wire is made of any dudtile metal, as platina, gold, filver,
copper, brafs, zinc, iron, or fteel. The procefs of making
wire
WIRE.
wire confilts in drawing the piece of metal through a hole
in a plate of fteel, by which means the metal is rendered of
an equal fize, and either round or of any other figure cor-
cefponding with the figure of the hole in the draw-plate ;
the metal is thus reduced in fize, and at the fame time is
lengthened in proportion. From the great regularity of
wire, and from its toughnefs and duétility, it is extremely
ufeful to all artifts who work in metal.
The operation is called wire-drawing, and the plate of
fteel adraw-plate. The machine by which the wire is drawn
is called a draw-bench.
The common draw-bench is of a fimple ftru€ture. A ftrong
plank of wood is fixed on legs, like a ftool or bench, fig. 1.
Plate Wire. At one end is a roller or axis, A, fixed in an
horizontal pofition, fo that it can be turned round by means
of four levers, B B, fixed like radii on the end of the axis of
the roller. If the refiftance is great, the workman applies
both his hands and his feet to the levers, to turn them round
in the fame manner as for a rolling-prefs. It is ufual to
have a ftrong ftrap, or chain, C, to wrap and wind up round
the roller; and at the end of it a pair of pincers, D, are
linked: thefe take hold of the end of the piece of metal, and
draw it through the hole in the draw-plate E, which is
lodged againft two {trong iron pins, aa, fixed in the bench,
and ftanding up perpendicularly, fo that the plate bears
againft them. ’
The pincers are fhewnin fig.2. They are adapted to bite
the end of the wire; and the infide of the jaws, dd, are cut
with teeth like a file, that they may hold the metal very
tight.. The oppofite ends of the handles are bent in form
of hooks at ee; anda triangular link of iron f, which is
faftened to the end of the ftrap or chain C, embraces both
hooks ¢ e, and from its triangular figure, it tends to approach
the two hooks at the ends of the tongs together: by thefe
means, the ftrain of drawing the wire clofes the pincers, and
makes them bite more forcibly in proportion as the wire
makes a greater refiftance, fo that they rarely let the wire
flip.
The draw-plate, figs. 3 and 4, is a thick plate of fteel, with
holes made through it of various fizes, and ina regular grada-
tion from the largeft to the fmalleft. The holes are made large
on that fide where the wire enters, and they diminifh with a
regular taper to the other fide ; the goodnefs of the draw-plate
is an object of the firft importance. The different holes muft
diminifh by very {mall gradations, or there will be danger of
breaking Abe wire by forcing it too much at once.
In fome draw-benches a rack and pinion are employed, in-
ftead of a ftrap or chain; and a train of wheel-work may be
ufed like that of a crane to obtain a fufficient power. (See
Jig. 5.) If the workman turns the machine by a winch
or handle, it is preferable to four levers, becaufe the motion
is more regular; this is of importance for fome purpofes.
Suppofe a piece of elaftic metal is forcibly drawn through
a hole in a plate with a tolerably quick metion, it will be
comprefled at the moment of paffing through the hole; but
after it quits the hole, the metal will expand a little. When
it is drawn very flowly, this effeé will not take place; for if
the compreffion is continued long enough it becomes per-
manent: hence, if a piece of large wire be drawn with an
irregular motion, firft quicker, and then flower, it will be
fenfibly larger at all the parts which pafs quickly through
the hole, and {maller where it is drawn flowly:. if the
motion is fufpended for a few feconds, that part of the wire
which remains in the hole will have a ring or indentation
round it. This is moft obvious in drawing hollow tubes, or
copper-wire, which is plated over with gold or filver.
In the machine which is ufed for drawing ftrong pieces
of metal, and for the very largeft, the roller is ufualiy
placed in a vertical pofition, like a capftan, with four levers,
at which feveral men pufh, whilft they walk round in a
circle to turn the capftan, and wind up the chain which
draws the wire through the draw-plate.
A powerful machine of this kind is defcribed in our
article Prpzs, for drawing lead-pipe through a fteel plate.
We have feen a very powerful wire-drawing: machine
ufed for forming large hollow tubes of brafs or copper, on
which the power to draw the tube was obtained by a {crew,
like that of a prefs. This {crew was turned by a train of
wheel-work, with a fly-wheel to regulate the motion.
Another plan, which is perhaps the beft mode for a very
powerful drawing-machine, is to apply the force of the
hydroftatic machine originally invented by Pafcal, and re-
vived by the late Mr. Bramah. (See Macuine, and PREss. )
By this means, very large wires for pifton-rods of fteam-
engines, and other fimilar pieces, may be rendered ftraight
and true with little expence.
All thefe machines are confined to draw pieces of metal,
which are only a few feet in length, that is, the length of
the bench. But when the metal by repeated drawing
becomes lengthened into a regular wire, if it is required to
reduce it to a ftill {maller fize, it muft be drawn through
fucceeding plates, by wrapping the wire itfelf upon the roller
or barrel, inftead of employing along chain. ‘This method is
not applicable at firft, becaufe a thick bar of iron could not
be made to bend eafily round a roller; but when the wire
becomes fmall and flexible, it can be praétifed very advan-
tageoufly, and admits of drawing a very great length of
wire by a {mall and commodious machine.
The common wire-mills ufed in France do not, however,
employ a roller or windlafs, but the pincers are attached to
a lever, which draws them backwards and forwards alter-
nately by the power of the water-wheel.
The pincers are fo conftruéted, that the jaws open when
they move towards the draw-plate, and releafe themfelves
from the wire; but when the pincers are drawn back from
the draw-plate, the link caufes the pincers to clofe and bite
the wire with fuch force, that they will draw it through the
plate.
A machine of this kind is fhewn in fig..7. of the plate.
The bafe of the machine is a very ftrong log of timber R;
one end of it is cut open to receive a wooden lever A B,
which moves round an iron pin or bolt , as a centre of
motion; this lever is fhaped like the letter L. To the
upright arm A of this lever, an iron link C is jointed, and
the other end of this link is formed like a ring, to receive
the handles of the pincers D. The pincers are fupported
upon a plate of iron d, which is placed in an inclined pofi-
tion, and there is a groove in the plate, into which the end
of the pin or joint of the pincers is received, and they are
by that means guided in their motion backwards and for-
wards: aa@are the pins which fupport the draw-plate E;
there are four of them, and the plate is faltened between
them by wedges.
The end B of the lever is operated upon by cogs fixed on
the axis of the water-wheel, which, as it turns round, de-
preffes the end B of the lever; and the end A pulls the
pincers back, and draws the wire through the draw-plate ;
but when the cogs quit the end of the lever, it is returned
by means of a rope faftened to the end of B, and going up
to a ftrong wooden pole fixed on the roof of the building;
and it aéts as a fpring. When the pincers return, they
open to releafe the wire, and flide down the inclined plate d
by their own weight, till they are near the draw-plate; the
wire being all the time included between the jaws, though
4 they
WIRE.
they do not bite. The next cog which feizes the end of
the lever draws back the pincers, which immediately clofe
upon the wire, and draw it through the plate. :
A wire-mill ufually contains three fuch machines of
different fizes: the largeft only draws two inches of the
wire at each ftroke, and makes about forty-eight ftrokes in
a minute; the fecond machine, four inches; and the third,
five inches. This works quicker than the other two, and
makes fixty-four ftrokes fer minute. This is a fimple
machine, but very defective, for much time is loft in the re-
turning of the pincers; they fometimes fail to take good hold
of the wire, and they always make deep marks upon the
wire at every place where they bite, which are not more
than two inches diftance in the great wire, and five inches in
the f{maller. at
Fine wire is always made from large wire, by reducing it
and lengthening it out by repeated drawings. The large
wire is ufually manufactured at the wire-mills in the country,
and fome part of it is reduced to fmall wire at the fame
eftablifhments, but more commonly the large wire is bought
by thofe who have occafion for it, and they reduce it by
drawing until it becomes as {mall as it is wanted.
The hand-machine for this purpofe, reprefented in fig. 8,
is extremely fimple. A is the roller on which the wire is
wound up; it turns round upon a vertical pin, fixed in the
bench R, and to the upper end a handle B is fixed, for the
workman to turn it round; E is the draw-plate, and aa the
pins againft which it refts. The wire which is to be drawn
is put upon a {mall circular reel F, which turns round upon
a vertical pin; this pin is fometimes fixed in the table, or
otherwife in a {mall cafk containing ftarch-water, or beer
which has become acid. The ufe of this is to loofen the
oxyd from the furface of the wire, for it is neceflary to
anneal or foften the wire very frequently, by putting it in
the fire, and this produces a black coat of oxyd on the
furface, which will be removed when the wire is again drawn
through the plate, and the wire will come out bright and
clean. The removal of this oxyd will be facilitated by
fome flightly corrofive menftruum. ‘ ‘
Fig. 9. is a very fimple and complete wire-drawing
machine, to draw three wires atonce. A R are two rollers
or barrels with cog-wheels, T V, on the ends of their axis,
which wheels are engaged together. Sisa pinion, which
is turned round by means of a handle B, and gives motion
to the wheels T V. Both thefe wheels are fitted upon
round parts of the axis of their refpective rollers, fo as to
flip or turn freely round upon the fame; but a {quare is
formed on the axis outfide of the wheel, and a clutch or
catch, ¢ or v, is fitted on this fquare part, fo as to turn
always round with the axis. The catch is at liberty to flide
upon the axis in the direétion of its length, by means of a
lever W, which operates upon both catches at once. When
either of them is pufhed back in contaé& with the wheel, it
intercepts two ftuds which projeé&t from the face of the
wheel, and then compels the axis and roller to turn round
with the wheel ; but when the catch is drawn away from
the wheel, then the wheel will flap round upon its axis,
without communicating any motion. By means of the
lever W, only one wheel can be engaged at once, and the
other muft be free. The draw-plate E is firmly fixed
between the two rollers, and it has a great many holes; the
rollers are long enough to receive three wires at the fame
time. Each roller has a groove in it parallel to the axis,
into which a bar of metal is fitted, and will exaétly fill it
u When the wires are introduced through the holes in
} plate, the ends are laid acrofs this groove ; the bar is
then put in and faftened by a fimple contrivance, and it
faftens the ends of the wires beneath it, fo that they become
attached to the roller; then by turning the handle B round,
the two wheels are put in motion in contrary dire€tions ; and
that wheel which is conneéted with its axle by its catch,
will turn its barrel round, and wind up the wires fo as to
draw them through the plate E. The other roller being at
the fame time detached, its wheel is at liberty to turn round
in a contrary direétion to the wheel, as faft as the wires are
drawn off from it. When the whole length of the wires
has been drawn through the plate, they are detached from
the roller, the ends introduced through {maller holes in the
plate, and faftened again to the roller; then the lever W is
fhifted, to difengage that wheel which operated before, and
engage the other. This being done, the rollers will be
turned in an oppofite dire€tion, and will wind back the
wires, although the handle B is turned the fame way round.
_ After the wire has been then drawn three or four times,
the metal becomes fo hard and fibrous, that it would not
draw any more without breaking ; it therefore requires to be
heated in the fire to reftore its ductility ; for this purpofe it
muit be taken off the barrels. A roller M is provided to
wind the wire upon and draw it off from the barrel; this
roller is turned round by a handle m, fixed on the extremity
of its axis; and the wire which is wound upon it in a coil is
flipped off fideways. This machine is well adapted to be
worked by a mill, becaufe the handle may always be turned
the fame way. ;
Fig. 10. reprefents the machine ufed at the wire-mills
for reducing the wire which is to be ufed for mufical inftru-
ments, or : making cards for wool and cotton. The
rollers A are fituated in a vertical pofition, being fitted on
the tops of iron fpindles, which are fuftained in a vertical
pofition by bearings in the frame of the table or bench.
Thefe fpindles are kept in continual motion by wheel-
work fituated beneath the bench, but the fpindles are
round, fo that the rollers A are not turned with the {pindles,
unlefs any one of the rollers is lifted up upon the {pindle.
A crofs-bar, which is fixed on the top of the fpindle, then
engages with two projecting knobs fixed in the roller,
within a hollow recefs made at the top of it, and turns the
roller round. The draw-plate E is fupported by two
pins, as before defcribed; and the wire which is to be
drawn is wound on a reel, which is put into a cafk of ftale-
beer grounds, or ftarch-water. The end of the wire,
which is put through the draw-plate, is made faft to the
roller, which does not turn round as long as it is dropped
down upon the fpindle ; but when all is ready to begin
drawing, the roller mutt be lifted up, and the clutch at the
top of the fpindle will engage with the two knobs within
the hollow at the top of the roller. This puts it in motion,
and draws the wire through the draw-plate. The ftrain of
drawing is fufficient to keep the roller up upon the fpindle ;
but as foon as the whole of the wire is drawn through the
plate, the refiftance ceafes, and the roller drops down on its
{pindle, and becomes difengaged until the workman puts it
again in action.
Manufadure of Iron Wire.—Iron is a very ductile metal,
but requires a careful treatment in the procefs of wire-
drawing, becaufe it becomes very hard and brittle when the
fibres are greatly comprefled by repeated drawing. Its
duétility muft then be reftored by heating the wire to red-
nefs ; this is called annealing : it renders the wire foft, and
it will then draw finer and longer; but it will foon require
annealing again, and fo on.
The iron which is feleéted for wire-drawing muft be of
good quality, to bear the requilite extenfion without break-
ing. It muft be of an uniform {ubftance, without any ~
°
WIRE.
of hard or foft parts. The fofteft iron is not always found
the beft, as it will diminifh by the ftrain of drawing it
through the holes alone: and to obviate this, the workman
muft draw fuch iron through a greater number of holes to
obtain the required extenfion.
The iron is wronght at the tilt-mills from fquare bars
into round rods of a proper fize to commence drawing.
The operation of tilting is nearly the fame as /ilting of fleel.
(See that article.) The tilt-hammer for a wire-work
generally makes twenty ftrokes per minute, and weighs
about fifty pounds. There is alfo a larger hammer worked
by the fame mill, which {trikes about 130 times fer minute,
and weighs 100 pounds. This hammer is only ufed for the
firft preparation of the iron, or for welding a faggot of
{mall bars together, in order to give the iron a better
quality by a preparation fimilar to the German fteel. To
draw out the iron bars into rods of a proper fize to begin
drawing, the workman heats fix or eight inches of the end
of a large bar, which comes from the great forge where the
iron is made, and when properly heated he works it regu-
larly under the {mall tilt, until it is drawn out to a {mall
and regular round rod of five or fix feet in length. A
good workman can thus draw out two hundred weight of
iron in a day, or an ordinary workman one and a half
hundred weight. The lofs of metal in the operation is near
26 per cent. by weight.
The fmall rod, before it is cold, is taken by another
workman, who ftraightens the rod with a hammer upon an
anvil, then cuts it off, and places the end of the great bar
again in the forge. This fame workman alfo fuperintends
the heating of the iron, and mult be very careful not to
overheat it, but to heat the whole regularly.
It is a good practice to pafs the iron-rod through a pair
of grooved rollers, the grooves of the two rollers being
oppofite, fo as to form a round between them. By thefe
means, the iron may be reduced {mall, and rendered very
true, previoufly to beginning the drawing. For common
wire, the whole reduétion may be done by the rolling-mill
without a tilt; but the hammer will give a more tenacious
quality to the iron than can be obtained by rolling.
A {mall round bar, thus prepared, muft be drawn through
a hole in a draw-plate, by a ftrong machine with a chain,
or elfe by the lever-machine, fig. 7. The end of the iron
is firft reduced, fo that it will enter the hole in the draw-
plate, and pafs through fufficiently for the pincers to take
hold. This is done at the forge by a hammer and anvil.
By pafling through the plate the wire becomes lengthened,
in proportion as it is diminifhed in fize. It muft then be
annealed to foften it, the end pointed anew, and again put
through a fmaller hole.
The workman who attends the procefs muft ftudy the
nature of the iron, and regulate the manner of drawing ac-
cordingly. This he does by altering the figure of the hole
through which the wire is drawn. The hole mutt be conical ;
the {malleft part, being that which aéts principally on the
metal, muft be at that fide of the plate where the wire
comes through. Ifthe taper of the hole is not properly
proportioned, the iron will be ftrained in drawing; for
though the machine will force it through, grains of harder
metal than the reft of the wire will form themfelves, which
will oceafion the wire to break when it comes to be much
reduced. This is particularly the cafe in foft iron. To
avoid this, the hole muft be chofen very little {maller than
the iron, and muft be made with a regular taper. It mutt
be well fupplied with greafe, to diminifh as much as pof-
fible the fri€tion; and the motion of the draught muft be
yegulated according as the metal will bear it.
Vou. XXXVI.
Much depends upon the quality of the draw-plate ; al-
though the metal of the plate is fufliciently hard to draw
the wire, it will not refift the blow of a hard fteel hammer
and punch. The punch is driven into the hole from be-
hind, until it enlarges it to the required fize and figure. In
the operation of drawing, the hole becomes gradually en-
larged, and that in a greater degree at the {malleft end of
the hole, fo that it becomes nearer toacylinder. To reGtify
this, the punch muft be applied, or the wire would not pafs
eafily ; that is, if the fame degree of reduétion in the fize of
the wire was attemptéd, it would break or ftrain the wire,
if the hole was cylindrical, although it would pafs through
aregular taper hole. The hole fometimes wears irregularly,
and lofes its circular figure. In this cafe, the plate is ham-
mered around the {mall end of the hole, and the hole is
thereby reduced. The punch is then driven in, to enlarge
it again to the required fize : fometimes the punch is intro-
duced at the {mall end, and then at the large end, as it may
be required to form the hole. In all cafes, the punch
muft be driven very gently ; and after every {troke of the
hammer it muft be loofened in the hole, and turned round
before another blow is ftruck, and without this precaution
it would fix faft in the hole.
The French draw-plates are the moft efteemed ; and,
in time of war, a good French draw-plate has been fold for
its weight in filver. M. Du Hamel, in Les Arts et Metiers,
vol. xv. gives the following account of the procefs of making
the draw-plates for the large iron-wire.
A band of iron is forged of two inches broad and ‘one
inch thick. This is prepared at the great forge. About
a foot in length is cut off, and heated to rednefs in a fire of
charcoal. It is then beaten on one fide with a hammer, fo
as to work all the furface into furrows or grooves, in order
that tt may retain the fubftance called the potin, which is
to be welded upon one fide of the iron, to form the hard
matter on which the holes are to be pierced. This potin
is nothing but fragments of old caft-iron pots; but thofe
pots which have been worn out by the continued aétion of
fire are not good: the fragments of a new pot which has
not been on the fire are better.
The workman breaks thefe pieces of pots on his anvil,
and mixes the pieces with charcoal of white wood. He
puts this in the forge, and heats it till it is melted into a fort
of patte ; and to purify it he repeats the fufion ten or twelve
times, and each time he takes it with the tongs to dip it in
water. M. Du Hamel fays, this is to render the matter
more eafy to break into pieces.
By thefe repeated fufions with charcoal, the caft iron.is
changed, and its qualities approach thofe of fteel, but far
from becoming brittle ; it will yield to the blows of the
hammer and to the punch, which is ufed to enlarge the holes.
The bar of iron which is to make the draw-plate is covered
with a layer of pieces of the potin, or caft iron, thus pre-
pared. It is applied on the fide which is furrowed, and
fhould occupy about half an inch in thicknefs. The whole
is then wrapped up in acoarfe cloth, which has been dipped
in clay and water mixed up as thick as cream, and is put
into the forge. The potin is more fufible than the forged
iron, fo that it will melt. The plate is withdrawn from
the fire occafionally, and hammered very gently upon the
potin, to weld and in fome meafure amalgamate it with the
iron,- which cannot be done at once; but it mutt be re-
peatedly heated, and worked until the potin fixes to the
iron. ‘The workman then throws dry powdered clay upon
it, in order, they fay, to foften the potin.
The union being complete, the plate is again heated, and
forged by two workmen, who draw out the plate of one
3Z foot
WIRE.
foot to a length of two feet, and give it the form it is to
have. It is well known that caft iron cannot be worked
at the forge without breaking under the hammer ; but in
the prefent inftance, it is alloyed with the iron-bar, and is
drawn out with it. It has alfo acquired new properties by
the repeated fufions with charcoal. ‘ ;
The holes are next pierced whilft the plate is hot. This
is done with a well-pointed punch of German fteel, applied
on that fide of the plate which is the iron-bar. It requires
four heats in the fire to pierce the holes, and every turn a
finer punch is employed, fo as to make a taper hole. The
makers of draw-plates do not pierce the holes quite through,
but leave it to the wire-drawers to do it themfelves when
the plate is cold, with fharp punches, and then they open
the hole to the fize they defire ; and although this potin is
of a very hard fubftance, the fize of the hole may be re-
duced by gentle blows with a hard hammer, on the flat fur-
face of the plate, round the hole. , ;
A great many holes are made in the fame plate ; and it
is important that they fhould diminifh in fize by very im-
perceptible gradations ; fo that the workman can always
choofe a hole fuitable for the wire he is to draw, without
being obliged to reduce it too much at once.
To afcertain the fize of the wire, gauges are ufed. They
are commonly made of a piece of wire bent in zigzag, as
fhewn in fig. 11 ; and the {pace between every bend is of a
different width ; but a better fort is made of a fteel-plate,
with notches on the edge. (See fig. 12. for the ftandards. )
Thefe fhould be hardened, that they may not be fubject to
wear. :
Fig. 13. is another kind of gauge, which is very accurate.
It confifts of two ftraight rules of fteel, put together at an
angle. The diameter of the wire is indicated by the depth
to which it will enter into the angle; the edges of the
rulers are divided into equal parts for that purpofe, and
aumbered, to correfpond with the different fizes of wire.
The wire manufaétory of Meflrs. Mouchel, fituated at
l’Aigle, in the department de l’Orne, is one s the mott
confiderable in France. It furnifhes annually, in cards for
wool-combing only, an hundred thoufand quintals of iron-
wire, each 1oolbs. A part of this is confumed in France,
and the reft is exported to Portugal, Spain, Italy, and even
to the fhores of the Levant. :
They employ the iron manufactured in the departments
of ’Orne and La Haute Saone, as being of the beft qua-
lity. The firft produces the beft wire for making fcrews,
nails, and pins, as much on account of its hardnefs as its
fine polifh, which refembles fteel-wire. In this refpeét, it is
fuperior to the iron of Haute Saone, but from its ductility
the latter can now be made extremely fine, and it appears to
be moft free from heterogeneous particles. righ
The {melted iron, prepared and hammered, being in a flate
nearly fit for their purpofe, is tranfported, at a {mall ex-
pence, to l’Aigle, by the rivers and canals. They have a
forge to reduce the fteel and iron of Normandy, which
arrives in large pieces, into {mall and regular bars.
When the iron is formed into an irregular bar of about
a centimetre, near four-tenths of an inch in diameter, they
begin to draw it into wire. Although it be already
much extended by hammering, it is in the firft place pafled
four times through the drawing-plate ; then its molecules
become difpofed lengthways, and exhibit fibres at their
utmoft extenfion. he fibres muft be removed by means
of heat, which difperfes and divides them ; and after that
the wire may again be reduced three numbers. The fibres
which are re-produced by this operation are again removed
by heat. The whole oes is five times repeated ; confe~
quently the wire is paffed through fifteen numbers; after
which, a fingle expofure to the fire is fufficient to fit it for
pafling fix others, whereby it is reduced to the thicknefs of
a knitting-needle.
The fteel-wire, being much harder, requires to be pafled
through forty-four numbers, and to be annealed every other
time. %
The machine which draws the {teel-wire muft go flower
than that which draws the iron; for the firft being very
hard, and offering’ more refiftance to the drawing-plate,
fhould be pulled out with more care, fince the quicknefs
ought to be proportioned to the refiftance, and reciprocally ;
and if they depart from this principle, the refults will vary.
Thus, for example, the iron of the department de l’Orne,
which is more compaét than that produced at Haute Saone,
if drawn by the fame machines, augments in hardnefs, and
is weakened when it is brought to too great a degree of
finenefs. But this iron, which is very hard, and capable of
pr i 3 a very high polifh, is to be preferred for certain
ufes.
In order to anneal the wire, they formerly employed a
large and elevated furnace, with bars of caft iron to fupport
the wire in the middle of the flames. It contains feven
thoufand pounds weight, fo contrived as to contain equal
portions of each number. They are fo arranged that the
thickeft wires receive the ftrongeit heat ; therefore, the whole
is equally heated in the fame {pace of time. The operation
lafts three hours with a fire well kept up, and it might be
imagined that this apparatus was completely adapted to the
purpofe; but there are imperfeGtions in this method, be-
caufe it leaves the wire expofed to the conta of the at~
mofpheric air, the oxygen of which feizes it with extreme
avidity ; whence a confiderable quantity of oxyd is occa-
fioned, and alfo an operation to free it from the feales,
which confifts of beating the bundles of wire with a wooden
hammer wetted with water. e
Notwithftanding this precaution, there often remains a
portion of oxyd adhering to the furface of the metal, which
{treaks the draw-plate, or fixes on the wire, and gives it a
tarnifhed appearance, and caufes it to break when it is
brought to a great degree of finenefs. This furnace is only
ufed for the fteel-wire, or the iron from l’Orne, which is
lefs liable to change, and befides being harder is not fo
eafily attacked by the oxygen.
In order to diminifh the waite that the fire occafions, .
they have contrived another procefs, which confifts in dip-
ping the bundles of wire into a bafin of wet clay before
they put them into the furnace; and they are left in the
furnace to dry before the fire is lighted, without which pre- .
caution the clay would peel off from the iron.
For making wire for cards, M. Mouchel invented another
furnace. It is round, and about one metre fix decimetres in
diameter, and one metre eight decimetres in height, without
including its parabolic arch and the chimney above it. The
interior is divided by horizontal grates into three ftories ; the
lowett receives the cinders, the we is the fireplace, and
into the third or upper place they flide a roleau of wire, weigh-
ing one hundred and fifty kilogrammes, which is inclofed
in a {pace comprifed between two caft-iron cylinders, being
luted to prevent the admiflion of air between them. The
flames circulate about the outfide of the firft, and within
the interior of the fecond, which defends the wire from at-
mofpheric air. The diameter of the largeft cylinder is
about one metre four decimetres, that of the fecond one
metre. ‘Thus the {pace comprifed between them is two de-
cimetres, on an elevation of five decimetres. ‘There mutt
be feveral pairs of cylinders provided; becaufe whilft one
pair
WIRE.
pair is in the furnace another muft be prepared to receive a
frefh roleau of wire. They are changed every hour by
means of a long iron lever, with which a fingle man can
eafily pufh them in and draw them out again, as the cylinder
flides on caft-iron rails,
They are very careful not to open the cylinders imme-
diately on their being drawn out of the fire; for the roleaus
of wire contained in them, being ftill red, would oxydate
quite as much as if they had been heated in the midit of the
flames without the leaft precaution.
The opening contrived for the paflage is on the fide, and
has a door of caft iron, with a groove which winds round the
furnace. The fire-place has one fomething fimilar to it.
That of the afh-hole is vertical, in order that it may be’
raifed to increafe the fire at will.
When the ircn-wire is reduced to the thicknefs of a
knitting-needle, it is made up in bundles of 125 kilogrammes
(275 pounds) each, intoa large iron veffel, m order to anneal
it fufficiently to be reduced for the laft time. This veffel is
placed upfide-down in the middle of around furnace, which
is fo con{tru€ted as to fuftain burning coals all round it, and
of which it confumes 35 kilogrammes (77 pounds) before the
operation is completed. The cover mutt be carefully luted,
as the flighteft admiffion of air is fufficient to burn the ex-
ternal furfaces of the wire to an oxyd, which cannot after-
wards be reduced.
When one of thefe veffels is fufficiently heated, it is filled
with water, containing three kilogrammes (fix pounds and a
half) of tartar, and fufpended over the flames of the fur-
nace to make it boil. ~This folution, without attacking the
metal, frees it from the greafe and the little oxyd that ad-
heres to it. This is the laft operation in which the wire is
expofed to the fire; and it is then in the proper ftate for
being reduced to the utmoft degree of ftinenefs it is capable
of futtaining, and will preferve enough of the effect of the
annealing to require it no more. But when the natural
hardnefs of the iron varies, this laft expofure to the fire
fhould take place in proportion to its thicknefs. As fteel
lofes its capacity of extenfion much fooner than iron, it is
annealed until it is no thicker than a fewing-needle. The
{pace which is left in the veffel is filled up with charcoal-
duit, which prevents it from lofing the quality of fteel, and
preferves the heat long enough to give it the proper degree
of pliancy.
As Meffrs. Mouchel always ufe iron and fteel of the fame
‘manufaétory, they have been able to reduce their operations
to a general fyftem ; and to attain this end, have determined
a graduated fcale, by which the wire will not be more
ftretched in the drawing-plate in one number or fize than
another. The following is the method they contrived, in
order to form this fcale for the iron-wire. They take a
certain quantity of various thicknefles, which has been
drawn as fine as the iron would bear. The fmalleft fize is
100,000 metres ( 109,333 yards) in length to the kilogramme,
2.2 pounds avoirdupois. They note the weight that each
might be capable of fupporting without breaking. This
being exprefled by figures, it is eafy, by a few interpola-
tions, to exprefs them in a progreffive form. This kind of
fcale has been partly formed by comparing the weight of
the different fizes with equal lengths, from which gauges or
calibres may be made for the ufe of the workmen. Thefe
gauges are certain guides, which they cannot miftake except
through great carelefinefs. If they had not thefe guides
they would often pafs the wire through holes in the drawing-
plate that are too large for it, whence it does not acquire
the ftrength it fhould have in proportion to its thicknefs, and
lofes its hardnefs. They might alfo pafs it through holes
that were too fmall, which would weaken it, and render it
very brittle. In the latter cafe, it frequently happens that
the fteel of the drawing-plate, being unable to fuftain the
force to which it is expofed, will give way, as if the plate
were too foft; and the wire will be brittle at the beginning,
and foft and too thick at the other extremity.
The greateft part of the fine wire of Meffrs. Mouchel’s
manufactory is drawn by workmen who are difperfed about
the country ; but they have alfo a machine which moves
twenty-four bobbins in a horizontal direGtion, which only
requires the workman to look after it. It is upon the bob-
bins that the wire is reduced to the different degrees of thine
nefs defired ; therefore, this is the laft operation in the art of
making iron and fteel wire; although it has all requifite
qualities given to it in the work-fhop of the wire-drawer.
Wire is {till incapable of being made into needles and
carding-hooks, until it has undergone another operation
for drefling or ftraightening the wire, by which it is made
to lofe the bend or curve that it acquires on the bobbins.
This work confifts in drawing the wire between nails fixed
in a piece of wood, and which aé& to bend the wire, firft in
one direGtion, and then in the oppofite, in a waving line, of
which the waves are at firft larger, but decreafe gradually,
and the laft bend of which tends to force the wire into a
ftraight line. The dreffer is obliged conftantly to adjuft
the nails, by inclining or raifing them with ftrokes of the
hammer. Alfo for each number of wires the pins muft be
at different and calculated diftances. This requires a work
man of intelligence, diligence, and addrefs.
An ingenious inftrument is now appropriated to this ope-
ration, and removes all difficulty. Six little puppets of
very hard fteel are fubftituted for the nails of the ordinary
inftrument, and are fixed on parallel bars of metal, fo
jointed together that the movement of them all will be pa-
rallel, and the puppets are widened or brought nearer tos
gether by ferews. The wire is drawn between thefe puppets
In a Zigzag or waving line, and the repeated flexures break
the finuofities of the wire. There is a conduétor of the
wire to the puppets, and another conduétor which ferves to
prevent the wire from being fhaken. There are flight
grooves at the extremity of the puppets, to give a paflage to
the wire. A fcale fuftained by a {crew indicates the dif-
tance at which the puppets fhould be placed from each other,
to ftraighten each fize of wire. This forms an invariable
rule, and the drefler (who may be a child) faves a third of
the time which is employed in regulating the nails of the ins
{trument formerly ufed. There is nothing more to be done
but to draw out the wire by means of a wheel, on which he
reels it, and then forms it into bundles to be delivered to the
confumers.
The fteel-wire of France is proper for many purpofes.
It is brought from Meffrs. Mouchel, for making knitting-
needles in the Englith fafhion, fhoemakers’ needles, and
other fimilar articles. It may alfo be ufed for needles of all
fizes, and even for cards for wool-combing ; but as this
fteel is much more expenfive than the iron-wire, it is very
feldom ufed for the latter purpofe.
The method of preparing the draw-plates is defcribed
by Mefirs. Mouchel, and is different from that before
defcribed.
For making wire for cards, two forts of drawing-plates
are ufed, large and {mall ones. The firft, for the fort of
wire that we have been deferibing, is drawn with the pincers,
as fig. 7, and with the bobbin or roller, which is a cylin-
der adapted to the axis turned by the water-mill, and is ufed
in preference, to avoid the marks made on the wire by the
pincers. The {mall drawing-plates are ufed for fuch wire
3Z2 as
; WIRE.
as may be drawn by hand. The fteel which they employ
for thefe drawing-plates fhould never he in quality, ex-
cept that the {maller plates are made of the fineft fteel.
Several pieces of iron are difpofed in the furnace in the
form of a box without a lid, their weight being according
to the ufe for which they are intended to be asec ones
The workman fills each of thefe boxes with caft fteel,
and having covered it over with a luting of clay, it is ex-
pofed to a fierce fire until the fteel be melted. His art
confifts in feizing the proper moment to withdraw the plate
from the fire: he raifes the luting, and blows on it through
a tube, in order to drive off all heterogeneous parts, and
then amalgamates it with the iron by light blows. After it
is cool, he replaces it at the fire, where the fufion again takes
place, but to a lefs degree than before; he afterwards
works the fteel with light blows of the hammer, to purify
and folder it with the iron. This operation is repeated
from feven to ten times, according to its quality, which
renders it more or lefs difficult to manage. During this
procefs, a cruft forms on the fteel, which is detached from
it the fifth time of its expofure to the fire, becaufe this cruft
is compofed of an oxydated fteel of an inferior quality.
It fometimes happens that two and even three of thefe
crufts are formed of about two millimetres, or one-fixteenth
of an inch in thicknefs, which muft alfo be removed.
After all thefe different fufions, the plate is beaten by a
hammer wetted with water, and the proper length, breadth,
and thicknefs, are given to it. When thus prepared, the
plates are heated again, in order to be pierced with holes by
punches of'a conical form ; the operation is repeated five or
fix times, and the punches ufed each time are progreflively
f{maller. It is of importance that the plate never be heated
beyond a cherry-red, becaufe if it receives a higher degree
of heat, the fteel undergoes an unfavourable change. The
plates, when finifhed, prefent a very hard material, which
neverthelefs will yield to the ftrokes of the punches and the
hammer, which they require when the holes become too
much enlarged by the frequent paffing of the wire through
them. . th
When the plates have been repaired feveral times, they
acquire a degreé of hardnefs, which renders it neceflary to
anneal them, efpecially when they pafs from one fize to
another ; fometimes they do not acquire the proper quality
until they have been annealed feveral times. Notwithftand-
ing all the precautions which are taken in preparing the
plates, the fteel {till varies a little in hardnefs, and accord-
ing to this variation they fhould be employed for drawing
either fteel or iron wire ; and if the workman who proves
them finds that they are too foft for either the fteel or iron,
they are put afide, to be ufed by the brafs-wire drawers.
A plate that is beft adapted for drawing fteel-wire is
often unfit for the iron; for the long pieces of this latter
metal will become fmaller at the extremity than at the be-
inning, becaufe the wire as it is drawn through the plate is
infenfibly heated, and the adhering parts are {welled, confe-
quently preffed and reduced in fize towards the latter end.
The plates that are fit for brafs are often too foft for iron,
and the effeét refulting is the reverfe of that produced by a
late that is too hard.
The {malleft plates which Meffrs. Mouchel ufe are at the
leaft two centimetres, or eight-tenths of an inch in thick-
nefs, fo that the holes can be made fufficiently deep ; for
when they are of a lefs thicknefs, they will feize the wire
too fuddenly and injure it. This inconvenience is much
felt in manufaétories where they continue to ufe the plates
for too long a time, as they become exceedingly thin after
frequent repairs. One of Meffrs. Mouchel’s large plates
3
reduces 1400 kilogrammes (3080 pounds avoirdu from
the largeft fize pris to No. 6, Shih is of ware Paes
ofa knitting-needle ; 400 kilogrammes (880 pounds) of this
number are afterwards reduced in one fingle {mall plate to
No. 24, which is carding wire; and to finith them, they are
paffed through twelve times fucceflively.
For the tenacity of iron wire, fee Iron.
The firft wire-mill in England was fet up by a Dutch-
man at Sheen, near Richmond, in 1663.
Wires are frequently drawn fo fine, as to be wrought
along with other threads of filk, wool, or hemp: and
thus they become a confiderable article in the manufac-
tures. See Ductiniry.
Wire, Gold. See Gotn-Wire. S
Mufchenbroeck records, that an artift of Augfburg drew a
wire of gold fo flender, that 500 feet of it weighed only
one grain ; and Dr. Wollafton, fecretary of the Royal So-
ciety, has fhewh, that a wire of gold may be drawn much
finer than this, and that wires of platina may be drawn much
more flender, with the utmott facility. Thofe who draw filver-
wire in large quantities for lace and embroidery, fometimes
begin with a rod that is about three inches in diameter, and
: P 5 I - /
ultimately obtain wires that are fo {mall as = of an inch in
fore)
thicknefs. If in any ftage of this procefs a rod of filver-wire
be taken, anda hole be drilled through it longitudinally,
having its diameter one-tenth part of that of the rod, and if
a wire of pure gold be inferted, fo as to fill the hole, it is
evident that by continuing to draw the rod, the gold within
it will be reduced in diameter exaétly in the fame propor-
tion as the filver; fo that if both be thus drawn out
together till the diameter of the filver is nas of an inch, then
: I .
that of the gold will be only F008 3 and of fuch wire, 550
feet would be requifite to weigh one grain. In order to re-
move the coating of filver that furrounds it, the wire muft
be fteeped for a few minutes in warm nitrous acid, which
diffolves the filver without any injury to the gold. Dr. W.,
in his endeavours to make flender gold-wires by the method
above-defcribed, found it difficult to drill the central hole
in a metal fo fine as filver, and therefore tried whether pla-
tina might not be fubftituted for the gold, as in that cafe its
infofibility would allow its being coated with filver, with-
out the neceflity of drilling. Hiviaa formed a cylindrical
mould one-third of an inch in diameter, he fixed in the centre
of it a platina wire previoufly drawn to the — of an inch,
and then filled the mould with filver. When this rod was
drawn to ian his platina was reduced to putas. and by fuc-
30 1000
I
ceffive redu&tion he obtained wires of and irony and
5000
excellent for applying to the eye-pieces of aftronomical in-
ftruments, and perhaps as fine as can be ufeful for fuch pur-
pofes. The extremity of a platina wire having been fufed
into a globule near } of an inch in diameter, was next ham-
mered out into a fquare rod, and then drawn again into a
wire oh of an inch in diameter. The fufion was cffeed
by the following fimple and eafy method fuggefted by Dr.
Marcet :
WIR
Marcet :—A piece of wire, about fix inches long, basing
been bent to an angle in the middle, one half of its leng
was held in the flame of a {pirit-lamp impelled by a current
of oxygen, and its extremity was thus fufed in about half a
minute. An inch of the wire above-mentioned duly coated
with filver was drawn, till its length was extended to
182 inches; confequently the proportional diminution’ of
the diameter of the platina will be expreffed by the
{quare root of 182, fo that its meafure had become
I by Miter
253 X 13-5 3425
wire was aflumed to be 10.5, and fince the weight of 100
inches was 114 grains, its diameter was inferred to be
The fpecific gravity of the coated
ae of an inch, and juft eighty times of the platina thus
contained in it. With portions of the platina wire thus
obtained, and fucceffively reduced in diameter, its tenacity
was afcertained ; and the refults of feveral trials fhewed in
general, that the procefs of wire-drawing, which is known
to improve the ftrength of metals within moderate limits,
continued alfo to add fomething to the tenacity of platina,
even as far as of an inch, which fupported 13 grain
I
18.000
before it broke; but the wire in which the experiments
were made began then to be impaired by repetition of the
operation ; fo that although he afterwards obtained portions
of it as {mall as of an inch in diameter, it was in
many places interrupted, and he could not rely on any trials
of its tenacity. For other particulars with regard to thefe
fine wires, we refer to the Phil. Tranf. vol. ciii. pt. 1.
Wire, Silver, is the fame with gold wire, except that
the latter is gilt, or covered with gold, and the other is not.
There are alfo counterfeit gold and filver wires: the firft
made of a cylinder of copper, filvered over, then co-
vered with gold; and the fecond of a like cylinder of
copper filvered over, and drawn through the iron, after
the fame manner as gold and filver wire.
By 43 Geo. III. c. 68. feveral duties are impofed on
wire imported, as fet forth in tables annexed to the a& ;
and by c. 69. fched. A. duties are laid upon wire made in
Great Britain; and by 49 Geo. III. c. 98. new duties are
impofed. Every wire-drawer who fhall draw any gilt or
filver wire, commonly called ‘big wire,’ fhall take out a
licence, for which he fhall pay 2/., to be renewed annually on
pain of 20/. 24 Geo. III.c. 41. One licence fuffices for a
partnerfhip. Notice is to be given of working on pain of
2o/., and the place of working is to be approved by the
* commiffioners under the fame penalty. Wire, and bars for
making it, and utenfils, found in any private workhoufe, of
which no notice hath been given, fhall be forfeited.
Officers fhall be permitted to enter and furvey, and the
penalty of obftruéting him is 20/. 1o Ann. c. 26. Pre-
venting him from taking a juft account incurs a forfeiture
of roo/. 26 Geo. III. c.77. Juft fcales and weights fhall
be kept on pain of 1o/. Perfons ufing falfe {cales and
weights forfeit 1oo/. 10 Geo. III. c.44. And the fame
fhall be forfeited and feized. 28 Geo. III. c.37. Ingots
or bars of filver, defigned for gilt wire, fhall be weighed
in the prefence of the excife officer, before they be covered
with gold, and again weighed and marked after the gold 1s
Jaid on, under penalty of 2cl. 15 Geo. II. c. 20.
By 10 Ann. ec. 26. an allowance of one-fifth is made
WIR
for wafle in reducing the big wire to {mall wire. Removing
wire before it is furveyed incurs a penalty of 4o/.; and
unfurveyed wire is to be kept feparate, on pain of 1o/.; and
the punifhment of concealing wire, &c. is a forfeiture of 20/.
The wire made fhall be entered every month, on oath, on
pain of too/. The duty muft be cleared off in fix weeks
after entry, on pain of double duty.
By 15 Geo. II. c. 20. and 22 Geo. II. c. 36. no
foreign embroidery, or gold or filver brocade, thread, lace,
fringe, or work made thereof, or of copper, brafs, or
other inferior metal, or gold or filver wire, or plate, fhal!
be imported. And by 1o Ann. c. 26. if any perfon
fhall export any gold or filver thread, or lace or fringe
made of plate wire fpun upon filk, he fhall have a draw-
back after the rate of 5s. a pound avoirdupois, of fuch
filver thread, lace, or fringe, and of 6s. 8d. a pound of
fuch gold thread, lace, or fringe.
For regulations concerning the true making of gilt and
filver wire, fee the ftatute 15 Geo. II. c. 20. and for pro-
hibiting the felling or working up of foreign gold or filver
lace or thread, fee 22 Geo. II. c. 36.
Wire, Bra/s, is drawn after the fame manner as the for-
mer. Of this there are divers fizes, fuited to the divers
kinds of works. The tineft is ufed for the ftrings
of mufical inftruments, as fpinets, harpfichords, mani-
chords, &c.
The pin-makers likewife ufe vaft quantities of wire of
feveral fizes, to make their pins of. See Pin.
Wire, fron. See Wire fupra.
Wire-Gauze Safety-Lamp, and Saféety-Lamp, in the Arts,
are lamps conftructed to prevent the explofion of inflam-
mable air in mines, by intercepting the communication of
the flame on the infide of the lamp with the furrounding
atmo{phere. The difcovery of fafety-lamps for this pur-
pole belongs exclufively to our own country, and will form
a new era in mining operations. We fhall, therefore, ftate
the hiftory of their invention with as much accuracy as pof-
fible, amidit the contending claims of the different inventors
for priority. The explofions of inflammable air in coal-
mines arife from the ignition of carburetted hydrogen evolved
from the ftrata, and mixed with the atmo{pheric air that
circulates through the mine. Thefe explofions very fre-
quently occafion the moft fatal effeGs, deftroying the lives
of all the perfons employed as well as of the horfes, and
producing great mifchief to the fubterranean works. Some
mines are much more liable to accidents from this caufe than
others. In fome the carburetted hydrogen accumulates
flowly from the want of due circulation; in other mines,
it is generated very rapidly, iffuing from fiffures called
blowers, which occur either in the roof, the floor, or the
fides of the mine.
In the coal-fields of the Tyne and the Wear, it has been
eftimated that fix hundred men and boys were deftroyed in
two years by explofions in the mines; but thefe accidents,
unlefs they took place on a large fcale, were as much as
poffible kept from public notice, partly from the fear of
alarming the workmen, and partly from the apprehenfion of
blame to the viewers and managers of the works. Of thefe
melancholy cata{ftrophes, few regifters are kept in any part
of Great Britain ; but in the year 1810 an explofion took
place in a mine in the parifh of Felling near Newcaftle,
which, from the magnitude of the evil it occafioned, excited
a general fenfation of horror throughouc the country. In
this mine, the property of wealthy and lberal owners, no
expence had been {pared in the introduétion of machinery
and the moft approved methods of ventilation. (See VEN-
TILATION of Mines.) Notwithftanding this, on the 2 st of
ay,
WIRE-GAUZE SAFETY-LAMP.
the inflammable air exploded in two difcharges
May 1812,
which was fhortly followed by a third
from one of the pits,
from another pit.
The depth of thefe explofions under the furface ob-
tunded the found of the reports ; but for half a mile round
the vibrations of the earth announced the occurrence of the
accident before the noife efeaped, and an alarm was created
four or five miles round by low and hollow rumblings in
the air. Immenfe volumes of denfe vapour and coal-duft,
with pieces of wood and coal, were driven high into the
atmofphere ; and the mangled bodies of feveral men and
boys were abfolutely thrown out of the fhaft. The country
in the immediate vicinity was enveloped in darknefs, and
every kind of machinery near the mouths of the pits was
blown to pieces, or fet fire to. Out of a hundred and
twenty men and boys employed in the mine only thirty-two
were faved, three of whom afterwards died. The coal
being fet fire to, and the fubterranean works blown down or
deftroyed, the owners were compelled to clofe the mouths
of the pits in order to extinguifh the fire ; and it was not till
the feventh or eighth of the following month that it could
be re-opened to extra@ the bodies, which were, many of
them, too much mangled, and in too putrefcent a ftate, to be
identified by the relatives. A feries of fimilar difafters, in
each of which from twenty to thirty-five human beings were
deftroyed, occurred foon afterwards in the fame diftriéts,
and even in the Felling mine another explofion took place in
December 1813, by which twenty-three men and boys and
twelve horfes were killed. The only method that had been
adopted to prevent explofions, befides the ufual modes of
ventilation for clearing the mine, was the fubftitution of
fteel-mills for candles.
The {teel-mill is an inftrument for producing light by the
collifion of flint and fteel: it confifts of a brafs wheel about
five inches in diameter, with fifty-two teeth, which works a
pinion with eleven teeth. On the axis of the pinion is fitted a
thin jagged fteel wheel, from five to fix inches in diameter ;
againft the circumference of this wheel the fharp edge of a
flint is fixed, and the toothed wheel has a handle, which is
turned by a boy ; the whole machine being fixed in an iron
frame fufpended by a leather belt. The fteel wheel revolves
with great velocity, and elicits a ftream of fcintillations, which
give a confiderable light. Where the mines were fufpected
to contain inflammable air, thefe machines were ufed ; but
befides affording only an unfteady light, and being difficult
to manage, many inftances had occurred of the air igniting
from the fcintillations of fteel-mills. For the purpofe of
exploring the unworked and more dangerous parts of the
mine, the fteel-mill was both an inconvenient and incomplete
inftrument ; but until the year 1809 no method of lighting
had been attempted which might fuperfede its ufe.
Aboutthat time Dr. Reid Clanny, a {cientific and ingenious
phyfician at Sunderland, commenced a feries of experiments,
with a view to infulate the gas which might explode in a
lamp, and cut off its communication with the furrounding
air in the mine. With this intent, he conftrucéted a lamp
in which the combuttion of the oil or tallow is fupported by
the ordinary air of the coal-mine fupplied by a pair of bel-
lows, and pafling through a ftratum or refervoir of water
below the light ; at the fame time, a portion of the air already
in the lamp is driven through another refervoir in the upper
part above the light, and thus the air fupplied may explode
within the body of the lamp without communicating the
flame to the external air, however highly it may be charged
with carburetted hydrogen gas. ‘The moment the air en-
ters the lamp it comes in contaé with the flame, and con-
fequently only a {mall portion of it can be exploded, inflead
of the whole contents of the lamp; by this_means feveral
obvious advantages are fecured. The air paffing in a brill
current clofe by the flame carries the faut with it, fo that
the light is always clear and fteady. The other parts of the
lamp were yee and the whole made very ftrong, with
a glafs nearly half an inch thick to prevent it from being
broken by any common accident. It is capable of being
managed by a boy at a much lefs expence than the {teel-
mill. This lamp, which, for ftrength and for fecurity from
explofions and accidents, exceeds any other that has fince
been invented, excited little attention among the coal-workers
where it was firlt made known. Had not the prejudices
again{t improvements prevented its general introduction, more
than one sthoufand lives might have been preferved, which
were deftroyed in the mining diftriéts of the Tyne and Wear
in a few years after its alice In its firft form, the
lamp, though fecure, was not made fufficiently light to be
portable without being placed on a barrow ; but Dr. Clanny
afterwards improved it in this refpect, by fubflituting a fmall
pair of bellows to be worked under the right arm ; the lamp,
being fufpended by a leather belt from the left fide of the
boy who carried it, might in this way be moved into the
narroweft or moft dangerous parts of the mine. A defcrip-
tion of Dr. Clanny’s fafety-lamp, ,with a plate, was firft
given in the Philofophical Tranfaétions of the Royal Society
for 1813, partii. p. 200. Inthis lamp, however ftrong may
be the currents of air in the mine, the flame cannot be af-
feted by them, and the moft dangerous /ower may be ap-
proached in perfect fafety. . When an explofion takes place
in the lamp it extends no farther, and the flame is inftantly
“extinguifhed ; and wherever there is fufficient atmofpheric
air to fupport life, this lamp will afford a fafe and abundant
light. The conftruétion of the lamp was rendered more
fimple by pafling the air through the oil, by which the necef-
fity of the lower refervoir of water was avoided.
In Plate I. fig. 2. Geology, is given an outline of the lamp
on its original principle, which, though lefs portable, is, we
confider, the fafeft that has yet been employed. A is the
body of the lamp, conftruéted of copper or block-tin; B,
the upper part of the lamp, ending in a conical bent tube,
by which the air is difcharged after fupporting combuftion
through the water-ciftern C and D, the part D being filled
with water to keep the lamp cool, if neceflary ; E, the
window of the lamp, made of very thick glais; F, the
candle, fupported on atin ftand; G, a ciftern containin
water, through which the air is forced by the bellows ; A
atube from the bellows, which conveys air to the lamp.
A flexible leather tube may be fixed to the valve of the
bellows, to fend atmofpheric air from a diltance, if neceflary.
If the lamp be in order, it is fearcely poflible to conceive
any infulation of the flame more perfect than it prefents ; and
to Dr. Clanny muft be allowed the undoubted claim of
priority in having firft directed the attention of miners to a
method of avoiding danger before unknown, and of fhew-
ing practically how it might be effected. In the improve-
ment which Dr. Clanny made in this lamp afterwards, to
render it more portable, (fee fig. 3. in the fame plate,) a is
the tube fixed to the lamp, and which conveys the air; 4,
the oil-cittern ; c, the air aperture, under the burner of the
oil; d, the flexible tube connected with the bellows ; ¢ f,
the glafs. In both thefe lamps, the air being fupplied by
bellows, required the conftant attention of a boy ; this, how-
ever, was the cafe with the fteel-mills, which were in general
ufe before. A lamp that would fupply itfelf with atmo-
fpheric air was {till a defideratum ; when Dr. Clanny dif-
covered, in November 1815, as he was making experiments
with the original fafety-lamp in an atmofphere of fire-damp
in
WIRE-GAUZE SAFETY-LAMP.
in the Horrington mine, near Sunderland ; that if the infula-
tion of the lamp were made with hot water, the fire-damp
burned filently at the wick, and did not explode within the
lamp, as formerly. This he afcertained to be owing to the
iteam ; and he farther difcovered, that one part in volume
of fteam to two of the moft explofive mixtures deftroyed
their inflammability. A fimilar effect of fteam had been
before noticed by Von Grotthus, in the 82d volume of
the Annales de Chimie, but had not been applied to any
ufeful purpofe. In December of the fame year, Dr. Clanny
conftruéted a fteam fafety-lamp, which he exhibited to the
Society, for preventing accidents in coal-mines, and received
their unanimous thanks; and in 1817 he received a gold
medal from the Society of Arts for the difcovery.
In the fteam fafety-lamp there is a refervoir of water at
the top of the lamp, which is a clofed tin box, or ciftern.
The water is kept boiling by the flame of the lamp, and
the fteam mixing with the carburetted hydrogen prevents
all rifk from explofion. The air is fupplied through a
tube to the upper part of the ciftern above the water, and
defcends, mixed with the fteam, down two other tubes, into
the body of the lamp. By this means, the fire-damp burns
filently and fteadily at the wick of the lamp alone for any
length of time. Should the carburetted hydrogen exceed
the proportion of atmofpheric air for fupporting combuf-
tion, the light is extinguifhed, but this can rarely hap-
pen. It has alfo the valuable property of keeping cool
throughout every part, and under all circumftances ; this
is effected by the evolution and motion of the fteam.
This lamp, fays Dr. Clanny, is now well known to
burn moft brilliantly in an atmofphere of fire-damp, even
after the original fafety-lamp has had the fire-damp ex-
ploded within it. The fteam-lamp has now been extentively
ufed in feveral of the northern collieries. Its great recom-
mendation over other inventions is the fuperior light which
it affords. Thefe lamps are made of the ftrongeft tinned
iron, with a flat glafs in front, three-eighths of an inch in
thicknefs. They are exceedingly ftrong and durable, and
coft about twelve fhillings, but might be manufaétured on a
large fcale for half the price.
Fig. 4. reprefents the fhort tube by which the air enters
into the tube J, and this tube fupports the water-ciftern ¢ at
the top, being fitted into the tube a at the bottom, fo as to
be taken out and replaced when the water is to be poured in
or removed from the ciftern c. The air which afcends the
tube 4 mixes with the fteam of the water-ciltern, and pafles
down the two tubes d, d, to fupport the combuttion of the
flame, and afterwards afcends by the fide of the ciftern
through the chimney of the lamp. Thefe tubes are clofed at
the bottom, and perforated on the fides, to retard the pro-
grefs of the air, and mix it with the fteam before it reaches
the flamee. The bottom is air-tight; fthe glafs, and g the
oil-lamp. Thefe lamps are twelve inches’in length, exclu-
fively of the chimney. They fhould be cleared of water,
and well dried, after they have been in ufe, that they may be
more durable. When the lamp is firft lighted it is neceflary
to eftablifh a current, which is beft done by turning the
lamp, fo that the tube a may be expofed to the current of
air; this will be effeéted in five minutes, and the lamp will
afterwards continue to burn regularly and fteadily.
Dr. Clanny farther applied the fame principle to the con-
ftruétion of alarger lamp, in which were three wicks to
burn the inflammable air as it was made to iffue through the
oil; this is intended to confume the hydro-carburetted gas
as it rufhes from a blower.
In the hiftory of ufeful inventions, perhaps no inftance of
fupinenefs can be adduced, among thofe interefted in any dif-
covery, which equals the inattention fhewn for feveral years
by the coal-workers in the north to the valuable labours of
Dr. Clanny. We had an opportunity of examining his
lamp in 1813, and were fatisfied with the complete fecurity
which it affords. At that time, however, fo far from re-
ceiving the patronage he highly merited, he was regarded
by many with a ftrange jealoufy, as an officious intruder into
the mytteries of mining ; myfteries which he had no right to
inveftigate. ‘To Dr. Clanny, however, the firft difcovery
of a fafety-lamp is undoubtedly due ; and we have no hefita-
tion in aflerting our belief that his original fafety-lamp is the
moft fecure of any that have fince been invented, where
dangerous parts of the mine are to be explored, on account
of its more complete infulation, and its greater ftrength.
His lamp had alfo the merit of firft fuggefting the poflibility
of infulating the flame in the different lamps which have fince
been conftruéted.
The attention of the public was at length direted to the
dangerous fituation of the men working in the mines by a
few gentlemen, who formed a fociety, in 1813, at Sunder-
land, entitled A Society to prevent Accidents in Coal-Mines.
Dr. Gray, reétor of Bifhop-Wearmouth, an aétive mem-
ber of this fociety, inyited fir H. Davy, in 1815, who was
thenon a vifit in the north of England, to examine the col-
lieries with a view to affift the efforts of the fociety to pre-
vent the accidents to which they were fubje&t. From the
information communicated to him by perfons employed in
the mines, he was induced to commence a feries of experi-
“ments on carburetted hydrogen gas, which led to feveral un-
expected refults, not lefs interefting to {cience than ufeful in
their application to the arts. Before proceeding to defcribe
thefe, we muft notice the labours of Mr. Stephenfon, an en-
gineer in the Killingworth main colliery, who previoufly to
this time had, as he aflerts in a pamphlet on the fubjeé, enti-
tled «A Defcription of the Safety-Lamp invented by George
Stephenfon,”? made the difcovery that inflammable air will
not explode through {mall apertures. In the fame pamphlet
he ftates, that a lamp conftruéted by him on this principle was
tried in the above colliery on the 21ft of October 1815,
the lamp being carried in fafety into a part of the mine
where a ftrong blower of inflammable air was iffuing. The
experiment, he adds, was immediately repeated in the pre-
fence of two perfons employed in the works.
Thefe lamps, judging from Mr. Stephenfon’s own de-
{cription, yielded but a feeble light. They were after-
wards improved ; but thefe improvements bear fo clofe a re-
femblance to parts of fir H. Davy’s lamp, hereafter to be
defcribed, that we conceive Mr. Stephenfon muft labour
under no {mall difficulty in eftablifhing his claim for their
original inventions The queftion, at prefent agitated with
much warmth, can only be decided by a reference to well-
eftablifhed dates and authentic evidence ; aninveitigation not
{uited to the nature of the prefent work.
We have little doubt that the infulation obtained in Dr.
Clanny’s lamp by water firft fuggefted to Mr. Stephenfon the
poffibility that {mall apertures might intercept the extenfion
of the flame as effectually as water. On this fuggettion his
firft lamp appears conftruéted, the tube which admitted the
air being covered witha flide, to diminifh the aperture at
‘pleafure ; but the quantity of air which could be fafely ad-
mitted through one aperture being inadequate to the fupport
of the flame, it was obvious that the only way to enfure
both light and fafety was to increafe the number of apertures,
diminifhing the fize of each. In this manner, it appears that
Mr. Stephenfon proceeded mechanically, without a corre
knowledge of the properties of the gas, or the principles
on which the effects were produced. We think, hanereh
that
WIRE-GAUZE SAFETY-LAMP.
that as an approximation to a valuable difcovery, Mr. Ste-
phenfon’s lamp entitled him to the patronage and fupport
which he has received. It ought alfo to be recollected that
Dr. Clanny and Mr. Stephenfon both laboured under the
difadvantage of living at a diftance from the refidence of in-
genious practical mechanics to execute their inventions in the
mott fimple, cheap, and portable manner ; an advantage only
to be obtained in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, or
of large mechanical manufactories.
Sir H. Davy, after afcertaining that the fire-damp, or in-
flammable air in coal-mines, is the light carburetted hydrogen
gas, as ftated by other chemifts, proceeded to examine ac-
curately its combuitibility and explofive nature. When one
part of fire-damp was mixed with one of common air, the
mixture burned on the approach of a taper, but did not
explode. Two of air and three of fire-damp produced
fimilar.refults. When four of air and one of fire-damp were
expofed to a lighted candle, the mixture being in the quan-
tity of fix or feven cubic inches in a narrow-necked bottle,
the flame defcended to the bottom, but there was no noife.
One part of gas inflamed with fix parts of air in a fimilar
bottle, producing a flight whiftling found. One part of
gas with three of air rather a louder found. One part with
ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, and fourteen parts, ftill in-
flamed, but the violence of the combuftion diminifhed. In
one part of gas and fifteen parts of air, the candle burned
without explofion, with a greatly-enlarged flame. The fame
effe& was obferved, but in a gradually diminifhing ratio, as
far as thirty parts of the gas to one of common air. The
mixture which feemed to poflefs the greateft explofive
power was feven or eight parts of air to one of gas; but
the report produced by fifty cubic inches of this mixture
was lefs than that produced by one-tenth of a mixture con-
fifting of two parts of common air and one of pure hy-
drogen.
It was alfo very important to afcertain the degree of heat
required to explode the different mixtures of fire-damp. A
common eleétrical fpark, he found, would not explode five
parts of air and one of fire-damp, though it exploded fix
arts of air and one of the latter gas. Very ftrong {parks
Eom the difcharge of the Leyden jar feemed to have the
fame power of exploding different mixtures of the gas,
asthe flame of ataper. Well-burned charcoal, ignited to
the ftrongeft heat, did not explode any mixtures of the gas ;
and when a fire of the fame charcoal, which burned without
flame, was blown to whitenefs by an explofive mixture with-
out producing inflammation. An iron rod at a red or
even at a white heat did not inflame explofive mixtures of
the gas; but when in brilliant combuftion it produced that
effeét.
The flame of gafeous oxyd of carbon, as well as of ole-
fiant gas, exploded the mixtures of the fire-damp.
In refpe& of combuftibility, fays fir H. Davy, the fire-
damp differs materially from the other common inflammable
gafes. Olefiant gas, when rendered explofive by a mix-
ture of common air, is fired both by charcoal and iron,
heated to a dull rednefs. Gafeous oxyd of carbon, which
explodes with two parts of air, is likewife inflammable by
hot iron or charcoal. And hydrogen, which explodes when
mixed with three-fevenths of air, takes fire at the lowett
vifible heat of iron or charcoal; and the cafe is the fame
with fulphuretted hydrogen.
The importance of thefe experiments is too obvious to
require illuftration. Having afcertained the above facts, fir
H. Davy proceeded to examine the degree of expanfion of
mixtures of fire-damp and air during their explofion, and
likewife their power of communicating flame through aper-
tures to other explofive mixtures. It is to this latter part
of fir H. Davy’s experiments and its application to fafety-
lamps, that the controverfy refpe&ting the priority of the
difcovery refers.
When fix parts of air and one of fire-damp were exploded
over water by a ftrong eleétrical {park, the explofion was
not very ftrong ; and at the moment of the greateft expan-
fion, the volume of the gas did not appear to be increafed
more than one-half. In exploding a mixture of one part
gas from the diftillation of coal, and eight parts of air in a
tube one-quarter of an inch in diameter, and one foot long,
more than a fecond was required before the flame reached
from one end of the tube to the other, and he could not
make any mixture explode in a glafs tube one-feventh of an
inch in diameter ; and this gas was more inflammable than
fire-damp, as it confifted of carburetted hydrogen mixed
with fome olefiant gas.
In exploding mixtures of fire-damp and air in a jar, con-
nected with the atmofphere by an aperture of half an inch,
and conneéted with a bladder by a ftop-cock having an aper-
ture of about one-fixth of an inch, the flame paffed into the
atmofphere, but did not communicate through the ftop-cock
fo as to inflame the mixture in the bladder ; and in compar-
ing the power of tubes of metal and thofe of glafs, it ap-
peared that the flame paffed more readily through tubes of
glafs of the fame diameter, and that explofions were ftopped
by metallic tubes of one-fifth of an inch, when they were
one inch and a half long; and this phenomenon probably
depends upon the heat loft during the explofion, in conta
with fo great a cooling furface, which brings the tempera-
ture of the firft portions exploded below that required for
firing the other portions.
Metal is a better conduétor of heat than glafs ; and it has
been already fhewn, that the fire-damp requires a very {trong
heat for its inflammation.
A mixture of the gas with air, he alfo found, would not
explode in metallic canals or troughs when their diameter
was lefs than one-feventh of an a and their depth con-
fiderable in proportion to their diameter, nor could explo-
fions be made to pafs through fuch canals.
Azote and carbonic acid, even in fmall proportions, dimi-
nifhed the velocity of inflammation in explofive mixtures of
fire-damp. Azote, when mixed in the proportion of one to
fix of an explofive mixture containing twelve of air and
one of fire-damp, deprived it of its power of explofion ;
when one part of azote was mixed with feven of an explo-
five mixture only, a feeble blue flame pafled through it.
One part of carbonic acid to feven of an explofive mix-
ture deprived it of the power of exploding; fo that its
effe&ts are more remarkable than thofe of azote, probably
in confequence of its greater capacity for heat, and pro-
bably likewife of its higher conduéting power connected
with its greater denfity.
The confideration of thefe various fats, fir H. Davy in-
forms us, led him to adopt a form of lamp in which the
flame, being fupplied with only a limited quantity of air,
fhould produce fuch a quantity of azote and carbonic acid
as to prevent the explofion of the fire-damp ; and which, by
the nature of its apertures for giving admittance and exit
to the air, fhould be rendered incapable of communicating
any explofion to the external air.
If in a clofe lantern fupplied with a {mall aperture below
and another above, a lighted lamp having a very {mall wick
be placed, the natural flame gradually diminifhes, till it ar-
rives at a point at which the fupply of air is fufficient for
the combuftion of a certain {mall quantity of oil; if a
lighted taper be introduced into the lantern through a {mall
door
WIRE-GAUZE SAFETY-LAMP.
door in the fide, which is .irfftantly clofed, both lights will
burn for a few feconds, and be extinguifhed together.
A fimilar phenomenon occurs: if in a clofe lantern fup-
plied with a quantity of air merely fufficient to fupport a
certain flame, a mixture of fire-damp and air is gradually
admitted, the firft effet of the fire-damp is to produce
a large flame round that of the lamp, and this flame con-
fuming the oxygen which ought to be fupplied to the
lamp, and the ftandard of the power of the air to fupport
flame being lowered by the admixture of fire-damp and by
its rarefaction, both the flame of the fire-damp and that of
the lamp is extinguifhed together ; and as the air contained
a certain quantity of azote and carbonic acid before the ad-
miffion of the fire-damp, their effect by mixing it is fuch
as to prevent an explofion in any part of the lantern.
In an experiment which fir H. Davy made, to afcertain
that the flame was extinguifhed in the lantern, though
the mixture was {till explofive which fupplied the flame,
the lantern was placed on a ftand under a large glafs re-
ceiver ftanding in water, which was of fufficient capacity to
enable the candle to burn for fome minutes. A quantity of
fire-damp was thrown in from a bladder, fo as to render the
atmofphere explofive. As the fire-damp mixed with the
air, the flame of the taper gradually enlarged till it half
filled the lantern; it then gradually diminifhed, and was fud-
denly extinguifhed without the flighteft explofion. The air
in the receiver was found after the experiment to be highly
explofive.
Sir H. Davy then introduced into a glafs jar, containing
an explofive mixture of one part fire-damp and ten parts of
air, a lighted lantern, to which air was fupplied by two glafs
tubes one-tenth of an inch in diameter, and half an inch
long. ‘The taper burned at firft with a feeble light, the
flame foon became enlarged, and was then extinguifhed.
Thefe experiments were feveral times repeated with a con-
ftancy of refult. It is evident, he fays, from hence, that it
is only neceffary to ufe air-tight lanterns fupplied with air
from tubes or canals of {mall diameter, or from apertures
covered with wire-gauze, placed below the flame, through
which explofions cannot be communicated, and having a
chimney at the upper part on a fimilar fyftem for carrying
off the foul. air.
This principle fir H. Davy adapted to a variety of glafs
lanterns, in which the air was admitted through {mall aper-
tures or wire-gauze, with a top proteéted by the fame.
Thefe lanterns, however they might have an{wered for ex-
periments in the laberatory, were not, however, well fitted
for pra€tical ufe ; for befides the frangibility of common
glafs, which expofed the miner to explofions from the en-
largement of the flame, the glafs was liable to become heated
and to break, however {trong it might be made. This in-
convenience was, however, removed by the fubftitution of a
cylinder of fine wire-gauze, forming a clofe lamp or lantern,
into which the air is admitted, and from which it paffes
through very {mall apertures. In the firft experiments, the
wire was of brafs the 34th part of an inch in thicknefs, and
the apertures were not more than the +4,5th part of an inch ;
this was found to {top explofions as well as the long tubes or
canals, and to admitafree current of air. The wire-gauze lamp,
in its prefent improved form, is the moft fimple and portable
that has yet been introduced. Plate V. jig. 5. Geology, re-
prefents the lamp as at prefent ufed; a reprefents the fin-
le cylinder of wire-gauze ; the foldings aaa mutt be very
well doubled and fafiened by wire. If the cylinder be of
twilled gauze, the wire fhould be at leaft of the one-fortieth
of an inch of iron or copper, and thirty in the warp, and
fixteen or eighteen in the weft. If of plain wire-gauze, the
Vou. XXXVIII.
wire fhould not be lefs than one-fixtieth of an inch in thick-
nefs, and from twenty-eight to thirty both warp and weft ;
é reprefents the fecond top, which fits upon a ; ¢ reprefents a
cylinder of brafs, in which the wire-gauze is faftened by a
fcrew, to prevent its being feparated from the lamp by any
blow; c is fitted into a female-{crew, which receives the main-
{crew é of the lamp f, furnifhed with its fafe-trimmer /, and
fafe-feeder for oil 7.
Lamps on the fame principle were conftruéted, in which
the cylinder is made of copper of one-fortieth of an inch in
thicknefs, perforated with longitudinal. apertures of ‘not
more than one-fixteenth of an inch in length, and the one-
thirtieth in breadth. (See Plate I. fig. 6. Geology.) In
proportion as the copper is thicker, the apertures may be
increafed in fize. This form of the lamp may be proper
where fuch an inftrument is only to be occafionally ufed, but
for the general purpofe of the collier, fir H. Davy ftates
that wire-gauze is much fuperior from its flexibility, and the
eafe with which new cylinders are introduced.
To this lamp a valuable addition has been lately made
by the application of a lens before the flame, to condenfe
the rays of light, and dire& them to any particular {pot.
It has the farther advantage of proteéting that part of the
wire-gauze from coal-duft, by which it is liable to be
choaked and obfcured in a few hours.
In fubfequent experiments, fir H. Davy difcovered that
much thicker wires and larger apertures might be ufed
than were at firft applied. This gave to the lamp greater
{trength, and tranfmitted more light.
Gauze made of brafs wire ,‘;th of an inch in thicknefs,
and containing only 100 apertures in the fquare inch, did
not communicate explofion in a mixture of one part coal-gas
and twelve of common air, fo long as the wire was cool ;
but as foon as the top became hot an explofion took place.
A quick lateral motion alfo enabled it to communicate ex-
plofion. With 196 apertures to the fquare inch, the ex-
plofion was not communicated till the wire became ftrongly
hot.
Iron wire-gauze, containing 240 apertures to the {quare
inch, was fafe in explofive mixtures of coal-gas, till it be-
came ftrongly red-hot at the top. :
Tron wire-gauze, of 576 apertures to the {quare inch, or
the 54th part of an inch each in diameter, appears, fays
fir H. Davy, to be fafe under all circumftances, in explo-
five mixtures of coal-gas. With very fine wire-gauze,
mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen gafes may be burned
without explofion until the brafs wire begins to melt.
The explanation which fir H. Davy gives of the effe&
of wire-gauze, and {mall tubes in arrefting the progrefs of
flame, is as follows: —'Thefe refults are beft explained
by confidering the nature of the flame of combuttible bodies,
which in all cafes muft be confidered as the combuftion of
an explofive mixture of inflammable gas, or vapour and air ;
for it cannot be regarded as a mere combuttion at the fur-
face of contaét of the inflammable matter : and the fa& is
proved by holding a taper, or a piece of burning phofphorus,
within a large flame made by the combuttion of alcohol; the
flame of the candle, or of the phofphorus, will appear in
the centre of the other flame, proving that there is oxygen
even in its interior part.
The heat communicated by flame muft depend upon its
mafs: this is fhewn by the fact, that the top of a flender
cylinder of wire-gauze hardly ever becomes dull-red in the
experiment on an explofive mixture; whilft in a larger
cylinder made of the fame material, the central part of the
top foon becomes bright-red. A large quantity of cold air
thrown upon a frail flame, lowers its heat beyond the
4A explofive
WIRE-GAUZE SAFETY-LAMP.
explofive point ; and in extinguifhing a flame by blowing
upon it, the effet is probably produced principally by this
caufe, affifted by a dilution of the explofive mixture.
If a piece of wire-gauze fieve is held over a flame of a
lamp, or of coal-gas, it prevents the flame from pafling it,
and the phenomenon is precifely fimilar to that exhibited
by the wire-gauze cylinders: the air pafling through is
found very hot, for it will convert paper into charcoal ;
and it is an explofive mixture, for it will inflame if a lighted
taper is prefented to it; but it is cooled below the ex-
plofive point, by pafling through wires even red-hot, and
by being mixed with a confiderable quantity of air com-
paratively cold. The real temperature of vilible flame is,
perhaps, as high as any we are acquainted with. Mr.
Tennant was in the habit of fhewing an experiment which
demonftrates the intenfity of its heat. He ufed to fufe a
{mall filament of platinum in the flame of a common candle ;
and it is proved by many faéts, that a ftream of air may
be made to render a metallic body quite hot, yet not be
itfelf luminous.
A confiderable mafs of heated metal is required to in-
flame even coal-gas, or the contaét of the fame mixture
with an extenfive heated furface. An iron-wire of ;',th of
an inch, and eight inches long, red-hot, when held perpen-
dicularly in a ftream of coal-gas, did not inflame it, nor did
a fhort wire of one-fixth of an inch produce the effe& held
horizontally ; but wire of the fame fize, when fix inches of
it were red-hot, and when it was held perpendicularly in a
bottle containing an explofive mixture, fo that heat was
fucceffively communicated to portions of the gas, produced
its explofion. ; '
A certain degree of mechanical force, which rapidly
throws portions of cold explofive mixture upon flame, pre-
vents explofions at the point of conta&t. Thus, on prefling
an explofive mixture of coal-gas from a fyringe, or a gum
elaftic bottle, it burns only at fome diftance from the aper-
ture from which it is difengaged.
Taking all thefe circumftances into account, there ap-
pears no difficulty in explaining the combuttion of explofive
mixtures within, and not without the cylinders: for a cur-
rent is eftablifhed from below upwards, and the hotteft part
of the cylinder is where the refults of combuftion, the
water, carbonic acid, or azote, which are not inflammable,
pafs out. The gas which enters is not fufficiently heated
on the outfide of the wire to be exploded; and as the
gare are no where confined, there can be no mechanical
orce preffing currents of flame towards the fame point.
Two papers by fir H. Davy, conneéted with this fub-
jeét, were afterwards publithed in the Philofophical Tranf-
aétions for 1817, entitled ‘Some Refearches on Flame.”
In thefe papers, a number of new and extremely interefting
experiments on the properties of flame are detailed. The
prattical application of the refults to fafety-lamps we fhall
briefly ftate, as they explain more clearly the principle on
which their fafety depends, and the circumftances effentially
requifite to their proper conftruction. Sir H. Davy com-
mences the paper by informing us, that the intenfity of the
light of flames depends principally upon the produétion and
ignition of folid matter in combuttion ; an that the heat
and light in this procefs are in a great meafure independent
phenomena: and he afterwards defines lame to be gafeous
matter, heated fo highly as to be luminous, and that to a
degree of temperature beyond the white heat of folid bodies,
as is fhewn by the experiment; that air not luminous will
communicate this degree of heat; for if we hold a fine
platina wire one-twentieth of an inch from the exterior of
the middle flame of a {pirit-lamp, and conceal the flame by
9
an opaque body, the wire will become of a white heat in a
{pace where there is no vifible light.
When an attempt is made to pafs flame through a very
fine mefh of wire-gauze at the common temperature, the
gauze cools each portion of the elaftic matter that pafles
through it, fo as to reduce its temperature below that
degree at which it is luminous ; and the diminution of tem-
perature muft be proportional to the {mallnefs of the meth
and the mafs of the metal. The power of a metallic or
other tiffue, to prevent explofion, will depend upon the heat
required to produce the combuftion, as compared with that
acquired by the tiffue; and the flame of the moft inflam-
mable fubftances, and of thofe that produce moit heat in
combuttion, will pafs through a metallic tiffue that will in-
tercept the flame of lefs inflammable fubftances, or thofe
that produce little heat in combuftion. Or the tiflue being
the fame, and impermeable to all flames at common tem-
peratures ; yet when heated it will become permeable to
each different kind of flame at different temperatures :
thofe which produce moft heat will moft readily pafs
through it. A tiffue of one hundred apertures to the
{quare inch, made of wire of one-fixtieth part of an inch,
will, at common temperatures, intercept the flame of a
fpirit-lamp, but not that of hydrogen ; and when Strongly
heated will no longer arreft the flame of the {pirit-lamp.
The ratio of combuftibility of the different gafes is to
a certain extent proportionate to the mafles of heated matter
required to inflame them. ‘Thus, an iron-wire of one-for-
tieth of an inch heated cherry-red will not inflame olefiant
gas, but will inflame hydrogen gas: and a wire of one-
eighth of an inch heated to the fame degree will inflame
olefiant gas; but a wire of one-five-hundredth part of an
inch ped: be heated to whitenefs to inflame hydrogen.
Thefe circumftances will explain why a mefh of much
finer wire is required to prevent the explofion from hydro-
gen and oxygen from pafling ; and why fo coarfe a texture
of wire is fufficient to prevent the explofion of the fire-damp,
the leaft combuftible of the known inflammable gafes.
The following experiments afford a fatisfa@tory and fim-
ple explanation of the caufe of the ftoppage of flame by the
wire-gauze lamp. Let the fmallett poffible fame be made
by a fingle thread of cotton immerfed in oil, and burning
immediately on the furface of the oil ; it will be found to
be about one-thirtieth of an inch in diameter. Let a fine
iron-wire one-hundred-and-eightieth part of an inch be
made into a circle of one-tenth of an inch in diameter, and
brought over the flame. Though at fuch a diftance it
will mftantly extinguifh the flame if it be cold; but if it
be held above the flame, fo as to: be flightly heated, the
flame may be pafled through it without being extinguifhed.
The effect depends entirely on the power of the metal to
abitra&t the heat of the flame. This is fhewn by bringing
a glafs capillary ring of the fame diameter and fize over the
flame: this being a much worfe conductor of heat will not
extinguifh it even when cold. If its fize, however, be made
greater, and its circumference {maller, it will aé& like the
metallic wire, and require to be heated to prevent its ex-
tinguifhing the flame.
Huppert a flame to be divided by the wire-gauze into
fmaller flames, each flame mutt be extinguifhed in paffing its
aperture, till that aperture has attained a temperature fuf-
ficient to produce the permanent combutftion of the explo-
five mixture. Where rapid currents of explofiye mixtures
are made to aét upon wire-gauze, it is of courfe much more
rapidly heated, and therefore the fame mefh which arrefts
the flames of explofive mixtures at reft will fuffer them to
pafs when in rapid motion; but by increafing the cooling
furface,
WIRE-GAUZE SAFETY-LAMP.
furface, by diminifhing the fize or increafing the depth of
the aperture, all flames, however rapid their motion, may
be arrefted. Precifely the fame law applies to explofions
aGting in clofe veffels: very minute apertures, when they
are only a few in number, will permit explofions to pafs
which are arrefted by much larger apertures, when they fill
a whole furface. A fmall aperture was drilled at the bottom
of a wire-gauze lamp, in the cylindrical ring which con-
fines the wire-gauze; this, though lefs than one-eighteenth
part of an inch in diameter, pafled the flame, and fired the
external atmofphere, in confequence of the whole force of
the explofion of the thin ftratum of the mixture included
within the cylinder driving the flame through the’ aperture ;
though, had the whole ring been compofed of fuch aper-
tures, it would have been perfeétly fafe. Nothing, fays fir
Humphrey Davy, can demonftrate more decidedly than thefe
fimple facts and obfervations, that the interruption of flame
by folid tiffues permeable to light and air, depends on no re-
condite or myfterious caufe, but to their cooling powers
fimply confidered as fuch. ; fits
When light, included in a cage of wire-gauze, is intro-
duced into an explofive atmofphere of fire-damp at reft, the
maximum of heat is foon obtained, the radiating power of
the wire and the cooling effets of the atmofphere, more
efficient from the mixture of inflammable air, preventing it
from ever arriving at a temperature equal to that of dull
rednefs. In rapid currents of explofive mixtures of fire-
damp, which heat common gauze to a high temperature,
twilled gauze, in which the eb furface is confiderably
greater and the circulation of air lefs, preferves an equal
temperature. Indeed the heat communicated to the wire
by combuttion of the fire-damp in wire-gauze lamps is com-
pletely in the power of the manufacturer, for by diminifh-
ing the apertures, and increafing the mafs of metal, or the
radiating furface, it may be diminifhed to any extent. One
important circumftance, however, is not here adverted to
by fir Humphrey Davy ; by increafing the thicknefs of the
wire and diminifhing the aperture, the quantity of light
tranfmitted is greatly reduced, and its power of illumination
rendered nearly inefficient. Hence the power of the manu-
faQturer to conftruét a lamp perfeétly fafe and fufficiently
luminous mutt be limited by certain conditions. However,
fir Humphrey Davy informs us, he has lately had lamps made
of thick twilled gauze formed of wires the one-fortieth of
an inch, fixteen to the warp and thirty to the weft, which
being rivetted to a fcrew cannot be difplaced, from its flexi-
bility it cannot be broken, and from its ftrength cannot be
crufhed, except by a very {trong blow.
From fome very ingenious experiments on the combuftion
of inflammable fubftances at low temperatures, fir Hum-
phrey Davy difcovered that a coil of platina wire, one-
feventieth of an inch thick, remains at a white heat when the
quantity of coal-gas is increafed fo as to extinguifh the
ffame of the lamp ; hence he has fuggefted the advantage of
introducing a coil of fuch wire into the fafety-lamp, but we
do not learn that it has yet been found of praétical ufe. An
account of thefe experiments is given in the Phil. Tranf. for
1817.
The principal objeétions to the ufe of wire-gauze fafety-
lamps in mines, and alfo to other fafety-lamps, may be
briefly ftated; namely, the accidents to which the lamps
may be unavoidably fubjeét, and the accidents which may
arife from negligence in the ufe of them; the injury to
the health of the men, from remaining in explofive mixtures
of fire-damp longer than they would have done before the
introduétion of thefe lamps into mines; and laftly, the tempt-
ation they prefent to negle& the more expenfive methods of
ventilating mines, and trufting too much to the fecurity of
the lanp. The accidents which may happen to the lamp
from one or more of the mefhes being broken, when made
of fuch flender wire, and expofed to the corrofive effets of
mineral waters in the mine, or the rapid oxydation from
moifture alone, muft be very frequent, independently of ac-
cidents from the falling of pieces of coal on the lamp. The
breaking of a fingle wire being fufficient to enlarge the
aperture and occafion an explofion, it is obvious that ex-
treme caution is required in the ufe of the lamps, and a
careful infpeétion of them fhould be made every day before
they are delivered to the men. This we underftand is done
in extenfive collieries, a perfon being appointed for the fole
purpofe of infpeéting and trimming the lamps. The acci-
dents which may arife from the negligence of a fingle man,
in extenfive mines where more than fifty or one hundred per-
fons are employed, are lefs eafy to guard againft ; the lives
of a great number are conftantly depending on the careful-
nefs of each perfon; and, however perfeét the inftrument
may be, no one can feel perfeétly fafe when the air in the
mine is in an explofive ftate. Some of the lamps were at
firft fo conftruéted that they could not be opened except by
the key of the infpeétor ; but we believe this precaution is
not generally introduced, the great objet being to get the
lamps made as cheap as poflible. We conceive it, however,
effential to the fecurity of the miners, that the lamp fhould
be clofed by a lock, to prevent the men from uncovering the
flame. The lamp itfelf, by the enlargement of the flame,
gives due notice when the air of the mine is in an explofive
itate, and at fuch times the proper remedy is to be fought
in ventilation ; for we conceive it to be neither wife nor hu-
mane to fuffer the men to remain working in an explofive
atmofphere, unlefs under particular circumftances. Should
the invention of fafety-lamps induce coal proprietors to
allow their workmen to remain for a longer time inhaling
the fire-damp, or lead them to negle& the only permanent
fecurity, that of efficacious ventilation, we fhould confider
the difcovery as injurious to the interefts of humanity. It
would, however, be extremely unfair to decry the merit of
any invention from the poffible mifufe of it. Were coal-
mines firft opening in a diftri@ where they had never before
been worked, we believe that in moft cafes it would be prac-
ticable to fecure a conftant and fafe ventilation through all
the works : but in diftri€ts like thofe on the Tyne and the
Wear, there are numerous old excavations remaining filled
with impure air, of which the prefent miners have little
knowledge, having been worked out in remote periods.
Any communications accidentally opened with thefe old
workings may fuddenly fill a mine with a mixture of fire-
damp, in which cafe the fafety-lamp offers the only means
of fecurity with which we are acquainted. For viewing the
old workings or waffes of the mine, which cannot be ap-
proached with a common lamp or candle, the fafety-lamp is
a mott invaluable inftrument ; and in all cafes where the fteel-
mill was formerly ufed it affords a far more fecure and con-
venient light. Though we have thought it neceflary to ftate
the objections which may be urged againft the fafety-lamp,
we conceive that they apply principally to the mifufe of it :
and the following ftatement made by fir Humphrey Davy
offers the moft fatisfaGtory proof of its utility. ‘It has
now been (Jan. 1817) for ten months in the hands of hun-
dreds of common miners in the moft dangerous mines in
Great Britain, during which time not a fin gle accident has
occurred where it has been employed, whilit in other mines
much lefs dangerous, where it has not been adopted, fome
lives have been loft, and many perfons burned.”
The farther experience of another year, on a more ex=
4A 2 tended
Wik
tended fcale, has fully confirmed the conclufions to be drawn
from the above ftatement, and we may juitly confider the
fafety-lamp as one of the moft valuable prefents which phi-
lofophy has made to the ufeful arts.
Wire-Grates, in Gardening, are contrivances formed of
fine wire-work, and ufed for keeping various kinds of large
infects out of vineries, hot-houfes, and fuch places, as being
very mifchievous to the fruit in them.
Wire-Heels, Sc. a defe&t and confequent difeafe in the
feet of the horfe or other animal. Some, as Gibfon, think
that narrow heels are for the moft part a natural defect, but
that they are often rendered incurable by bad fhoeing.
Some, in fhoeing, hollow the quarters fo deep and fo thin,
it is faid, that one may almoft pinch them in with one’s
fingers, and think by that means to widen them out by a
ftrong broad-webbed fhoe; but this turns them narrow
above and wires their heels, and dries up or rots the ak
The beft way in all fuch cafes is, it is f{uppofed, not to hol-
low the foot in fhoeing, and to pare nothing out but what
is rotten or foul. If the foot be hard or dry, or inclined
to be ragged, it may be bathed often with chamber-ley ; or
two pounds of linfeed bruifed may be boiled in two quarts
of chamber-ley to the confiftence of a poultice, then adding
to it fix ounces of foft-foap, and the foot be foftened
with it every day, rubbing a little of it upon the fole ; or, a
compofition formed of two ounces of bees’-wax, fix ounces
of hog’s-lard, one ounce of tar, and linfeed oil as much
as will make it into the confiftence of a {mooth ointment,
may be mixed together, and be ufed daily in the fame man-
ner as the foregoing poultice.
The difeafes and affe€tions of the feet of thefe animals
have of late been more accurately underftood, and better
means of relief and cure recommended.
In the cafe of narrow or contracted heels, attended with
inflammation, and moftly confined to the fore-feet, there is
great pain; the animal is conftantly moving its legs, and
generally inclined to lie down. When firft taken out, it is
almoft incapable of performing any of the paces; the
weight being fo much thrown on the hinder legs. In trot-
ting, the legs are fcarcely lifted above the furface of the
ground ; the fteps are very fhort, and a walk or canter is
gone into inftead of any other pace. In the gallop, the
weight of the body is thrown on the fore-part of the foot ;
and in trotting, on the heels; which produce very con-
fiderable pain, on account of the ation of the foot being
confined to the quarter in a backward dire¢tion.
The difeafe is moftly caufed by improper fhoeing, very
reat and hard exercife, ftanding in confined fituations on
tter, and many other fuch caufes.
In effeéting a cure in all the more frefh cafes of this fort,
where the variation from the natural round form of the hoof
is not confiderable, it may be accomplifhed without the
animal being entirely made to reft, by removing the fhoes,
and if poffible reducing the heels on a line’ with the inferior
part of the frog. The fole parts may be thinned, and that
portion which is between the bars of the foot and the cruft
be hollowed out. The hoofs fhould likewife be thinned
with a proper tool, efpecially at the quarters. The fhoes
fhould not be put on again for two or three weeks in fuch
cafes, and the parts from near the coronet to the fetlock be
anointed with a bliftering liniment, compofed of half an
ounce of finely-powdered cantharides and four ounces of
Barbadoes tar, well mixed together.
And when neceflary, three or four pints of blood may
be taken from the plate vein, and a rowel be put in the
chet.
Mafhes, containing nitre in the quantity of an ounee,
10
WIR
ate to be occafionally had recourfe to. At the fame time,
the feet of the animal fhould be put in a trough of warm
water for two or three hours every day, fo filled as juit to
cover the hoof-parts of them ; gentle walking or trotting
exercife being ufed on fuch ground as is foft.
Afterwards the fhoes which are made ufe of fhould be
thinner at the heels than thofe which were taken off, the
heels refting well and firmly on the bars and cruft. The
patent frog may be ufed when the animal is at reft, as by
continuing its ufe in a proper manner, the foot will gra-
dually regain its natural form and aétion. See Froc.
In fick cafes, too, the coronet may now be bathed
every day with an embrocation compofed of an ounce and
a half each of marfh-mallow ointment and Barbadoes tar,
with half an ounce of fpirit of turpentine, well incorpo-
rated together ;, which will promote and haften the growth
of the hoof-part of the foot.
In cafe the animal has been lame fome length of time,
and the contraétion of the heels is very confiderable, it
fhould be put in moift pafture-grounds, to run for fome
time, carefully lowering the heels every four or five weeks,
or oftener if neceffary. As foon as the hoof has been
elongated from the coronet to the fole, the cure will be
completely effected ; which will in moft cafes be accom-
plifhed in the courfe of about five months; at the end of
which time the animal will have regained an entirely new
circular foot of the natural fhape. The animal fhould then
be fhod with thin-heeled fhoes, which admit the frog-part
of the foot to reft upon the ground.
In cafes in which the animals cannot be turned out in
this manner, they fhould be provided with a large fhed
building, well clayed on the bottom part, and preferved
foft and moift by the occafional application of water
flightly over it.
But though this fort of management may moftly recover
and reftore the natural fhape of the foot, the proper aétion
of it is not reftored with fuch facility. In a great number
of cafes, the feet become fo much altered in their ftru€&ture
and power on account of the long-continued inflammation,
that the means of expanfion are wholly deftroyed ; as is often
the cafe in the cartilages that are fituated at the higher and
hinder part of the foot, which not unfrequently become
bony, and, of courfe, it becomes impoflible to regain the
action of the foot. As in thefe cafes, the more the foot
is expofed, the greater will be the injury and mifchief
afforded ; the only means of relief that can be made ufe of,
is the covering of the foot with fuch a fhoe as is calculated
to prevent concuflion, which may be accomplifhed by the
application of a bar-fhoe that will reft on every part of the
cru(ft, and not upon the frog-part of the foot. This is fup-
pofed to be the beft form of fhoe that can be ufed for the
purpofe.
In thefe cafes, when the animals are at reft, the feet
fhould be flopped with an ointment, compofed of one ounce
and a half each of common turpentine and tar, and two
ounces and a half of mallow ointment, well mixed to-
gether.
In the cafes of cracks or feparations of the fibres of the
hoofs in a perpendicular manner, which when they extend
to the coronet are often very troublefome ; the animals moft
liable to them, are thofe which have either ftrong brittle
hoofs or narrow heels. Blood animals of the horfe kind are
more fubjeét to them than others.
In the management and cure of them, the parts around
the cracks fhould be made thin by the rafp, when the firing
iron fhould be drawn over above and below them, to the ex-
tent of the fiffures, in order to prevent their extenfion. It
fhould
WIR
fhould likewife be carried over the cracks, by which means
a flight quantity of tenacious moifture will exude, and glue
up the feparated parts; which may be covered over with
an ointment compofed of four ounces of marfh-mallow
ointment, and two ounces of common turpentine, fpread
upon tow, and kept on the parts by bandages.
The animals fhould have bar-fhoes, which may reft firmly
on the frogs, and be made hollow in the parts oppofite to
the feats of the complaints, in order that no preffure may be
given to thofe parts of the feet; reft being given for fome
days, and then only moderate exercife allowed, until the
cracks have defcended towards the lower parts of the feet.
The coronets and hoofs may be bathed twice a day, as in
the above cafes of contracted heels, in order that the growth
of horn may be promoted. By the ufe of thefe means, the
animals moitly foon get better.
Wires of Afferie, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by
authors to a fort of extraneous foflil belonging to the
afterie, and being a fort of branches from the body of
that column.
Wire of Lapland. The favage inhabitants of Lapland
have a fort of fhining flender fubftance in ufe among
them on feveral occafions, which is much of the thicknefs
and appearance of our filver wire; and is therefore
called, by thofe who do not examine its ftruéture or fub-
ftance, Lapland wire.
The people of this miferable country find many ufes in
every thing nature has afforded them, and, among the
reft, that fpecies of ftag called the rein-deer, which is
the moft frequent animal among them, is not only fer-
viceable in furnifhing them with meat, clothes, houfes,
and the means of carriage and travelling ; but its bones
make many of their moft neceffary utenfils; and the
finews, which are all carefully feparated in the eating,
are, by the women, after foaking in water, and beating,
fpun into a fort of thread, which is of admirable fine-
nefs and ftrength, when wrought to the fmalleft fila-
ments; but when larger, is very ftrong, and fit for the
purpofes of ftrength and force. Their wire, as it is called,
is made of the fineft of thefe threads, covered with tin.
The women do this bufinefs, and the way they take is to
melt a piece of tin, and placing at the edge of it a horn
with a hole through it, they draw thefe finewy threads,
covered with the tin, through the hole, which prevents
their coming out too thickly covered. This drawing is
performed with their teeth, and there is a {mall piece of
bone placed at the top of the hole, where the wire is made
flat, fo that we always find it rounded on all fides but one,
where it is flat.
This wire they ufe in embroidering their clothes as we
do with gold and filver ; and they often fell it to ftrangers,
under the notion of its having certain magical virtues.
Scheffer, Hift. Lapland.
Wire-Worm, in Agriculture, a moft mifchievous worm in
different forts of grain-crops. It has been defcribed by
Bierkander, in the Swedifh TranfaGtions, as having in the
grub-ftate a yellow colour, with the head brown, and the
extremities of the jaws black; the body conftituted of
twelve joints, fhining, and hard-fkinned ; when it changes
its fkin it is for fome time white; a few hairs are fcattered
here and there, but moltly upon the head and laft joint ;
under the three firft joints are fix horny and pointed feet,
and at the beginning of the laft joint, which is round,
there are two black fpots, one on each fide, which
are, probably, apertures through which it breathes.
It is confidered by fome, notwithftanding the almoft
general opinion of farmers to the contrary, that the difeafe
,
Wik
of wheat-crops, which is attributed to this infeét or worm,
depends upon fome other caufe, as a fault in ploughing, by
which the land is left in too light, open, and porous a ftate
or condition, and which prevents the young plants from
being fully and properly nourifhed, and confequently from
forming their roots in a proper manner in the ground.
And this notion is in fome meafure fupported by the cfr-
cumttance of the benefit which is afforded by rolling, tread-
ing, and otherwife compreffing the land.
It has been proved and fhewn by many different trials,
that this worm is one which is extremely tenacious of life,
and confequently not eafily deftroyed or got quit of by
any means which have yet been made ufe of for the
purpofe. c
Wire, in Geography, one of the f{maller Orkney iflands,
feparated from Roufa by a {trait called Wire Sound, about
three-quarters of a mile in breadth. N. lat. 58° 58’. W.
long. 2° 51/.
Wire. See Wyre.
WIREDY, a town of Sweden, in the province of Sma-
land ; 16 miles N.E. of Jonkioping.
WIRESTA, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 26 miles S.W. of Wexio.
WIRI, two {mall iflands in the gulf of Finland.
$02 50%. a) Elon. 27°.
WIRING, among Animals, the operation of putting a
fharp-poiuted wire up the noftrils of a fheep, fo as to pafs
up into the brain, and produce a difcharge in cafes of the
fturdy, turn, gid, or vertigo. It feems, however, a danger-
ous remedy, though it is faid to have been fuccefsful in
curing the difeafe in many cafes.
Wirina Fruit-Trees, in Gardening, the operation and
practice of paffing a fine wire round their branches, in order
to bring on the fruiting ftate.
WIRKOWENES, in Geography, a town of Poland,
in the palatinate of Kiev; 44 miles W.N.W. of Biala-
cerkiew.
WIRKSWORTH, an ancient market-town in the
wapentake of the fame name, in the county of Derby, Eng-
land, is fituated near the fouthern extremity of the mete
diftri@, in a valley nearly furrounded by hills, at the dif-
tance of 14 miles N.N.W. from the county-town, and 140
miles N.W. by N. from London. In the year 835, the
manor belonged to the abbey of Repton; after the deftruc-
tion of that monaftery by the Danes, it became vefted in
the crown, to which it appertained at the time of taking
the Domefday-furvey. King John granted it to William
de Ferrars, earl of Derby. Having been forfeited by the
attainder of earl Robert in 1265, it was granted, together
with the wapentake, by Edward I. to his brother, Edmund,
earl of Lancafter ; and has ever fince formed part of the
earldom or duchy of Lancafter. It is now held under the
duchy by Richard Arkwright, efq. A market on Wed-
nefdays, and a fair of three days, were granted for this
town to Thomas, earl of Lancafter, in 1305. The market
is now held on Tuefday, chiefly for butcher’s-meat, butter,
eggs, and pedlar’s-ware: the corn-market is {mall. Four
annual fairs are now held. The town-hall, a handfome
brick ftru€ture, was built in 1773, by the direGtion of
Thomas, lord Hyde, the chancellor of the duchy. In this
hall are held courts-baron for the manor, courts-leet for the
wapentake, and barmote-courts for regulating the mines
and mineral concerns. The church, a f{pacious edifice, ap-
parently of the fourteenth century, confilts of a nave and
fide-aifles, a north and fouth tranfept, a chancel, and a
f{quare tower, fupported by four large pillars. In the
church-yard is a grammar-{fchool, founded in 1 ra by
nthony
N. lat.
Wis
Anthony Gell, efq. who endowed it with lands which now
roduce 170/. per annum. He alfo founded an alms-houfe
Bor fix poor men, to which he gave a rent-charge of 20/. ;
this has been augmented by fubfequent benefactions. In
the town was formerly a meeting-houfe for Prefbyterians,
but it is now occupied by a congregation of Independents.
Here are alfo chapels for Baptifts and Wefleyan Metho-
difts. In the population return of the year 1811, the inha-
bitants of this town are enumerated at 3474, occupying 777
houfes. The parifh of Wirkfworth is extenfive, and in-
cludes, befides the town, fourteen townfhips or villages,
fome of which are very populous.—Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. iii. Derbyfhire. By J. Britton and E. W.
Brayley, 1803. Lyfons’. Magna Britannia, vol. v. Der-
bythire, 1817.
WIRNAU, a town of the county of Henneberg ;
5 miles S.E. of Smalkalden. .
WIRRAL, or Wrrenatt, a ftrip of land in the
county of Chefter, extending from the city of Chefter
to the fea, between the rivers Dee and Merfey.
WIRREY, or St. AnpreEw, one of the Shaint iflands.
N. lat. 57° 53'. W. long. 6° 19!.
WIRSRUM, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland; 46 miles N.N.W. of Calmar.
WIRSTBERGHOTZEN, a town of Weftphalia,
in the bifhopric of Hildefheim; 8 miles S. of Hilde-
fheim. ,
WIRSUNG, Joun Georce, in Biography, was a native
of Bavaria, ftudied medicine at Padua, and was a difciple of
Vefling. In 1642 he publifhed the difcovery of the
pancreatic duét, with which his name is conneéted ; and in
the following year he was affaflinated by a Dalmatian,
under -the influence of a paffion excited by having been
filenced by him in a public difputation. Haller. Eloy.
WISANGI, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
Weft Bothnia, on the Tornea; 95 miles N.N.W. of
Tornea.
WISBADEN, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Naffau Saarbruck Ufingen. This town was know?
to the Romans, and the Heidenifche Maur, or Heathen
Wall, which runs through the prefent town of Wifbaden,
appears to be a work of that nation; anda part of the
boundaries of this town are derived from the lined trenches
thrown up by Drufus, oppofite to Mentz, for the covering
of the Rhine. In the days of the kings of the Franks, in
this town was a royal court. At Wifbaden are fome medi-
cinal {prings, formerly in great repute; 5 miles N.W. of
Mentz. N. lat. 50° 3'. E. long. 8° 9.
WISBECH, a large market-town in the county of
Cambridge, England, gives name to a hundred and a
deanery, and is fituated in the extreme northern part of the
county, about 30 miles N. from Ely, 42 from Cambridge,
and go from London, in the fame direétion. Wifbech is a
great mart for corn, about 100,000 quarters being annually
exported from thence by the river Oufe, and the canals
communicating with Cambridge, Lynn, and other towns.
Other articles of export are rape-feed and long wool, of
which great quantities are fent to the Yorkfhire clothiers.
Timber, from Northamptonfhire, is alfo embarked for the
fervice of the navy. The principal imports are, coals, deals,
and wine. Theriver is navigable up to Wifbech, at {pring-
tides, flowing fix or eight feet, for veflels of 60 tons, which
are conftantly employed in the corn trade, to London,
Hull, and other ports. Prior to the Norman Conquett,
Wifbech belonged to the convent of Ely. In 1071 Wil-
liam of Normandy ereéted a caflle of ftone at the town ;
but this bein
Wis
difmantled, a new caftle of brick was built
on the fcite, between 1478 and 1483, by Morton, bifhop
of Ely, and which became the epifcopal refidence. i
purchafed by fecretary Thurloe during the interregnum, it
was rebuilt after defigns by Inigo Jones. Reverting at the
Reftoration to the fee of Ely, it was fold fome years ago,
and on the ground of the detached buildings fome good
houfes have been ereéted. The church isa {pacious, hand-
fome fabric, although of a fingular conftruétion, having two
naves and two aifles. The naves are lofty, and feparated
by light flender pillars, with pointed arches; the aifles,
which are the moft ancient, are divided from their refpective
naves by low mafly pillars and femicircular arches. The
tower of the church is beautiful, and notwithftanding the
antiquity attributed to it, is proved by records to have
been ereéted pofterior to 1520. Wifbech, with the ad-
jacent country, has frequently fuffered by inundations, par-
ticularly in 1236, when great numbers of {mall craft,
cattle, and men, were deftroyed. In 1437, by a breach in
the bank of Wifbech fen, upwards of 4000 acres of land
were overflowed. But the greateft devaftations of this kind
occurred in Nov. 1613, by the fpring-tide concurring with
a violent N.E. wind ; and in March 1614, by the melting
of the fnow in the country. In 1611 the inhabitants ob-
tained a renewal of their charter, which conftituted them
a body corporate, by the ftyle of the burgeffes of Wifbech ;
but the right of the election of the ten capital burgeffes was
limited to the poffeflors of freeholds of the value otheee
annum. ‘The executive officer, the town-bailiff, although a
perfon wholly unknown to the charter, has the entire ma-
nagement of the eftates and affairs of the corporation.
The annual income under the management of thefe capital
burgeffes, allotted to public and charitable purpofes,
amounts to about 80c/. A principal objeé of this charge
is the maintaining of beacons and buoys, and the clearing of
the channel of the river Oufe or Wis, from which the town
takes its name; precautions highly neceflary, on account of
the fhifting fands between the town and the fea. Among
the improvements made in Wifbech of late years, muft be
mentioned the ftone bridge of one elliptic arch, and the new
cuftom-houfe. The ftreets are paved, lighted, and watched,
at the expence of the corporation. The trade of Wifbech
has much increafed of late years, through the improved ftate
of the drainage and navigation of the fens. The neighbour-
ing lands are in high cultivation, and are chiefly appropriated
to grazing. The fheep and oxen grow toa great fize; and
confiderable numbers are fent off twice every week to
London. The inhabitants are almoft wholly employed in
commerce, the town poffefling no kind of manufacture, al-
though the furrounding country produces vaft quantities of
wool, hemp, and flax. ‘The canal, opened not many years
ago, extending from Wifbech river to the river Nene at
Outwell, and thence to the Oufe, affords a communication
with Norfolk, Suffolk, and the weftern counties, and which
proves very beneficial to the town. In 1781 a literary
fociety was eftablifhed in Wifbech, and the education of
youth is provided for by a free-fchool, and by two charity-
{chools, fupported by fub{fcription. ‘The diffenters from
the eftablifhed church are not numerous, but have their re-
fpective places of worfhip. The parith, containing 6308
acres, is in the greateft part a very rich arable and pafture
land. In 1676 the inhabitants of Wifbech were computed
to be 1705; in 1801 they amounted to 5004; and in 1811
to 6300: the inhabited houfes were 1237-—Beauties of
England; Cambridgefhire. By J. Britton and E. W.
Brayley, 8vo. 1802. Magna Britannia, by the Rev. D,
Lyfons and S. Lyfons, gto, 1808.
WISBERG,
Wis
WISBERG, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Culmbach ; 8 miles E. of Culmbach.
WISBY, atown of Sweden, on the weft coaft of the
ifland of Gothland. This is a very ancient ftaple, and in
former times one of the Hanfe towns. When Wineta, a
place of great trade in the ifland of Ufedom, near the coaft
of Pomerania, was deftroyed by an inundation, feveral of
its wealthieft inhabitants removed to Wifby. It was likewife
frequented by Swedes, Goths, Danes, Normans, French,
Englifh, Saxons, Livonians, Spaniards, Ruffians, Greeks,
and other nations. The maritime laws of Wilby were
famous in all parts, and adopted along the coaft of the Baltic.
(See Insurance.) ‘The wall of Wifby, and the towers
with which it is flanked, were built in the year 1289. This
town continued in a flourifhing condition till the year 1361,
when the Danes almoit totally deftroyed it. The harbour is
fafe and commodious, but not very large. N. lat. 57° 38/.
E. long. 18° 18/.
WISCASSET, a fea-port town of America, in the
province of Maine, in the county of Lincoln, on the Sheep
cut, with 2083 inhabitants ; 30 miles N.E. of Brunfwick.
WISCHAD, or Wiskau, a town of Moravia, in the
circle of Brunn; 15 miles E. of Brunn. N. lat. 49° 17’.
E. long. 16° 54/.
WISCHBACH, or Fiscupacn, a town of the duchy
of Stiria; 5 miles S. of Muertzenfchlag.
WISCHGROD, a town of the duchy of Warfaw, on
the Viftula; 27 miles S.E. of Poloczk.
WISCHITEN, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate
of Troki; 70 miles W. of Troki.
WISCHKOWA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Saatz; 5 miles N.N.E. of Saatz.
WISCHNOWA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Beraun ; 3 miles E. of Przibram.
WISDIM, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Boleflaw ;
14 miles W.N.W. of Jung Buntzel.
WISDOM, Saprence, ufually denotes a higher and
more refined knowledge of things; immediately prefented to
the mind, as it were by intuition, without the afliftance of
ratiocination.
In this fenfe, wifdom may be faid to be a faculty of the
mind, or at leaft a modification and habit of it.
Sometimes the word is more immediately ufed in a moral
fenfe, for what we call prudence or difcretion ; which confifts
in the foundnefs of the judgment, and a conduét anfwerable
to it.
The {chool-divines fometimes reftrain wifdom to the know-
ledge of the more fublime and remote objeéts, as that of
God, &c. In which fenfe, theology is properly faid to be
wifdom.
The Latin word for wifdom is Japientia, which literally
expreffes the fenfe of tafting ; to which wifdom is fuppofed
to have fome conformity. The fight, and other fenfes, only
reprefent to us the furface of things: tafte goes deeper, and
penetrates into the fubftances ; fo that what, e. gr. to the
feeling feemed cold, to the tafte will be found hot : fo wif-
dom, arifing from a deep attention to our ideas, goes farther,
and frequently judges otherwife than the common apprehen-
fions of men would reach to.
WISE, Micwakgt, in Biography, an admirable compofer
forthe churcli, foftered in the Chapel Royal after the Ref-
toration, under captain Henry Cook, at the fame time as
Humphrey and Blow, three muficians, who not only far
furpaffed their mafter in genius and abilities, but all our
church compofers of the 17th century, except Purcell.
However, they prepared the way for his bold and original
Wis
genius to expand; as feveral new melodies, modulations,
and happy licences, which we ufed to think entirely of his
invention, upon an attentive examination of their works, ap-
pear to have been firft fuggefted by thefe three fellow-
ftudents. Yet, what they had flightly and timidly touched,
Purcell treated with the force and courage of a Michael
Angelo, whofe abilities rendered the difficult eafy, and gave
to what, in lefs powerful hands, would have been diftortiony
facility, and grace.
Dr. Boyce has printed fix verfe and full anthems, by Wife,
which are admirable ; and in Dr. Tudway’s collection, Brit.
Muf., there are feven more, and a whole fervice in D
minor.
He was author of the celebrated two-part fong, ‘Old
Chiron thus preached to his pupil Achilles,’ which is {till
too well known to need an encomium here.
Michael Wife was killed in a ftreet-fray at Salifbury, by
the watchman, in 1687.
The firft movement of his verfe-anthem for two voices,
“ The ways of Zion do mourn,” is more beautiful and ex-
preffive than any grave and pathetic compofition for the
church of other countries, of the fame kind and period of
time, that we have hitherto difcovered.
The ufe which the author has made of chromatic intervals
at the word mourn, is not only happy and matterly, but new,
even now, at more than a hundred and twenty years diftance
from the time when the anthem was produced! The whole
compolition feems to us admirable ; and befides the intelli-
gence and merit of the defign, the melody is truly plaintive,
and capable of the moft touching and elegant expreffion of the
greateit fingers of modern times ; the harmony too and mo-
dulation are fuch as corref{pond with the fenfe of the words,
and enforce their expreffion.
There is an elegance of phrafe in a paflage of the fecond
movement of the preceding anthem, at the word doqwn,
which has been lately revived, and in great favour, with a
very minute difference, among the firft fingers of Italy.
The difference confifts only in pointing the firft note if a
crotchet or quaver, and making the fecond and third notes
femiquayers or demifemiquavers.
Wile was a native of Salifbury, in which cathedral he was
appointed organift and matter of the chorifters, in 1668 ;
and in 1675, a gentleman of the chapel royal. In 1686, he
was preferred to the place of almoner and mafter of the
boys at St. Paul’s. Heis faid to have been in great favour
with Charles II., and being appointed to attend him in
a progrefs, claimed, as king’s organift for the time, the
privilege of playing to his majefty on the organ,’ at what-
ever church he went.
Wise Men of Greece, Seven, in the Hiftory of Philofophy,
an appellation given to feveral eminent men, on whom was
beftowed the praife of civil and moral wifdom. The hiftory
of thefe perfons, originally without doubt plain and fimple,
has been rendered obfcure and uncertain by traditionary re-
ports. ‘The incident to which this appellation was at firft
owing was as follows : }
In the third year of the 49th Olympiad, it happened that
certain youths of Jonia, purchafing from a fifherman of Mi-
letus a large draught of fifth, which he had brought to
fhore, found in the net a golden tripod of great value.
Upon this a difpute arofe between the fitherman and the pur-
chafers: the former maintaining that he had only fold them
the capture of fith ; the latter aflerting that they had bought
the chance of the draught, whatever it might be. The
queftion was referred to the citizens of Miletus, who were
of opinion, that in an affair fo extraordinary, the Rane
oracle
WIS WIS
oracle fhould be confulted. The anfwer of the oracle was mufician, and a man of probity and good conduét, he was
«To the Wifeft.’ In obedience to this anfwer, the Mile- not only refpeéted by hiscountrymen, but by the natives of
fians unanimoufly adjudged the tripod to Thales. Thales that city, which, though no longer the cxpital-of the world,
modeftly declined the honour intended him by his fellow- is {till the capital of Italy and the fine arts.
citizens, and fent the tripod to Bias, a wife man of Priene ; Mr. Wifeman had refided fo long in Italy, that he had
from him it was paffed on through feveral hands, till it came almoft forgotten his native tongue. In 1770 he lived in the
to Solon, the Athenian legiflator, who judging that the Palazzo Rafaele, without the gates of Rome, where, during
charaGter of ‘ the wifeit’ could not properly belong to any the firft winter months, he had a weekly concert till the
human being, fent the prize of wifdom to Delphos to be operas began. It was here that the great Raphael lived and
dedicated to Apollo. The ftory, as above related, has in it died, where there were {till fome of his paintings in frefco,
fomething fabulous ; and the circumftances that attend it are and where the late duke of York, the prince of Brunfwick,
differently related by different writers. It is more probable, and feveral other great perfonages, gave concerts to the firit
fays Brucker, that in fome public aflembly a tripod was pro- people of Rome.
pofed as an honorary prize to the man who fhould recite, in © WISEN, in Geography, a river of Baden, which runs into
verfe, the moft excellent maxims of political and moral wif- the Rhine, near Bale.
dom, and that the fages who engaged in this generous con- WISENT, a river of Bavaria, which runs into the Red-
teft afterwards agreed to dedicate the prize to Apollo. In nitz, near Forcheim, in the bifhopric of Bamberg.
confirmation of this conjeCture it is alleged, from a paflage | WISEPPE, a town of France, in the department of the
in Plato’s Protagoras, that the wife men of this period met Meufe ; 3 miles S. of Stenay. ;
together to frame concife precepts and maxims for the con- WISFTARDA, a town of Sweden, in the province
du& of life, and agreed to fend fuch fentences as were of Smaland ; 22 miles N. of Carlfcrona.
thought moft valuable to Delphos, to be infcribed inthe | WISHART’s Istanp, an ifland in the Pacific ocean.
temple. Hence Apollo is faid by the ancients to have been This is one of the Solomon iflands, and by the Spaniards
the author of the precept ‘ Know thyfelf..—‘ E celo called Artreguada. S. lat. 2°20'. E. long. 150° 55/.
defcendit, Tyas cexvv.? The names commonly included WISIR, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the
under the appellation of the Seven Wife Men of Greece welt coaft of Aroo. S. lat. 15° 21’. E. long. 134° 51’.
are, Thales, Solon, Chilo, Pittacus, Bias, Cleobulus, and WISK, or Winrsk, a river of England, in the county of
Periander. Brucker’s Philof. by Enfield, vol.i. York, which runs into the Swale.
WISECK, in Geography, a river of Heffe, which runs WISKA, a river of Sweden, which runs into the fea,
into the Lahn, near Gieifen. 3 miles S. of Waro, in Weft Gothland,
WISELL, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 4 miles WISKI, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Beraua ;
N.E. of Rein. 4 miles N. of Przibram.
WISEMAN, Ricuarp, in Biography, was firft known WISLAUFF, a river of Wurtemberg, which runs into
as a furgeon in the civil wars of Charles I., and accompa- the Rems, N.E. of Schorndorff.
nied prince Charles, when a fugitive, in France, Holland, WISLITZA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
and Flanders. He ferved for three years in the Spanifh Sandomirz; 48 miles W.S.W. of Sandomirz.
navy, and returned with the prince to Scotland, and was made | WISLOCH, a town of the duchy of Baden, in the pa-
prifoner in the battle of Worcefter. After his liberation, latinate of the Rhine; 14 miles E. of Spire. N. lat. 49° 18'.
in 1652, he fettled in London. When Charles II. was re- E. long. 8° 45’.
ftored, he became eminent in his profeffion, and was made WISMAR, a town of the duchy of Mecklenburg, fitu-
one of the ferjeant-furgeons to the king. In May 1676 he ated ina bay of the Baltic, with a good’ harbour; large,
appears, from the preface to his works, to have been a fuf- well fortified, and defended by a citadel. This is one of
ferer by ill health for twenty years; but the time of his the beft and largeft places in the country ; as, befides fix
death is not known. The refult of his experience appears churches, it has alfo a particular contiftory of its own, with
in * Several Chirurgical Treatifes,’’ fol. 1676, 1686, and a grammar-fchool, under the direction of eight matters, and
in 2 vols. 8vo. 1719. The fubjeéts of thefe treatifes are, is the feat of a Swedith court of juftice, erected in the year
tumours, ulcers, difeafes of the anus, king’s-evil, wounds, 1653, both for the diftri€& and Swedifh Anterior Pomera-
gunfhot-wounds, fractures and luxations, and lues venerea. ‘nia. The court confiits of a prefident, a vice-prefident, and
The courfe of his pra¢tice comprehended more than 600 four affeffors. It was formerly a Hanfe town, and poffeffed
cafes, of which he gives apparently an honeft account, re- of the privilege of coining: the firft origin is not known
cording his failures as well as his cures, and the detail merits with any degree of certainty. In the year 1238, it was en-
attention. In his relation of the miraculous effets of larged; and in the year 1266, obtained the Lubeck rights.
the royal touch in ferofula, it is not eafy to reconcile his In the year 1261, it was annexed to the duchy of Schwerin ;
honefty with his fagacity, though from his own narration, inthe year 1627, the Imperialiits got poffeffion of it; but in
duly confidered, thefallacy is eafily dete@ted. His writings the year 1632 were driven out by the Swedes, to whom it
have long been regarded as ftandard authority ‘in the exa- was ceded, at the peace of Weftphalia, in 1648; 33 miles
minations at Surgeon’s-Hall. Gen. Biog. E. of Lubeck. N. lat. 53° 55’. E. long. 11° 26’.
Wiseman, Mr., a worthy Englifh mufician, who went © WISMATH, a town of Auttria; 14 miles S. of Eben-
early in life to Italy, in order to receive leffons on the furth.
violin from Tartini, in Padua, who recommended him, WISNA, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 70 miles
in 1736, to one of his favourite fcholars, Pafqualino Bini, N.E. of Warfaw.
at Rome, where, after fome time, finding himfelf likely WISNUM, a town of Sweden, in the province of Warme-
to thrive as a profeffor, by the patronage of the Englifh land; 25 miles E.N.E. of Carlftadt.
nobility and gentry with which that city always abounds | WISOKIA, a townof Lithuania; 20 miles N.N.W, of
in their travels, fettled there for the reft of his life; and Brzefc.
though not a performer of the firft clafs, being a good WISP, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying a {mall =~
°
WIS
of ftraw which is ufed in rubbing horfes down. Wifp is
alfo a term fometimes applied to a rowel or feton put in
animals.
WISPEL, in Commerce, acorn meafure in Germany. A
laft of wheat contains 3 wifpels ; and a laft of oats only 2
wifpels. See ScHEFFEL-. :
WISSANT, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the ftraits of Calais ; 12 miles N. of Boulogne.
WISSING, Witt1am, in Biography, was born at Am-
fterdam in 1656. He received inftruGtions in the art of
painting from Dondyns, an hiftorical painter at the Hague,
but on leaving that mafter went to Paris, and in the year
1680, came to England, and affifted Lely in his numerous
works. After Lely’s death, he became rathera favourite, and
promifed to become a formidable rival to Kneller. He drew
all the royal family, and was particularly favoured by the
duke of Monmouth, whofe portrait he painted feveral times.
The duke of Somerfet alfo patronized him, and employed
him to paint himfelf and his duchefs, and the pictures are
now at Petworth.
Wifling was appointed principal painter to James II., and
was fent by him into Holland, to paint portraits of William
and Mary. He did not long furvive his return to England,
and died at Burleigh, the feat of the earl of Exeter, in 1687,
at the age of 31. His heads were painted with foftnefs and
delicacy, in a ftyle quite diftin& from that of his matter,
Lely, or his rival, Kneller ; too foft, indeed, for chara&er ;
and. his larger pictures lack compofition and harmony, both
in line and colour.
WISSOKY-MEYTO, in Geography.
MAUT.
WISSOWATIUS, Annrew, in Biography, a Socinian
divine, was born of a noble family in Lithuania, in 1608,
educated in the New Unitarian college at Racow under Crel-
lius, and for fome time purfued his ttudies at Leyden, ftriétly
adhering to the principles of his tutor. Finding, on his
return to Poland, that his brethren fuffered perfecution from
the diet of Warfaw, he exerted himfelf courageoufly in their
defence, and encountered many perfonal difficulties and fuf-
ferings in the exercife of his miniftry in various parts of
Poland. He was not filenced by the decree iffued againtt
Unitarians in 1658, but leading an unfettled life, he was
induftrious in feizing every opportunity that occurred for
making profelytes. In 1660, he was the only perfon of his
party who was prefent at the ‘ Colloquium Charita-
tivum,” where he firmly maintained his opinions againft the
jefuit Chichovius and others. He is faid to have refifted
large bribes, as well as to have encountered fevere trials, in
maintaining his fentiments. Removing to Hungary, he
{pent two years in learning the language fo as to be able to
inftru& and fortify his brethren in that kingdom. Latft of
all he retreated to Holland, where he was employed in fuper-
intending an edition of the ‘¢ Bibliotheca Fratrum Polo-
norum,” in g vols. fol., and where he died in 1678. His
integrity and conftancy are highly applauded by the hifto-
rians of his fe€t ; his writings were numerous, and one of
them, publifhed after his death, was entitled “ Religio
rationalis, feu de Rationis judicio in controverfiis, etiam
theologicis ac religiofis adhibendo, tra@tatus.”’? Gen. Biog.
WISSOWITZ, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in the
circle of Hradifch; 20 miles E.N.E. of Hradifch.
WIST, Wisra, a quantity or meafure of land among
our Saxon anceftors; of different dimenfions, in different
places. In the Monafticon, it is faid to be half a hide, or
fixty acves: in an old chronicle of the monaftery of Battle,
it is faid to be forty-eight acres. ;
Wisr, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Eaft Gothland ; 6 miles S.S.E. of Linkioping.
Vout. XXXVILI,
See HonHeEn-
WitT
WISTE, atown of the duchy of Bremen ; 1o miles S.W.
of Bremen.
Wisrtr, a river of the duchy of Bremen, which runs into
the Wumme, 1 mile E. of Otterfberg.
WISTERNITZ, atown of Moravia, in the circle of
Olmutz ; 4 miles E. of Olmutz.
Wisrernitz, Unter, atown of Moravia, in the circle of
Brunn ; 22 miles S. of Brunn.
WISTON, or WizrTon, atown in the hundred of Dan-
Gladdan, county of Pembroke, South Wales, at the dif-
tance of 5 miles N.E. by E. from Haverford Wett. It is
a contributory borough with Pembroke and Tenby in
fending one member to parliament, and is governed by a
mayor. The parifh contains about 6000 acres: and in the
return of the year 1811, the population was enumerated as
607 perfons, occupying 103 houfes. An annual fair is held
on the 8th of November. In ancient times here was a
caftle of great extent; but it is now in ruins.—Carlifle’s
Topographical Di@tionary of Wales, 4to. 1811.
WISTRIZ, or Wessmriz, a river of Bohemia, which
runs into the Egra, 3 miles E. of Schlakenwerth.
WISTYCZA, a town of Lithuania; 5 miles N. of
Brzefc.
WISZOGZOD, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 52
miles N.W. of Warfaw.
WIT, Dz, in Biography. There were feveral painters of
this name very refpeCtable in their profeffion. Peter Candido
de Wit, born at Bruges in 1548, went to Italy, and became
a friend and co-labourer with G. Wafari. He was afterwards
employed by the grand duke of Tufcany at Florence, and
painted in oil and frefco. T'he emperor Maximilian invited
him to Munich, and there he terminated his career. Gafper
de Wit, his brother, painted fmall landfcapes very highly
finifhed, in which he introduced Italian archite€tural ruins.
Of later date was Emanuel de Wit, born at Alkmaer in
1607, and a painter of ftill life. He afterwards became a
painter of archite€ture and perfpeGtive views of churches,
&c. which were touched with great clearnefs, animation, and
fpirit. He died in 1692. Another of the name, Jacob de
Wit, is the flower of the flock. He was born at Amfter-
dam in 1695, and having exhibited a defire for the purfuit
of art, was placed with Van Spiers, an hiftorical painter, for
three years. He afterwards went to Antwerp to contem«
plate the admirable produétions of Rubens and Vandyke,
which adorned that city ; and there he became the pupil of
Jacob van Halen, continuing with him two years.
To him we are indebted for the prefervation of the com-
pofition made by Rubens for four cielings, divided into
thirty-fix compartments, in the church of the Jefuits, which
was deftroyed by lightning in 1718. They have been fince
engraved from de Wit’s fketches by John Prout.
He was principally employed in adorning cielings and the
walls of apartments; and generally chofe allegorical and
emblematical fubje&ts, which he compofed with confiderable
ingenuity, and coloured in a clear and pleafing manner. He
was employed by the magiftrates of Amfterdam, in 1736, to
adorn their great council-chamber ; and his work has had
the honour of being applauded by fir J. Reynolds. His
fketches for his larger works are touched with great freedom
and neatnefs, and with good colour. He was living in 1744.
Wir, a faculty of the mind, confifting, according to
Mr. Locke, in the aflembling and putting together of thofe
ideas with quicknefs and variety, wherein can be found any
refemblance or congruity ; by which to make up pleafant
piatures, and agreeable vifions, in the fancy.
This faculty, the fame great author obferves, is jult the
contrary of judgment, which confifts in the feparating care-
fully from one another, of fuch ideas wherein can be found
4B the
Vi?
ing optic nerve, fupplied in great abundance. by the vici-
nity of the brain, muft make a fund of volatile matter to
be difpenfed, and, as it were, determined by the eye.
Here, then, we have both the dart, and the hand to fling
it. The one furnifhed with all the force and vehemence,
and the other with all the fharpnefs and ativity, one would
ire. No wonder if their effets be great !
ie 3 but conceive the eye as a fling, capable of the {wifteft
and intenfeft motions and vibrations: and again, as communi-
cating with a fource of fuch matter, as the nervous juice ela-
borated in the brain; a matter fo fubtile and penetrating, that
it is fuppofed to fly inftantaneoufly through the folid capil-
laments of the nerves; and fo aétive and forcible, that it
diftends and convulfes the mufcles, and diftorts the limbs,
and alters the whole habitude of the body, giving motion
and ation to a mafs of inert, inactive matter. A projeétile
of fuch a nature, flung by fuch an engine as the eye, mutt
have an effeét wherever it ftrikes: and the effeét will be
limited and modified by the circumftances of the diftance,
the impetus of the eye, the quality, fubtilty, acrimony, &c.
of the juices, and the delicacy, coarfenefs, &c. of the object
it falls on.
This theory, it is fuppofed by many, may account for
fome of the phenomena of witchcraft, particularly of that
branch called fafcination, It is certain the eye has al-
ways been efteemed the chief feat, or rather organ, of
witchcraft; though, by moft, without knowing why, or
wherefore: the effet was apparently owing to the eye;
but how, was not dreamed of. Thus, the phrafe, to have
an evil eye, imports as much as to be awitch. And hence
irgil,
« Nefcio quis teneros oculus mihi fafcinat agnos.””
Again, old bilious perfons are thofe moft frequently
fuppofed to have the faculty ; the nervous juice in them
being depraved and irritated by a vicious habitude of
body, and fo rendered more penetrating and malignant,
And young perfons, chiefly children and girls, are moft
affe@ted by it; becaufe their pores are patent, their juices
incoherent, and their fibres delicate and fufceptible. Ac-
cordingly the witchcraft mentioned by Virgil only reaches
to the tender lambs.
Laftly, the faculty is only exercifed when the perfon is
difpleafed, provoked, irritated, &c. it requiring fome ex-
traordinary ftrefs and emotion of mind to dart a proper
quantity of the effluvia, with a fufficient impetus, to pro-
duce the effe& at a diftance. That the eye has fome very
confiderable powers is patt difpute.
The ancient naturalifts affure us, that the bafilifk and
opoblepa kill other animals merely by ftaring at them. If
this fail of credit, a late author affures us to have feen a
moufe running round a large fnake, which ftood looking
earneftly at it, with its mouth open ; ftill the moufe made
lefs and lefs circles about it; crying all the while, as if
compelled to it; and, at laft, with much feeming reluc-
tance, ran into the gaping mouth, and was immediately
{wallowed.
Who has not obferved a fetting-dog ; and the effects of
its eye on the partridge? The poor bird, when once its eyes
meet thofe of the dog, ftands as if confounded, regardlefs
of itfelf, and eafily lets the net be drawn over it. We re-
member to haye read of {quirrels alfo ftupified and over-
come by a dog’s ftaring hard at them, and thus made to
drop out of the trees into his mouth.
hat man is not fecure from the like affeétions is matter
of eafy obfervation. Few people but have, again and again,
felt the effe@ts of an angry, a fierce, a commanding, a dif-
WiI1T
dainful, a lafcivious, an intreating eye, &c. Thefe effects
of the eye, at leaft, make a kind of witchcraft. But our
readers will excufe our enlarging.
Witchcraft prevailed to bch a degree both in England
and Scotland in the 16th century, that it attraéted the at-
tention of government under the reign of Henry VIIL.,
in whofe 33d year was enacted a ftatute which adjudged
all witchcraft and forcery to be felony without benefit of
clergy ; and at the commencement of the reign of Eliza-
beth, the evil feems to have been very much on the increafe ;
for bifhop Jewel, in a fermon preached before the queen in
1558, tells her ; “* It may pleafe your grace to underftand
that witches and forcerers within thefe four laft years are
marvelloufly increafed within your grace’s realm. Your
prope fubje€&ts pine away even unto the death, their colour
adeth, their flefh rotteth, their fpeech is benumbed, their
fenfes are bereft ; I pray God they never praétife further
than upon the fubje&t.’? Of the prevalence of this delu-
fion in 1584, we have the teftimony of Reginald Scot, in
his. treatife intitled ‘© The Difcoverie of Witchcraft,’’
written in behalf of the poor, the aged, and the fimple, as
the author informs us; and it refleéts fingular difcredit on
the age in which it was produced, that a deteCtion fo com-
plete, lioth with regard to argument and faét, fhould have
failed in effeGting its purpofe. The mifchief, inftead of
being reftrained, was rapidly accelerated by the publication
of the “* Demonologie’”’ of king James, at Edinburgh, in
the year 15973 and the contagion was promoted by the
fucceffion of James to the throne of Elizabeth. In the
year 1603; the royal treatife was printed at London, with
an alarming preface concerning the increafe of witches or
enchanters, ‘* thefe deteitable flaves of the devil ;?” and it
was accompanied by a new ftatute again{t witches, which
defcribes the crime in a variety of particulars, and enaéts,
that offenders, duly and lawfully conviéted and attainted,
fhall fuffer death. Reginald Scot, in the treatife above-
mentioned, has pourtrayed at large the character of thofe
who were branded with the acellntion of witches, ftating
the deeds that were imputed to them, and the nature of
their fuppofed compaét with the devil. The abode of a
witch is admirably defcribed by Spenfer, the defcription
being formed from an exifting fubje& :
“¢ There in a gloomy hollow glen fhe found
A little cottage built of ftickes and reedes
In homely wife, and wald with fods around ;
In which a witch did dwell, in loathly weedes
And wilful want, all carelefs of her needes:
So choofing folitarie to abide
Far from all neighbours, that her devilifh deeds
And hellith arts from people fhe might hide,
And hurt far off unknowne whom ever fhe envide.’?
Faerie Queene.
Scot has, with fingular induftry, colle&ted from every
writer on the fubje& he minutiz of witchcraft, and he has
annexed comments for the purpofe of refuting and expofing
them; whereas James, the royal pedant, wrote in defence of
this folly, and, unfortunately for truth and humanity, the
doétrine of the monarch was preferred to that of the fage.
_ The old laws made in England and Scotland againft con-
juration and witchcraft are repealed by a late ftatute, and no
perfon is to be profecuted for any fuch crime. 9 Geo. IT.
c. 5+ See ConsuRATION.
WITCHES-Borter, a name given by the common
eople of England to a fort of tremella growing on the
bark of old trees, in form of a corrugated membrane.
WITELSHOFEN, in Geography, 2 town of Ger-
m2ny,
wiwt
niany, in the margravate of Anfpach; 7 miles S.E. of
Creilfheim.
WITGENAU, or WirtcHenau, a town of Lufatia,
on the Elfter ; 13 miles N.N.W. of Budiffen, N. lat. 51°
20!. E. long. 14° 16!.
Witcenau, or Wittengau, or Trfebon, a town of Bo-
hemia, in the circle of Bechin, on the river Laufnicz ;
22 miles S.S.E. of Bechin, N. lat. 49°4!. E. long.
14° 40!.
WITGENSTEIN, a county of Germany, fituated
between the principalities of Heffe Darmftadt, Naflau Dil-
lenburg, and the duchy of Weftphalia ; about 18 miles long,
and 12 broad. Some parts are mountainous and woody,
and contain mines of filver, copper, and iron; the paftures
are good, but the arable land inconfiderable. The principal
rivers are the Lahn and the Eder. Itis united to the county
of Sayn, and that princely houfe is divided into two
branches, Sayn Witgenftein of Witgenftein, and Sayn Wit-
genftein of Berleburg, each of which had a diftiné vote in
the Imperial college, and in the diet of the Upper Rhine.
‘The county takes its name from a feat, the refidence of the
counts, which is fituated on a mountain; 1 mile N, of
Laafphe.
WITGEWALT, a town of Pruffia, in Oberland; 8
miles N.E. of Ofterrode.
WITH-Vineg, or Wine, in Agriculture, a term. pro-
vincially fignifying couch, or couch-grafs. See Binp-
Weed.
WITHAM, in Geography, a market-town and parifh in the
hundred of the fame name, in the county of Effex, England,
fituated on a branch of the river Blackwater, 82 miles N.E.
from Chelmsford, and 372 in the fame dire€tion from Lon-
don. By the parliamentary returns of 1811, the number
of houfes in the parifh was 466, and the inhabitants amounted
to 2352.. Witham hasa weekly market on Tuefday, and
fairs on Friday and Saturday of Whit-week, on the 14th
of September, and 8th of November. The petty feflions
for the Witham divifion of the county are alfo held in the
town. Witham is fuppofed to have been conftituted a town
by Edward the Elder, though perhaps it was only reftored
by him, at leaft the part on Cheping Hill round the
church, which ftands about half a mile N.W. from the
other part of the town. On this eminence are confiderable
remains of a circular camp, inclofed by a double ditch and
rampart. From this work, and the quantity of Roman
bricks worked up in the body and tower of the church,
Witham has been thought to occupy the pofition of the
Canonium of Antoninus. The manor was anciently pof-
feffed by earl Harold, and afterwards by Euttace, earl of
Boulogne, who married the fifter of Edward the Confeflor.
Near the eaft end of the town is a manfion, now poffeffed
by Thomas Kynafton, efq., but formerly belonging to the
late earl of Abercorn. Faulkbourne-hall, between one
and two miles N.W. from Witham church, is the feat of
colonel Bullock, formerly member of parliament for the
county of Effex. Here is a cedar-tree, about nineteen feet
in circumference near the ground. A coin of Domitian
and veftiges of walls indicate the Romans to have had a villa
at this place.—Beauties of England and Wales, Effex.
By J. Britton and E.W. Brayley, 8vo. 1808.
Wirnam, a river of England, in the county of Lincoln,
which rifes in the fouth part of Lincolnfhire, on the borders
of Leicefterfhire, paffes by Grantham to Lincoln, where it
becomes navigable ; from thence it paffes by Tatterfall,
Bofton, &c. and runs into the German fea, 5 miles below
Bofton, in what are called the Wa/fbes.
Wit
WITHE, in Agriculture, a {mall twifted flick of any
kind ufed as a band.
WITHER-Banp, in Rural Economy, the band or piece
of iron which is laid underneath a faddle, about four fingers
above the withers of the horfe, to keep tight the two pieces
of wood that form the bow of the faddle.
Wirtuer-Wrung, in the Manege. A horfe is faid to
be wither-wrung, when he has got a hurt in the withers ;
which fort of hurts it is very hard to cure. See
WITHERS.
WITHERING, Witiam, M.D. F.R.S., in Biogra-
phy, was born in 1741, and finifhed his medical education
in the univerfity of Edinburgh, where he took his degree of
door in 1766. From Stafford, where he firft fettled and
married, he removed to Birmingham, and fpeedily attained by
his {kill and affiduity to very extenfive and profitable pra€tice;
without feeking much fociety or negle€ting his {cientific
purfuits in order to fecure it. The chief objeéts of his at-
tention, independently of his profeffional engagements, were
botany and chemiftry. The refult of his {cientific inquiries
and labours appears in the following lift of his valuable pub-
lications ; viz. ‘*A Botanical Arrangement of Britifh
Plants,”’ in 2 vols. 8vo. 1776, which pafled through two
more editions, in 1787, 3 vols., and in 1796, 4 vols.,
with numerous improvements and additions, fome of which
were fuggefted by his friends, and particularly by Dr.
Stokes. In chemiftry and mineralogy, a tranflation of
Bergman’s “ Sciagraphia Regni Mineralis,”’ 1783, and the
following papers in the Philofophical Tranfadtions ; “‘ Expe-
riments on different Kinds of Marle found in Stafford fhire,’?
17733 an “ Analyfis of the Toad-ftone of Derbythire,”
1782 ; ** Experiments on the Terra Ponderofa,”” 1784 5
and ‘¢ Analyfis of a Hot Mineral Spring in Portugal,” 1798.
In the improvement of his own profeffion, “* Account of the
Scarlet Fever and Sore Throat, particularly as it appeared at
Birmingham in the year 1778 ;? and *¢ An Account of the
Fox-glove and fome of its Medical Ufes ; with Pratical
Remarks on the Dropfy and other Difeafes,’? 1785. Sub-
je@& to pulmonic attacks, which weakened his lungs, he
thought it neceflary, in 1793 and 1794, to pafs the winter in
a warmer climate, and he fixed on Lrfbon. Afterwards he
became incapable of his former profeffional exertions, and died
at the Larches, near Birmingham, in November 1799, at the
age of 58. In his intelle@tual charaGer he joined unremit-
ting application with fagacity and difcernment. In his medi-
cal praétice he’ limited prefcription to that quantity and
kind of medicine which was abfolutely neceffary for his
patients ; and if any in the inferior branches of the profef-
fion difliked this mode of praétice, their difapprobation of it
was a teftimony in its favour. In his difpofition he was mild
and humane ; and his natural referve did not preclude him
from the pleafure of rational fociety. His valuable library
and handfome property were inherited by an only fon.
Gen. Biog.
WirHeERING, in Medicine. See ARIDURA.-
WiruerinG of a Cow, is when, after calving, fhe does
not caft her cleanfing, which, if not timely remedied, will
kill her.
WITHERINGIA, in Botany, was fo named by the
great French botanift, M. L’Herirrer, (fee that article, )
in compliment to the late Dr. William Withering, F.R.S.
F.L.S., the well-known author of a moft ufeful and popular
Englifh work, entitled an “ Arrangement of Britifh Plants,”
which has gone through feveral editions, in fome of the ear-
lier of which Dr. Stokes was his coadjutor. (See SToKxEstA. )
—L’Herit. Sert. Angl. 33. Schreb. Gen. 791. pics
P
Wie
Profefflor Martyn {uppofed the honour had been defigned
for Nicholas Witfen, a writer on fhells, who gave one of the
earlieft accounts of New Holland. (See Phil. Tranf. v.17
and 20.) Thunberg’s miffion to Japan appears to have been
furthered by the influence of the above-named gentleman.
We can only rely on him for the propriety of the appellation
in queftion.— Thunb. Nov. Gen. 33. Murray in Linn. Syit.
Veg. ed. 14. 83. Schreb. Gen. 37. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.
247. Vahl Enum. v.2.47- Mart. Mill. Di&.v. 4. Ker
in Sims and Kon. Ann. of Bot. v. 1. 236. Ait. Hort.
Kew. v.1. 109. Jufl.59. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 30.—Clafs
and order, Triandria Monogynia. Nat.Ord. En/ate, Linn.
Ker. Jrides, Juff.
Gen. Ch. Cal. none, unlefs the upper pair of the bradeas
be fo confidered. Cor. of one petal, tubular, ere&t: tube
cylindrical, flender at the bafe, gradually dilated at the top :
limb fpreading, regular, in fix deep, equal, obovate feg-
ments. Stam. Filaments three, very fhort, inferted into the
mouth of the tube, at the bafe of three alternate fegments
of the limb ; anthers oblong, ere&t. Pi/?. Germen fuperior,
roundifh, fmall: ftyle thread-fhaped, ere&, longer than the
tube of the corolla, flightly curved at the extremity ; ftigma
in three fhort, equal, rather fpreading fegments. Peric. Cap-
fule membranous, of three cells and three valves. Seeds
feveral, angular.
Eff. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla with a cylindrical tube ;
limb in fix deep, equal, obtufe fegments. Stigma flightly
three-cleft. Capfule of three alls) with feveral angular
feeds.
1. W. maura. Downy-flowered Witfenia. Thunb.
Nov. Gen. 34. t.2. fia. Fl. Cap. v. 1. 255. Willd. n. 1.
Vahl n.1. Ait. n.1. Redout. Liliac. t. 245. (Antho-
lyza maura; Linn. Mant. 175.) — Flowers terminal, in
airs. Outer fegments of the corolla exterally downy.—
Native of the fhady fides of hills, at the Cape of Good Hope,
flowering in April and May. Sent to Kew by Mr. Maffon,
in 1790, but it does not appear to have bloffomed in that
colle@tion, nor elfewhere in Europe, M. Redoute’s fine
figure being made from a dried fpecimen, aided by defcrip-
tion. The root is perennial and woody. Stem fhrubby,
ereét, more or lefs branched, two feet high, compreffed ;
naked in the lower part, and appearing as if jointed, from
the fcars left by former foliage; leafy above. Leaver nu-
merous, alternate, feffile, two-ranked, equitant, four or
five inches long, compreffed, ftriated, acute, entire. Flowers
in pairs at the extremities of the fhort terminal branches,
crowded, more or lefs numeroufly, into a corymbofe tuft,
Corolla two inches long: its tube yellow at the bafe, dark
blue for a confiderable extent in the upper part ; limb yel-
low, fcarcely fpreading, full half an inch long, clothed ex-
ternally with denfe fhaggy pubefcence of a very peculiar
kind, confined to the tips of the inner fegments.
2. W. corymbofa. Corymbofe Witfenia. Ker in Curt.
Mag. t.895. Ait. n. 2. Sm. Exot. Bot. v.2. 17. t. 68,
—Corymb many-flowered. Corolla. externally f{mooth.—
Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Raifed from feed by
G. Hibbert, efq. in 1803. A green-houfe plant, flowering
in {pring and autumn. The flem is fhrubby, from four to
fix inches high. Leaves like the laft, but only half the fize,
fomewhat glaucous. Flowers very numerous, bright blue,
in a forked corymbofe, compound panicle, fupported by a
long ftalk, at firft terminal, but foon becoming lateral.
Braéeas two pair at the bafe of each flower, concave, ob-
tufe. Corolla about an inch long, including its horizontal
limb.
3. W. ramofa. Branching Witfenia.
Thunb. Fl. Cap.
wv. 1.256. Vahl n.2.
(W. fruticofa; Ker in Ann. of
Wit
Bot. v. 1. 237. Ixia fruticofa; Thunb. Diff. n.1. t. 9.
f. 3. Lamarck Illuftrat. t.31. f. 4. Linn. Suppl. 93.)
—Stem much branched. Corolla externally fmooth ; its
tube capillary, twice the length of the limb.—Native of hills
at the Cape of Good Hope, flowering in O&tober, No-
vember, and December. The /fem is a {pan high at moft,
remarkably woody, repeatedly branched in a corymbofe
manner ; naked below ; the branches comprefled, two-edged,
knotty or fearred as if jointed, leafy at their extremities.
Leaves equitant, sib fenibas linear, narrow, one and a half
or two inches long, rather glaucous; reddifh at the bafe.
Flowers terminal, very few together, if not quite foli-
tary, blue, remarkable for the p ed and flendernefs of
their tube, which fometimes meafures nearly two inches ;
the limb is rather lefs fpreading, and more bell-fhaped,
than that of corymbofa. Bra&eas membranous, elongated,
brownith.
4. W. pumila. Dwarf Witfenia. Vahl n.3. (Ixia
pumila; Forft. Comm. Gott. v.9. 20. t-2. I. magella-
nica; Lamarck Illuftr. v. 1. 109. Morza magellanica;
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 241, excluding Cavanilles’ Hyevuhias
Tapeinia, Jufl. 59.)—Stems fimple, fingle-flowered.—Ga-
thered by Forfter, Commerfon, and others, at the ftraits of
pts The root is perennial, long, branched, bearin
denfe tufts of numerous, fimple, leafy lems, an inch or inc
and a half high. Leaves crowded, two-ranked, awl-fhaped,
compreffed, ftrongly ribbed, about an inch long. Flowers
whitifh, {mall, folitary, nearly feffile, among the uppermoft
leaves, which form a kind of fheath, but each appears to
have alfo a bivalve /heath, or pair of braGeas, which are
arse Capfule brown, with rather rigid, emarginate
valves.
Mr. Ker obferves, that this is the only genus of its na-
tural order whofe habit is in any degree fhrubby. He
mentions, in the Annals of Botany, another fpecies, by the
name of partita, feen by himfelf in Mr. Hibbert’s herbarium ;
but without any indication of its characters, fo that we have
no means of knowing how it differs from the foregoing.
WITSIO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Schonen; 28 miles N.N.W. of Chriftianftadt.
WITT, Joun ve, in Biography, the fon of a burgo-
matter of Dordrecht, was born in 1625, and educated in
various ufeful fciences, fo as to excel in a knowledge of
jurifprudence, politics, and mathematics, in the latter of
which he was fo great a proficient, that he wrote a treatife
on the elements of curve-lines, which was publifhed under
the infpetion of Francis Schooten. For further improve-
ment he fpent fome years in travel, and upon his return was
ele&ted to his father’s poft of penfionary of Dordrecht.
Attached by his defcent to the principles of republicanifm,
and jealous of the houfe of Orange, he oppofed the eleva-
tion of this houfe, and diffuaded the province of Zealand
from conferring the office of captain-general upon the
young prince, William III. His ciadats in this bufinefs
was much approved, and he was henceforth regarded as at
the head of the political adminiftration of the Gdieed ‘Pro-
vinces. This was a period peculiarly critical and interefting.
The war with the new Englifh republic diftreffed the ftates ;
it was injurious to their trade and finances ; and prefented
to the Orange party a favourable opportunity for advanc-
ing prince Willa to the power and a, poffefled by
his anceftors. Peace at length became abfolutely neceffary 5
and one of the articles concluded upon in 1654, and dic-
tated by Cromwell, was the perpetual exclufion of the
prince of Orange from the high offices formerly held by his
family. This article was agreed to by the {tates of Holland
alone, and when De Witt drew up a declaration for divulging
it,
WIT
it, fome of the provinces cenfured it, and charged the anti-
Orange party with having fuggefted it to Cromwell. The
province of Holland, however, carried the point, and the ge
neral tranquillity was little difturbed. De Witt now direéted
his attention to the ftate of the finances, and fucceeded in
reducing the intereft of the public debt, and perfuading the
people to acquiefce in this meafure. The reftoration of
Charles II. was generally agreeable to the United States,
and more efpecially to the Orange party : but the reftored
fovereign foon declared his diffatisfattion with De Witt, be-
caufe he had been hoftile to the elevation of the houfe of
Orange. From this time, the Dutch ftatefman favoured the
politics of France more than thofe of England. At length
a war took place between the Dutch and Englifh in 1665 ;
during the progrefs of which De Witt was often unpopular,
though he was the main fpring which kept in aétion the
refources of the ftate, and remedied every calamity. Peace
with England in 1667 developed the ambitious projeéts of
Lewis XIV. in taking poffeflion of the Spanifh Netherlands ;
and the alarm which this meafure produced in the United Pro-
vinces gave occafion to the friends of the houfe of Orange
to propofe the elevation of the young prince to the dignities
which his family had poffeffed. De Witt, with a view of
countera@ting this purpofe, obtained a refolution on the part
of the ftates of Holland for feparating the offices of captain-
general and ftadtholder (fee Witt1Am III.), which refolu-
tion gave great offence to the other provinces, and rendered
De Witt, with whom it was fuppofed to have originated,
extremely unpopular. Senfible, however, of the dangers
arifing from French ambition, he concurred in the triple
alliance between England, Sweden, and the United Provinces,
concluded, in 1668, by himfelf and fir William Temple.
The ftates of Holland were fo fatisfied with his conduét, that
they nominated him for five years more to the office of their
penfionary, which he had already occupied for fifteen years.
Confiding in the triple alliance, and the fubfequent peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle, he again indulged his jealoufy of the Orange
party and a ftanding army, and confidered the danger from
France as a fecondary objeét. , But the ambition of Lewis
had no bounds ; the unprincipled Charles II. could not be
relied upon ; the triple alliance was fet afide ; and the Eng-
lifh cabinet joined the French in dire&t war with the United
Provinces ; fo that in the year 1672 a French army made an
irruption into the territories of the ftates, and threatened to
overwhelm the whole country. The anti-Orangifts were |
then compelled to confer the chief command on William.
The condué of the French had been fo atrocious, that every
perfon who had manifefted the flighteft attachment to their
politics was charged with treafon. De Witt became the ob-
je&t of public indignation, and to him were afcribed all the
calamities which were felt or feared, Four aflaffins attempted
his life, as he was returning home from an affembly of the
ftates of Holland, attended by a fingle fervant ; but though
he received many wounds, none of them were mortal, One
of the affaffins was taken and executed ; but fuch is the in-
fluence of party, the friends of the houfe of Orange regarded
the wretch as a martyr. Cornelius de Witt, on his return
from the fleet, where he had ferved as deputy of the ftates,
narrowly efcaped from a fimilar attempt. The prince was
now elevated to the ftadtholderate ; and the penfionary, as
foon as he was recovered from his wounds, vifited him with
congratulation on the event, but was coolly received.
Finding that, as he was become an obje& of the public
hatred, he could be no longer of any fervice, he requefted
permiffion from the ftates of Holland to‘refign his office,
which was granted him upon the moft honourable terms.
His brother was at this time imprifoned ‘among common
Vor. XXXVITI.
WIT
felons at the Hague, under a charge, preferred by a perfon
of infamous chara&ter, of having formed a plot againft the
life of the prince of Orange. On his trial he was put to
the torture, in the moft cruel form of applying it; but
though he endured the moft aggravated fufferings, protefting
his innocence, and citing his judges before the tribunal of
God for their treatment of him, they pronounced fentence,
which deprived him of all his dignities, and banifhed him
for life from the province. Although no criminal charge
was brought againft John de Witt, the enemies of the fa-
mily refolved that neither of the brothers fhould efcape with
life. Decoyed by a fi&titious meffage to vifit his brother
Cornelius in the prifon, a furious mob affembled to prevent
his retura. ~ The ftates of Holland ordered a guard to dif-
perfe the people, and requefted fome companies of horfe and
foot to be fent from the camp of the prince of Orange.
But the commanding officers were inveterate in their enmity
againft the De Witts; and the inflamed populace, not re-
{trained from executing their bloody purpofe, forced open
the doors of the prifon, dragged out the two brothers, and
inhumanly maffacred them. ‘This cataftrophe took place in
Auguft 1672, John de Witt being in the 47th year of his age.
Although the ftates of Holland pronounced the deed to be
deteftable, and requefted the ftadtholder to take proper
meafures for avenging the death of thefe two brothers, it
was pretended that it would be dangerous to inquire into a
deed in which the principal burghers of the Hague were con-
cerned, and therefore none of the murderers were brought
to juftice. It fhould, however, be recolle&ted, that the
prince never {poke of this maffacre without the greateft
horror.
The charaéter of De Witt has been defcribed in honour-
able terms by fir William Temple, who knew him well,
both in private life and in his public ftation. He {peaks of
him. as a perfon of indefatigable application, of invincible
refolution, of a found and clear judgment, and of irre-
proachable integrity, infomuch, that if he was blinded in
any refpe€t, it was in confequence of his paffion for pro-
moting what he. thought the welfare of his country, He
bears teftimony to the penfionary’s knowledge of the interefts
of foreign courts, though he did not make fufficient allow-
ance for the treachery of princes, or rather their minifters,
and was thus mifled with regard to the ambitious views of
France. If he had any wrong bias in his political condu@,
it was that of an hereditary jealoufy and diflike of the houfe
of Orange, which led him in fome cafes to a& rather as a
party leader than an unprejudiced patriot. No man could
be lefs influenced than De Witt by views of avarice or often-
tation. His manners and appearance were adapted to the
ancient fimplicity and frugality of his country, even in the
height of his power. When his papers and private letters
were fubmitted toa rigorous {crutiny after his death, nothing
was difcovered that could impeach his integrity. When one
of the commiffioners was afked what they had found in De
Witt’s papers ; ‘¢ What (faid he) could we have found—
nothing but probity !”? Asa man of bufinefs, he was feru-
puloufly attentive to order and method ; and when he was
once afked, How he was able to tranfaét fuch a multiplicity
of affairs ? he replied, “* By doing only one thing at a time.”
Mod. Un. Hitt. Gen. Biog, ;
WITTBACH, in Geography, a river of Germany,
which rifes near Hackenburg Sayn, and after a circuitous
courfe runs into the Rhine, about a mile below Nenwied.
WITTELM, a {mall ifland in Steinhuder lake, with
afort ; 3 miles N. of Hagenburg. ;
WITTELOHE, a town of Germany, in the county of
Verden; romiles $.E. of Verden. ~~. «
4c WIT:
WIT
WITTEM, a citadel of France, in the department of
the Roer. It heretofore gave name to a lordfhip, wholly
furrounded by the duchy of Limburg; 6 miles S.E. of
Aix-la-Chapelle. 5
WITTEN, in Commerce, a money of account at Pernau
and Stettin, &c. At Pernau a current rix-dollar is reckoned
at 60 wittens, or 75 copecks ; and an Albert’s rix-dollar
is eftimated at 80 wittens, or 100 copecks ; a Pernau mark
is worth 3 wittens; a Lettifh mark = 2 wittens ; and 4
wittens = 5 copecks. At Stettin the rix-dollar was for-
merly divided into 36 fhillings current, 72 fhillings Sundifh,
or 144 wittens ; which monies of account are now nearly
difcontinued.
Wirren, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
county of Mark; 7 miles S.E. of Bockum.
Witten See, a lake of the duchy of Bremen; 10 miles
S.E. of Bremen.
WITTENA-Gewmore, among our Saxon Anceflors, a
term literally fignifying a council, or aflembly of fages, or
wife men ; applied to the great council of the land, in later
days called parliament ; which fee. See alfo Gemore.
In the Saxon times, this was the chief court of the king-
dom, where all matters, both civil and criminal, and thofe
relating to the revenue, were determined. In civil and
criminal-matters, it was a court, in the firft inftance only,
for faéts arifing in the county where it fat; but it heard
and determined caufes from all other counties by way of
appeal. To this court were fummoned the earls of each
county, and the lords of each leet, as alfo the reprefentatives
of towns, who were chofen by their burgeffes. This was
the legiflative and fupreme judicial affembly of the Anglo-
Saxon nation. As higheft judicial court of the kingdom,
it refembled our prefent houfe of lords; and in thofe
periods, when the peers of the realm reprefented terri-
torial property rather than hereditary dignities, the
comparifon between the Saxon wittena-gemote, and the
upper houfe of our modern parliament, might have been
more correétly made in their legiflative capacity. The
German ftates are recorded by Tacitus to have had national
councils, and the continental Saxons are alfo ftated to have
poffeffed them. When the Cyning was only the temporary
commander of the nation for the purpofes of war, whofe
funtion ceafed when peace returned, the wittena-gemote
muft have been the fupreme. authority of the nation ; but
when the Cyning became an eftablifhed and permanent dig-
nity, whofe privileges and power were perpetually increafing
till he attained the majeftic prerogatives and widely-diffufed
property which Athelitan and Edgar enjoyed, the wittena-
gemote then affumed a fecondary rank in the ftate. This
council was called by different names, and it was compofed
of perfons who were denominated witan from their prefumed
-wifdom, and with reference to their rank and property
eadigan, (the wealthy,) optimates, principes, primates,
proceres, cucionatores anglie, &c. The gemotes of the
witan, without doubt, varied, as our parliaments vary, in
the number and quality of the perfons who from time to
time attended. Moft of thofe whofe names are fubfcribed
to councils or charters, and who appear to have been the
‘ witan who conftituted the gemote, have fome titles after
their names ; but there are th gemotes which have names
without any addition. It is not eafy to afcertain all the
qualifications which entitled perfons to a feat in the wittena-
emote. There is, however, one curious paflage, cited from
the Book of Ely, in Gale’s Script. of i. P+ 513, which
has been alleged by fome writers as afcertaining that a
certain amount of property was an indifpenfable requifite,
and that acquired property would anfwer this purpofe as
12
we L7T
well as hereditary property. The poffeffion ftated to be
neceflary to conititute one of the proceres was forty
hides of land. The incident to which this paflage refers
occurred in the reign of Edward the Confeffor. It
related to the brother of an abbot, who, though nobly
born,- could not be reckoned among the nobility of the
kingdom, becaufe he had not an eftate of forty hides of
land ; and, therefore, he was refufed by a lady, whom he
fought in marriage, till his eftate was increafed to that
magnitude by grants of land from his brother. This paflage
merely proves, that a certain portion, and that a very large
one, of landed property in dominio was a neceflary qualifica-
tion, under the ga a overnment, to admit an
perfon to the “rank and degree of nobility.”? But no
argument, fays lord Littelton, can be juftly drawn from
hence, that, in order to be qualified for a place in the Saxon
great council, or wittena-gemote, it was requifite to be
lord of forty hides of land. Such a notion does not agree
with any accounts that are given us of that aflembly in the
writings or records of thofe times. By a paflage in the
preface to Ina’s laws, as tranflated by Wilkins, it appears,
that the Saxon legiflature was compofed of the king, cum
omnibus fuis fenatoribus, which fenators Littelton fuppofes
to have been the “ nobility of the kingdom,” fuch as after-
wards formed the ordinary council of lords under our kings
of Norman race ; et cum fenioribus fapientibus populi fui, by
whom he underftands the deputies or reprefentatives of the
people, either by ele€tion or magiftracy ; et cum multa etiam
Secietate minifirorum Dei, which words evidently denote the
inferior clergy, mentioned by Eadmer as prefent in: the
parliaments of thofe times. It appears alfo, by a paragraph
in Spelman’s Councils Sub. Ann. 855, that the Saxon con-
{titution required not only the ‘ prefence,”’ (fee Boroucx, )
but the “ approbation of the people,’ to the enaéting of a
law; though, by way of marking the diftin@ion between
thefe and the higher orders of the ftate, the nobility alone
fet their hands to the a@. ‘* Whoever,”’ fays fir John For-
tefcue Aland, who was very learned in the Saxon language
and legal antiquities, in his preface to the book of chancellor
Fortefcue on the difference between an abfolute and limited
monarchy, “ carefully and fkilfully reads the Saxon laws,
and the prefaces or preambles to them, will find, that the
commons of England always in the Saxon times made part
of that auguft aflembly.”” In a paflage occurring in lib. iii.
{. 56. of William of Malmfbury, we have an exprefs decla-
ration, that by the Saxon conftitution eftablifhed in England,
the ‘ people,’ as well as the nobles, had a right to be
called to the ‘ General Affembly”’ upon affairs of great
moment, and to join in the * edifts” made there; fo that,
without ‘ their confent,’? the fucceffion to the crown
could not be fettled. The term Senatus ufed by this
hiftorian denotes the ordinary aflembly of the nobles, which
he diftinguifhes from the ‘ people ;”? but he fuppofes that
the latter ought to be joined to the former, in order to
compofe the entire legiflature and great council of the nation,
upon extraordinary occafions. ‘This was agreeable to the
cuftom afcribed by Tacitus to the Germans, from whom
they fprung; ‘* De minoribus rebus principes confultant,
de majoribus omnes ; ita tamen, ut ea quoque, quorum apud
lebum arbitrium eit, apud principes pertra¢tantur.”” See
OROUGH.
It has been, among conftitutional antiquarians, an intereft-
ing quettion, whether they who poffeffed this quantity of land
had thereby the right of being in the wittena-gemote; or
whether the members of this great council were elected
from the territorial proprietors, and fat as their reprefenta-
tives? One perfon is mentioned by Mr. Turner (ubi infra),
whofe
We MT
whofe defignation feems to have the force of expreffing an
eleG&ted member., Among the perfons figning to the aét of
the gemote at Clofefhoe in 824 is, “ Ego Beonna eledus
confent. et fubfcrib.”’
The members of the gemote were convened by the king’s
writ, of which many inftances occur ; and the times of their
meeting feem to have been ufually the great feftivals of the
church, as Chriftmas, Eafter, and Whitfuntide; but of
thefe Eafter, being moft frequently mentioned, feems to
have been the favourite period. Their meetings, however,
were not abfolutely reitrifted to thefe feafons. The place
of their aflembly was not fixed. Perhaps this might depend
on the king’s refidence at the time, and might have fuited
his convenience. Our monarchs feem to have maintained
their influence in the wittena-gemote by their munificence.
The king prefided at this council, and fometimes, perhaps
always, addreffed them. In 993 we have an account of a
royal fpeech. One of their duties was to ele& the fovereign,
and to affift at his coronation. Another was to co-operate
with the king in making laws. The wittena-gemote ap-
pears alfo to have made treaties jointly with the king.
Many inftances occur to this purpofe. The treaty, printed
in Wilkins’s Leges Angle-Saxonice, p. 104, is faid to
have been made by the king and his witan. They are alfo
mentioned as affifting the king in dire€ting the military pre-
parations of the kingdom. Impeachments of great men were
made before the wittena-gemote. At thefe councils grants
of land were made and confirmed ; and the wittena-gemote
frequently appears in the Saxon remains, as the high court
of judicature of the kingdom, and it exercifed power over
the public guilds of the nation. The lands of the Anglo-
Saxons, the burghs, and the people, appear in all the docu-
ments of our anceftors, as fubjeéted to certain definite pay-
ments to the king as to their lords ; and by a cuftom, whofe
origin is loft in its antiquity, among the Anglo-Saxons, all
their lands, unlefs {pecially exempted, were liable to three
reat burdens, the building and reparation of bridges and
Picaion and to military expeditions. But what we now
call taxation feems to have begun in the time of Ethelred,
and to have arifen from the evils of a foreign invafion.
Thus the payment of 10,000/. to the Danes to buy off
their hoftility, mentioned by Henry of Huntingdon, and
thofe which followed, are ftated to have been ordered by
the king and the wittena-gemote. Under fovereigns of
feeble capacity, the wittena-gemote feems to have been the
ficene. of thofe factions, which always attend both arifto-
cracies and democracies, when no commanding talents exift
to predominate in the difcuffions, and to fhape the council.
Turner’s Hift. of the Anglo-Saxons, vol. ii. book 1o.
Littelton’s Hift. Henry II. vol. iti.
WITTENBERG, in Geography, a town of Saxony, and
capital of a circle or diltriét, fituated on the fide of the
Elbe, over which is a ferry: it is the head town of the
ele&toral circle, the feat of an aulic judicature, of the affize,
as alfo a confiftory, together with that of the general fuper-
intendancy of the eleétoral circle, a {piritual infpeétion, the
circle amt, and a famous univerfity, founded in the year
1502, at which, in 1517, the Reformation took its rife by
means of Martin Luther. This town is not large, but for-
tified. The old citadel was formerly the eleGtoral refi-
dence ; near it ftands an arfenal. In the large round tower
are kept the archives of the ele¢toral and princely houfes.
The univerfity library is kept in what was formerly an
Auguftine cloifter. The firft founder of the town of Wit-
tenberg was Bernard, duke of Saxony. Inthe year 1547,
it was taken by the emperor Charles V. ; in the year 1756,
it was poflefled by the Pruffiats, who alfo broke down a
WIT
baftion of the fortifications; 60 miles N. of Drefden.
N. lat. 51° 53'. E.long. 12° 46!.
WITTENBERG, a town of Pruffia, in Natangen; 8 miles
N. of Heilfberg.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of Lauen-
burg, on the Elbe; 8 miles W. of Lauenburg.
WITTENBERGEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the
Mark of Pregnitz; 6 miles S.S.W. of Perleberg. N. lat.
53° 2’. E. long. 11° 50.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of
Holftein ; 8 miles §. W. of Lutkenborg.
WITTENBURG, a town of the duchy of Mecklen-
burg; 17 miles W. of Schwerin.
WITTENHALL, a townhhip of England, in Stafford-
fhire ; 2 miles N.E. of Wolverhampton.
WITTENHAUSEN, atown of the duchy of Holftein ;
5 miles W. of Oldeburg.
WITTENSTEIN, a town of Pruffia, in the province
of Natangen; 10 miles S.S.E. of Konigfberg.
WITTGENAU. See Wircenav.
WITTHOEC, a town of Africa, in the country of
Cape Lopez Gonfalvo ; 30 miles N. of Olibato.
WITTICHSTHAL, a town of Saxony, in the circle
of Erzgebirg ; 7 miles S. of Schwartzenberg.
WIT'TINGEN, a town of Weftphalia, in the princi-
pality of Luneburg Zelle ; 27 miles E. of Zelle.
WITTLESEE Meng, a lake of England, in the county
of Huntingdon; 4 miles S. of Peterborough.
WITTLICH, a town of France, in the department of
the Rhine and Mofelle; 16 miles N.E. of Treves. N. lat.
50° 4!. E. long. 6° 52!.
WITTMUND, a town of Eaft Friefeland, on the
Harle; 7 miles S.E. of Effens.
WITTOBA, in Hindoo Mythology, is a name of the
god Vifhnu in one of his numerous de/cents, or avataras, as
they are called. Some account of thefe avataras is given
under our article Visunu. This, now under confideration,
was one of inferior importance ; and not, it is faid, of very
ancient occurrence, and therefore not defcribed in the
Puranas, unlefs it be in the one fuppofed to be more modern
than the reft, which is entitled Maha Bhagavat. (See
Purana, and Srr Buacavara.) A {fplendid temple is
dedicated to the worfhip of Wittoba, or Vifhnu, at Pander-
poor, a town of great refpectability on the river Beemah,
about roo miles to the fouth-eaftward of Poona. The
manifeftation is faid to have taken place there. He is there
reprefented fculptured in ftone, of the fize of a man, ftand-
ing with his feet parallel to each other ;_ his hands upon his
hips, the fingers pointing forward, his thumbs backward.
Two of the wives of Vifhnu in his avatara of Krifhna ac-
companied him in this; thefe were Rukmeni and Satyavamay
and they have fmaller temples at Panderpoor, befides their
lord’s. (See Krisuna, Ruxmeni, and SATYAVAMA. )
Images of Wittoba are common in the Mahratta country,
generally of clumfy manufa@ture. Several reprefentations
of Wittoba and his wives are given in the Hindoo Pantheon,
from cafts and pictures. That work contains alfo a hiftory
of the avatara, and many particulars refpecting it.
WITTORF, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
county of Verden; ro miles S.S.E. of Rotenburg.
WITTOW, a town on a peninfula at the northern ex-
tremity of the ifland of Ufedom, near Artona, an ancient
fortrefs deftroyed by the Swedes. N. lat. 54° 44’. E.
long. 13° 24!.
WITTSTOCEK, a town of Brandenburg, in the Mark
of Pregnitz ; 47 miles N.N.W. of Berlin. N. lat. 53° 10’.
E. long. 12° 39!.—Alfo, a town of Brandenburg, in the
New Mark; 12 miles N. of Cuftria. N. lat. 52° 49/.
E. long. 14° 50!.
: 4C 2 WITWALL,
wit
WITTEM, a citadel of France, in the department of
the Roer. It heretofore gave name to a lordfhip, wholly
furrounded by the duchy of Limburg; 6 miles S.E. of
Aix-la-Chapelle.
WITTEN, in Commerce, a money of account at Pernau
and Stettin, &c. At Pernau a current rix-dollar is reckoned
at 60 wittens, or 75 copecks ; and an Albert’s rix-dollar
is eftimated at 80 wittens, or 100 copecks ; a Pernau mark
is worth 3 wittens ; a Lettifh mark = 2 wittens; and 4
wittens = 5 copecks. At Stettin the rix-dollar was for-
merly divided into 36 fhillings current, 72 fhillings Sundifh,
or 144 wittens ; which monies of account are now nearly
difcontinued.
Wirren, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
county of Mark; 7 miles S.E. of Bockum.
Witten See, a lake of the duchy of Bremen; 10 miles
S.E. of Bremen.
WITTENA-Gemore, among our Saxon Anceflors, a
term literally fignifying a council, or aflembly of fages, or
wife men; applied to the great council of the land, in later
days called parliament ; which fee. See alfo GeEmoOTE.
In the Saxon times, this was the chief court of the king-
dom, where all matters, both civil and criminal, and thofe
relating to the revenue, were determined. In civil and
criminal-matters, it was a court, in the firft inftance only,
for faéts arifing in the county where it fat; but it heard
and determined caufes from all other counties by way of
appeal. To this court were fummoned the earls of each
county, and the lords of each leet, as alfo the reprefentatives
of towns, who were chofen by their burgeffes. This was
the legiflative and fupreme judicial aiieenehy of the Anglo-
Saxon nation. As higheft judicial court of the kingdom,
it refembled our prefent houfe of lords ; and in thofe
periods, when the peers of the realm reprefented terri-
torial property rather than hereditary dignities, the
comparifon between the Saxon wittena-gemote, and the
upper houfe of our modern parliament, might have been
more corre&tly made in their legiflative capacity. The
German ftates are recorded by Tacitus to have had national
councils, and the continental Saxons are alfo ftated to have
poffeffed them. When the Cyning was only the temporary
commander of the nation for the purpofes of war, whofe
fun@tion ceafed when peace returned, the wittena-gemote
muft have been the fupreme. authority of the nation ; but
when the Cyning became an eftablifhed and permanent dig-
nity, whofe privileges and power were perpetually increafing
till he attained the majeftic prerogatives and widely-diffufed
property which Athelitan and Edgar enjoyed, the wittena-
gemote then afflumed a fecondary rank in the ftate. This
council was called by different names, and it was compofed
of perfons who were denominated witan from their prefumed
wifdom, and with reference to their rank and property
eadigan, (the wealthy,) optimates, principes, primates,
proceres, cucionatores angliz, &c. The gemotes of the
witan, without doubt, varied, as our parliaments vary, in
the number and quality of the perfons who from time to
time attended. Mott of thofe whofe names are fubfcribed
to councils or charters, and who appear to have been the
witan who conftituted the gemote, have fome titles after
their names ; but there are frne gemotes which have names
without any addition. It is not eafy to afcertain all the
qualifications which entitled perfons to a feat in the wittena-
emote. There is, however, one curious paflage, cited from
the Book of Ely, in Gale’s Script. ct i, P+ 513, which
has been alleged by fome writers as afcertaining that a
certain amount of property was an indifpenfable requifite,
and that acquired property would anfwer this purpofe as
12
wm LAT
well as hereditary property. The poffeffion ftated to be
neceflary to conititute one of the proceres was forty
hides of land. The incident to which this paflage refers
occurred in the reign of Edward the Confeffor. It
related to the brother of an abbot, who, though nobly
born, could not be reckoned among the nobility of the
kingdom, becaufe he had not an eftate of forty hides of
land; and, therefore, he was refufed by a lady, whom he
fought in marriage, till his eftate was increafed to that
magnitude by grants of land from his brother. This paflage
merely proves, that a certain portion, and that a very large
one, of landed property in dominio was a neceffary qualifica-
tion, under the Anglo-Saxon government, to admit an
perfon to the “ ae and degree of nobility.”” But no
argument, fays lord Littelton, can be juftly drawn from
hence, that, in order to be qualified for a place in the Saxon
eet council, or wittena-gemote, it was requifite to be
ord of forty hides of land. Such a notion does not agree
with any accounts that are given us of that affembly in the
writings or records of thofe times. By a paflage in the
preface to Ina’s laws, as tranflated by Wilkins, it appears,
that. the Saxon legiflature was compofed of the king, cum
omnibus fuis fenatoribus, which fenators Littelton fuppofes
to have been the “ nobility of the kingdom,” fuch as after-
wards formed the ordinary council of lords under our kings
of Norman race ; et cum fenioribus fapientibus populi fui, by
whom he underftands the deputies or reprefentatives of the
people, either by eletion or magiftracy ; et cum multa etiam
JSocietate miniflrorum Dei, which words evidently denote the
inferior clergy, mentioned by Eadmer as prefent in the
parliaments of thofe times. It appears alfo, by a paragraph
in Spelman’s Councils Sub. Ann. 855, that the Saxon con-
ftitution required not only the “ prefence,”’ (fee Boroven, )
but the ‘ approbation of the people,’’ to the enacting of a
law; though, by way of marking the diftinétion between
thefe and the higher orders of the ftate, the nobility alone
fet their hands tothe a@. ‘* Whoever,” fays fir John For-
tefcue Aland, who was very learned in the Saxon language
and legal antiquities, in his preface to the book of chancellor
Fortefcue on the difference between an abfolute and limited
monarchy, “ carefully and fkilfully reads the Saxon laws,
and the prefaces or preambles to them, will find, that the
commons of England always in the Saxon times made part
of that auguft affembly.”” In a paffage occurring in lib. iii.
f. 56. of William of Malmfbury, we have an exprefs decla-
ration, that by the Saxon conftitution eftablifhed in England,
the ‘ people,” as well as the nobles, had a right to be
called to the ‘* General Affembly”’ upon affairs of great
moment, and to join in the ‘* ediéts” made there; fo that,
without ‘* their confent,’? the fucceflion to the crown
could not be fettled. The term Senatus ufed by this
hiftorian denotes the ordinary aflembly of the nobles, which
he diftinguifhes from the ‘ people ;”’ but he fuppofes that
the latter ought to be joined to the former, in order to
compofe the entire legiflature and great council of the nation,
upon extraordinary occafions. ‘This was agreeable to the
cuftom afcribed by Tacitus to the Germans, from whom
they fprung; ‘¢ De minoribus rebus principes confultant,
de majoribus omnes ; ita tamen, ut ea quoque, quorum apud
lebum arbitrium eft, apud principes pertraétantur.”” See
OROUGH.
It has been, among conftitutional antiquarians, an intereft-
ing quettion, whether they who poffeffed this quantity of land
had thereby the right of being in the wittena-gemote; or
whether the members of this great council were elected
from the territorial proprietors, and fat as their reprefenta-
tives? One perfon is mentioned by Mr. Turner (ubi infra),
whole
WPT
whofe defignation feems to have the force of expreffing an
ele&ted member., Among the perfons figning to the aét of
the gemote at Clofefhoe in 824 is, “ Ego Beonna eledus
confent. et fubfcrib.””
The members of the gemote were convened by the king’s
writ, of which many inftances occur ; and the times of their
meeting feem to have been ufually the great feftivals of the
church, as Chriftmas, Eafter, and Whitfuntide; but of
thefe Eafter, being moft frequently mentioned, feems to
have been the favourite period. Their meetings, however,
were not abfolutely reftrifted to thefe feafons. The place
of their aflembly was not fixed. Perhaps this might depend
on the king’s refidence at the time, and might have fuited
his convenience. Our monarchs feem to have maintained
their influence in the wittena-gemote by their munificence.
The king prefided at this council, and fometimes, perhaps
always, addreffed them. In 993 we have an account of a
royal f{peech. One of their duties was to eleé& the fovereign,
and to affift at his coronation. Another was to co-operate
with the king in making laws. The wittena-gemote ap-
pears alfo to have made treaties jointly with the king.
Many inftances occur to this purpofe. The treaty, printed
in Wilkins’s Leges Angle-Saxonice, p. 104, is faid to
have been made by the king and his witan. They are alfo
mentioned as affifting the king in direéting the military pre-
parations of the kingdom. Impeachments of great men were
made before the wittena-gemote. At thefe councils grants
of Jand were made and confirmed ; and the wittena-gemote
frequently appears in the Saxon remains, as the high court
of judicature of the kingdom, and it exercifed power over
the public guilds of the nation. The lands of the Anglo-
Saxons, the burghs, and the people, appear in all the docu-
ments of our anceftors, as fubjeéted to certain definite pay-
ments to the king as to their lords ; and by a cuftom, whofe
origin is loft in its antiquity, among the Anglo-Saxons, all
their lands, unlefs {pecially exempted, were liable to three
reat burdens, the building and reparation of bridges and
feriicuionss and to military expeditions. But what we now
call taxation feems to have begun in the time of Ethelred,
and to have arifen from the evils of a foreign invafion.
Thus the payment of 10,000/. to the Danes to buy off
their hoftility, mentioned by Henry of Huntingdon, and
thofe which followed, are {tated to have been ordered by
the king and the wittena-gemote. Under fovereigns of
feeble capacity, the wittena-gemote feems to have been the
Mcene of thofe factions, which always attend both arifto-
cracies and democracies, when no commanding talents exift
to predominate in the difcuffions, and to fhape the council.
Turner’s Hift. of the Anglo-Saxons, vol. ii. book 10.
Littelton’s Hift. Henry II. vol. iii.
WITTENBERG, in Geography, a town of Saxony, and
capital of a circle or diftriG@, fituated on the fide of the
Elbe, over which is a ferry: it is the head town of the
ele&toral circle, the feat of an aulic judicature, of the affize,
as alfo a confiftory, together with that of the general fuper-
intendancy of the eletoral circle, a {piritual infpeétion, the
circle amt, and a famous univerfity, founded in the year
1502, at which, in 1517, the Reformation took its rife by
means of Martin Luther.. This town is not large, but for-
tified. The old citadel was formerly the eleétoral refi-
dence; near it ftands an arfenal. In the large round tower
are kept the archives of the eleftoral and princely houfes.
The univerfity library is kept in what was formerly an
Auguftine cloifter. The firft founder of the town of Wit-
tenberg was Bernard, duke of Saxony. Inthe year 1547,
it was taken by the emperor Charles V. ; in the year 1756,
it was poflefled by the Pruffiafis, who alfo broke down a
Wi Ft
baftion of the fortifications; 60 miles N; of Drefden.
N. lat. 51° 53!. E.long. 12° 46!.
WITTENBERG, a town of Pruffia, in Natangen; 8 miles
N. of Heilfberg.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of Lauen-
burg, on the Elbe; 8 miles W. of Lauenburg.
WITTENBERGEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the
Mark of Pregnitz; 6 miles S.S.W. of Perleberg. N. lat.
53° 2’. E. long. 11° 50'.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of
Holftein ; 8 miles S. W. of Lutkenborg.
WITTENBURG, a town of the duchy of Mecklen-
burg; 17 miles W. of Schwerin.
WITTENHALL, a townhhip of England, in Stafford-
fhire ; 2 miles N.E. of Wolverhampton. '
WITTENHAUSEN, atown of the duchy of Holftein ;
5 miles W. of Oldeburg.
WITTENSTEIN, a town of Pruffia, in the province
of Natangen; 10 miles S.S.E. of Konigfberg.
WITTGENAU. See Wircenau.
WITTHOEC, a town of Africa, in the country of
Cape Lopez Gonfalvo ; 30 miles N. of Olibato.
WITTICHSTHAL, a town of Saxony, in the circle
of Erzgebirg ; 7 miles S. of Schwartzenberg.
WITTINGEN, a town of Weftphalia, in the princi-
pality of Luneburg Zelle ; 27 miles E. of Zelle.
WITTLESEE Meng, a lake of England, in the county
of Huntingdon; 4 miles S. of Peterborough.
WITTLICH, a town of France, in the department of
the Rhine and Mofelle; 16 miles N.E. of Treves. N. lat.
50° 4!. E. long. 6° 52!.
WITTMUND, a town of Eaft Friefeland, on the
Harle; 7 miles S.E. of Effens.
WITTOBA, in Hindoo Mythology, is a name of the
god Vifhnu in one of his numerous defcents, or avataras, as
they are called. Some account of thefe avataras is given
under our article VisHnu. This, now under confideration,
was one of inferior importance ; and not, it is faid, of ve
ancient occurrence, and therefore not defcribed in the
Puranas, unlefs it be in the one fuppofed to be more modern
than the reft, which is entitled Maha Bhagavat. (See
Purana, and Sri Buacavara.) A fplendid temple is
dedicated to the worfhip of Wittoba, or Vifhnu, at Pander-
poor, a town of great refpectability on the river Beemah,
about 100 miles to the fouth-eaftward of Poona. The
manifeftation is faid to have taken place there. He is there
reprefented fculptured in ftone, of the fize of a man, ftand-
ing with his feet parallel to each other ; his hands upon his
hips, the fingers pointing forward, his thumbs backward.
Two of the wives of Vifhnu in his avatara of Krifhna ac-
companied him in this; thefe were Rukmeni and Satyavama,
and they have fmaller temples at Panderpoor, befides their
lord’s. (See Krisuna, Ruxmeni, and Satyavama.)
Images of Wittoba are common in the Mahratta country,
generally of clumfy manufa@ure. Several reprefentations
of Wittoba and his wives are given in the Hindoo Pantheon,
from cafts and piétures. That work contains alfo a hiftory
of the avatara, and many particulars refpeCting it.
WITTORF, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
county of Verden; ro miles S.S.E. of Rotenburg.
WITTOW, a town on a peninfula at the northern ex-
tremity of the ifland of Ufedom, near Artona, an ancient
fortrefs deftroyed by the Swedes. N. lat. 54° 44’. E.
long. 13° 27!.
WITTSTOCK, a town of Brandenburg, in the Mark
of Pregnitz ; 47 miles N.N.W. of Berlin. N. lat. 53° 10’.
E. long. 12° 39/.—Alfo, a town of Brandenburg, in the
New Mark; 12 miles N. of Cuftria. N. lat. 52° 49!.
E. long. 14° 50!.
: 4C 2 WITWALL,
WIZ
WITWALL, in Ornithology, a common Englith name
for the great {potted wood-pecker, the picus varius major
of authors.
WITZELRODE, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the county of Henneberg; 3 miles E.N.E. of Sal-
zungen.
ITZELSTORFF, a town of Auttria; 4 miles S.E.
of Hoffmarckt.
WITZENBURG, a town of Weltphalia, in the
bifhopric of Hildefheim ; 6 miles S.E. of Alfeld.
WITZENHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Heffe Rhinfels ; 13 miles E. of Caffel. N.
lat. 51° 10’. E. long. 9° 43!.
WIVELISCOMBE, a large market-town in the hun-
dred of Weit Kingfbury, and county of Somerfet, England,
is fituated in a valley, at the diftance of 11 miles W. from
Taunton, 25 miles W. from Somerton, and 156 miles W.
by S. from London. It appears to have been of fome note
under the Romans, though not diftinguifhed in their annals as
a tation or military poft. In the earlier part of their tranf-
ations in this ifland, they had a large caftrum, or encamp-
ment, on a hill about a mile eaftward from the town, which
ftill is called the caftle. Its fummit contains about twelve
acres; and though moftly covered with coppice-wood and
bufhes, the veftiges of fortifications, and the foundations of
buildings, are yet difcernible on its furface. Part of the
foffe, which is very deep, and extended round the hill, has
been deftroyed by the working of a quarry. Near the
centre of the area, a great number of Roman coins of various
emperors were difcovered in the beginning of the lait cen-
tury. The Danes, during their incurfions into this county,
availed themfelves of this cm and after their departure,
the Saxons, recovering their tranquillity, tranfplanted them-
felves to the adjacent vale, and gave their new habitations
the name of Wivelifcombe. From this time it progreflively
became of importance, conftituted the head of a large lord-
fhip, and was always held by the Saxon kings, till Edward
the Confeffor granted all the lands to the church of Wells.
The bifhops of that fee had a ftately palace here for nearly
three centuries: it is now in ruins ; a workhoufe, erected in
1735, occupies a part of the ancient fcite. The town now
confifts of {even irregular ftreets: it is governed by a bailiff
and portreeve, who are annually chofen in May. Here were
formerly two markets, one on Tuefdays, the other on
Saturdays; the latter only is now retained, with three annual
fairs. ~ A confiderable woollen manufaéture has been carried
on for more than two hundred years, and ftill flourifhes ;
the chief articles made are, blanketings, knap-coatings,
kerfies and other coarfe cloths, fhrouds, ermine, and baize.
Many of thefe are fent to London, Briftol, and Exeter, for
home confumption, and for exportation to Spain and
Guernfey. The church is a plain ftruéture, and confifts of
a nave and two aifles, with a tower and {pire at the weit
end. The parifh befides the town includes four {mall hamlets,
and according to the population return of the year 1811
contains 567 houfes, and 2550 inhabitants.—Collinfon’s
Hiftory, &c. of Somerfetthire, vol. ii. 1791.
WIVENHOE, a village of England, in the county of
Effex, fituated on the river Coln; it is the harbour of Col-
chefter, and here is a cuftom-houfe. The oyiters, called
Colchefter oyfters, are barrelled in this place. In 1811,
the population was 1046.
WIZE, a river of England, in the county of Cumber-
land, which runs into the Wever.
WIZNA, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 88 miles
N.E. of Warfaw.
9
WOA
WIZUNY, a town of Lithuania ; 20 miles N.N:E. of
Wilkomiers. m
WIZZARD, in Agriculture, a term applied in Norfolk
to any particular fort of cart for farm-work.
WIZZENED, a term provincially applied to fignify
withered or fhrivelled, as hay.
WLADISLAW,, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in
the circle of Iglau; 12 miles S. of Meferitfch.
W.apisLaw, or Jnowroflaw, a town of the duchy of
Warfaw, and capital of a palatinate of the fame name, on
the Viftula: the fee of the bifhop of Cujavia, removed from
Krufwica in 1173; 108 miles N.W. of Warfaw. N. lat.
52°. 95)? ilong, 28° 35!
WLODOWA, a town of Aultrian Poland; 18 miles
N.E. of Chelm. :
WLODZIMIERZ, atown of Poland, in Volhynia, on
the Bog; the fee of a Greek bifhop, united to the church
of Rome; 48 miles W. of Luckow.
WOAD, in Agriculture, a plant cultivated it the field for
the ufe of the dyers. It is a plant which has a ftron
thickifh fibrous root, which penetrates deep into the foil
and which is principally raifed for the ufe of the leaves,
which, after being properly manufa€tured, are made ufe of
inthe art of dyeing to produce a blue colour, as well as the
bafis of black, and fome others.
Soil.—It is evident from the nature of its root that.it re-
quires a foil which has much depth or ftaple, and which is
perfeétly frefh, fuch as thofe of the rich, mellow, loamy,
and deep vegetable kind. Where this fort of culture is car-
ried to a coniiderable degree of perfeGtion, as in Lincoln-
fhire, the deep, rich, putrid, alluvial foils on the flat tra&s
extending upon the borders of the different large rivers are
chiefly employed for the growth of this fort es crop ; and
it has been fhewn by repeated trials that it anfwers moft per-
fe&tly when they are broken up from a {tate of fward im-
mediately for it. In fome places, itis the pra¢tice to take
lands of this defcription at high prices, for the purpofe of
breaking them up and growing it upon them for two or three
years ; on the more ae rich foils, for four years, but on
thofe of lefs fertility only for three ; and in fome, which
are more elevated and expofed, two are confidered fufficient.
For this fort of culture, people are employed, who move
from place to place, and form a fort of colony. Mr. Cart-
oe in the above county, has however found, that it is ca-
pable of being confined to one {pot with equal or greater
fuccefs, by having a fufficient extent of ground for chang-
ing the place of its growth as may be neceflary, and for
appropriating an adequate proportion annually to the faifing
of the plant, by which the houfes and expenfive machinery
that are neceflary for its preparation may be kept conftantly
and regularly employed in the bufinefs.
Preparation.—In order to prepare the land for this crop,
it is advifed by fome to plough it up with a good deep fur-
row, immediately before the winter commences, laying it in
high narrow ridges, to have the full effe&t of the froits ;
and early in the f ring to give another ploughing in the con-
trary direction, Dorie the ground in the fame kind of
ridge as before. When it has remained in this ftate fome
length of time, and weeds appear, it fhould be well har-
rowed down with a heavy harrow, repeating the operation
fo as to render it perfetly fine and clean. About the be-
ginning of June a third ploughing fhould be given to the
ull depth with a narrow furrow, and the land be afterwards
well harrowed down as before ; the fourth or final plough-
ing being given towards the beginning of July, in a light
manner, leaving the furface as even as poffible for the feed.
But fome take much lefs trouble in the bufinefs of prepara-
tion.
WOAD.
tion. In cafes where the foils are fufficiently dry, only
breaking them up early in the month of February ; and
where the contrary is the cafe, deferring it to alater period,
taking care to plough the land in a perfeét manner to the
depth of five inches, or more: and that the furrow-flices
may be well turned, laid flat, and nicely jointed, a perfon is
employed with a f{pade for the purpofe of adjufting them.
This prevents the grafly matters from rifing in the feams.
When this has been done, the furface is repeatedly harrowed
over, to raife a fufficient depth of good mould for the drill
to work in; and before the feed is put in a roller is paffled
over the land. :
It is probable, however, that this method is inferior to
the former, as the land is not brought nearly to fo fine a ftate
of mould, or the grafly material fo effectually covered and
deftroyed, from which injury may be done to the woad
plants in their early growth.
But a method which is equally effectual with the firft,
more expeditious, and which has a fuperiority over it, in
more completely deftroying grubs, infeéts, and other ver-
min, which are apt to feed on the plants.in their early
growth, is that of paring and burning. This is, however,
chiefly practifed where the {ward is rough, and abounds with,
rufhes, fedge, and other plants of the coarfe kind, but might
be had recourfe fo on others, with vaft benefit.
Where the latter modes are made ufe of as foon as the
feed has been put in, the land fhould be carefully drained by
forming grips in fuitable dire€tions, as wherever water ftag-
nates, the woad plants are liable to be injured or de-
{troyed.
Szed.—In refpe& to the feed, it fhould be collected from
ground that has been left covered with the beft plants from
the preceding feafon, as they only run up to {tem and form
feeds in the fecond year; and in order to have good feed,
the leaves fhould not be cropped at all or but once, the ftems
being fuffered to remain till the feeds in the hufks become
perfe€tly ripened; which is fhewn by their attaining a
brownifh-yellow colour, and the pods having a dark blackith
appearance. It fhould then be gathered as foon as poflible,
by reaping the ftems in the manner of grain, and then {pread-
ing them in rows thinly upon the ground if the weather be
fine, when in the courfe of a few days they willbe in a ftate
to be threfhed out from the hufks or pods. When they are
fuffered to remain too long, the-pods are liable to open, and
fhed the feed. Although the pod in which the feeds are con-
tained is of a large fize, the feeds are lefs than thofe of the
turnip. New feed, where it can be procured, fhould always
be fown in preference to fuch as has been kept for fome
time ; but when of the latter kind, it fhould be fteeped for
fome time before it is put into the ground.
In regard to the quantity of feed which is neceflary, it
mutt be regulated by the foil, and the manner in which it is
fown. Where the drill is employed, lefs will be required
than in the broad-caft method. It has been found that a
rood of land, where the crop is good, will in general afford
feed fufficient for eight or ten acres ; and in fome cafes, in
the broad-caft method, five or fix bufhels are made ufe of to
the acre. In Kent they ufe ten or twelve pounds to the
acre.
Sowing.—The time of fowing crops of this nature mutt
be regulated, in fome degree, by the mode of preparation
that has been employed. Where the firft of the above me-
thods has been followed, it will be much later than in the
other cafes. But early fowing is in general to be preferred,
as there will be lefs danger of the plants being injured
by the attacks of the fly or grub. Where the weather is
fuitable, and the land in a proper ftate of preparation, the
feed may be fown in the latter end of February or March,
continuing the fowings, in different portions of land, ull
about the middle of May, at fuitable intervals of time to
vary the times of cropping the leaves of the plants. The
late fowings are commonly executed about the latter end of
July, or early in the following month at the fartheft.
With refpedt to the manner in which the feed is fown, it
differs according to the nature and {tate of preparation of the
land. Where it is in a fine ftate of mould, the drill or row me-
thod is the method moftly praétifed, which is by much the
beft, as by it the plants may be kept more eafily clean and
’ free from weeds, becoming more ftrong and vigorous, from
the earth being more ftirred about the plants: but where
‘the contrary is the cafe, the broad-caft mode is generally
followed ; but which does not by any means admit of the
plants being kept fo free from weeds, or the mould fo well
ttirred about the roots of them.
Where the firft method is had recourfe to, the feed is
fown by a drilling-machine, fuch as is ufed for turnips, in
equidiltant rows, eight or nine inches apart, covering it in,
either by means of a harrow attached to the implement, or
by paffing a light common harrow over the ground after-
wards, once in a place, raking off any clods that may be
prefent to the fides, or into the furrows : but in the latter
mode, it muft be difperfed by the hand in as equal a manner
as poffible, over the whole of the land, being then harrowed.
in by a light harrow, fo as to leave the land in as even and
level a ftate as poffible. The ground is frequently rolled
afterwards, that the furface may be left as even as poffible.
In favourable feafons with good feed, the plants moftly
appear in the courfe of a fortnight, when much attention
fhould be paid to fee that they are not deftroyed by the
turnip-fly, or the frofls in thofe of the more early fowings ;
as, where that is the cafe, the land fhould be immediately
refown ; as in fome cafes it is not uncommon to fow-the
greateft part of the crop two or three times over. In the
very late fowings, where the crops rife. thin on the ground,
it is fometimes a praétice to give a better plant by forming.
holes with a hoe in the vacant fpots, and direéting feeds to
be dropped into them by the hand by women or children.
This is the cafe with the late fpring-fowings till the begin-
ning of June, or a later period.
Culture while groqwing.—From much of the goodnefs of
the woad plants depending on the luxuriance of their
growth, and the thicknefs of their leaves, it is neceflary to
beftow great attention in the culture of the crop while
growing. It is advifed that the {pring-fown crops, as well as
thofe that are fownin the latter part of the fummer, fhoula
have the firft hoeings given them as foon as the plants are
fully diftinguifhable above the ground, as by this means the
weeds will not only be prevented from retarding the vegeta-
tion of the plants, but thefe by being thinned out to greater
diftances be more at liberty to advance and become vi-
gorous in their firft or early growth, which is a matter of
much confequence to the fuccefs of the crop ; and fecond
hoeings fhould be given in the courfe of four or five weeks
afterwards, when the plants fhould be thinned out to the full
diftances at which they are to ftand, which may be fix or
feven inches, or more, according to the goodnefs of the
foil, conftantly leaving fufficient room to prevent the plants
from being in any way crowded. The work is fometimes
executed in much the fame manner as for turnips, by hand-
hoes; but in others by {mall fhort fpuds, ufed with one
hand, while the other is employed in clearing away the
weeds ; the labourers, moftly women and children, kneeling
while they perform the work.. When this work has been
done, nothing further is neceffary till the firft cropping -
the
WOAD.
the leaves has been performed, when the plants fhould be
RY immediately well weeded ; and after each cropping
e fame operation be had recourfe to; the extent of crop
cleared in the day being, in moft cafes, weeded before
night.
With the late-fown crops, after the fecond weeding in
O&ober, nothing further will be requifite till the fpring,
about the middle of April, when the work fhould be again
well executed, the mould being completely ftirred about the
roots of the plants, that they may derive the fulleft benefit
from the operation. This will be fufficient to keep them
clean till the taking of the firft crop ; after which they muft
be again weeded, and the fame operation be had recourfe to
after each cropping of the leaves, as in the above cafe.
In refpeé& to the bufinefs of gathering the crops with the
fpring-fown ones, the leaves will generally be ready to be
gathered towards the latter end of June, or beginning of
July, according to the nature of the foil, feafon, and cli-
mate ; but:for thofe put in at a later period in the fummer,
they are often fit to be gathered earlier. This bufinefs
fhould, however, conftantly be executed as foon as the
leaves are fully grown, while they retain their perfe& green
colour, and are highly fucculent ; as when they are let re-
main till they begin to turn pale, much of their goodnefs is
faid to be expended, and they become lefs in quantity, and
of an inferior quality for the purpofes of the dyer. In fa-
vourable feafons, where the foils are rich, the plants will
often rife to the height of eight or ten inches ; but in other
circumftances they feldom attain more than four or five :
and where the lands are well managed in the culture of the
plants, they will often afford two or three gatherings, but
the beft cultivators feldom take more than two, which are
fometimes mixed together in the manufacturing of them. It
is neceflary that the after-croppings, when they are taken,
are conftantly kept feparate from the others, as they would
injure the whole if blended together, and confiderably di-
minifh the value of the produce. It is faid that the beft
method, where a third cropping is either wholly or partially
made, is to keep it feparate, forming it into an inferior kind
of woad.
Upon an acre of land, when well managed, in favourable
feafons, the produce is moftly from about a ton to a ton and
a half. The price varies confiderably ; but for woad of the
prime quality, it is often from twenty-five to thirty pounds
the ton, and for that of an inferior quality fix or feven, and
fometimes much more,
Seeding-Crops.—With fuch parts:of the crops as are re-
ferved for feed, itis a practice with fome to crop the leaves
two or three times the firft year, and then leave the plants
to run up to feed in the following one; but it is a better
practice to only remove the fide-leaves, as in this way the
lants are lefs weakened, and the produce of the feed much
increafed. The plants are likewife fometimes fed down by
fheep during the winter feafon ; but this, from its tendency
to weaken them, is equally improper and prejudicial.
Preparation of for the Dyer.—The woad, after it has been
— undergoes feveral proceffes to prepare it for the
yer; but in the improved method it is conveyed in one-
horfe carts, fo contrived as to be lifted from the axis, and,
by folding doors in the bottoms, to difcharge their con-
tents upon the floor above the mill, on being hoifted up to
their eee fituation: round this floor holes are formed for
putting the plants down through, in order that they may
drop under the grinding-wheels. The mills for this pur-
pofe have feveral wheels for grinding the plants, which have
lefs diameters on one fide than the other, and are about
three feet in width, being conftruéted with iron bars for
crufhing the woad. They are wrought by horfes, or any
other power, as may be the moft convenient. The mate-
rials are preferved under the grinding-wheels by proper con-
trivances, which, as foon as they are fufficiently reduced,
force it out of the tracks upon the ftone floors on the fides ;,
thus making way for new parcels without the mill being
ftopped. The bruifed woad is then thrown into rooms on
the fides of the mill, deftined for its reception, by means of
fhovels. In thefe it remains till the juice is fo much drained
off as to leave it in a proper condition for being formed into
balls ; which is done by labourers, with apparatus for the
purpofe, and then laid upon trays to be conveyed to the dry-
Ing ranges, in which they are placed upon grating-fhelves
that flide on fledges in the drying-houfes. Thefe are placed
on the fides of galleries, for the convenience of being eafily
depofited upon them and removed again. It is kept in
thefe till it is fufficiently dried to be laid up in other rooms,
until the whole of the crop has undergone the fame opera-
tions, and the workmen are ready to manufacture it.
It is ftated in the Correéted Lincolnfhire Report on Agri-
culture, that to prepare it for ufe inthe art of dyeing, it is
neceflary for it to take on a proper ftate of fermentation,
which is accomplifhed in the courfe of feven or eight
weeks, and, in the technical language of the art, is termed
couching. It is effeGted by regrinding the balls, in the fame
mill as before, to a fine powder, and then {preading it
upon the floors of the rooms in which the balls were formed,
to the thicknefs of about three feet ; where it is then moif-
tened with water, fo as to. keep it in a proper flow ftate of
fermentation ; and fo managed by turning that it may per-
vade the whole in an equal manner. In this bufinefs, the di-
reGtion of an experienced workman is neceflary. In the
turning, it is of much importance that the parts of the ma-
terials be perfectly divided, which can only be effected by a
nice management of the fhovel; and it is added that much
advantage has been found in the goodnefs of the woad, from
the drying and {toring of it being performed in a careful man-
ner. When this attention is negle&ted, the woad will not,
on being broken between the finger and thumb, draw out
into fine hair-like filaments, or, in the technical language of
the manufacturer, Jeaver well; as the ufe of this Ebitance
in the blue vat of the dyer, is not merely to afford the co-
lour of the plant, but, by bringing on a very gentle fer-
mentation, excite the indigo in the y bie vat to yield its co-
louring principle more oe a This is even neceflary for
its own colouring-matter being fully imparted. The fub-
{tance fhould, therefore, be fo prepared in the different opera-
tions as to produce this effe& in the moft certain and perfe&
manner. When the heat in the procefs of couching has
gone too far, the fubftance will be what is termed foxy ; and
when it has not proceeded to a fufficient degree, it will be
what is called Aeavy. If the material be good, it does not
foil the fingers on being rubbed between them ; but fuch as
is heavy does, In the conclufion of the procefs, the cool-
ing is effected in fo gradual a manner, as to render it not
fit for taking on the ieee procefs ; and of courfe proper for
being preferved in cafks, or in any other way. Its then
ready for ufe.
The preparation of woad for dyeing, as practifed in
France, is minutely defcribed by Aftruc, in his Memoirs
for a Natural Hiftory of Languedoc. The plant puts
forth at firft five or fix upright leaves, about a foot long,
and fix inches broad: when thefe hang downwards, and
turn yellow, they are fit for gathering : five crops are ga-
thered in one year. The leaves are carried directly to a
mill, much refembling the oil or tan-mills, and ground into a
{mooth pafte. If this procefs was deferred for fome time,
they
WOA
-they would putrefy, and fend forth an infupportable ftench.
The pafte is laid in heaps, prefled clofe and {mooth, and
the blackifh cruft, which forms on the outfide, re-
united if it happens to crack: if this was negle¢ted, little
worms would be produced in the cracks, and the woad
would lofe a part of its ftrength. After lying for fifteen
days, the heaps are opened, the crufl rubbed and mixed
with the infide, and the matter formed into oval balls, which
are prefled clofe and folid in wooden moulds. Thefe are
dried upon hurdles: in the fun, they turn black on the out-
fide; in a clofe place, yellowith, efpecially if the weather
be rainy: the dealers in this commodity prefer the firft,
though it is faid the workmen find no inconfiderable differ-
ence betwixt the two. The good balls are diftinguifhed
by their being weighty, of an agreeable fmell, and when
rubbed of a violet colour within. For the ufe of the
dyer, thefe balls require a farther preparation: they are
beat with wooden mallets, on a brick or ftone floor, into a
grofs powder ; which is heaped up in the middle of the
room to the height of four feet, a {pace being left for
pafling round the fides. The powder, moiftened with
water, ferments, grows hot, and throws out a thick fetid
fume. It is fhovelled backwards and forwards, and moif-
tened every day for twelve days ; after which it is ftirred lefs
frequently, without watering, and at length made into a
heap for the dyer.
The powder thus prepared gives only brownifh tinétures,
of different fhades, to water, to reCtified fpirit of wine, to
volatile alkaline {pirits, and to fixed alkaline lixivia : rubbed
on paper, it communicates a green ftain. On diluting the
. powder with boiling water, and after ftanding fome hours in
a clofe veffel, adding about one-twentieth part of its weight
of lime newly flacked, digefting in a gentle warmth, and
ftirring the whole together every three or four hours, a new
_fermentation begins, a blue froth arifes to the furface, and
the liquor, though it appears itfelf of a reddifh colour, dyes
-woollen of a green, which, like the green from indigo,
changes in the air toa blue. This is one of the niceft pro-
ceffes in the art of dyeing, and does not well fucceed in the
way of a {mall experiment.
Aftrue propofes the manufa@turing of frefh woad leaves
in Europe, after the fame manner as the indigo plant is ma-
nufaétured in America; and thus preparing from it a blue
fecula fimilar to indigo, which from his own experiments he
has found to be praéticable. Such a management would
doubtlefs be accompanied with fome advantages, though
poflibly woad fo prepared might lofe thofe qualities which
now render it, in a large bufinefs, preferable on fome ac-
counts to indigo, as oceafioning greater difpatch when once
the vat is ready, and giving out its colour lefs haftily, fo as
to be better fitted for dyeing very light fhades. Neumann’s
Chem. by Lewis, p. 437; &c.
The ancient Gauls and Britons ufed to dye or {tain
their bodies with this plant, and were probably led from this
application of it to ufe it for dyeing cloth.
Some hold that it was from this plant glafs took its deno-
mination ; though others derive both gla/s and glaftum from
the Britifh gla/s, which to this day denotes a blue colour.
See Grass.
A woad blue is a very deep blue, almoft black ; and is
the bafe of fo many forts of colours, that the dyers have a
fcale, by which they compofe the divers cafts or degrees of
woad, from the brighteft to the deepeft.
Woap, in Botany. (See Isaris.) There are four
ipecies.
The broad-leaved woad is cultivated in feveral parts of
WOB
England for the purpofes of dyeing, being,ufed as a found-
ation for many of the dark colours.
Some feed down the leaves of woad in winter with fheep ;
a practice which Mr. Miller condemns.
Woad grows wild in fome parts of France, and on the
coafts of the Baltic fea: the wild woad, and that which is
cultivated for the ufe of dyers, appear to be of the fame {pecies.
Befide the plant properly fignified by the name woad,
which dyes a blue colour, we have two others known in our
Englifh herbals under that name, as alfo that of wold or
weld. Thefe are both called by the common people dyer’s
weed, and are the /uteola and the genifta tinGoria.
The ancients confounded all thefe three plants alfo under
the fame names. Paulus /Egineta feems to make them all
the fame plant ; and Neophytus, {peaking of the if/atis, or
our woad, properly fo called, fays, that it was called by the
Latins /utum. This /utum has been by fome underftood to
mean the /uteola, and by others the genifta tindoria ; but the
latter opinion only is right, for it is defcribed to us by the
ancients as having leaves like the Jinum, or flax, and flowers
like the broom.
Woan-Mill and Houfe, that fort of mill and houfe
which is neceflary and proper for preparing and fitting this
kind of fubftance for the ufe of the dyer. The reprefent-
ation of a mill and excellent apparatus for effeCting the pre-
paration of the woad plant, which is made ufe of by Mr.
Cartwright, with much fuccefs and advantage, in Lincoln-
fhire, may be feen in the fecond volume of the ‘¢ General
Didtionary of Agriculture and Hufbandry.”’
WOAHOO, or Oanxoo, in Geography, one of the Sand-
wich iflands ; as far as could be judged from the appear-
ance of the north-eaft and north-weft parts, it is much the
fineft ifland of the whole group. Nothing can exceed the
verdure of the hills, the variety of wood and lawn, and rich
cultivated valleys, which the whole face of the country dif-
played. The road is formed by the north and weft extremi-
ties. Should the ground-tackling of a fhip be weak, and
the wind blow ftrong from the north, to which quarter the
road is entirely open, this circumftance might be attended
with fome danger; but with good cables there would be
little rifk, as the ground from the anchoring-place, which is
oppofite to the valley through which the river runs to the
north point, is a fine fand. This ifland is fuppofed to con-
tain 60,000 inhabitants. N. lat. 21° 43/. E. long. of the
anchoring-place 202° 9. See Sanpwicu J/lands.
WOALDS, in Agriculture, a term not unfrequently
applied by writers on hufbandry to crops of the woad
kind. See Woap.
WOAPO, in Geography, one of the Ingraham iflands
in the Pacific ocean. Captain Ingraham called it Adams.
It was afterwards vifited by captain Roberts, who named
it Jefferfon. S. lat. 9° 27/.
WOBBEL, a town of Weltphalia, in the county of
Lippe; 6 miles E.N.E. of Horn.
WOBURN, or Woozurn Wef, or Bifhop’s Wooburn, a
village in the hundred of Defborough, Buckinghamfhire,
England, is fituated in a narrow valley, at the diftance of
3 miles W.S.W. from Beaconsfield, and 26 miles W. by N.
from London. The manor of Bifhop’s Wooburn had
from time immemorial belonged to the fee of Lincoln, till
the year 1547, when bifhop Holbeach gave it to the crown
in exchange. It was granted in 1549 to John, earl of
Bedford. In the 17th century it came by marriage
to Philip, lord Wharton, whofe fon and grandfon, the cele-
brated marquis and duke of Wharton, fucceffively held it.
After the death of the latter, it was fold to the Berties ;
from whom it was purchafed, in 1784, by Mrs. Dupre,
mother
WOB
mother of James Dupré, efq. of Wilton-park, who is the
prefent proprietor. The old manor-houfe was a palace of
the bifhops of Lincoln, feveral of whom died here. The
marquis and the duke of Wharton are faid to have expended
incredible fums of money on the houfe and gardens: of the
latter, which in a former age were highly celebrated, fearcely
a veftige now remains. The manfion was pulled down in
1750; when one of the wings was fitted up as a dwelling-
houfe, which has fince been enlarged and improved, and is
now occupied by the countefs of Orkney. The parifh-
church is a {pacious and ancient ftru€ture, with a nave, two
aifles, and a tower. The latter was built about the year
1480, as appears by the epitaph of John Goodwin and
Pernell his wife, who are called its founders. In the chan-
cel are feveral monuments of the families of Bertie and
Wharton, among which is one of grey marble to the me-
mory of Philip, lord Wharton, who diedin 1695. The font
isa curious piece of ancient feulpture. — This parifh con-
tains 2596 acres, chiefly difpofed in arable and wood land.
In the population return of the year 1811, the inhabitants
were eftimated at 1604; the number of houfes ates. An
annual fair is held, for which lord Wharton obtained a
charter in 1686. A fair was alfo granted by king
Henry VI., but is now difcontinued.—Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. 1. Buckinghamfhire. By J. Britton and
E. W. Brayley, 1802. Lyfons’ Magna Britannia, vol. 1.
Buckinghamfhire, 1806. f
Wosurn, or Old Woburn, a market-town in the hundred
of Manthead, and county of Bedford, England, is fituated
near the weltern confines of the county, at the diftance of
14 miles S.W. by S. from the county-town, and 42 miles
N.W. by N. from London. Great part of the town was
confumed by fire in 1724, which, though diftrefling to indi-
viduals, proved ultimately beneficial, as the houfes were re-
built in a more convenient and regular manner, with the ad-
dition of feveral good inns, and a market-houfe. The whole
expence of the new buildings was defrayed by the duke of
Bedford. The market-houfe was finifhed in 1737, but has
been materially improved by the late duke Francis. It con-
fifts of two floors; the lower fitted up for butchers’
fhambles, over which is a fpacious room for a corn-market.
In the population return of the year 1811, the inhabitants of
the parifh are ftated to be 1506, page 299 houfes. A
weekly market is held on Fridays, whic was granted in
1242 to the abbot of Woburn, and four fairs annually.
The church was ereéted by Robert Hobbs, the laft abbot
of Woburn. This ftruéture furnifhes a peculiar inftance of
capricious tafte ; the body being completely detached from
the tower, which ftands at about fix yards diftance. The
tower is a {mall fquare building, with large buttreffes at the
corners, and four pinnacles ; the church confifts of three
aifles and a chancel ; the whole has recently undergone a
thorough repair. “Adjoining to the church-yard is a free-
{chool, founded by Francis, earl of Bedford. Here are alfo
alms-houfes for twelve poor perfons, founded by the Bedford
family, and endowed with sol. per annum, which was con-
firmed by aé& of parliament in 1761.
About a mile eaft of the town is Woburn abbey, the feat
of the duke of Bedford. This magnificent manfion is
fituated in the midft of an extenfive park, and occupies the
four fides of a quadrangle of more than 200 feet. It was
ereéted about the middle of the laft century by Flitcroft, for
John, the fourth duke of Bedford, of the Ruffel family, on
the {cite of an old abbey. The a building was
founded in the year 1145, by Hugh de Bolebec, for monks
of the Ciftercian order. In 1234 the monaftery was fo
reduced, that the eftablifhment was for. a time broken up,
WOE
and the monks difperfed into different convents till their
debts were paid. But by various benefaétions their re-
venues were fo much improved, that at the general diffolu-
tion they were eftimated at 391/. 18s. 2d. clear yearly value.
The laft abbot was hanged for denying the king’s fupre-
macy. The fcite of the abbey was granted in 1547 to John,
lord Ruffel, afterwards earl of Bedford, and has ever fince
been the principal feat of that noble family. There are no
remains of the conventual buildings. The prefent manfion,
originally fitted up in a very coftly ftyle, has received many
confiderable improvements, particularly during the time it
was in the pofleffion of the late duke. Mr. Holland, the
archite& of Drury-lane theatre, has difplayed much tafte
and ability in the additional buildings which have been exe-
cuted under his dire&tion. The weft front is built of the
Tonic order, with a rufticated bafement. The principal
floor, or fuite of rooms on this fide, confift of a faloon, ftate
bed-rooms, drawing and dining-rooms ; the fouth fide con-
tains the library, breakfaft, Etrufcan, and duke’s rooms ; the
eaft, the veftibule, fervants’ offices, &c. ; and the north, the
French bed-rooms, and various other chambers. Mott of
the apartments are embellifhed with fine paintings : the gal-
lery, in particular, exhibits a large and valuable colleétion
of portraits by the old maiters. The late duke’s favourite
purfuits are well known to have been experimental agricul-
ture and breeding of cattle. For this purpofe he kept
feveral farms in his own hands. The principal of thefe,
diftinguifhed by the name of the Park-farm, is fituated in
the park, about half a mile from the houfe. All inge-
nious contrivances to fhorten labour, and facilitate ufeful
operations, are here concentrated. The farm-yard is replete
with conveniences. It contains barns, ftables, fatting-
houfes, &c. ; a very complete mill, furnifhed with a curious
machine which threfhes and dreffes at the fame time; a
maltern ; two pair of ftones for grinding wheat and barley ;
and every requifite for drefling flour, making oatmeal, &c.
In another part is a {mall water-wheel, which gives motion to
fome very ingenious machinery for bruifing malt, and cutting
chaff. This farm originated with the late duke, through
whofe patronage and exertions many improvements have
been made in the different branches of hufbandry. The
prefent duke follows the fteps of his brother in patronifing
agricultural improvements, and keeps up all the eftablifhments
which he formed with a view to that purpofe.— Beauties’ of
England and Wales, vol. 1. Bedfordfhire. By J. Britton
and E. W. Brayley, 1801. Lyfons’ Magna Britannia,
vol. 1. Bedfordhire, 1806.
Woburn, a town of the ftate of Maflachufetts, in the
county of Middlefex, containing 1277 inhabitants ; 15 miles
N.W. of Botton. .
WOCANELLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda ;
40 miles N.W. of Adoni.
WODEN, in Mythology. See Onin.
WODERCUM, in Geography. See Worcum.
WODNANY, or Wopn1ay, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Prachatitz ; 12 miles N.E. of Prachatitz. N. lat.
49° 10'. E. long. 14° 2!. ,
WODWALLA, a town of Sweden, anciently a fea-
port, but now much reduced, and its privileges removed to
Gotheburg, at eight miles diftance.
WOEL, a town of France, in the department of the
Meufe; 12 miles N.E. of St. Mihel.
WOELFLIES, a town of Saxony, in the principality
of Gotha; 21 miles S.E. of Gotha.
WOERAMATTA, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian
fea. §.lat. 7° 2'. E,. long. 131° 36’.
WOERDEN, or Wornen, a town of Holland, built
by
WOK |
by Godfrey de Rhenen, the twenty-eighth bifhop of Utrecht,
on the river Rhine, about the year 1160, to keep the citi-
zens of Utrecht in fubje€tion, and maintain his authority.
It had a caftle, which was formerly fuppofed to be im-
pregnable; but when the French took the city in 1672,
they entirely demolifhed it, before that time falling to de-
cay. This city had its own particular lords till the year
1296, when Herman de Woerden fortified it, having been
convicted of being a party in the murder of Florent V. comte
of Holland, who was affaffinated by a gentleman named Ge-
rard de Velfen, whofe wife he had ravifhed. It was’ after-
wards fold by Philip II. king of Spain, to Eric, duke of
Brunfwick ; from whom it came, in 1581, under the do-
minion of the States-General. In 1672, the French having
made themfelves matters of this place, the Dutch came to
befiege it, under the prince of Orange and the comte de
Zuyleftein. The comte de Marck, who commanded in the
city, began to be much preffed, when the duke of Luxem-
burg arrived with g000 men. He paffed the morafs by a
way which was fuppofed to be inacceffible, forced the
intrenchments, and put the enemy to flight. The Dutch
loft 2000 men, killed and wounded, among the former
of whom was the comte of Zuyleftein ; and the French about
1000; 8 miles W. of Utrecht.
WOGGORA, a {mall high province of Abyffinia, on the
E. of Gondar, which is fown with wheat. This province
and Dembea are the granaries of the country.
WOGGT, a river of Auftria, which runs into the Ager,
near Voglabruck.
WOGLYDURGAM, a town of Hindooftan, in My-
fore; 15 miles S. of Ouffoor.
WOGOW, atown of Pruffia; 18 miles S. of Konigf-
berg.
WOGSHAID, a town of Auftria; 7 miles S.W. of
Aigen.
WOHLAU, a town of Silefia, and capital of a principal-
ity, on all fides furrounded with marfhes, which are a kind
of natural defence. It has two fuburbs, a Roman Catholic
_and a Lutheran church. . In the year 1640, it was taken by
the Swedes ; in 1642, furprifed by the Imperialifts, but foon
after retaken.by the Swedes; and in 1644, recovered by the
Imperialifls ; 20 miles N.W. of Breflau. N. lat. 51° 20'.
E. long. 16° 35/.
Woutau, or Wolau, a principality of Silefia, bound-
ed on the north by the principality of Glogau, on the
eaft by Poland and the principality of Oels, on the fouth by
the principalities of Breflaw and Lignitz, and on the weft
by the principalities of Lignitz and Glogau; fituated on
both fides of the Oder. The foil isin fome parts dry, in
others marfhy, or overrun with woods and bufhes, though
feveral tracts alfo yield good corn.
WOHRA, a river of Germany, which runs into the
ane’ 2 miles N.W. of Echwegen, in the principality of
effe.
~’ WOHRD, ‘a:town of Bavaria, in the territory of Nu-
remberg, near Nuremberg.
WOINITSCH, a town of Auftrian Poland; 36 miles
E. of Cracow.
“ WOITSBACH, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Boleflaw ; 8 miles E. of Krottau.
WOITSBERG, See Voirsserc.
WOKING, a town of England, in the county of Surrey ;
8 miles N. of Guildford.
WOKINGHAM, or Oakincuam, a market-town and
parifh in the hundred of Sonning, and county of Berks,
England, is fituated in Windfor foreft 7% miles E.S.E.
from Reading, and'32% W.S.W, from London,. The po-
VoL. XXXVIII,
WOL
pulation in 1811 was 2085 perfons, inhabiting 435 houfes.
The market is held on Tuefday, and the fairs on the 23d of
April, 11th of June, roth of Otober, and 2d of Noveinber. -
The town, incorporated by James I., is governed by an alder-
man, high fteward, recorder, burgeffes, and a town-clerk ;
and at this place are held all the courts for Windfor forett.
Although within the bounds of Berkfhire, the church ftands
in an infulated part of Wiltfhire : it is ‘a large and handfome
edifice. ‘The inhabitants are chiefly employed in agriculture,
throwing filk, forting wool, and making thoes: the gauze
manufacture was fome years ago introduced. At Luckely-
green, near this town, is an hofpital, founded in 1665 by
Henry Lucas, efq. for fixteen poor men and a mafter: the-
truftees of the charity are the Drapers’ company of London,
About four milés S.E. from Wokingham, is a large and irre-
gular fortification, with a double ditch, commonly called
Cefar’s camp, fituated on the fummit of a hill. Halfa mile
to the fouthward of this camp is the Devil’s ditch, a raifed
road nearly ninety feet wide, running eaft and weft, with a
trench on each fide. In 1661 George Staverton gave the
rent of adtoufe in this place for the purpofe of buying a
bull, to be baited and killed at Chriftmas, for the benefit of
the poor of Wokingham ; but this being thought infufficient,
the inhabitants are in the habit. of purchafing another beaft
for the fame purpofe. Archbifhop Laud gave a portion of
certain fee-farm rents, which produces about 4o/. per annum,
to the parifh. Every third year it is divided, purfuant to
the donor’s intention, between three poor maidens of the
age of eighteen, natives of the town, and members of the
church of England, who have ferved the fame matter or
miftrefs for three years together: the other years it is ap-
propriated to the apprenticing of poor boys. Dr. Thomas
Godwin, bifhop of Bath and Wells, was a native of this
town, where he was born in 1517.
About four miles 5. from Wokingham is Billingbear, one
of the feats of lord Braybrooke. The houfe is a large irre-
gular building, feated in a fine park. A particular hiftory
and defcription of this place is given, with a view, in Havell’s.
Views of Seats, folio, 1816.—Beauties of England and:
Wales, Berkfhire; by J. Britton and E.'W. Brayley,
London, 8vo. 1802. Magna Britannia, by S. and the Rev.
D. Lyfons, vol. 1. 4to. 1806.
WOKSCHITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 2 miles W. of Gitfchin. :
WOLBECK, or Watpzeck, a town of Germany, in
the bifhopric of Munfter; 7 miles S.S.E. of Munfter,
N, lat. 51° 53’. E. long. 7° §2!.
WOLBORZ, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 41 miles
S. of Siradia. : }
WOLCHRADITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle;
of Brunn; 18 miles $.S.E. of Brunn. :
WOLCKENSTEIN, a town of the duchy of Stiria';.6
miles W.N.W. of Rottenmann. oF
WOLCKERSDORYF, a town of Germany, in the mar-!
gravate of Anfpach; 2 miles N. of Schwabach.—A'Ho, a’
town of Auftria, on the Rufbach ; 8 miles E.N.E. of Korn
Neuburg.
WOLCKERSHAUSEN, a town of the duchy: of
Wurzburg; 6 miles N. of Schweinfurt.—Alfo, a town of
the county of Henneberg ; 3 miles N. of Menungen.
WOLCOTT. See Wootcorv. ;
Wotcorr, a town of Conneéticut, in the county of
New Haven, near Fairfield, with 952 inhabitants. )
WOLD, fignifies a plain, down, or open ~champaign
ground, hilly, and‘void of wood. i
‘ Hence the names. Stow in:the Wold, and Cotfwold, ii
4D Gloucetter-
WOOL
Gloucefterfhire ; whence alfo that part of Leicefterfhire,
which lies northward beyond the Wrekin, is called the Wold
of Leicefterfhire.
Wo tp, or Weld, among Dyers. See WELD.
WOLDEGGE, or Woxpeck, in Geography, a town of
the duchy of Mecklenburg ; 13 miles S.E. of New Bran-
denburg.
WOLDENBERG, a town of the New Mark of Bran-
denburg ; g miles N.E. of Friedburg. N. lat. 53°. E. long.
15° 45".
WOLEIN. See Mirzin.
WOLESCHITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Kaurzim ; 4 miles W.S.W. of Kaurzim.
WOLF, Curistian, in Biography, an eminent mathema-
tician and philofopher, was born at Breflau in 1679, and
well educated under able matters in different branches of
literature and f{cience. At the age of 21, he was entered
at the univerfity of Jena, which was then in high reputation ;
and quitting Jena in 1702, he profecuted his itudies at
Leipfic, where, in the following year, he took his degree
of matter of arts, publifhing on the occafion a differtation,
intitled “ Philofophia praética Univerfalis Mathematico
modo confcripta.”’ In 1704 he publifhed another differtation,
on the differential and infinitefimal calculus. Having ftudied
theology as well as philofophy at Leipfic, he officiated as a
preacher ; and being invited to undertake the office of paftor
in a country village, he was advifed by Leibnitz to decline
it, and to purfue the ftudy of philofophy. As he com-
menced his literary career with great reputation, he was
propofed to be an affociate in the periodical work, intitled
« A@a Eruditorum ;’’ and in this conneétion he continued
for many years, employing his leifure hours in teaching
mathematics, logic, and natural philofophy. When the
Swedes made an incurfion into Saxony in the year 1706, he
quitted Leipfic, and removed to Berlin; where a recom-
mendatory letter of Leibnitz procured for him from
Frederic I. the office of profeffor of mathematics at Halle.
In 1709 he publifhed, in Latin, his treatife on “ Aero-
metry ;” and in the following year his “ Elements of
Mathematics,”’ in 4 vols. which have pafled through feveral
editions. Having compofed a very ingenious eflay on the
intenfe cold of the enfuing winter, he was elefted a member
of the Royal Society of London, and foon after a member
of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. In 1711 he pub-
lifhed his tables of fines and tangents, and in the next year
his treatife on logic, in German, highly commended by
Formey, and tranflated into Latin, French, and other lan-
guages. The firft two volumes of his large work on the
mathematics appeared in 1713, and thefe were afterwards
followed by three more. By the advice of his friend
Leibnitz, he refufed an invitation from Peter the Great to
remove from Halle to Peterfburgh. On the death of
Leibnitz in 1726, Wolf drew up hig life, which fupplied
Fontenelle with materials for his eloge. In 1718 he pub-
lifhed ** Meditations on God, the World, and the Human
Soul,”? which were reprinted in the following year. About
this time the reputation of Wolf and the jealoufy of his
rivals occafioned a literary conteft, which lafted for a confi-
derable time, and which was not very honourable to either
party. Wolf having delivered a differtation on his quitting
the pro-rectorate of Halle univerfity in 1721, on which he
took occafion to compare his own principles with thofe
of, Confucius and the Chinefe, and having announced the
opinion which he entertained on the doctrine of neceflity,
an outcry was raifed againft him, and he was reprefented by
his enemies as a man whofe principles tended to atheifm, and
to corrupt the morals of the people. Notwithitanding
WOL
this malignant attack, he employed himfelf in publithing
three volumes of experimental philofophy, and a volume of
dogmatical philofophy, which he dedicated to the emperor
of Ruffia, and which the emperor caufed to be tranflated into
the Ruffian language, repeating to him the offers which had
before been made, in order to induce him to remove to
Peterfburgh. The conteft that had been excited againft
him {till continued ; and though he attempted to juttify
himfelf in a treatife on the fubje& of fatality, the king
was at length perfuaded that his principles were dangerous,
and ordered him, in November 1723, to quit his territories
in two days, under pain of death. Wolf immediately pro-
ceeded to Caffel, where he met with the king of Sweden,
who appointed him profeffor of mathematics at Marpurg,
an office which he had refufed fixteen years before. The
clergy of Halle purfued him with their enmity and oppofi-
tion to Marpurg; but Wolf was fuffered to remain in the
quiet enjoyment of his office during his refidence at that
place. Several ftudents who attended him at Halle fol-
lowed him hither, and his le&tures, which be commenced in
1724, were attended by pupils from all parts of Europe.
His mind being now undifturbed, he refumed his literary
labours, and publifhed his ** Remarks on Metaphyfics,”” in
which he anfwered the principal objeGtions againft his doc-
trine, and gained a decided victory over his enemies. The
grounds of the cenfure that had been paffed on Wolf had
been every where canvafled ; and almoft every German
univerfity was inflamed with difputes on the fubjeé& of
liberty and neceffity, fo that the names of Wolfian and
anti-Wolfian were every where heard. Wolf, having thus
vindicated his philofophy from reproach, received new invi-
tations from Peterfburgh and Leipfic ; but gratitude to his
prote¢tor induced him to remain in his fituation at Mar-
purg, which he found to be very agreeable, and to afford
him leifure for purfuing his Get ulstacts. After an interval
of nine years, the current of public opinion turned in fa-
vour of Wolf, and he now received numerous tokens of,
refpe& from men of rank and learning ; and in 1733 he
was invited to fill, in the Academy of sarod one of the
eight places allotted to foreigners diftinguifhed in the
higheft branches of fcience. On this occafion, Reaumur
and he commenced an intimate friendfhip, which lafted till
the time of his death. The king of Pruffia was convinced
of Wolf’s innocence, reverfed his fentence of exile, and
wifhed to repair the injury which he had fuftained. He
made tempting offers, both of title and money, to induce
him to return to Halle ; but he declined the acceptance of
them; as he alfo refufed an invitation from George I. of
England to accept a place in the new academy which he,
had founded at Gottingen. ‘The clergy of Halle made
fome other attempts to reproach and ruin him, but they
recoiled on his adverfaries. In the year 1740, he prefixed
to the firft volume of his ‘* Droit Naturel, or Treatife on
the Law of Nature,’? a dedication to the hereditary prince
of Pruffia, afterwards Frederick the Great, which was ac-
knowledged by a very flattering letter.
Frederick the Great, as foon as he afcended the throne,
recalled Wolf to Halle; and with the permiffion of the
king of Sweden, he confented to accept the office of profeffor
of the law of nature and nations, and alfo of mathematics,
with a falary of 2000 crowns, and liberty to teach whatever
he thought proper. He obtained alfo the rank of privy-
counfellor, and was made firft vice-chancellor, and after-
wards chancellor of the univerfity. In 1745 he was created
a baron by the ele&tor of Bavaria. Wolf was now, at the
height of his profperity. At more than 60 years of age he
refumed his Jabours, and completed his eee on the law of
10 nature
WOL
nature and nations, which was written in Latin, and ex-
tended to eight volumes gto. He alfo wrote prefaces to
the works of others, and particularly one to Suffmilch’s
work on population. Notwithftanding his great celebrity,
perhaps on this account, he had many and powerful enemies.
Leibnitz, Maupertuis, and Voltaire, were of this number :
and with refpe& to the latter, we may obferve, that both in
his writings and in his converfation with the king, he con-
tributed in no fmall degree to leffen the veneration which
Frederick If. entertained for him. In 1752 he was made
a member of the Inftitute at Bologna ; but he did not long
furvive this honour, as he died in the month of April 1754,
in the 76th year of his age. He left one fon, who inherited
a confiderable eftate which he had purchafed.
The adverfaries of Wolf attacked not only the principles
of his philofophy, but his method and his ftyle. His
Latin, it muft be acknowledged, was not elegant ; but his
German has been commended and imitated ; and he is faid
to have improved his native tongue both in precifion and
energy. With regard to his general difpofition and demea-
nour, he is faid to have united a great degree of com-
plaifance and affability, with irreproachable morals and ex-
ceflive vanity, which he was not able to conceal. He did
not hefitate to extol himfelf and his own merits publicly
and without referve, and even to exhibit them in emble-
matical devices on_the titles of his books. Brucker fums
up the chara&ter of Wolf as a writer in the following con-
cife manner: —‘* He poffefled a clear and methodical
underftanding, which by long exercife in mathematical in-
veftigations was particularly fitted for the employment of
diac the feveral branches of knowledge into regular
fyftems ; and his fertile powers of invention enabled him to
enrich almoft every field of fcience in which he laboured,
with fome new addition. The lucid order which appears
in all his writings enables his reader to follow his concep-
tions with eafe and certainty through the longeft train of
reafoning. But the clofe conneétion of the feveral parts of
his works, together with the vaft variety and extent of the
fubjeéts on which he treats, renders it impracticable to give
a fummary of his doérines.’? Brucker’s Philofophy by
Enfield, vol. ii. Preface to M. de Vattel’s Law of Nations.
See Lerenirztan Philofophy.
Wotr, Jerome, a German philofopher, was born in the
county of Oettingen, in the year 1516, and inftru@ted in the
elementary parts of education at a college eftablifhed by the
fenate of Nuremberg. But his ftudies were interrupted by
an appointment in the fervice of Julius, the chancellor of
count Von Oettingen. This interruption, however, con-
tributed to allay the feverity of his countenance and manner,
and to meliorate the morofenefs of his temper ; whilft thefe
unamiable qualities were amply counterbalanced by probity,
diligence, and modefty, which engaged the confidence and
efteem of his employer. His habitual difpofition again
returned, and he refumed the ftudy of poetry, and of the
ancient Greek writers, againft the remonftrances of the
chancellor, who recommended attention to jurifprudence and
public bufinefs, as the moft effeCtual means of acquiring both
honour and competence. Remonftrances were ineffectual,
and he perfifted in purfuing a courfe which cherifhed his
morbid melancholy and difquieting irritability. Still de-
voted to his literary purfuits, he was fortunate in gaining
the patronage of John James Fugger ; and in being after-
wards advanced to the poft of the dire€tor of the college
of Augfburg, and that of librarian to this inftitution- In
this fituation he remained till his death, which happened in
the month of O&ober 1580. Wolf was particularly dif-
tinguifhed as a laborious tranflator, in which literary depart-
WoL
ment he gained the commendation of Huet ; though Henry
Stephen cenfures his performances. When the edition of
the Annals of Zonaras, publifhed by Wolf at Bafle in 1557»
became rare, a new one, with notes by Du Cange, was
printed at the Louvre in Paris in 1687. Wolf's tranflation
of Demofthenes was firft printed at Bafle by Oporinus ;
and being much approved, it paffed through two other
editions. After being revifed by the tranflator, Epifcopius
printed it at Bafle in 1572, with the orations of A&f{chines,
the commentaries of Ulpius, and the notes of Wolfius.
His other works, which were numerous, almoft wholly re-
lated to Greek and Latin authors. Eloges par Formey et
Teiffier.
Wo tr, Jonn Curisroruer, a German Lutheran divine
and eminent fcholar, was born in 1613, at Wernigeroda,
and removing in 1695 to Hamburgh, was educated under
the proteétion of the celebrated Fabricius, by whom he
was employed, under the age of 20 years, in making a
catalogue of all the writers quoted in Euftathius’s Commen-
tary on Homer, afterwards inferted by Fabricius in his
‘* Bibliotheca Greca.’? Having profecuted his ftudies at
Wittenberg, and graduated matter of arts, he became, in
1706, adjuné of the philofophical faculty. Upon his re-
turn to Hamburgh, he undertook a tour in 1708 through
Holland to England, and for fome time refided at Oxford
for the uft of the Bodleian library. His next migration
to Denmark led, in 1710, to the appointment of extra-
ordinary profeffor of philofophy at Wittenberg, where
his letures collected a great number of pupils. Although
he was here advanced to the chair of theology, he removed
in 1712 to Hamburgh, and was appointed profeffor of the
oriental languages in the Gymnafium, and in 1715 pro-
moted to be reétor of that inflitution. He was likewife
a preacher-extraordinary at the cathedral, and became paftor
of the church of St. Catharine ; and foon after a member
of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. He commenced his
literary contributions to the “* Ata Eruditorum”? in 1708 ;
and he colleéted from various repofitories an aftonifhing
number of rabbinical and oriental books and MSS. ;
which library he bequeathed to the library at Hamburgh,
where he died in June 1739. Of his numerous works, we
fhall here enumerate his ‘“¢ Bibliotheca Hebrza,”’ in 4 vols.
fol.; ‘ Hiftoria Lexicorum Hebraicorum ;” “ Primitiz
Flemburgenfes, five Oratio de Precocibus eruditis, et Ora-
tiones bine de Neceffitate et Utilitate declamandi ;”’ “* Hif-
toria Bomogilorum ;” “ Differtatio de Atheifmi falfo fuf-
pectis ;”” ‘* Cure philologice et critice in Novum Tef-
tamentum,” 4 vols. 4to. He was alfo the editor of feveral
learned works. Gen. Biog.
Wotr. There are biographical articles for five German
muficians of that name in Gerber’s Continuation of Wal-
ther’s Mufical Lexicon.
Firft, Michael Chriftian Wolf, organift and mufic direGtor
in St. Mary’s church at Stettin, born 1709, and who died
in 1789, after publifhing the following works: ‘ Six Duets
for two German Flutes at Berlin ;?? “ Six Harpfichord So-
natas,”” Stettin, 1776; ‘* Songs with a Harpfichord or Harp
Accompaniment,” Ebend, 1777; ‘“ Exercifes for the Organ
in Choral Mufic ;” and having in MS. a Pfalm for Four
Voices, with an Accompaniment for the Organ, and many
other pieces for the church and chamber.
Il. Lrnft Friederic Wolf, brother to the preceding mai-
ter, ftate organift at Cologne, who died in 1772. He had
been two years under the chapel-mafter Stdlzd, for compo-
fition ; and under the concert-mafter Hiihn, at Gotha, for
the violin. But at nine years old he had previoufly ftudied
the {cores of great mafters, and the Gradus ad’ Parnaflum
4 D2 of
Wort
of Fouche, fo that early in life he became a great extempore
player on the organ.
Of thefe nt, te we have never heard or feen the
produétions ; but of
Ernft William Wolf, born at a village near Gotha, in
1735, chapel-mafter at Weimer, we have feen and admired
many of the works.
- Wotr, in Affronomy. See Lupus.
Worr, Lupus, in Zoology, the canis lupus of Linnzus,
a beaft of prey of the dog kind, with the tail bending in-
wards, rather long and bufhy, and the largeft and fierceft
of that race of animals. It is extremely like the domettic
dog in fhape, and if the head, which is long, with a pointed
nole, did not differ a little in figure, the upper part of the
face being broader, one would be apt to declare it the very
fame animal. It is diftinguifhed alfo by fuperior fize,
ftronger limbs, and more mufcular body. It has a very
fierce look about the face; its eyes are more obliquely placed
than thofe of the dog, and are more glaring and favage ; its
jaws are much ftronger ; and its teeth, which are large and
fharp, and the opening of its mouth, which is fhorter in
proportion than that of the dog, fierce and frightful. The
ancients had an opinion, that the neck of the wolf was all
of one folid bone; but, on the contrary, this creature is
able to turn and twift it about better than the dog kind.
The wolf, as well as all the other beafts of prey, can en-
dure hunger a long time, though very voracious when it
meets with food. The wolf differs from the dog in his note,
for inftead of the barking of the dog this creature only
howls ; his ears, which ftand ere&t, and his tail, make him
alfo greatly refemble the fox.
The hair of the wolf is long; the legs are long; the
head and neck cinereous: and the body generally pale grey,
tinged with yellow; fometimes found white; in Canada
fometimes black ; and taller than a large grey-hound.
The wolf inhabits the continents of Europe, Afia,
Africa, and America.
How numerous thefe animals were formerly in Britain we
may infer from the laws of king Edgar, who attempted to
extirpate them by commuting the punifhments for certain
crimes into the acceptance of a number of wolves’ tongues
from each criminal ; in Wales by converting the tax of gold
and filver into an annual tribute of three hundred wopueat
heads. In fucceeding times their deftruction was promoted
by certain rewards; and fome lands were held on condition
of deftroying the wolves which infefted thofe parts of the
kingdom.
In 1281, thefe animals infefted feveral of the Englith
counties ; but after that period, our records make no men-
tion of them. The laft wolf known in Scotland was killed
in 1680, and in Ireland one was killed in 1710.
The wolves of North America are the {malleft ; and it is
faid, that from thofe proceeded the dogs which were found
there by the Europeans on their firft arrival: when re-
claimed, they are the dogs of the natives. In the lefs in-
habited parts of the country, they gather in large droves,
and hunt the deer and other animals like hounds with hi-
deous howlings, and it is affirmed that they will attack even
the buffalo. In the inhabited parts, they are become rare.
In fome parts of Europe their number has fomewhat in-
creafed; ¢.g. in Sweden they were rare till about the year
1720. The Swedes deftroy them by ftuffing the carcafe of
a fheep or other animal with a {pecies of lichen or tree-mofs,
(lichen vulpinus,) which is confidered as a certain poifon to
the wolf, and alfo, as the name imports, to the fox. This
is faid to be mixed with pounded glafs, which is probably
more deftruétive than the lichen, “The wolves of Senegal
WoL .
are the. largeft’ and fierceft ; -and they ii company with
the lion. ‘T'hofe of the Cape are grey ed black ; Pichens
are black. \ ~ ‘
_ Wolves are cruel, but cowardly animals; they fly from
man, except when impelled by hunger; in which cafe, they
prowl by night in great droves through villages, and deftroy
any perfons they meet; and having once got the tafte of
human ‘blood, give it the preference. In hard weather
wolves affemble in large troops, and join in dreadful howl-
ings. They have a fine fcent, and hunt by the nofe: be-
tween them and the dogs a mutual enmity fubfifts. . This
animal has a very {trong carnivorous appetite; and yet
crafty, ftrong, and nimble as he is, and in every refpe& ca-
pable of feizing his prey, he often dies of hunger. Beingy
driven into the foreft, he finds only a few fpecies of wild
animals, who fave themfelves by flight, fo that he perifhes:
with want. Although he is naturally timid and dattardly,
he braves danger, when preffed with famine, and attacks
thofe animals that are under the prote€tion of man, and
carries away lambs, {mall dogs, and kids, returning often to»
the charge, until being wounded by his purfuers, he retires
to his den in the day, but iffues forth in the night to his;
ferocious and deftruétive ravages. When his hunger is ex-
treme, he attacks women and children, and fometimes darts:
with favage violence upon men, till at length he falls a facri-:
fice to his own rage. We have occafional accounts of the
terror which this animal has excited, and of the deftru@tion
which he has committed among women and children. in
France. To fuch a degree did his ravages excite terror in
1764, that prayers are faid to have been offered for his de-:
ftruction.
Wolves, in the northern parts of the world, fometimes
get on the ice of the fea, in order to prey on young feals,.
which they feize when afleep; but fometimes the ice de-
tached from the fhore carries them to a great diftance from
the Jand, and —— diftri&s have thus been cleared of thefe
pernicious animals, which have been heard howling in a
dreadful manner far in the fea.
The wolf is fometimes affe@ted with madnefs, accom-
panied with fymptoms fimilar to that of dogs ; and this dif-
eafe happens to them in the depth of winter, and therefore,
as Mr. Pennant obferves, cannot be attributed to the rage
of the dog-days. The time of geitation in the wolf is, ac-
cording to Buffon, about three months and a half; and they
young whelps are found from the end of April to the be-
ginning of July ; and this difference in the time of geftation,
being in the wolf about one hundred days, and in the dog
only fixty, he confiders as a proof of the real difference
between the two {pecies.
Although the wolf feems to be naturally favage, he is
capable, when taken young, of being tamed, and of being
wholly divefted of the ferocious charaéter of his {pecies.
Ray. Pennant. Shaw.
Wotr, Golden. See JACKALL and Aureus.
Wo tr, Marine. See Hymna.
Worr, Mexican, Canis Mexicanus, with defle&ed tail
and afh-coloured body, variegated with dufky bands and
fulvous {pots, a {pecies that inhabits the hot parts of Mexi-
co, agreeing in its manners with the European wolf. Its.
head, jaws, and teeth, are large; in the upper lips are {trong
briftles bent backwards, of a grey and white colour; the
ears are large, ereét, and cinereous, and the {pace between
them marked with broad tawny fpots; the head afh-
coloured, croffed with dufky ftripes; the neck fat and
thick, and marked with a:tawny ftroke; on the breaft is
another of the fame kind; the body is. afh-coloured {potted
with black, and the fides ftriped with the fame colour ; >
ely
WOL
belly cinereous, the tail long, of the fame colour, tinged
in'the middle with tawny ; the legs and feet ftriped with
‘black and afh-colour. This wolf is fometimes found white.
Pennant.
Wor, Black, Canis Lycaon, with ftraight tail, is confi-
dered by Buffon and others as a variety of the common
wolf, and confounded by Schreber and Gmelin with the
black fox; but regarded asia diftin& fpecies. It is
found both in Europe and America, and in fome parts of
Afia. In America it is chiefly found in Canada, and in Eu-
“rope in the more northern regions. Shaw.
Wor, in the’ Hiffory of Infeds, the name of a {mall
white worm or maggot, which infefts granaries, and does
«very great damage there.
It is in this {tate of the worm that it does the mifchief ;
but this is not its perfect form, for it is afterwards tran{-
formed. into a {mall moth, with white wings {potted with
black.
This little maggot has fix legs, and as it creeps along,
there iffues from its mouth an extremely fine thread or web,
by which it faftens itfelf to every thing it touches, fo that
it cannot fall. Its mouth is furnifhed with a pair of reddifh
forceps, or biting inftruments, by means of which it gnaws
its way not only into wheat and other grain, but perforates
even beams of wood, boxes, books, and every thing it
meets with.
Towards the end of fummer thefe pernicious infeéts may
be feen crawling up the walls of corn-chambers, infefted
‘with them in great numbers} they are then fearching a
proper place where they may abide in fafety during. their
aurelia ftate; for when the time of their undergoing this
‘change approaches, they forfake their food, and the little «
cells they had formed of hollowed grains of corn clotted
together, by means of the web coming from their mouths.
They now wander about till they. find fome wood, or other
fubftance into which they gnaw holes with their fangs, ca-
pable of concealing them; and there enveloping themfelves
in a covering of their own fpinning, they foon become a
dark-coloured fort of aurelia. . They remain in this ftate all
the winter ; but in April or May they come forth in their
moth-fhape, and are then feen in vaft numbers, taking {hort
flights, and creeping up the walls. In this {tate they eat
nothing; but they foon copulate and lay eggs, which are in
the fhape of ahen’s egg, but no larger than a grain of fand.
Each female lays fixty or feventy eggs, which fhe depofits
in the little wrinkles of the grains oF corn, where in about
fixteen days they hatch, and the minute maggots immedi-
ately perforate the grain, and eat out all its {ubftance, and
with the threads which come from their mouths cement other
grains to it, which they, in the fame manner, fcoop out
and deftroy.
The watchful obferver has two opportunities of deftroy-
ing thefe devourers from among his corn.- One is, when
they forfake their food, and afcend the walls, which they
will fometimes almoft cover. The other, when they appear
in the motli-ftate. At both thefe times they may be crufhed
to death againft the walls in great numbers, by clapping
facks upon them; but they may be exterminated more ef- .
fe€tually by clofing up all the windows and doors, and
burning brimftone on a pan of charcoal, letting the room
be full of the fumes of it for twenty-four hours. This cer-
tainly deltroys the animals, and does no fort of injury to the
grain, not communicating the flighteft fcent to it. Baker’s
~Microf. p. 222.
Wotr’s Bane, in: Botany. See AconiTum.
Wotr’s Bane, Winter's, a Species of hellebore 3 which -
fee.
WoL
Worr-Fifo. See Lubus Marinus.
Worr’s Grapes. See LycosTapHyL2.
Worr-Net, a term ufed by the fportf{men for a kind of
net ufed in fifhing, which takes great: numbers, and has its
name from the deftruGtion it cantes.
It is ufed both in rivers and ponds, and is of the
nature of the rattle, excepting only the wanting of the
four wings. The trunk or coffer confifts of feven feet,
befides the two gullets. It is fupported by hoops, and is to
be placed in fome part where there is an abundance of
fedges, rufhes, and water-grafs. There is to: be a place
made for the net here, by the ufe of a paring-knife, cuttin
away all the weeds and other matter, for the fpace that will
contain it; and when the net is placed, there are to be two
alleys cut-or cleared in the fame manner, one on each fide of
the net, that the fifh may be invited into them, and by them
into the net. There muft be fome ftones or leaden weights
ufed to fink the net, and a long pole faftened to the upper
part of the mouth of it, by means of which, when it is well
filled with fifh, it may be lifted up and taken to the
fhore.
Woxr’s Peach. See LycoPErsicon.
Wo r, War, an ancient military machine, differently. de-
fcribed by different writers. Procopius makes it a kind of
portcullis, or rather a harrow for defending,a gate. Mat-
thew of Weftminfter, and Camden, defcribe it as a machine
for throwing ftones. ‘* At the gates,” fays Procopius, ( Hitt.
of the Gothic Wars, booki.) * they fet up wolves in the fol-
lowing manner :—They ereéted two beams from the ground
reaching to the battlements, and laid chequerwife pieces:of
wrought timber, fome upright and fome crofs; they jointed
them fo that the mortifing holes met one another ; and
before each joint ftuck out a pointed piece of wood, like a
thick f{par, and faftening the crofs timbers to another beam,
which from the top reached “half-way down: they laid the
beams flat along upon the gates, and when an enemy ap-
proached, men above laid hold of the higher ends of the
beams, and thruft them down, which falling fuddenly
among. the affailants, with the wooden points {ticking out,
killed all upon whom they defcended.”? Probably there was
a chain or cord to draw back the machine after it had pro-
duced its effect.
The war-wolf, for throwing ftones, is defcribed by Mat-
thew of Weitminfter, ann. 1304; by Camden, in his Re-
mains, to which we refer ; and alfo to Grofe’s Mil. Antiq.
vol. i. p. 383.
Wor Jfland, in Geography, an ‘ifland in the North At-
lantic ocean, near the eaft coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 53°
55'. W. long. 55° 40!.—Alfo, an ifland at the north-eaft
end of lake Ontario. N. lat. 44°. W. long. 76° 50!.—
Alfo, an ifland in the gulf of St. Lawrence, near the fouth
coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 50° 2! W. long. 60° 55’.—
Alfo, a {mall ifland in the Atlantic, near the coaft of
Georgia. N. lat. 31° 19!. W. long. 81° 30!.
Wotr River, or Chickfaw Bluff, a river of Georgia,
which runs into the Miffiflippi, N. lat. 34° 45’. W. long.
go° 42!.
Worr Rock, a very low, flat, rocky iflet, in the North
Pacific ocean, furrounded by rocks and breakers, which
extend fome diftance from it ; 10 miles from the fouthern
coatt of the Prince of Wales’s Archipelago. N. lat. 55° 1.
E. long. 226° 42!—Alfo, a rock near the eaft coat of
Labrador, and not far from the ifland called Wolf ifland.——
Alfo, a rock at the entrance of the Englifh channel ; ro
miles S. of Land’s-End. N. lat. 49° 58’. W. long.
WOLFBOROUGH, 2 townthip of New: Hamp-
4 fhire,
WOL
fhire, in the county of Strafford, on the Winnipifcogee
lake, containing 1376 inhabitants; 35°miles N.N.W. of
Durham. .
WOLFDORF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Leitmeritz ; 7 miles N. of Kamnitz.
WOLFENBUTTEL, a principality which lately con-
ftituted a part of the duchy of Brunfwick, divided into
two — by the principality of Halberftadt, and the
diocefe of Hildefheim. The north part is furrounded on
the north by the principality of Luneburg and the marqui-
fate of Brandenburg, on the eaft by the'duchy of Magde-
ios on the fouth by the principality of Halberftadt, and
on the weft by the diocefe of Hildefheim. The fouth part
is bounded on the north by the bifhopric of Hildefheim and
the principality of Calenberg, on the eaft by the diocefe of
Hildefheim and the Harz foreft, on the fouth by the prin-
cipality of Grubenhagen and Calenberg, and on the weft by
the territories of the abbey of Corvey and Calenberg. The
eaftern half contains under it a part of the Harz foreft, the
mines and falt-works which the prince held in common with
the eleGtor’ of Brunfwick Luneburg. In the wettern half
of this fouthern part is a part of the foreft of Sollinger,
confifting of oak and beech, with a chain of mountains co-
vered with woods. Thus the fouthern part of the princi-
pality confifts chiefly of hills and woods, with little arable
land; but, on the other hand, has a great plenty of timber,
iron, and glafs-houfes, the manufaGtures of which are
greatly admired, particularly thofe of looking-glaffes, with
a fine porcelain manufacture, and the very rich mines and
falt-works in the Harz foreft. The north part of the
principality is more level, and produces abundance of grain,
flax, and hemp, together with various kinds of pulfe and
fruit. Their graziery here turns to very good account,
befides which it has a falt-work. The culture of filk is
now followed,.and premiums are afligned by the prince for
the encouragement of it. The Wefer, the Leine, the Inner
See, and the Ocker, are the principal rivers. In this prin-
cipality are 18 towns, 386 villages, and 17 fees and con-
vents. The eftablifhed religion here is Lutheranifm. The
country of Brunfwick was anciently under lords of its
own, who poffeffed it as their abfolute and hereditary pro-
perty, and derived their lineage from Ludolphus, duke of
Saxony ; and, confequently, by his grandmother Hafala, or
Gifela, from duke Witikind, whofe daughter fhe was.
From king Henry I., grandfon to Ludolphus, was defcended
his fon Ht pe duke of Bavaria, among whofe iffue was
count Bruno, on whom the emperor Otho conferred a tra&
of land in Saxony, near Brunfwick, namely, Melverode and
Hohenwart.. Count Bruno, his fon, enlarged Brunfwick ;
and his fon, count Ludolphus, on the demife of the em-
peror Henry II., was the firft that obtained the full fove-
reignty over Brunfwick and Tanwarderode, and died in
1038. His fon Egbert I. became margrave of Thuringia
and Mifnia; and his fon Egbert II. likewife attained to
thofe dignities. This laft prince being killed in battle, in
10g1, his fifter Gertrude fucceeded to the country of
Brunfwick, which country fhe brought to her fecond huf-
band, Henry the Fat, count of Nordheim ; and by their
daughter Ricienza it came to her hufband Lothario, count
of Supplinburg, afterwards emperor. By his daughter
Gertrude it defcended to her hufband, Henry the iliag.
nanimous, duke of Bavaria and Saxony, and thus to the
houfe of Welpho. The principality of Wolfenbuttel was
poffeffed of a vote among the princes, both in the college of
the princes of the empire, and likewife in the diet of Lower
Saxony ; in each of which, by virtue of an agreement con-
cluded in 1706, when the feniority lies in the houfe of
WOL
Brunfwick Wolfenbuttel, it precedes thofe of the elector of
Brunfwick and Luneburg, for Zelle, Grubenhagen, and
Calenberg, but otherwife comes after them ; farther, the
houfe of Wolfenbuttel, when fenior, obtained the joint di-
rection of the circle of Lower Saxony. . In 1807, this prin-
cipality was annexed to Weitphalia.
WoLFenBUTTEL, a city “. Weltphalia, and capital of a
principality of the fame name, fituated in a low marfhy foil,
on the Ocker : it is well built and fortified. In it is a cha-
teau, a long time the refidence of the dukes, in which is a
noble library containing 120,000 volumes of printed books
and manufcripts. The principal church contains the fepul-
chral monument of the dukes. Wolfenbuttel very probably
owes its name to the firft builder of the palace, called Wolf,
or Wolfer, or Wolfhard ; 24 miles E. of Hildefheim. N.
lat. 52° 10!. E. long. 10° go’.
WOLFERSDORF, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Neuftadt ; 4 miles S.W. of Weyda.—Alfo, a town of
Saxony, in the circle of Neuftadt; 6 miles E.N.E. of
Weyda.
WOLFERSDYCEK, a {mall ifland of Zealand, between
North and South Beveland.
WOLFERSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Solms Braunfels; 12 miles S.S.E. of
Wetzlar.
WOLFERSTORFF, a town of Auftria; 2 miles
S.E. of Laab.
WOLFERZHAUSEN, a town of Bavaria; 12 miles
N.E. of Weilhaim.
WOLFESHEAD, or Wutversueap, Saxon, wulfer-
heafod, compounded of qwulf, wolf, and heafod, head,
caput lupinum, denoted the condition of thofe outlawed
for criminal matters in the Saxon time, and not yielding
themfelves to juttice. For if they could have been taken
alive, they muft have been brought to the king ; and if
they, for fear of being apprehended, did iced them-
felves, they might be flain, and their heads brought to
the king ; for their head was no more to be accounted
of than a wolf’s head. LL. Edw. in Lamb. fol. 127. and
Braét. lib. iii. tra&t. 2. c. 11. See Caput Lupinum, and
OuTLAwRy.
WOLFESTAAL, in Geography, a town of Autftria ;
2 miles E. of Hainburg.
WOLFFACH, a town of Germany, in the lordfhip
of Furftenberg; 4 miles S.S.E. of Hazlach. N. lat.
48° 13'. E. long. 8° 16/.
WOLFFEG, a town of Auftria; 5 miles N.W.
of Schwanattadt.
WOLFFEGG, or Worreck, a ch&teau and village of
Germany, which gives the title of count to a noble family,
divided into fevers branches, viz. Wolffegg Zeil, Wolffegg
Zeil Wurzach, Wolffegg Wolffegg, and Wolffegg Waldfee ;
10 miles W. of Leutkirch,
WOLFFEN, a town of Saxony; 3 miles N.W. of
Bitterfeld.
p kaampaoebeepanenieie a town of Autftria; 9 miles S.
of Ips.
WOLFFSHAGEN, a town of Brandenburg, in th
Mark of Pregnitz ; 6 miles W. of Pritzwalk. :
WOLFGANG, a town of Germany, in the county
of Henneberg, on an ifland in a lake; 7 miles S.W.
of Meinungen.
Wo trcane, St. a town of Auftria; 3 miles S.S.W. of
Aigen.—Alfo, a town of Auttria; 1 mile N. of Kirfch-
Sek ieonAilio, a town of Auftria, on a lake, called the
Abernfea, and St. Wolfgang’s lake ; 54 miles sie f of
aintz.
WOL
Lintz. — Alfe, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of
Zug; 4 miles W. of Zug.
WOLFGAST, or Woreast, a town of Anterior
Pomerania, on the Pena, about three miles from the
Baltic, with about 3500 inhabitants. It was anciently a
confiderable fortrefs, and refidence of the dukes; 30
miles S.E. of Stralfund. N. lat. 54° 2! E. long. 13°
t
TOLFIA, in Botany, a genus of Schreber’s, feems by
its orthography intended to commemorate Dr. de Wolf, of
Dantzic, of whofe whimfical attempt in the Nomencia-
TuRE of plants, we have given a fufficient account at the
conclufion of that article. This writer, to whom the praife
of labour and originality cannot be denied, and whofe index,
entitled Concordantia Botanica, is truly valuable, died in
1784, aged 60. There have been feveral German natu-
ralifts and phyficians of the name of Wolf, but none emi-
nent in botanical ftudies.—Schreb. Gen. 801.—Clafs and
order, Odandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Trihilate, Linn.
Sapindi, Juff.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, coloured :
tube very fhort, fomewhat dilated at the bafe, permanent :
limb in five deep, linear, obtufe, moderately fpreading feg-
ments. Cor. none. Neétary of eight linear, obtufe, vil-
lous, upright fcales, one-third the length of the calyx, and
inferted into it at the bafe of the limb. Stam. Filaments
eight, awl-fhaped, ereé, the length of the calyx, into which
they are inferted alternately with the fcales of the netary,
in the fame row ; anthers ovate, attached by the back, erect,
direGted inwards. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, oblong, ending in
a cylindrical upright ftyle, the height of the ftamens;
{tigma oblong, downy, unilateral. Peric. Berry ? ovate, of
one cell, fomewhat fix-fided, with three keels furrounding
its fummit. Seeds three, nearly ovate, oblique, externally
gibbous, contra€ted below the middle, abrupt at the bafe,
enclofed in a tunic.
Obf. There appear to be feveral feeds, fome of which
prove abortive.
We have tried in vain to guefs any thing more refpeting
this genus than its natural order, of which there can be
{carcely a doubt. No author has adopted Woljia. ‘There
are, in its charaéters, fome indications of Jambolifera, Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 2. 326. Cyminofma, Gertn. t. 58, (which ought
to have found a place in our 18th volume; fee CaLyp-
TRANTHES alfo) ; and a botanift who compares Schreber’s
defcription, literally tranflated above, with Jambolifera pe-
dunculata, will find feveral coincidences, which, allowing for
one or two eafy mifconceptions, might almoft perfuade us
he had defcribed that plant ; but {till there are infuperable
difficulties. Schreber’s index direéts us, at the word
Pitumba, to the fame number as his Wolfia, 1749. But no
fuch fynonym occurs there, nor, as far as we can find, elfe-
where in his book. Pee tumba, Rheede Hort. Mal. v. 9.
t. 46, is a Ju/ficia, and can have no connection with the pre-
fent plant. See other obfcure genera, thus circumitanced,
at the articles Mryera, WuHELERA, SPARTINA, and
XystRis.
WOLF-MONETH, a name given by our Saxon ancef-
tors to the month of January, on account of the ravages com-
mitted by the wolves in that month through the feverity of
the cold.
WOLFRAM, in Mineralogy, an ore of tungften. (See
Touncsten.) The colour of Wolfram is generally a
brownifh or greyifh-black ; it gives a reddifh-brown ftreak
when cut with the point of a knife, to which it yields rea-
dily, a property characteriftic of this mineral. It occurs
WoL
both maflive and cryftallized, and in concentric lamellar eon-
cretions. The form of the cryftal is a flat re@tangular
prifm; the lateral planes ate generally ftreaked longitu-
dinally. The ftru€ture is lamellar, with a very difting
cleavage in one direétion, and an indiftin& cleavage at right
angles to the former. The luftre of the principal cleavage
is {plendent or fhining, and is metallic ; that of the indif-
tinct cléavage is gliftening. The crofs fraéture is coarfe-
grained and uneven. It is brittle and frangible. The {pe-
cific gravity of Wolfram is from 7.1 to 7.3. Before the
blow-pipe it decrepitates, and melts with difficulty into a
black flag.
The conftituent parts of Wolfram, as given by Van-
quelin, are,
Tungften acid = - - - 67
Oxyd of iron = - - 18
Oxyd of manganefe - - 6
Silex - - - - - 1.50
Wolfram moft frequently occurs: in veins with tin-ftone.
but may be diltinguifhed from it by its greater degree of
foftnefs, and the reddith ftreak which it yields to the knife,
It is common in many ef the mines of Cornwall, and. in
thofe of Saxony, and of Zinnweld and Schlackenwald, in
Bohemia. This mineral has not hitherto been applied to
any ufeful purpofe in the arts. It was originally miftaken
for antimony, which by the alchymifts was called the wolf,,
becaufe it appeared to deltroy the bafer metals in the pro-
cefs of refining gold.
WOLEFRAMITZ, in Geography, a town of Moravia,
in the circle of Znaym; 20 miles N.E. of Znaym.
WOLFRAMITZKIRCHEN, a town of Moravia, in
the circle of Znaym; 7 miles N.W. of Znaym.
WOLFSBACH, a river of Silefia, which runs into
the Bober, near Loewenberg.
WOLFSBERG, a town of the duchy of Carinthia,,
on the river Levant, with a citadel; 10 miles N.N.W. of
Lavamunt.
WOLFSDORF, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Ermeland ; 18 miles W.S.W. of Heilfberg.—Alfo, a town
of Saxony, in the circle of Neuftadt; 5 miles S.W. of
Weyda.
WOLFSHAGEN, a town of the principality of Heffe
Caffel, on the Erpe ; 15 miles W. of Caffel. N. lat. 51° 18!.
E. long. 9° tol.
WOLFSON, a {mall ifland in the gulf of Finland,
N. lat. 59° 22'. E. long. 24° 44!.
a WOLFSPACH, a town of Anftria; 8 miles E. of
teyr.
WOLFSTEIN, a town of France, in the department
of Mont Tonnerre ; 43 miles W.N.W. of Manheim,
WOLHAUSEN im Markz, a town of Switzerland,
in the canton of Lucerne; 7 miles W.S.W. of Lucerne.
WOLIN, or Woryniz, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Prachatitz ; 8 miles N,N.W. of Prachatitz. N.
lat. 49° 10'. E. long. 13° 45!.
Wo in, a town of Brandenburg, in the Middle Mark 5
10 miles S.S.W. of Brandenburg. ;
WOLKART, a mountain of Carinthia; 8 miles N.E.
of Milftatt.
WOLKENMARCK. See VoLkenmark.
WOLKENSTEIN, a town of Saxony, in the circle
of Erzgebirg, with a citadel, fituated on a rock, near the
Z{chopa- About half a league from the town are fome warm
medicinal baths; 13 miles S.S.E. of Chemnitz. N. lat.
50° 36’. E. long. 12°-59/.—Alfo, a town of the county
of Tyrol; 3 miles W. of Lientz.
WOL.-
WOL
WOLKOMYSK, a town of Lithuania, in the palati-
nate of Novo ek; 40 miles W.S.W. of Novogrodek.
WOLLACOMB Bay, a bay of England, on the weft
coaft of Devonfhire, fituated to the north of Barnftaple
bay.
WOLLAPALLAM, a town of Hindooftan ; 10 miles
E. of Coimbetore.
WOLLASTON, Wittram, in Biography, an ethical
writer, was born in 1659 at Cotton Clanford, in Stafford-
fhire, and finifhed his education as a penfioner of Sidney
college, Cambridge. In 1681 he commenced M.A. and
entered into deacon’s orders. His firft fettlement was as
an affiftant in the free fchool at Birmingham, to which a
{mall le€turefhip was annexed ; and about four years after-
wards he was advanced from this laborious fituation to
the office of fecond mafler in the fame fchool. , In 1688
a relation died, whofe deceafe put him in pofleffion of a
confiderable landed eftate, upon which he removed to Lon-
don, and marrying a lady of confiderable fortune, he re-
fided in Charterhoufe-fquare. Difmiffing all thoughts of
church preferment, he devoted himfelf to the retirement of
private life and to a courfe of ftudy, comprehending the
learned languages, together with Hebrew and Arabic. The
firft. publication which iffued from the prefs was a poem
on Ecclefiaftes, which he would afterwards have fuppreffed,
from a conviGtion that his talents were not adapted to poetry.
In the progrefs of his life and literary purfuits, he was fo much
amufed by compofition, that he wrote many treatifes on various
fubje€ts, both in Latin and Englifh, which he committed to
the flames. Of the well-known work which has perpetuated
his name, and which -is intitled « The Religion of Nature
delineated,” he printed a few copies to be diftmbated among
his friends in 1722, but his declining health prevented his
completing his original defign. However, in 1723 he was
prevailed upon to revife what he had printed for publication,
and it accordingly appeared in 1724, in which year he died,
at the age of 65, leaving a large family, and having loft his
wife, to whom he was affectionately attached, about four
years before. In his private character he is faid to have
exemplified the virtues which his work inculeated. The
fyftem which he developed, and which founded morality
upon * truth,’? excited much attention, and his book,
though not written in a popular manner, pafled through
feven editions to the year 1750. The laft of thefe editions
includes an appendix, confifting of a tranflation of the Latin
notes by. Dr. J. Clarke, dean of Salifbury, undertaken at
the particular requeft of queen Caroline, who was a great
admirer of the work. Dr. Warburton, in his ftri€tures on
Wollafton’s theory in his Divine Legation, honours the
author by ranking him as ‘ one of our molt celebrated
writers,” and'compliments him with having “ demonttrated
with greater clearnefs than any before him the natural effen-
tial-difference of things ;’? and though modern fyftems have
in a confiderable degree antiquated that of Mr. Wollatton,
tke author mutt always -be regarded as a man of extenfive
learning and ftrong reafoning powers. Biog. Brit.
W.OLLERSDOREF, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the margravate of Anfpach 5. 10 miles E.. of:
Anfpach.
WOLLERSTORFF, a town of Auftria; 5 miles
W.N.W. of Neultatt.
WOLLIEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the Ucker
Mark; 10 miles 42.S.E. of Prenzlow.
WOLLIN, a town of Anterior Pomerania, on the eat
coaft of the ifland fo called, feparated from the continent
of Pomerania by the river Direnow, over which is a bridge,
at which all travellers pay,a:toll, In this town are a feat and
WOL
prefeGturate. It ftands on the fcite of the ancient city of
Julin, which was formerly fo famous for its commerce,.
though its origin is very obfcure. The firlt mention of
this city in hiftory occurs immediately after the time of
Charlemagne ; and in the 11th century its profperity was
fuch, that Adam Von Bremen fpeaks of it as the largeft
city at that time in Europe. So early as the records of the
12th century, it is called Wolin. In the year 1127, it was.
fet on fire by lightning, and being built of wood, was en-
tirely confumed. The Pomeranian bifhopric, which had
been ereéted there but two years before, was tranflated
upon that to Ufedom, but on the rebuilding of the city,
was reftored toit. In the year 1170, being taken by Wol-
demar I. king of Denmark, and Jaromar I. prince of Ru-
gen, it was facked and burned ; and after retrieving this cala-
mity was, in the year 1175, again fet on fire, and utterly
deftroyed, infomuch that in the very fame year the duke of
Pomerania removed the bifhopric to Cammin. It was in-
deed rebuilt again, but never recovered its former greatnefs ;
25 miles N. of Old Stettin. N. lat. 53° 48’. E, long.»
140 35 /atray ds
Wott, an ifland formed at the mouth of the Oder,
between the Baltic and the Frifche Haff; the form of an
irregular triangle, about thirty miles in circumference. This
ifland is frequently in danger of being overflowed, and the
fea-winds hurt it confiderably, by throwing up drifts of
fand. It produces excellent cattle, with plenty of game
and fifh ; and one part of it, called the Pritter, is remark-.
able for the great quantity of ecls taken there. Befides
the town of Wollin, it contains feveral villages.
-WOLLO, a town of Africa, on the Ivory Coal.
WOLLY. See Woortt.
WOLMIRSTADT, a town of Weftphalia, in the
duchy of Magdeburg. In the year 1642, this town was.
fet on fire by the Imperial troops; 10 miles N. of Magde-
burg. N. lat. 52° 18. E. long. 11° 45/.
_ WOLMSDORF, or Wonsporr, a town of Proffia,
in the province of Smaland; 24 miles S.E. of Konighberg.
WOLNITZ, a town of Saxony, in the principality of °
Eifenach; 2 miles S. of Jena.
WOLNZACH, a town of Bavaria; 6 miles N.E. of
Pfaffenhofen.
WOLPA, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Novogrodek ; 54 miles W. of Novogrodek..
WOLPAFFING, a town of Auftria; 4 miles S.S.E.
of Weikerfdorf.
WOLSDORYFF, a town of the duchy of Bremen; 5
miles S. of Carlftadt.
WOLSEY, or Wutcey, Tuomas, cardinal, in Biography, |
was the fon of a butcher at Ip{wich, Suffolk, and born there
in 1471. He finifhed his education at Magdalen college,
Oxford, and was graduated B.A. at the age of 15. e
was afterwards fellow of his college, and having taken the
degfee of M.A. became matter of the {chool dependent upon
that college, where he had under his tuition three fons of
the marquis of Dorfet, by whom he was prefented to the
reGtory of Lymington in Somerfétthire, into which he was
induéted in 1500. His advancement was rapid, firft as do-
meftic chaplain to the archbifhop of Canterbury,and afterwards
as chaplain to the houfehold of Henry VIE. His manners were’
infinuating, and he became the confidante of the king, who
communicated to him his projeéted marriage with the daaghc!
ter of the emperor Maximilian. Wolfey met the emperor
at Bruges, and executed his commiflion fo much to the king's
fatisfaction, that he nominated him to the deanery of Lin+
coln. After the death of Henry VII. he was recommended.
by Fox, bifhop of \Winchetter, to Henry WILI.,, whofe >
favour
WOL
favour and confidence he conciliated by his blending amufe-
ment with bufinefs, infomuch that he fupplanted the minif-
ters of the late king, and became himfelf uncontrouled minif-
ter.. His preferments, civil and ecclefiaftical, very fpeedily
fucceeded one another, and even profufely accumulated.
He was introduced into the privy-council in 1510, made
reporter of the ftar-chamber, regiftrar, and afterwards chan-
cellor of the garter; and advanced to the fees of ‘Tournay
and Lincoln in 1513, to that of York in 1514, and to the
dignity of cardinal in1515. Thus promoted, his pride and love
of pomp kept pace with his elevation of rank. In his train of
fervants, 800 in number, were many knights and gentlemen ;
and the fons of noblemen aéted occafionally as his domettic
menials. His equipage and furniture were of the moft coftly
kind ; but it is needlefs to multiply particulars. ‘The moft
pardonable, not to fay laudable, difplay of his magnificence
was exhibited in his patronage of literary men and promo-
tion of literature, both by the exercife of private bounty
and the eftablifhment of public inftitutions. The pope
nominated him legate @ /atere, by which office he acquired
legal pre-eminence over the archbifhop of Canterbury ; and
in December 1515, he was elevated to the office of high-
chancellor. By the equity of his decifions in the exercife
of this office he gained great credit, but his conduét as le-
gate @ Jatere was fo arbitrary and oppreffive, as to produce
complaints again{t him to the king. Charles V. and Fre-
deric I. purchafed his intereft with Henry VIII. by pen-
fions, and he was alfo retained in the fame way by the
pope. Charles flattered him with hopes of the papal
crown, and fettled upon him the revenues of two bifhop-
ricsin Spain. Still infatiable in the purfuit of ecclefiafti-
cal preferments, he obtained the adminiftration of’ the fee
of Bath and Wells, and the temporalities of the abbey of
St. Alban’s, to which were afterwards added fucceflively the
rich bifhoprics of Durham and Winchefter. His revenues,
thus amounting nearly to that of the crown, were expended
partly in the oftentation of pomp, and partly in laudable
munificence. He founded feveral le€tures at Oxford for
liberal and ufeful ftudies, and at length ere&ted in that uni-
verfity the celebrated college of Chriftchurch. He alfo
eftablifhed a collegiate fchool in his native town of Ip{wich.
The palace which he built at Hampton Court he prefented,
in 1528, to the king, and he further ingratiated himfelf with
Henry by an arbitrary loan for the fupply of his wants ;
but by thefe meafures he became more and more odious to:
the nation. But his fall was approaching ; and the firft
ftep to it was the divorce of queen Catharine. This was fol-
lowed by the marriage of Henry with Ann Boleyn, whofe
influence was employed in effecting his downfall. At
length the king, not without hefitation and reluétance, em-
ployed the dukes of Norfolk and Suffolk, in 1529, to re-
quire him to furrender the great feal, and to quit York-
place, a palace which he had built in London, and which
afterwards became a royal refidence under the name of
Whitehall. His furniture and plate were feized for the
king’s ufe, and he was ordered to retire to Efher, a palace
which belonged to him as bifhop of Winchefter. Thefe
meafures overwhelmed the favourite, deftitute of any inward
refources of magnanimity ; and when he received a flight
token of the king’s favour in this ftate of mental depreftion,
he was tranfported with joy, difmounted on meeting the
meffenger, and fell upon his knees in the dirt to receive the
expreffion of his mafter’s kindnefs. Henry, however, was
capricious and inconftant ; a cloud overfpread this gleam,
and Wolfey was ordered to be indicted in the ftar-cham-
ber, and abandoned by his fovereign to the rigour of
parliament. An accufation, confifting of 44 articles, was
. Vor. XX XVIII.
WOL
exhibited againft him by the houfe of lords; and in the
commons, he was fo ably defended by Thomas Cromwell,
who had been raifed by the cardinal from a low condition to
a high ftation, that his enemies were defeated. They thus
changed their plan, and indi€ted him upon the ftatute of
provifors, which prohibited his procuring bulls from Rome,
and which he had violated by obtaining the legantine power ;
and this was made the ground of a fentence, putting him
out of the king’s protection, forfeiting all his lands and
goods, and declaring him liable to imprifonment. When
thefe meafures had induced him to refign to the king York-
place with all its furniture, he obtained a full pardon for all
his paft offences, and the reftoration of the revenues of his
archbifhopric, with part of his goods. But frefh tokens of
royal difpleafure, awaited him. The earl of Northumber-
land was ordered to arreft him for high treafon, and to con-
dué him to London for trial, In his way from York to
London, he was feized with a diforder which obliged him
to {top at Leicefter, where he was hofpitably received in the
abbey. His diforder in a few days terminated his life, in
the 6oth year of his age. Shortly before he expired he
clofed a converfation with the conftable of the Tower, which
related to the king, with this exclamation, “ Had but I
ferved God as diligently as I have ferved the king, he would
not have given me over in my grey hairs!’? Thus he funk
to the grave as a viétim to tyranny, but to a tyranny which
he had himfelf formed ; exhibiting an inftru€tive example to
all future minifters of the infecure poffeffion of power and
wealth acquired by extortion and oppreffion, and of the
folly of placing confidence in princes embracing arbitrary
and defpotic meafures, and governed by caprice and per-
fonal ambition. Biog. Brit.
The magnificence of the cardinal’s chapel-eftablifhment,
as defcribed by Cavendifh, his contemporary and domeftic,
feems far to have furpaffed that of the Roman pontiff
himfelf,
“* Firft, he had there a deane, a great divine, and a man
of excellent learning ; a fub-dean, a repeatour of the quire,
a gofpeller and epiftollor; of finging priefts, ten, a mafter
of the children. The feculars of the chapell, being fing-
ing-men, twelve ; finging-children, ten, with one fervant to
waite upon them. In the veftry, a yeoman and two
grooms ; over and befides other retainers that. came thither
at principal feafts, And for the furniture of his chapell, it
pafleth my weak capacity to declare the number of the
coftly ornaments and rich jewels that were occupied in the
fame. For I have feen in proceffion about the hall forty-
four rich copes, befides the rich candlefticks, and other
neceflary ornaments to the furniture of the fame.’”
The earl of Northumberland, whofe paffion for Ann
Boleyn is fuppofed to have occafioned his difgrace at court,
feems to have been treated with great infolence and in-
dignity by the cardinal, who, by an extraordinary extenfion
of power, demanded his choral books for the ufe of his own
chapel. Letters concerning this requifition are {till pre-
ferved in the family, in which the earl fays, « I do per-
ceayff my lorde cardinall’s pleafour ys to have fuch boks as
was in the chapell of my lat lorde and ffayther (wos foll
Jhu pardon.) To the accomplychment of which, at your
defyer, I am confformable, notwithftandinge I truft to be
able ons to fet up a chapell off myne owne.—I fhall with all
{ped fend up the boks unto my lord’s grace, as to fay iiij
Antiffonars (Antiphoners), fuch as I think wher not feen a
gret wyll—v Gralls (Graduals )—an Ordeorly (Ordinal) —
a Manuall—viij Proffeffioners (Proceffionals).”? |Northum-
berland Houfehold Book.
WOLSINGHAM, in Geography, an irregular town in
4 4E the
WOL
WOLKOMYSK, a town of Lithuania, in the palati-
nate of Novo ek; 40 miles W.S.W. of Novogrodek.
WOLLACOMB Bay, a bay of England, on the weft
coaft of Devonfhire, fituated to the north of Barnftaple
bay.
WOLLAPALLAM, a town of Hindooftan ; 10 miles
E. of Coimbetore.
WOLLASTON, Wixt1an, in Biography, an ethical
writer, was born in 1659 at Cotton Clanford, in Stafford-
fhire, and finifhed his education as a penfioner of Sidney
college, Cambridge. In 1681 he commenced M.A. and
entered into deacon’s orders. His firft fettlement was as
an affiftant in the free {chool at Birmingham, to which a
{mall le¢turefhip was annexed ; and about four years after-
wards he was advanced from this laborious fituation to
the office of fecond mafter in the fame fchool. , In 1688
a relation died, whofe deceafe put him in poffeffion of a
confiderable landed eftate, upon which he removed to Lon-
don, and marrying a lady of confiderable fortune, he re-
fided in Charterhoufe-fquare. Difmiffing all thoughts of
church preferment, he devoted himfelf to the retirement of
private life and to a courfe of ftudy, comprehending the
learned languages, together with Hebrew and Arabic. The
firft. publication which iffued from the prefs was a poem
on Ecclefiaftes, which he would afterwards have fuppreffed,
from a conviction that his talents were not adapted to poetry.
In the progrefs of his life and literary purfuits, he was fo much
amufed by compofition, that he wrote many treatifes on various
fubje€&ts, both in Latin and Englifh, which he committed to
the flames. Of the well-known work which has perpetuated
his name, and which is intitled « The Religion of Nature
delineated,”’ he printed a few copies to be diftributed among
his friends in 1722, but his declining health prevented his
completing his original defign. However, in 1723 he was
prevailed upon to revife what he had printed for publication,
aad it accordingly appeared in 1724, in which year he died,
at the age of 65, leaving a large family, and having loft his
wife, to whom he was affectionately attached, about four
years before. In his private character he is faid to have
exemplified the virtues which his work inculcated. The
fyftem which he developed, and which founded morality
upon ‘ truth,” excited much attention, and his. book,
though not written in a popular manner, paffed through
feven editions to the year 1750. The laft of thefe editions
includes an appendix, confifting of a tranflation of the Latin
notes by. Dr. J. Clarke, dean of Salifbury, undertaken at
the particular requeft of queen Caroline, who was a great
admirer of theawork. Dr. Warburton, in his ftri€tures on
Wollafton’s theory in his Divine Legation, honours the
author by ranking him as ‘ one of our mott celebrated
writers,’”? and'compliments him with having ‘* demonftrated
with greater clearnefs than any before him the natural effen-
tial-difference of things ;’? and though modern fyftems have
in a confiderable degree antiquated that of Mr. Wollafton,
the author muft always -be regarded as a man of extenfive
learning and ftrong reafoning powers. Biog. Brit.
WOLLERSDORF, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the margravate of Anfpach; 10 miles E. of.
Anfpach.
WOLLERSTORFF, a town of Auftria; 5 miles
W.N.W. of Neuttatt.
WOLLIEN, a town of. Brandenburg, in the Ucker
Mark; 10 miles &.S.E. of Prenzlow. :
WOLLIN, a town of Anterior Pomerania, on the eatt
coatt of the ifland fo called, feparated from the continent
of Pomerania by the river Direnow, over which is a bridge,
at which all travellers pay atoll, In this town are a feat and
WOL
prefe€turate. It flands on the feite of the ancient city of
Julin, which was formerly fo famous. for its commerce,.
though its origin is very obfcure. The firft mention of
this city in hiftory occurs immediately after the time of
Charlemagne ; and in the 11th century its profperity was
fuch, that Adam Von Bremen fpeaks of it as the largeft
city at that time in Europe. So early as the records of the
12th century, it is called Wolin. In the year 1127, it was.
fet on fire by lightning, and being built of wood, was en-
tirely confumed. The Pomeranian bifhopric, which had
been ereéted there but two years before, was tranflated
upon that to Ufedom, but on the rebuilding of the city,
was reftored toit. In the year 1170, being taken by Wol-
demar I. king of Denmark, and Jaromar I. prince of Ru-
gen, it was facked and burned ; and after retrieving this cala-
mity was, in the year 1175, again fet on fire, and utterly
deftroyed, infomuch that in the very fame year the duke of
Pomerania removed the bifhopric to Cammin. It was in-
deed rebuilt again, but never recovered its former greatnefs ;
25 miles N. of Old Stettin. N. lat. 53° 48’. E. long.
142 35!eho0 2,
Wott, an ifland formed at the mouth of the Oder,
between the Baltic and the Frifche Haff; the form of an -
irregular triangle, about thirty miles in circumference. This
ifland is frequently in danger of being overflowed, and the
fea-winds hurt it confiderably, by throwing up drifts of
fand. It produces excellent cattle, with plenty of game
and fifh ; and one part of it, called the Pritter, is remark-.
able for the great quantity of ecls taken there. Befides
the town of Wollin, it contains feveral villages.
-WOLLO, a town of Africa, on the Ivory Coal.
WOLLY. See Woortt.
WOLMIRSTADT, a town of Welftphalia, in the
duchy of Magdeburg. In the year 1642, this town was
fet on fire by the Imperial troops; 10 miles N. of Magde-
burg. N. lat. 52° 18/. E. long. 11° 45/.
_ WOLMSDORYF, or Wonsporr, a town of Proffia,
in the province of Smaland; 24 miles S.E. of KGnighberg.
WOLNITZ, a town of Saxony, in the principality of»
Eifenach ; 2 miles S. of Jena.
WOLNZACH, a town of Bavaria; 6 miles N.E. of
Pfaffenhofen.
WOLPA, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Novogrodek ; 54 miles W. of Novogrodek..
WOLPAFFING, a town of Auftria; 4 miles S.S.E.
of Weikerfdorf.
WOLSDORFF, a town of the duchy of Bremen; 5
miles S. of Carlftadt.
WOLSEY, or Wutcey, Tuomas, cardinal, in Biography, |
was the fon of a butcher at Ip{wich, Suffolk, and born there
in 1471. He finifhed his education at Magdalen college,
Oxford, and was graduated B.A. at the age of 15. e
was afterwards fellow of his college, and having taka) the
degtee of M.A. became matter of che {chool dependent upon .
that college, where he had under his tuition three fons of
the marquis of Dorfet, by whom he was prefented to the
retory’ of Lymington in Somerfetthire, into which he was
induéted in 1500. His advancement was rapid, firft as do-
meftic chaplain to the archbifhop of Canterbury, and-afterwards
as chaplain to the houfehold of Henry VII. His manners were’
infinuating, and he became the confidante of the king, who
communicated to him his projeéted marriage with the daaphe
ter of the emperor Maximilian. Wolfey met the emperor
at Bruges, and executed his commiflion fo much to the king's
fatisfaétion, that he nominated him to the deanery of Lin-
coln. After the death of Henry VII. he was recommended:
by: Fox, bifhop of \Winchefter, to Henry VILE.,, whofe»
favour
WOL
favour and cenfidence he conciliated by his blending amufe-
ment with bufinefs, infomuch that he fupplanted the minif-
ters of the late king, and became himfelf uncontrouled minif-
ter.. His preferments, civil and ecclefiaftical, very fpeedily
{ucceeded one another, and even profufely accumulated.
He was introduced into the privy-council in 1510, made
reporter of the ftar-chamber, regiftrar, and afterwards chan-
cellor of the garter ; and advanced to the fees of ‘Tournay
and Lincoln in 1513, to that of York in 1514, and to the
dignity of cardinal in15 15. Thus promoted, his pride and love
of pomp kept pace with his elevation of rank. In his train of
fervants, 800 in number, were many knights and gentlemen ;
and the fons of noblemen aéted occafionally as his dometftic
menials. His equipage and furniture were of the moft coftly
kind ; but it is needlefs to multiply particulars. ‘The moft
pardonable, not to fay laudable, difplay of his magnificence
was exhibited in his patronage of literary men and promo-
tion of literature, both by the exercife of private bounty
and the eftablifhment of public inftitutions. The pope
nominated him legate a /atere, by which office he acquired
legal pre-eminence over the archbifhop of Canterbury ; and
in December 1515, he was elevated to the office of high-
chancellor. By the equity of his decifions in the exercife
of this office he gained great credit, but his conduét as le-
gate @ Jatere was fo arbitrary and oppreffive, as to produce
complaints again{t him to the king. Charles V. and Fre-
deric I. purchafed his intereft with Henry VIII. by pen-
fions, and he was alfo retained in the fame way by the
pope. Charles flattered him with hopes of the papal
crown, and fettled upon him the revenues of two bifhop-
rics in Spain. Still infatiable in the purfuit of ecclefiafti-
cal preferments, he obtained the adminiftration of’ the fee
of Bath and Wells, and the temporalities of the abbey of
St. Alban’s, to which were afterwards added fucceflively the
rich bifhoprics of Durham and Winchefter. His revenues,
thus amounting nearly to that of the crown, were expended
partly in the oftentation of pomp, and partly in laudable
munificence. He founded feveral leCtures at Oxford for
liberal and ufeful ftudies, and at length ereéted in that uni-
verfity the celebrated college of Chriftchurch. He alfo
eftablifhed a collegiate {chool in his native town of Ipfwich.
The palace which he built at Hampton Court he prefented,
in 1528, to the king, and he further ingratiated himfelf with
Henry by an arbitrary loan for the fupply of his wants ;
but by thefe meafures he became more and more odious to’
the nation. But his fall was approaching ; and the firft
flep to it was the divorce of queen Catharine. This was fol-
lowed by the marriage of Henry with Ann Boleyn, whofe
influence was employed in effecting his downfall. At
length the king, not without hefitation and reluétance, em-
ployed the dukes of Norfolk and Suffolk, in 1529, to re-
quire him to furrender the great feal, and to quit York-
place, a palace which he had built in London, and which
afterwards became a royal refidence under the name of
Whitehall. His furniture and plate were feized for the
king’s ufe, and he was ordered to retire to Efher, a palace
which belonged to him as bifhop of Winchefter. Thefe
meafures overwhelmed the favourite, deftitute of any inward
refources of magnanimity ; and when he received a flight
token of the king’s favour in this ftate of mental depreflion,
he was tranfported with joy, difmounted on meeting the
meffenger, and fell upon his knees in the dirt to receive the
expreffion of his mafter’s kindnefs. Henry, however, was
capricious and inconftant ; a cloud overfpread this gleam,
and Wolfey was ordered to be indiéted in the ftar-cham-
ber, and abandoned by his fovereign to the rigour of
parliament. An accufation, confifting of 44 articles, was
. Vor. XX XVIII.
WOL
exhibited againft him by the houfe of lords; and in the
commons, he was fo ably defended by Thomas Cromwell,
who had been raifed by the cardinal from a low condition to
a high ftation, that his enemies were defeated. They thus
changed their plan, and indi€&ted him upon the ftatute of
provifors, which prohibited his procuring bulls from Rome,
and which he had violated by obtaining the legantine power ;
and this was made the ground of a fentence, putting him
out of the king’s protection, forfeiting all his lands and
goods, and declaring him liable to imprifonment. When
thefe meafures had induced him to refign to the king York-
place with all its furniture, he obtained a full pardon for all
his paft offences, and the reftoration of the revenues of his
archbifhopric, with part of his goods. But frefh tokens of
royal difpleafure, awaited him. The earl of Northumber-
land was ordered to arreft him for high treafon, and to con-
dué him to London for trial. In his way from York to
London, he was feized with a diforder which obliged him
to ftop at Leicefter, where he was hofpitably received in the
abbey. His diforder in a few days terminated his life, in
the 6oth year of his age. Shortly before he expired he
clofed a converfation with the conftable of the Tower, which
related to the king, with this exclamation, “ Had but I
ferved God as diligently as I have ferved the king, he would
not have given me over in my grey hairs!’? Thus he funk
to the grave as a vitim to tyranny, but to a tyranny which
he had himfelf formed ; exhibiting an inftruétive example to
all future minifters of the infecure poffeffion of power and
wealth acquired by extortion and oppreffion, and of the
folly of placing confidence in princes embracing arbitrary
and defpotic meafures, and governed by caprice and per-
fonal ambition. Biog. Brit.
The magnificence of the cardinal’s chapel-eftablifhment,
as defcribed by Cavendifh, his contemporary and domettic,
feems far to have furpaffed that of the Roman pontiff
himfelf,
“* Firft, he had there a deane, a great divine, and a man
of excellent ee 3 a fub-dean, a repeatour of the quire,
a gofpeller and epiftollor ; of finging priefts, ten, a mafter
of the children. The feculars of the chapell, being fing-
ing-men, twelve ; finging-children, ten, with one fervant to
waite upon them. In the veftry, a yeoman and two
grooms ; over and befides other retainers that. came thither
at principal feafts, And for the furniture of his chapell, it
pafleth my weak capacity to declare the number of the
coftly ornaments and rich jewels that were occupied in the
fame. For I have feen in proceffion about the hall forty-
four rich copes, befides the rich candlefticks, and other
neceflary ornaments to the furniture of the fame.’’
The earl of Northumberland, whofe paffion for Ann
Boleyn is fuppofed to have occafioned his difgrace at court,
feems to have been treated with great infolence and in-
dignity by the cardinal, who, by an extraordinary extenfion
of power, demanded his choral books for the ufe of his own
chapel. Letters concerning this requifition are {till pre-
ferved in the family, in which the earl fays, “ I do per-
ceayff my lorde cardinall’s pleafour ys to have fuch boks as
was in the chapell of my lat lorde and ffayther (wos foll
Jhu pardon.) To the accomplychment of which, at your
defyer, I am confformable, notwithftandinge I truft to be
able ons to fet up a chapell off myne owne.—I fhall with all
{ped fend up the boks unto my lord’s grace, as to fay iiij
Antiffonars ( Antiphoners), fuch as I think wher not feen a
gret wyll—v Gralls (Graduals )—an Ordeorly (Ordinal) —
a Manuall—viij Proffeffioners (Proceffionals).”? |Northum-
berland Houfehold Book.
WOLSINGHAM, in in
Geography, an irregular town
E the
4
WOL
the county of Durham, England, is pleafantly fituated in
the vale of the Wear, ona point of land formed by the con-
fluence of that river and the Wefcrow. The church is
fituated at the north fide of the town on rifing ground,
but poffeffes nothing worthy of remark. Near it are fome
remains of a confiderable building, inclofed with a deep
moat, fuppofed by fome writers to have been part of a
monattery, which was founded by Henry de Pudfey; but
Hutchinfon, in his Hiftory of Durham, refers them to the
ancient manor-houfe of the bifhop’s, which is mentioned in
Hatfield’s Survey. The inhabitants of this parifh, according
to the returns of 1811, are 1983, the houfes 399. The views
down the Wear from the hill above Wolfingham include avery
extenfive and beautifully diverfified country. Between this
town and Stanhope, the commencement of the lead diftrié is
every where intimated by large parcels of lead lying near the
fides of the road, and from the blue unwholefome vapours
arifing from the {melting mills in Bollihope. On Bollihope
common, in 1749, was fund a Roman altar with an inferip-
tion. This town is 6 miles S.E. by S. from Stanhope, and
259 N.N.W. from London. Here is a market held on
Tuefday, and a fair on the 18th of May. The petty fef-
fions are holden here. The parifh, which is large, confiits
of Bradley, Hilton-park, Thornley, Wolfingham town
quarter, Eaft fide quarter; Park quarter, and South fide
quarter.—Beauties of England, Durham, vol. iv.; by
J. Britton and E. W. Brayley.
WOLTA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigin-
atz; 2 miles N. of Trautenau.
WOLTERN, atown of Germany, in the county of
Verden; 30 miles E. of Rotenburg.
WOLTERSDORYF, a town of Saxony ; 2 miles S.W.
of Zahna.
WOLTIN, a town of Hinder Pomerania; 12 miles
S.W. of Stargard.
WOLTZTORFF, atownof Auftria; 2 miles N.N.W.
of Weikerttorf.
WOLVERENE. See GrurrTon.
WOLVERHAMPTON, formerly Hamerton,inGeogra-
phy, an important market-town in the hundred of N. Seifdon,
and county of Stafford, England, is particularly noted: for its
extenfive manufadtures of locks, keys, and other articles of
ironmongery. It is fituated on a rifing ground 16 miles S.
from Stafford, 14 S.W. from Lichfield, 13 N.W. from
Birmingham, and 130 in the fame dire&tion from London.
Wolverhampton is of ancient date, for as early as 996 a
monaftery was founded there by Wulfruna, from whom the
town received the firft member of itsname. The inftitution,
confifting of a dean and fecular canons, was about the year
1200 transferred by the dean, Peter of Blois, tothe archbifhop
of Canterbury, to convert it into an abbey for Ciftercian
monks; but this defign feems not to have been executed,
for the feculars appear to have been not long after in pof-
feffion of the eftablifhment. The church, which was con-
fidered as one of the king’s free chapels, was by Ed-
ward IV. annexed to the deanery of Windfor ; but in the
feventh year of Edward VI. a grant of the college of
Wolverhampton and feven prebends was made to John, duke
of Northumberland. Coming again to the crown by his at-
tainder, queen Mary reinftated the dean and prebendaries,
and endowed them with all the lands, &c. which formerly
belonged to the inftitution, then valued at the yearly rent of
113/. 13s. On a quettion arifing concerning thofe poffef-
fions, the grants of Mary were confirmed by James I., who
appointed the celebrated Marc-Antonio de Dominis, who
had been archbifhop of Spalatro in Dalmatia, to be dean of
Windfor, and dean and firft prebendary of Wolverhampton:
WOL
thofe deaneries continue to be united, but the colleges are
feparate. ;
Wolverhampton is well built, and confidered as falubri-
ous, notwithftanding it is in the vicinity of many coal-mines.
The parifh is of great extent, being nearly 30 miles in cir-
cuit, and comprehends, befides the town, feventeen confider-
able townfhips, or villages, among which are, Biliton, Fea-
therftone, Hatherton, Hilton, and Kinvafton. According
to the returns to parliament in 1811, the houfes in the
whole parifh were 2936, and the inhabitants 14,836. A
market is held on Wednefday, and a fair on the 1oth of
July. The {kill and ingenuity of the lock-{miths of the
town and the environs, (for many of the farmers themfelves
zre concerned in the cere and the trade carried on in
thefe and fimilar articles of iron manufature, are un-
paralleled in England: the trade is particularly promoted
by the Staffordfhire and Worcetterfhire grand trunk, and
the Birmingham canals, which unite about a mile to the N.
of the town. The town is governed by two conftables, and
in it are held the petty feffions for the N. and S. divifions of
Seifdon hundred.
The collegiate church of St. Peter itands on an elevation
on the E. fide of the town, and confiits of a lofty nave,
with fide-aifles and a chancel. From the centre of the
building, which is of ftone, rifes a tower. The nave is
feparated from the aifles by five pointed arches, fupported
by oétagonal pillars. Againft one of the S. pillars. is
erected a very curious ftone pulpit. The font, which is
oftagonal, and covered with fculptured figures, &c. appears
to be very ancient. In the great chancel is a full-length
ftatue, in brafs, of the celebrated admiral fir Richard
Levefon, who had a command again{t? the Spanifh armada,
under fir*Francis Drake. In the church-yard ftands a
round column twenty feet high, profufely but rudely carved
in divifions, and the whole furmounted by a plain capital. It
is evidently ancient, and may have fupported a crofs, or the
figure. of the patron-faint. The fituation of Wulfruna’s
monaftery is unknown; but’ in the S.W. corner of the
burying-ground is a large room fupported by groins, the
walls of which are three yards in thicknefs. Befides
St. Peter’s, Wolverhampton poffeffes another church, dedi-
cated to St. John, which was ereéted by fubfcription, and
confecrated in 1761. Diffenters of various denominations
abound in the parifh of Wolverhampton, and comprehend
more than one half of the inhabitants: chapels for their ac-
commodation are confequently numerous. A free-fchool
was founded here by fir Stephen Jennings of Wolverhamp-
ton, who was lord-mayor of London in 1668; befides
which, charity-fchools are maintained for children of both
fexes. Bilfton, a large and populous village two miles S.E.
from the town, is within the parifh of Wolverhampton; but
as to all parochial concerns it is a feparate townfhip. In
1811 Bilfton contained 1862 houfes, and the inhabitants
amounted to 9646. Here is a parochial chapel, which is a
neat modern ftru€ture: the living is a perpetual curacy
within the exempt jurifdi@tion of the.dean of Wolverhamp-
ton; but the nomination and prefentation of the incumbent
are vefted in the inhabitants at large. Bilfton contains like-
wife two diflenting meetings, and an excellent charity-{chool.
The bufinefs of Bilfton confifts chiefly of japanned and
enamelled goods. The vicinity abounds in coal, iron-{tone,
with numerous fmelting-furnaces and forges, &c. in which
the operations are performed by {team-engines. Bilfton
furnifhes alfo a peculiar kind of fand of great ufe in caftin
metals. At Bradley, near Bilfton, the fubterraneous eal
has been burning for feveral years paft, and every attempt
to extinguifh it i hitherto proved fruitlefs, by which feve-
ral
WOM
ral acres of land have been rendered unproductive. The
fire proceeds from a burning ftratum of coal about four feet
thick, and eight or ten yards deep, to which the air has free
accefs; as the main bed of coal has been dug out from
under it. In colleéting the calcined fubftances for repair-
ing the roads, fulphur and alum are frequently found.
Tatenhill, a {mall village on a fteep eminence two miles N.
from Wolverhampton, was the fcene of a fevere battle
between Edward the Elder and the Danes, in the beginning
of the roth century. In this place was founded, before
the Norman Conquelt, a college with a dean and five pre-
bends, which fubfifted till the general diffolution by
Henry VIII. The prefent church, or chapel, is appa-
rently a part of that eftablifhment. At Wrottefley, a
village in the parifh of Wolverhampton, extenfive ancient
remains have been difcovered, fuppofed, by Dr. Plott, in his
Hittory of Staffordfhire, to be veftiges of the old Theoten-
hall of the Danes: but later antiquaries imagine thefe re-
mains to belong to the Uriconium of Roman Britain.
The parifh of Wolverhampton, although varied with
eminences, is in general level, and ornamented with a num-
ber of agreeable hamlets and country-feats.—Hiftory and
Antiquities of Staffordfhire, by the Rev. Stebbing Shaw,
fol. Lond. 1798. Beauties of England and Wales, Staf-
fordfhire, 8vo. Lond. 1814.
WOLVES-Teeru, of a horfe, are overgrown grinders,
the points of which, being higher than the reft, prick the
creature’s tongue and gums in feeding, fo as to hinder
chewing of the meat.
They are feldom met with but in young horfes; but if
they be not daily worn by chewing, they will grow up even
to pierce the roof of the mouth.
There are ufually two of thefe wolves-teeth, which are
{mall, and grow in the upper-jaw, next to the great grind-
ing-teeth: thefe are fo tender and painful, that the horfe
cannot chew his meat, but is forced to let a great part of it
fall out of his mouth, or {wallow it half chewed.
The remedy, in this cafe, is to tie up the horfe’s head to
fome part of the rafter, and open his mouth with a cord ;
then with an inftrument like a carpenter’s gauge, and a
mallet, the teeth that are thus troublefome are to be knocked
out, and the holes filled up with falt.
If the upper-jaw teeth hang over thofe of the under-jaw,
and by that means cut the mouth, the fame inftrument is to
be ufed, and the teeth are to be pared fhorter by little and
little. When they are fufficiently pared down, they mutt
be filed f{mooth, and the mouth wafhed with vinegar and
falt, and the whole complaint will be thus removed.
» Woxves, Rout of. See Rout.
Wotves Jflands, in Geography, a clutter of {mall iflands
near the E. coaft of Maine. N. lat. 45° 4’. W. long.
66° 50!.
WOLVEY, a village of England, in the county of
Warwick. It was at this place that Edward IV. was fur-
prifed and taken prifoner by Richard Nevil, earl of War-
wick; 10 miles N.E. of Coventry.
WOLZ. See WeELs.
WOMAN, Famina, Mulier, the female of man.
A woman, in England, as foon as fhe is married, with
all her moveables, is wholly in poteffate viri, or at the will
and difpofal of her hufband.
There are divers confiderable things relating to women in
the laws of England, which fee under Wire.
St. Auguifline calls women the devout fex; at leaft, this
is the common opinion ; though others rather think, that in
the prayer ufually attributed to that father, and ftill re-
hearfed in the Romifh church to the Holy Virgin, the words
WOM
‘intercede pro devoto feemineo fexu,”? are to be under{tood
of women devoted or confecrated to God in religious
houfes ; which had been fufficiently expreffed by the words,
‘‘ ora pro populo, interveni pro clero.”?
It is a popular tradition among the Mahometans, which
obtains to this day, that women shall not enter paradife.
An anonymous author, about the clofe of the fixteenth
century, publifhed a little Latin differtation, to prove that
women are not men; that is, are not reafonable creatures:
‘¢ Diflertatio perjucunda, qua anonymus probare nititur mu-
lieres homines non effe.’? He alfo endeavours to prove,
what naturally follows from this principle, viz. that women
fhall not be faved, that there is no future life or happinefs
for them. His proofs are all taken from Scripture, or
founded on Scripture. Though, after all, his aim is not
fo much to degrade women to the condition of brutes, as to
ridicule the principle or method of many Proteftants, who,
in points of controverfy, admit of no proofs or confider-
ations but what are taken from Scripture alone. This ap-
pears from the conclufion of the work. « Probavi, opinor,
invidtiflimis SS. literarum teftimoniis, mulierem non effe
hominem, nec eam falvari: quod fi non effeci, oftendi tamen
univerfo mundo, quomodo hujus temporis heretici, et pre-
fertim Anabaptifte, facram foleant explicare Scripturam,
et quo utantur methodo ad {ftabilienda fua execranda dog-
mata.”’
Yet Simon Gediccus, a Lutheran divine, wrote a ferious
confutation of this piece in 1595, wherein the women are
reftored to the expeétation of heaven, on their good be-
haviour.
The ancient Marcionites allowed their women to baptize ;
as we are aflured by St. Epiphanius, Her. 42. cap. 4. the
Montanifts admitted women to the priefthood, and even the
epifcopate, Epiph. Her. 49. cap. 2.. The modern Quakers
alfo permit their women to preach and prophefy, on an equal
footing with the men.
It is a point much controverted, how far learning and
ftudy become the fex? Erafmus handles the queition at
large in one of his letters to Budeus. Lud. Vives, in his
Inttitutio Foeminz Chriftiane, has a chapter exprefsly on the
fame fubje@t. Madam Schurman, a German lady, has gone
beyond them both, in a treatife on this problem, “ Num fee-
minz Chriftiane conveniat ftudium literarum ?”’
Several of the women remarkable for learning have been
alfo diftinguifhed for their want of conduét. ‘The reafon,
no doubt, lay in this; that their firlt ftudies lying in books
of gallantry and intrigue, the imagination was early turned
that way, and the memory filled with a fort of ideas, which
a favourable difpofition, and age, adopted too eafily, and
improved too fait. It»is not that ftudy in itfelf has any
natural tendency to produce fuch effects; rather the con-
trary: the clofe abftraéted refearches of metaphyfics, lo-
gics, mathematics, phyfics, criticifm, &c. no doubt would
be the fureft means to fecure and eftablifh the virtue of con-
tinency in a woman, )
_ For an account of women hired to weep at funerals by
the Romans, fee PrmFicm.
Women were allowed to fing, in 1772, in the collegiate
church of St. Gudula, at Bruffels. It was in the performance
of high mafs on a Sunday, when a confiderable number of
voices and inftruments were aflembled in the choir; and we
were gdad to find among the former two or three women,
who though they were not fine fingers, yet their being em-
ployed, proved that female voices might have admiffion in
the chureh, without giving offence or fcandal to piety, or
even bigotry. If the practice were to become general, of
admitting women to fing the foprano part in the cathedrals,
4E 2 18
WOM
it would, in Italy, be a fervice to mankind, and in the reft
of Europe render church mufic infinitely more pleafing and
perfe& ; in general, the want of treble voices, at leaft of
fuch as have tal fufficient time to be polifhed, and rendered
fteady, deftroys the effeéts of the beft compofitions, in
which, if the principal melody be feeble, nothing but the
fubordinate parts, meant only as attendants, and to enrich
the harmony of the whole, can be heard.
Women, Appeals of. See APPEAL.
Women, Jury of. See Jury of Marrons.
Women, Stealing, or Seduéion of, is punifhable by the
ftatute 4 & 5 Ph. & Mar. cap. 8. which enacts, that if any
perfon above the age of fourteen unlawfully fhall convey
or take away any woman child unmarried, (which is held to
extend to baftards as well as to legitimate children, ) within
the age of fixteen years, from the poffeffion and againft the
will of the father, mother, guardians, or governors, he
fhall be imprifoned two years, or fined at the difcretion of
the juftices: and if he deflowers {uch maid or woman child,
or, without the confent of parents, contracts matrimony
with her, he hall be imprifoned five years, or fined at the
difcretion of the juftices, and fhe fhall forfeit her lands to
her next of kin, during the life of her faid hufband. But this
latter part of the at is now rendered almoft ufelefs, by
provifions of a very different kind, which make the mar-
riage totally void, in the ftatute 26 Geo. II. cap. 33. See
MARRIAGE. See alfo Forciste Abdufion, Rarer, and
RAVISHMENT.
WOMB, Marnix, or Uterus, in Anatomy, that part of
the female of any kind, wherein the foetus is conceived and
nourifhed till the time of its delivery.
The ancient Greeks called the matrix, pnteny from pnrne,
mother : whence diforders of the womb are ftill frequently
called fits of the mother. They alfo call it ugrnga, as being
the lait of the entrails, by its fituation. Sometimes they
alfo call it guois, or natura; and vulva, from volvo, to fold,
or envelope, or from valve, doors. See UreErus.
Woms, Drop/y of the. See Drorsy.
Womn, Falling down of the. See Procipentia Uteri.
Wome, Inflammation of the. See INFLAMMATION.
Wome, Suffocation of the. See SuPFOCATION-
Woms, Ulcers of the. See ULcers.
Woms, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Skonen; 12 miles E. of Lund.
WOMBACH, a town of Germany, in the county of
Rieneck ; 3 miles S. of Lohr.
WOMBAT, in Zoology, an animal of which Mr. E.
Home has given an anatomical defcription in the 2d part of
the g8th volume of the Philofophical Tranfactions. It was
brought from the iflands in Bafla’s ftraits, and lived with him
in a domefticated ftate fortwo years. Whenever it had an
opportunity, it burrowed in the ground, and covered itfelf
in the earth with furprifing quicknefs. It was quiet in the
day, but in conftant motion during the night ; very fenfible
of cold; ate all kinds of vegetables; was particularly fond
of new hay, which it ate ftalk by ftalk. It appeared at-
tached to thofe to whom it was accuftomed, and who were
kind to it. It allowed children to pull and carry it about,
and when it bit them it was not in anger or with violence.
It appeared to have arrived at its full growth, weighed
about twenty pounds, and was about two feet two inches
long. Another animal called the « Koala,’ is a {pecies of
the wombat, partaking of its peculiarities. It inhabits the
forefts of New Holland, about fifty or fixty miles.S.W. of
Port Jackfon, whither it was brought in Auguft 1803, and
is called by the natives the ¢ koala wombat.’ It is com-
monly about two feet long and one high; in the girth about
WON
a foot and a half: it is covered with fine foft fur, lead-
coloured on the back and white on the belly: the ears are
fhort, ereét, and pointed; the eyes generally ruminating,
fometimes fiery and menacing : it bears no fmmall refemblance
to the bear in the fore-part of its body: it has no tail; and
its cuftomary pofture is fitting. The New Hollanders eat
the fleth of this animal ; and are very dextrous in the purfuit
of it, climbing with wonderful rapidity the loftieft gum-trees
in fearch of it. The koala feeds upon the tender fhoots of
thefe trees ; and during the day refts on the tops of them,
either feeding at eafe, or fleeping. In the night it defcends,
prowls about in fearch of fome particular roots, creeping
rather than walking ; and when incenfed or hungry, it utters
a long fhrill yell, and afflumes a fierce and menacing look.
Thefe animals are found in pairs, and the young is carried
by the mother on its fhoulders. It foon forms an attach-
ment to the perfon who feeds it.
The external form of the wombat has: been deferibed by
M. Geoffroy, in the 2d volume of the ** Annales du Mufeum
National de France ;’? and feveral parts of its internal ftruc-
ture have been taken notice of by M. Cuvier, in his ‘* Legons
d’ Anatomie Comparé.””? The mechanifm of the bones and
mufcles of-the hind legs differs in many refpeéts from that
of all other animals, except the koala. This has been mi-
nutely examined and defcribed by Mr. Brodie, at the defire
of Mr. Home; and it appears that there is nothing fimilar
to it in the hind legs of the mole, or/other burrowing ani-
mals. The internal ftru@ture of the wombat refembles that
of the beaver; but it is fo different from that of the kan-
‘ garoo, and all the other animals of the opoffum tribe, that
it forms a very extraordinary peculiarity. The male and
female organs of generation have been defcribed ; the former
by M. Cuvier, and the latter by Mr. Bell in New South
Wales. The male and female organs of the wombat and
koala are fimilar to thofe of the opoflum; and hence it is
concluded, that thefe animals form the intermediate link be-
tween the opoflum and kangaroo. See DipEvpuis.
WOMBINELLORE, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in Baramaul. It was taken by the Britifh, under
"vie Meadows; 100 miles S.E. of Seringapatam. N.
at. 11° 43/. E. long. 78° 15/.
MBORN, a townfhip of England, in Staffordfhire ;
3 miles S.W. of Wolverhampton.
WOMELSDORF, a town of Pennfylvania; 15 miles
W. of Reading. '
WONDA, a town of Africa, in Manding; 30 miles
N.E. of Kamalia. See Manpine.
Wonpa, a river of Manding, which, at Fonilla, a {mall
walled village on its banks, is called Ba Woolima (red river) ;
and towards its fource it has the name of Ba Qui (white
river) ; the middle part of its courfe being called Wonda.
WONDER. See Mrracte.
The feven wonders of the world, as they are popularly
called, were, the Egyptian pyramids ; the maufoleum ereéted
by Artemifia; the temple of Diana at Ephefus ; the walls
and hanging gardens of the city of Babylon ; the coloflus,
or brazen image of the fun, at Rhodes ; the ttatue of Ju-
piter Olympius ; and the pharos, or watch-tower, of Pto-
lemy Philadelphus: inftead of the latter, fome reckon the
royal palace of Cyrus, built by Menon, the ftones of which
were cemented with gold. See Pyramin.
WONDERFUL Water. See Water.
WONDRA, or Wonpres, in Geography, a river which
rifes in Bavaria, and runs into the Egra, near Konigtberg,
in Bohemia. .
WONDRZEGOW, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of
Kaurzim ; 10 miles W.S.W. of Kaurzim.
WONSDORF,
woo
WONSDORF, a town of Pruffia, in Natangen ; 25 miles
S.E. of Konigfberg.
WONSIEDEL. See WunsrepeEt.
WONTAMITTA, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
45 miles E. of Chinna Balabarum.
WOO-CHIN, atown of China, in the province of Kiang-
fi, near the lake Poyang, which is a place of confiderable
importance, as the great mart for exchanging commodities
between the north and fouth of China. The warehoufes are
f{pacious and well filled, dwelling-houfes large and fubftan-
tial, temples richly decorated, and the fhops filled with arti-
cles of all kinds, including no inconfiderable proportion of
European goods. Here are feveral fmall bronze veflels of
ancient and modern workmanfhip, not unlike the Grecian
and Etrufcan. Near it is a temple dedicated to Wang-fhin-
choo, the god of longevity, furpaffing moft others in riches
of carved-work and gilding.
WOOD, Wirt1am, F.L.S., in Biography, a Proteftant
diffenting minifter of diftinguifhed reputation for general
literature and fcience, character, and ufefulnefs, was born at
Collingtree, a village near Northampton, on May 29, O.S.
1745. His father, though occupying a humble ftation, was
a perfon of approved integrity and piety, in conneétion with
the Chriftian fociety at Northampton, under the perfonal
care of the juftly-celebrated Dr. Doddridge, and paid par-
ticular attention to the religious inftruétion and moral con-
du& of his children. Mr. Wood, at an early age, manifefted
promifing talents, and having finifhed his fchool-education
under the late Dr. Addington of Market-Harborough, was
introduced, at the age of 16, with a view to the miniftry,
among Proteftant diflenters, which was the objeét of his
choice, to a diflenting academy in London, conduéted at
the time of his admiflion by Dr. David Jennings and Mr.
(afterwards Dr.) Morton Savage, and before the clofe of
his ftudies by Mr. Savage, Mr. A. Kippis, and Mr. A. Rees.
The writer of this {ketch can bear perfonal teftimony to his
exemplary condu& during the period of his continuance at
the academy, and to the diligence and fuccefs with which
he profecuted the various branches of literature and fcience
to fhich his attention was dire&ted. Few perfons ever left
a public feminary with fuperior qualifications for the exercife
of the profeffion to which he was devoted, and performed the
duties of it, in the progrefs of a long and honourable life, more
acceptably and more ufefully. It was then the cuftom, ad-
mitting of few exceptions, to ordain minifters when they
were elected by particular congregations, and introduced
into the full difcharge of the paitoral office; and fome, we
underftand, of the wifeft and beft of the Non-conformift
minifters have lamented the too general difcontinuance of
this decorous pratice, againft which it is thought by many
that no fufficient objeGtion has been alleged. Ordination
among Proteftant diflenters is a public fervice, ufually con-
duéted at the place where the minifter, who is ordained or
fet apart, is about to be fettled; and confifts of a fermon
addrefled to the people, a charge delivered to the perfon
ordained, and prayers fora divine bleffing on his future la-
bours, and for the edification and profperity of the Chriftian
fociety with which he is conneéted.
accompanied with a confeffion of faith on the part of the
perfon who is thus fet apart; but this part of the fervice,
having been mifunderftood, is frequently omitted, though in
cafes which allow of unreftrifted liberty, and in which the
confeffion neither defcends into a variety of minute particu-
lars, nor contains any pledges that embarrafs or reftrain future
free inquiry, it is thought to be unexceptionable. Ordina-
tion, however, among the perfons to whom we now refer, is
not conceived to impart any new qualifications or powers
It has been fometimes _
woo
which the perfon ordained did not poffefs previoufly to this
fervice, or to conftitute him either a minifter in general, or
the paftor of any particular church. But to return from
this digreflion: Mr. Wood was publicly ordained, and the
occafion afforded an opportunity for many minifters of
acknowledged reputation among diffenters to bear their
united teftimony to his talents and charaéter. He com-
menced his public fervices at Debenham in Suffolk, on the
6th of July 1766, with a fermon peculiarly appropriate to
the occafion, from Luke, ix. 26., and he {pert the remaining
part of this year, and a great part of the year 1767, in the
vicinity of London, where he occafionally officiated to the
fatisfation of thofe whorattended, and gained the friendfhip
of fome of the moft eminent of the diffenting minifters of
that period. In September 1767, he fettled at Stamford,
in Lincolnfhire ; and removed from thence to Ip{wich in
November 1770, where he remained till the clofe of the year
1772. In 1773, having nearly completed his 27th year,
he was unanimoufly chofen to fucceed Dr. Prieftley at Mill-
hill chapel, Leeds, and in that conneétion he continued till
his death. About two years after his fettlement with this
congregation, he publifhed a fmall volume confifting of
twelve fermons on focial life, which entitled the author, in
the judgment of a contemporary critic, to the charaéter of
a ufeful and elegant preacher. In 1780 he formed a ma-
trimonial conneétion with adaughter of Mr. George Oates,
of Low-hall, near Leeds, which lafted twenty-fix years, and
contributed in a high degree to his domettic felicity. By
this lady he had four children, of whom three furvived their
parents.
Ardently devoted to the ftudies that were more immedi-
ately or more remotely conneéed with his profeffion, and
attached by affe€tionate gratitude as well as intereft to
the congregation in the fervice of which he was engaged,
and which claimed his moft affiduous and refpeétful atten-
tion, he commenced for the benefit of the young a courfe of
le€&tures, in the year 1785. Thefe were comprehenfive and
improving; and though they were delivered once a fort-
night, they lafted feveral years. Our limits will not allow
us to avail ourfelves of the detail, furnifhed by his excellent
biographer, of the fubje@ts which were difcuffed in this ex-
tenfive courfe of ufeful inftru€tion. It will be fufficient to
obferve, that they contributed no lefs to the information of
thofe who attended them than to the reputation of the lec-
turer, as well as to the mutual refpeét and efteem which
were thus cemented between Mr. Wood and his congrega-
tion. The public would probably have derived inftruétion
from the perufal of them, if fome circumftances had not oc-
curred which rendered it neceflary for Mr. Wood to devote
a confiderable part of his time and attention to fubjets of
a very different nature. Without abandoning the ftudies
conneéted with his profeffion, he was led by the {tate of his
health, and by fome other confiderations, to the purfuit of
natural hiftory, and particularly of Englifh botany; but
whilft he was thus occupied, he rendered his inveftigations
fubfervient to the great objeét of his life and miniftry, the
promotion of religion and virtue, as well as the perfonal
fatisfaGtion and future happinefs of thofe with whom he was
conneéted. His new purfuits were the means of intro-
ducing him to acquaintance and friendfhip with many emi-
nent perfons ; and more efpecially with Dr. (now fir James)
Smith, the juftly celebrated prefident of the Linnzan So-
ciety. ‘To Mr. Wood the good opinion and friendly regard
of one, who commands the refpec and efteem of all who
know him, by mental accomplifhments and moral qualities
of the moft excellent and engaging kind, muft have afforded
a fatisfation which, as we can teftify from perfonal know-
II ledge,
WOOD.
ledge, he very highly appreciated. The good opinion of
fuch a judge of merit, in the department of natural hiftory,
which now engaged his attention, muft have encouraged his
afliduity and perfeverance. He was thus qualified for con-
tributing feveral valuable articles to this Cyclopedia, in the
reputation and fuccefs of which the editor is happy to fay
he felt and exprefled a peculiar intereft. His contributions
comprehended the botanical articles that occur, with fome
few exceptions, from the beginning of the letter B to the
end of C; and the editor, who moft fincerely lamented his
death as a pupil and a friend, as well as a coadjutor in this
work, would have found it difficult to fupply the lofs, if the
kindnefs and condefcenfion of the Linnzus of our time, for
fo, it is hoped, we may be allowed to denominate him with-
out offending his delicacy, had not relieved his anxiety, and
amply compenfated the injury which the botanical depart-
ment of the Cyclopedia muft have fuftained.
Mr. Wood had attained, by his talents and cultivation of
them, to fo high a rank among his brethren in that part of
the country where his lot was caft, that few public fervices
occurred in which he was not expeéted to be aétive and con-
fpicuous. Attached to liberty, civil and religious, from his
vouth, he had in his maturer years thoroughly acquainted
himfelf with the genuine principles of the Britifh conftitu-
tion ; and accordingly he took occafion on the centenary of
the Revolution, in 1788, to exprefs his conviétion and feel-
ings in two fermons, which were afterwards publifhed. In
the three following years he took an a¢tive part in the ap-
plication of the diffenters to parliament for the repeal of
the teft and corporation aéts. In 1794 he preached a fune-
ral fermon, on occafion of the death of the Rev. W. Turner,
of Wakefield ; and in the following year he performed the
fame fervice in confequence of the deceafe of the Rev. Mr.
Ralph, of Halifax : the fermons which he delivered in both
cafes were publifhed. The fhort account of Leeds which was
this year communicated to Dr. Aikin for his Hiftory of Man-
chefter deferves to be noticed, as he took great pains in exaétly
afcertaining the number of its inhabitants. About this time
he commenced a courfe of education, addrefled to young
females, with a view partly to his own emolument, but prin-
cipally for the benetit of thofe who were difpofed to avail
desis of his inftruétion ; and indeed few perfons could
be found capable of conduéting fuch a courfe with greater
fatisfa@tion and advantage to thofe who attended it. His
le@tures occupied three years, and comprehended hiftory,
geography, natural philofophy, grammar, the belles lettres,
natural hiitory, mental and moral philofophy, and the evi-
dences of natural and revealed religion. His next publica-
tion was his fermon occafioned by the death of the Rev.
Newcome Cappe, which contained a very appropriate and
juftly-merited eulogy of his late revered friend. It was
dedicated to Mrs. Cappe, who claimed from her talents and
charaGter, as well as relation to the deceafed, a tribute of
refpeét ; and annexed to it fome brief memoirs of Mr. Cappe’s
life. In the year 1801, Mr. Wood publifhed a liturgy, con-
fifting of five forms, for the ufe of his 2h gicenges at Mill-
hill chapel, and compofed, for the moft part, from the
fervice of the eftablifhed church, the Liverpool, Shrewfbury,
and other liturgies before publifhed by the diffenters,. as
well as from a fimilar fervice compofed by the Rev. T. Simp-
fon. Of this performance it will be fufficient to ftate, that
it was executed with judgment and tafte. On the reftora-
tion of peace in the year 1802, he publifhed an animated
difeourte, which he delivered, in the courfe of his public
fervices, on that occafion. About this time he exerted him-
felf in eftablifhing at York the academical inftitution, which
had for fome years fubfifted at Manchefler, and which was
9
likely to be difcontinued in confequence of the refignation
of the late Rev. G. Walker, the theological tutor.
Intending, as he advanced in life, and when he had finifhed
the education of his daughter, to relinquifh the anxiety and
labour of tuition, he propofed to engage in fome li
undertakings. Accordingly he was a contributor, in the
department of natural hiftory, to the Annual Review; but
the work which occupied his chief attention, and which
afforded him the greateft pleafure, was the Cyclopedia
already mentioned.
As a preacher, the laft of his publications was a fermon
delivered at Birmingham, June 9, 1805, for the benefit of
the Proteftant diflenting charity-fchool, fupported by the
joint contributions of the two focieties of the old and new
meeting-houfes. After his return from an excurfion in the
months of July and Auguft 1806, he,was attacked by a
fevere paroxy{m of the gout, to which he had been long
fubjeét ; and in a few days his diforder was fo alarming, that
his recovery was not expected. As an aggravation of his
diftrefs, the affeGtionate partner of his life was feized with a
diforder, which terminated in her death. For fome time his
itate was fuch, that it was prudent to conceal from him both
the progrefs and termination of her diforder. The mourn-
ful event which he had apprehended was gradually difclofed
to him; and he received the afflictive intelligence with a
degree of compofure and refignation, which evinced the
efficacy of his religious principles, and the confolation de-
rived in fuch circumftances from Chriftian hope. During a
long illnefs, which interrupted his public labours, and which
was attended with a confiderable expence, the fociety with
which he was conneéted had an opportunity of teftifying, by
fubftantial a&ts of kindnefs, the high fenfe they entertained
of his meritorious fervices. Providence at length reftored
his health to fuch a degree, that he was able to refume his pub-
lic labours ; but they were of no long continuance. On Sun-
day the 27th of March 1808, he performed the ufnal fervices
with an uncommon degree of animation. On the following
day, however, having previoufly experienced fymptoms of a
flying gout, he was fuddenly feized at dinner with a violent
ficknefs, which continued for many hours. This was fucceeded
by an inflammation of the bowels, which foon terminated in
a mortification. The confequence was a delirium ; and on
Friday, the 1ft of April, he expired fo quietly, that the
friends who attended his bed were not apprized of the mo-
ment of his departure. Thofe who with for further inform-
ation concerning the natural talents and acquired endow-
ments, the private charaéter and public fervicesof Mr. Wood,
will be amply gratified by the perufal of the ‘© Memoirs of
his Life and Writings,”’ and of the “* Addrefs and Sermon’?
delivered on occafion of his death, by his friend and neigh-
bour the Rev. Charles Wellbeloved of York.
Woop, Antuony, the Oxford Antiquary, was born at
Oxford in 1632, and entered of Merton college in 1647.
Having commenced M.A. and acquired a tafte for ftudies
pertaining to antiquity, he purfued with indefatigable dili-
gence both at Oxford and in London refearches, which fur-
nifhed him with materials for his “ Hiftory and Antiquities
of the Univerfity of Oxford,” a copy of which he fold to
the univerfity in 1669 for roo/. It was written in Englith,
but afterwards tranflated into Latin, under the infpeétion of
Dr. Fell; and the verfion was publifhed from the Oxford
prefs in 1674, under the title of “* Hiftoria et Antiquitates
Univerfitatis Oxonienfis, duobus Voluminibus compre-
henfa,”’ fol. The firft part of this work includes the annals
of the univerfity, from its earlieft period to the year 1648 ;
and the fecond contains an account of all its particular
foundations, endowments, officers, &c. The tranflation
18
‘
WOOD.
is badly “executed, and Wood, the original author, was
deftitute of thofe qualifications that would have rendered
him a fit hiftorian of a learned univerfity. Another of
Wood’s works was his ‘* Athene Oxonienfes; or, an
Account, in Englifh, of almoft all the Writers educated at
Oxford, and many of thofe at the Sifter Univerfity, from
the year 1500.”? It was firft publifhed in 1691, 2 vols. fol.,
and foon after fubje€ted him to a profecution in the vice-
chancellor’s court for his account of lord Clarendon, and
to various other attacks, occafioned by his partialities, and
more efpecially by his {trong bias in favour of popery. His
ftyle is vulgar, and his fentiments illiberal and unphilofo-
phical; but his veracity entitles him to confidence. He
died in 1695, and bequeathed his books and papers to the
univerfity of Oxford. A fecond edition of this work,
correGted and enlarged from the author’s MS., was pub-
lifhed in 1721. Biog. Brit.
This curious and diligent antiquary, whofe whole life was
fpent in the fervice of the dead, and whofe labours, fince his
deceafe, have fo much facilitated the inquiries, and gratified
the curiofity of the living, tells us, in the Memoirs of his Life,
written by himfelf, with monattic fimplicity, that in 1651,
“‘ he began to exercife his natural and infatiable genie to
mutick. He exercifed his hand on the violin, and having a
good eare to take any tune at firft hearing, he could quickly
draw it out from the violin, but not with the fame tuning of
ftrings that others ufed. He wanted underftanding, friends,
and money, to pick him out a good matter, otherwife he
might haye equalled in that inftrument, and in finging, any
perfon then in the univerfity. He had fome companions
that were mufical, but they wanted inftruétion as well
as he.”?
The next year, being obliged to go into the country to
try to get rid of an obitinate ague, by exercife and change
of air, he tells, that ‘* while he continued there he followed
the plow on well-dayes, and fometimes plowed. He learned
there to ring on the fix bells, then newly put up: and hav-
ing had from his moft tender yeares an extraordinary ravifh-
ing delight in mufick, he praCtifed there, without the help
of an initrutor, to play on the violin. It was then that he
tuned his ftrings in 4ths, and not in 5ths, according to the
thanner ; and having a good eare, and being ready to fing
any tune upon hearing it once or twice, he could play it alfo
in a fhort time with the faid way of tuning, which was
never knowne before.”?
«¢ After he had {pent the fummer in a lonifh and retired
condition, he returned to Oxon. And being advifed by
fome perfons, he entertained a mafter of mufick to teach
him the ufual way of playing on the violin; that is, by
having every {tring tuned five notes lower than the other
going before. ‘The mafter was Charles Griffith, one of the
mufitians belonging to the city of Oxon., whom he then
thought to be a moft excellent artift. But when Anthony
Wood improved himfelf in that inftrument, he found he was
not fo. He gave him 2s. 6d. entrance, and fo quarterly.
This perfon, after he had extreamly wondered how he could
play fo many tunes as he did by 4ths, without a dire¢tor or
guide, tuned his violin by 5ths, and gave him inftruétions
how to proceed, leaving then a leffon with him to practice
againit his next coming.”
In 1653, he found that ‘ heraldry, mufick, and painting,
did fo much crowd upon him, that he could not avoid them;
and could never give a reafon why he fhould delight in thofe
ttudies, more than in others, fo prevalent was nature, mixed
with a generofity of mind, and a hatred of all that was fer-
wile, {neaking, or advantageous for lucre fake.’’
“¢ Having by 1654 obtained a proficiency in mufick, he
and his companions were not without filly frolicks, not now
to be maintained.”,—What fhould thefe frolics be, but to
difguife themfelves in poor habits, and like country-fiddlers
{erape for their livings. After ftrolling about to Farring-
don fair, and other places, and gaining money, victuals, and
drink for their trouble, in returning home they were over-
taken by certain foldiers, who forced them to play in the
open field, and then left them without giving them a penny.
‘© Moft of his companions would afterwards glory in this,
but he was afhamed, and could never endure to hear of it.??
By 1656, his record informs us, that “‘ he had a genuine
flill in mufick, and frequented the weekly meetings of mufi-
tians in the houfe of William Ellis, organift of St. John’s
college, fituated on that place whereon the theatre was built.’’
Here he gives a lift of the ufual company that met and
performed their parts on lutes and viols ; among thefe eight
were gentlemen. ‘ The mufick-mafters were, William Ellis,
bachelor of mufick, and owner of the houfe, who always
played his part either on the organ or virginal. Dr. John
Wilfon, the public profeffor, the beft at the lute in all
England : he fometimes played on the lute, but moftly pre-
fided (direéted) the confort. Curteys, a lutenift,
lately ejeGted from fome choire or cathedral» church.
Thomas Jackfon, a bafe-violift. Edward Low, then
organift of Chrift church: he played only on the organ, fo
when he played on that inftrument, Mr. Ellis would take
up the counter-tenor viol, if any perfon were wanting to
performe that part. Gervace Littleton alias Weltcot, or
Weltcot alias Littleton, a violift. He was afterwards a
finging-man of St. John’s college. William Glexney, who
had belonged to a choire before the war: he played well
upon the bafe-viol, and fometimes fung his part.
ProGtor, a young man, and anew comer. John Packer, one
of the univerfitie mufitians ;. but Mr. Low, a proud man,
could not endure any common mufitian to come to the
meeting, much lefs to play among them. Of this kind I
muft rank John Hafelwood, an apothecary, a ftarched formal
clifterpipe, who ufually played on the bafe-viol, and fome-
times on the counter-tenor. He was very conceited of his
fkill (though he had but little of it), and therefore would be
ever and anon ready to take up a viol before his betters ;
which being obferved by all, they ufually called him Handle-
wood. The reft were but beginners. Proétor died foon
after this time. He had been bred up by Mr. John Jenkins,
the mirrour and wonder of his age for mufick, was excellent
for the lyra-viol and divifion-viol, good at the treble-viol
and violin, and all comprehended in a man of three or four-
and-twenty yeares of age. He was much admired at the
ya ici and exceedingly pitied by all the faculty for his
ofs.””
At this time Anthony Wood tells us, that ‘¢ what by
mufick, and rare books that he found in the public library,
his life was a perfe&t Elyfium.”’
« Anthony Wood was now advifed to entertain one
William James, a dancing-maiter, to inftru€t him on the
violin, who by fome was accounted excellent on that inftru-
ment, and the rather becaufe, it was faid, that he had ob-
tained his knowledge in dancing and mufick in France. He
{pent in all half a yeare with him, and gained fome improve-
ment; yet at length he found him not a compleat matter of
his facultie, as Griffith and Parker were not: and, to fay
the truth, there was no compleat mafter in Oxon. for that
inftrument, becaufe it had not been hitherto ufed in confort
among gentlemen, only by common mufitians, who played
but two parts. The gentlemen in private meetings, which
Anthony Wood frequented, played three, four, and five
parts with viols, as treble-viol, tenor, counter-tenor.) ad
afs,
WOOD.
bafs, with an organ, virginal, or harpficon, joyned with
them; and they efteemed a violin to be an inftrument
only belonging to a common fidler, and could not endure
that it fhould come among them, for feare of making their
meetings to be vaine and ap But before the reftora-
tion of king Charles II., and e pecially after, viols began to
be out of fafhion, and only violins ufed, as treble violin,
tenor, and bafe violin; and the king, according to the
French mode, would have twenty-four violins playing before
him, while he was at meales, as being more airie and brifk
than viols.’’
‘In the latter end of the yeare 1657, Davis Mell, the
moft eminent violinift of London, and clock-maker, being in
Oxon., Peter Pitt, William Bull, Kenelm Digby, and others
of All Soules, as alfo Anthony Wood, did givea very hand-
fome entertainment in the taverne called the ‘ Salutation.’
The company did look on Mr. Mell to have a prodigious
hand on the violin, and they thought that no perfon, as all
in London did, could goe beyond him.” ‘
By conneéting the {cattered fragments of this zealous
Diletante’s life, which concern mufic, we fhall be able to
form an idea of the ftate of the art, not only at Oxford,
but in every other part of the kingdom where it was more
fecretly praétifed during the latter part of the Ufurpation. ~
Under the year 1658, Anthony Wood tells us, that ‘* he
entertained two eminent mufitians of London, named John
Gamble and Thomas Pratt, after they had entertained him
with moft excellent mufick at the meeting-houfe of William
Ellis. Gamble had obtained a great name among the
people of Oxon. for his book of * Ayres and Dialoges to
be fung to the Theorbo, or Bafe-viol.’ The other for
feveral compofitions, which they played in their conforts.””
He then gives an account of the arrival of Baltzar, a won-
derful performer on the violin, from Lubec, arriving at
Oxford, and deftroying, by his great fuperiority of hand,
all the little vanities, not only of the beft fiddle-players of
the univerfity, but of others from London, who had long
enjoyed the reputation of great performers. See BaLrzar.
Anthony Wood purfues his mufical records, and tells us,
that ‘all the time he could {pare from his beloved ftudies
of Englith hiftory, antiquities, heraldry, and genealogies, he
fpent in the moft delightful facultie of mutick, inftrumental
or vocal ; and if he had miffed the weekly meetings in the
houfe of William Ellis, he could not well enjoy himfelf all
the week after. Of all or moft of the company, when he
frequented that meeting, the names are fet downe under the
year 1656. As for thofe that came in after, and were now
performers, and with whom Anthony Wood frequently
played, were thefe: Charles Perot, M.A. fellow of Oriel
college, a well-bred gentleman, and a perfon of a {weet
nature; Chriftopher Harrifon, M.A. fellow of Queen’s
college, a maggot-headed perfon, and humourous ; Kenelm
Digby, fellow of All Soule’s college, he was afterwards
Dr. of L., he was a violinift, and the two former violifts ;
William Bull, M.A. for the viol and violin ; John Vincent,
M.A. a violift; Sylvanus Taylor, fellow of All Soule’s
college, violift and fongfter, his elder brother, captain Silas
Taylor, was a compofer of mufick, played and fung his
parts; Henry Langley, M.A. a violift and fongiter ;
Samuel Woodford, M.A. a violift; Francis Parry, M.A.
a violift and fongfter ; Chriftopher Coward, and Henry
Bridgman, both matters of arts; Nathan Crew, M.A.
a vielinift and violift, but alwaies played out of tune, as
having no good eare, he was afterwards bifhop of Durham;
Matthew Hutton, M.A. an excellent violift ; Thomas Ken
of New college, afterwards bifhop of Bath and Wells, he
would be fometimes among them and fing his part ; Chrif-
topher Jefferyes, a junior ftudent of Chrift church, excellent
at the organ and virginals, or harpficon, having been trained
up to thofe inftruments by his father George Jefferyes,
organift to king Charles I. at Oxon.; Richard Rhodes,
another junior ftudent of Chrift church, a confident Wett-
monatterian, a violinift to hold between his knees.’?
“ Thefe did frequent the weekly meetings, and by the
help of publick mafters of mufick, who were mixed with
them, they were much improved. Narciffus Marth would
come fometimes among them, but feldom played, becaufe he
had a weekly meeting in his chamber, where matters of
mufick would come, and fome of the company before-men-
tioned. When he became principal of St. Alban’s hall, he
tranflated the meeting thither, and there it continued, when
that nteeting at Mr. Ellis’ houfe was given over, and'fo it
continued till he went over to Ireland, where he became
afterwards archbifhop of Tuam.
“ After his majeity’s reftoration, when the matters of
mufick were reftored to their feveral places that they before
had loft, or gotten other preferment, the weekly meetings at
Mr. Ellis’s houfe becan to decay, becaufe they were only
held up by fcholars who wanted dire€tors and inftruétors.
So that thefe meetings were not continued above two or
three yeares, and I think they did not go beyond 1662.”
Our Oxford annalift terminates his account of the mufical
tranfaGtions of that univerfity, during the interregnum, by
the following anecdote.
* In O&ober 1659, James Quin, M.A. and one of the
fenior ftudents of Chrift church, a Middlefex man borne,
but fon of Walter Quin, of Dublin, died in a crazed condi-
tion. Anthony Wood had fome acquaintance with him,
and hath feveral times heard him fing with great admiration.
His voice was a bafs, and he had a great command of it.
Twas very ftrong and exceeding trouling, but he wanted
fkill, and could fcarce fing in confort. He had been turned
out of his ftudent’s place by the vifitors; but being well
acquainted with fome great men of thofe times, that loved
mufick, they introduced him into the company of Oliver
Cromwell, the prote¢tor, who loved a good voice and in-
ftrumental mufick well. He heard him fing with very
aa delight, liquored him with fack, and in conclufion
aid, ‘ Mr. Quin, you have done very well, what fhall I
do for you?? To which Quin made anfwer with great
compliments, of which he had command with a great grace,
that ‘ your highnefs would be pleafed to reftore him to
his ftudent’s place ;? which he did accordingly, and fo kept
it to his dying day.””
If this minute and indifcriminate antiquary and biographer’
is fometimes thought to want tafte and feleétion fufficient to
give his records due bee it muft be afcribed to the con-
ant habit he was in of journalizing, collecting anecdotes,
and making memorandums of every perfon, tranfaction, and
circumftance, that arrived at his knowledge, in the uncouth
and antiquated language of his early youth. For this dialeé&
being inelegant al vulgar, even when he learned it, renders
his writings frequently ridiculous, though they contain fuch
information as can be nowhere elfe obtained. But the few
opportunities he had of knowing the gradual changes in our
colloquial diale&t, by converfing with men of the world, or
even the language of elegant books by his favourite courfe
of reading, iN him to a level with writers infinitely his
inferiors both in ufe and entertainment. An excellent
apology has been made for his imperfections by the editor
of his life, written by himfelf, and publifhed in 1772 ; which
is fo interefting, that he muft be an incurious inquirer,
indeed, who, having dipped into it, is not fufficiently faf-
cinated by the original fimplicity of the ftyle and ee
: °
WOOD.
of many of the anecdotes, to give it an entire perufal before
he lays it down. Anthony Wood was credulous, and per-
haps too much an enthufiaft in mufic to fpeak of its effects
with critical and philofophical precifion ; however, without
his affiftance, the ftate of the art at Oxford, and the acade-
mical honours beftowed on its profeffors, as well as memo-
rials of their lives and works, would have been difficult to
find. Upon his decifions in matters of tafte, we are not
always perhaps implicitly to rely. The high charaéter he
has given Dr. Wilfon’s produétions and abilities may have
proceeded from want of experience, knowledge, and pene-
tration into the finer parts of the art; and as to Dr. Rogers,
his judgment of him feems to have been manifeltly warped
by friendfhip. Yet, upon the whole, it muft be allowed
that it is only from fuch minute records as thofe of Anthony
Wood that any true and fatisfaétory knowledge can be ac-
quired of the charaéters, manners, and domeftic occurrences
of our anceftors. The great features of hiftory, and the
events which occafion the ruin or profperity of a ftate, muft
be nearly the fame in every age and country ; but comforts,
conveniences, and the diftrefles of private life, furnifh the
mind with reflections far more varied and interefting to the
enerality of mankind, than the rife of ftates or downfall of
ae and heroes.
Woop, ——, a performer on the violin, who led the band
many years at the theatre in Covent Garden, and father of
Wood, his fucceffor in that orcheftra, organift of
St. Giles’s, and of Chelfea college. They were both active
profeffors ; but though performers only of the fecond clafs,
they conftantly ranked themfelves of the firft. Burney. °
Woon, in Vegetable Anatomy, is that more or lefs hard
and compat fubftance, which makes up the bulk of the
trunk and branches of a tree or fhrub, and is concealed
from view by the bark. When cut tranfverfely, the wood
is found to confift of numerous concentric layers, very diftin&t
in the fir, and the trees of cold or temperate countries in
general ; lefs fo in thofe appropriated to a tropical climate.
The external part of each circular layer being much the
moft hard and compaét, often with fomewhat of a horny ap-
pearance, diftinguifhes the limits of each. Scarcely any two
layers of the fame tree are precifely alike, in the proportion
which this compat part bears to the reft ; nor does any
one layer exhibit. a precife uniformity of diameter in its
whole circle. On the contrary, each layer is broader on
that fide of a tree where the expofure-has been moft favour-
able to its growth, where, confequently, there have been
more branches and leaves, fo as to yield a greater depofit
of woody matter. Hence the layers being all, for the moft
part, broadeft on one fide of a tree, their aggregate difpro-
portion throws the common centre, or pith, very much out
of the a€tual centre of the trunk. It having been remarked
in felling trees, that the greateft breadth of the concentric
circles is very often on their fouth fide, a rule has been pro-
pofed for travellers to afcertain thereby the direétion of the
compaf{s. But travellers muft be ftrangely at a lofs, if they
could find no eafier method of judging. Nor is the mode
in quettion infallible. It would indeed fhew on which fide
the growth of each particular tree had been moft favourable,
whether from its expofure, or the nature of the foil which
its roots had met with; but this may not always be towards
the fouth. We mutt ftay to fell great part of a foreit, to
form a precife opinion; and the procefs would be, as it
were,
ce
to tell what hour o’ the day,
The clock did ftrike—by algebra.”
The number of thefe concentric layers, in any tree,
Vou. XXXVIII.
if it be found to the heart, very correctly demonttrates the
number of years the trunk has been growing. ‘This is a ge-
neral opinion, and undoubtedly correét, provided the layers
are well marked. The obferver muft be aware that each
annual layer is compofed of a great number of thinner and
{carcely diftinguifhable ones, which occafionally affume a
more confpicuous appearance than ufual, in confequence of
flu€tuating feafons, or any accidental checks in the growth
of a tree, as hard winters render the outfide, or horny part,
of each circle, more decided ; while favourable fummers
make the circle itfelf altogether broader. But there is
always a fufficient diftin@tion between fummer and. winter,
beyond the tropics, to eftablifh the above rule. Ever-greens,
for the moft part, and trees of hot countries, exhibit flighter
traces of thefe concentric layers; but they may be dif-
cerned in every mahogany table. Monocotyledonous plants
have been faid to be entirely without any fuch annular ftruc-
ture. But there is no reafon why they fhould neceflarily be
fo. Mr. Salifbury once demonftrated this ftru€ture to us in
a Dracena ; and its abfence in palms and ferns is to be at-
tributed to a peculiar mode of. depofiting wood in thefe
plants, rather than to their being monocotyledonous.
What has been faid already under the articles CrrcuLa-
TION of Sap, and Cortex, will fufficiently explain this.
As the inner furface of the bark depofits the matter of
the wood, it muft lie in concentric circles; and in pro-
portion as this operation goes on more conftantly and
uniformly, thefe layers muft be the more homoge-
neous and uninterrupted. Perennial roots of herbaceous
plants often exhibit concentric circles, of annular form-
ation, even in hot climates, as may be feen in Jalap.
Each circle, no doubt, marks the increafe which has
taken place in each fucceffive feafon ; and while the herb
is not growing, nothing is added to the root.
The theory of vegetation, as explained in the articles
juft cited, fhews the reafon of the fpiral-coated veffels
being found in the young wood only, and not in the
bark. Thofe veffels, formerly, fuppofed to contain air
alone, are the real arteries of the plant, and convey its
fap, or blood, through the wood, to be returned through
the bark, where it depofits particular fecretions. This
theory alfo explains why the alburnum, as being the layer
of unhardened wood for the prefent year, is tender, and
even a mere jelly, at one period. But the bark is
in the fpring of the year, before the depofit of wood
begins, moft readily {tripped from the tree; though it
alfo readily, and without harm to the tree, comes off in
winter, while vegetation is at a ftand.
We fearcely need here detail the experiments of Du
Hamel, to determine whether the wood forms the bark,
or the reverfe. Thin metallic plates introduced between
thefe two parts, and carefully bound up, fhewed, after a
few feafons, when the branch thus treated was cut acrofs,
that the bark had depofited layers of wood on the out-
fide of thefe foreign fubftances, with little or no preju-
dice to the growth of the plant. But Dr. Hope’s ex-
periment (fee Correx) is ftill more ftrikingly decifive.
The Linnzan hypothefis, that the pith added a layer
every year to the wood internally, is thus entirely fet
afide. Indeed nothing but a preconceived theory, of the
great importance of the pith, and its analogy to the me-
dullary or nervous fyftem of animals, (for the fupport of
which opinion arguments are not wanting,) could have
led to fo erroneous a conclufion. It is fufficient to remark,
what indeed could not efcape the intelligent author of this
hypothefis, that trees grow vigoroufly, though their heart
4F 13
WOOD.
ig become rotten by age, when the pith, with numerous
Si layers of wood, have long fince been oblite-
rated.
A tranfverfe feG&tion of the wood of a tree difplays
various veffels, and other parts, which microfcopic authors
take delight in exhibiting ; but, without a fcientific ex-
planation, little is to be learned from their plates, how-
ever beautiful to the eye. Siliceous petrifations, of oak-
wood efpecially, fine fpecimens of which are brought
from Hungary, fhew its vafcular ftru€ture in the greateit
perfection. In the fections to which we have juft al-
luded, the pith, with its highly cellular texture, makes a
confpicuous appearance in the centre. In the body of
the wood, the fap-veffels are generally the largeft and
moft numerous. Thefe, when young and tender, eafily
difplay their f{piral coats, if pulled afunder longitudinally;
but are not found at all in the bark. Among them, in
the refinous trees like the fir, or any that abound with
fecreted fluids, as the fig, much larger veffels are inter-
{perfed through the wood and bark, in which the pecu-
liar fecretions are lodged. But befides the determinate
and continued concentric layers of wood above-defcribed,
numerous thin plates are interfperfed, known to workmen,
efpecially in oak-wood, by the name of the Sirver Grain.
(See that’ article.) Mr. Knight, who is there quoted,
further remarks, that if a board of Englifh oak be cut for
a floor, in fuch a direGtion, that the /amine of the filver
grain lie parallel with the furface of the board, it is rarely
or never feen, when properly laid, to deviate from its true
horizontal pofition. But a board fawed, on the contrary,
acrofs the filver grain, ‘ will, during many years, be inca-
pable of bearing changes of temperature, and of moifture,
without being warped; nor will the ftrength of numerous
nails be fufficient entirely to prevent th: inconvenience
thence arifing. That furface of a board of this kind which
grew neareft the centre of the tree, will always fhew a ten-
dency to become convex, and the oppofite one concave, if
laced ina fituation where both fides are equally expofed to
eat and moifture.”? Knight, Phil. Tranf. for 1801, 345.
This writer adds, that the {mall clefts in the furface of an
oak-tree, ftripped of its bark, and expofed to the fun and
air, are caufed by the plates of the filver grain having
parted from each other. They will long continue to open
and clofe again with the changes of the weather. In the
middle of a dry day they are open, but much lefs fo during
the night. After long expofure to the air and light, wood
lofes this property. Knight as above.
A different degree of hardnefs, and in fome trees a re-
markable difference of colour, exifts between a number of
the external concentric layers of the wood, and about as
many or more of thofe next the centre. Thefe latter are
called the heart of the timber; the former the fap or
alburnum ; but thefe are vulgar appellations, and the latter
efpecially are improper. The true a/burnum is the layer of new
unhardened wood of the prefent year, which alfo workmen
often term the fap. The Sap, properly fo called, is the
fluid from which all their fecretions, and even the wood
itfelf, are formed. (See that article.) Thofe who ufe
wood for mechanical purpofes are well aware of the above
difference between its different parts, however incorreét the
names by which they are diftinguifhed. The fofter ex-
ternal layers have little durability in comparifon with the
heart. ‘They retain more of the vital priaciple, and more
of the peculiar juices of the plant in a flu€tuating condition,
liable to be aéted upon by external or internal caufes, and
not yet united, in a fixed ftate, to the folid body of the old
wood. This change, however, is not limited inany particu-
lar kind of tree to a determinate period in the age of each
layer of its wood, nor even to any determinate feries of the
concentric circles of any individual tree. It often extends
to a greater number of rings on one fide than on another.
The more vigour there is in a tree, or in any fide or portion
of its trunk, the fooner is the a/burnum, to ufe its popular
denomination, made perfe& wood, or heart.
The term wood, philofophically fpeaking, is not confined
to the fubftance of a tree. The central part of a root, dif-
tinguifhed from its bark, is the wood, and in many perennial
roots confifts, as we have already mentioned, of feveral dif-
tin@ layers. Ina carrot, the yellow part is the wood, en-
compafled by athick reddifh bark. In a turnip, the woody
part is of ample dimenfions, while the bark is thin.
A moft remarkable difference exifts between the folidi
of the wood injeme trees and in others. Some wood is fo
heavy as to fink in water ; fome is as light as cork, or even
lighter. In general, wood of different trees, of the fame
natural order, poffeffes fimilar properties and the fame de-
gree of value. But there is often, in the fame genus, a moft
remarkable difference between the fitnefs of the wood of
different fpecies, for particular purpofes. The oaks (fee
Quercus) abundantly exemplify this fa&t. The very hard
and ponderous timber of Q. J/ex, the live oak, however
lafting in a dry fituation, is fo prone to deftru€tion when
expofed to wet, as to be among the moft worthlefs in the
world ; its hardinefs and heavinefs only rendering it the lefs
fit for ufe, where it would be likely to endure. On the
other hand, many of this génus afford timber more or lefs
ufeful in every circumftance and fituation, among which our
Englifh Q. Robur ftands pre-eminent. See TiMBER.
All kinds of wood are to be preferved from the worm,
and from many other occafions of decay, by oily fubftances,
particularly the effential oils of vegetables. Oil of {pike is
excellent, and oil of juniper, turpentine, or any other of
this kind, will ferve the purpofe ; thefe will pili tables,
inftruments, &c. from being eaten to pieces by thefe ver-
min, and linfeed-oil will ferve in many cafes to the fame pur-
pofe; probably nut-oil will do alfo, and this is a fweeter
oil, and a better varnifh for wood.
The ingenious Dr. Hales, whofe attention was uniformly
dire&ted to {chemes of domeftic or national benefit, was in-
duced by the great damage done to fhipping by worms to
propofe various methods for preventing it. Oily, unétuous
materials, he apprehends, are not likely to penetrate deep
into oak, which has a watery fap ; but oil is known to pe-
netrate far into fir, and to giveit a very confiderable degree
of toughnefs. He therefore propofes to mix with oil ap-
plied to the fir-boards with which fhips are fheathed fome
ingredient that is difagreeable to the worms ; and he appre-
hends that a {mall proportion of verdigrife ufed in the
operation of paying would be of great fervice : or if copper-
filings were mixed with the paying, fea-water would turn
them into verdigrife. It might be ufeful to foak planks in
water ftrongly impregnated with verdigrife.
Mr. Reid recommends the trial of the acid juice of tar,
prepared either with copperas or cchre, for peel fhips
either from rotting or worms.
In the Eaft Indies, it is faid, they have an effectual way of
preventing worms from deftroying their fhips, by paying
them firft with a mixture of multard, oil, and lime of fhells,
and hog’s blood: they then fheath the fhip, and renew it
after fome years.
The following receipt has been recommended by a perfon
who never knew it fail of fuceefs. Take toolbs. of the
fineft
WOOD.
fineft pitch ; melt it over a flow fire of coal, and add to it,
when melted, 30 lbs. of rolled brimftone grofsly bruifed, and
boil the whole till 30]bs. are wafted. The matter thus
prepared mutt be kept in cafks in a dry place ; and when it
is to be ufed, melt roolbs. of it, and add gradually 35 Ibs.
of brick-duft or marble-duft, fifted and well heated. The
compofition, when ufed, muft be very hot; and the boards
dry.
Ag ingenious fhip-builder obferves, that turpentine and
brimftone form the beft compofition he has met with, and
comes home from a voyage with leaft damage.
Eaft India fhips are firft fheathed, and that fheathing is
filled with {mall broad-headed nails, which is a fafe and
effe€tual defence from the worms, and foon becomes a con-
tinued cake of ruft, and not liable to be damaged by cables,
or common accidents. See Pay and Suips.
The following, fays Dr. Hales, is an approved method
of preferving the boards and timber of out-door work :
viz. melt 6 lbs. of pitch, and add, by fifting, 1 lb. of dried
brown Spanifh, or whiting, and a quart of linfeed oil.
Hales’s Ventilators, part i. p. 164. partii. p. 289, &c.
Dr. Lewis obferves, that though tar has been ufed for
preferving wood, and alfo for coating common tiles, in imi-
tation of the black glazed tiles, which are fold at a much
higher price, both tar and pitch are of themfelves too [oft
for thefe intentions, being liable to be melted off by the
fummer heat : and, therefore, different powdery fubftances,
as afhes, ochres, and other mineral pigments, have been
mixed with them.
In the Swedifh TranfaGtions for 1740 and 1742, two
compofitions are recommended, which are faid to be firm,
durable, and gloffy, One is prepared by melting the tar
over a gentle fire, fo as to make it fluid, but not to boil,
and ftirring in as much coal-duft or powdered charcoal as
will render it thick: the other is prepared by mixing the
melted tar with a fufficient quantity of lamp-black. Coat-
ings formed of thefe mixtures are, however, liable to be
confiderably foftened by the heat of the fun. The mixture
of powdered pit-coal and melted tar, made of fuch a con-
fiftence as to be freely {pread while warm with a brufh, is
lefs liable to foften than either of the other two. The tar
obtained from coal, in the method lately difcovered by the
earl of Dundonald, appears from various teftimonies of thofe
who have tried it to be much better calculated to preferve
wood and iron, as well on land as in water, than vegetable
tar. It has alfo this peculiar advantage, that it will not ad-
mit or harbour thofe worms that are {fo injurious to the bot-
toms of fhips atfea. See an Account of the Qualities and
Ufes of Coal and Coal-varnifh, &c. by the Earl of Dun-
donald, 8vo. 1785.
Mr. Parkes recommends, for the prefervation of wood,
a tar which is obtained from the pyroligneous acid. See
‘AR.
Dr. Lewis obferves, that the coating or painting of wood
does not in all cafes Sontribate to its prefervation : unlefs
the wood be very thoroughly dry, efpecially thofe kinds of
wood whofe juices are not oily or refinous, the painting, by
confining the watery fap, haftens the corruption. Com.
Phil. Techn. p. 363, &c. On this fubje&, fee Timper.
Some of the Weft India trees afford a fort of timber
which, if it would anfwer in point of fize, would have
great advantages over any of the European wood, in fhip-
building for the merchant-fervice, no worm ever touching
this timber. The acajou, or tree which produces the cafhew-
nut, is of this kind ; and there is atree of Jamaica, known
by the name of the white-qood, which has exa€tly the fame
property, and fo have many other of their trees.
Tranf. N° 36. t
To feafon wood expeditioufly for fea-fervice, it has been
ufual to bake it in ovens.
The art of moulding wood is mentioned by Mr. Boyle as
a defideratum in the art of carving. He fays he had been
credibly informed of its having been praétifed at the
Hague ; and fufpeéts that it might have been performed by
fome menftruum that foftens the wood, and afterwards
allows it to harden again, in the manner that tortoife-thell is
moulded. Or, perhaps, by reducing the wood into a pow-
der, and then uniting it into a ma{s with ftrong but thin
glue. And he adds, that having mixed faw-duft with a
fine glue made of ifinglafs, flightly ftraining out what was
fuperfluous through a piece of linen, the remainder, formed
into a ball and dried, became fo hard as to rebound when
thrown againft the floor. Works abr. vol. i. p. 130. See
GuueE.
The people who work much in wood, and that about
{mall works, find a very furprifing difference in it, accord-
ing to the different feafons at which the tree was cut down,
and that not regularly the fame in regard to all fpecies, but
different in regard to each. The button-mould makers find
that the wood of the pear-tree, cut in fummer, works
tougheft ; holly, on the contrary, works tougheft when cut
in winter ; box is melloweft when it has been cut in fummer,
but hardeft when cut about Eafter ; hawthorn works mel-
low when cut about O@ober, and the fervice is always
tough if cutin fummer. Merret’s Notes on Neri, Pp. 263.
It is a very well-known quality of metals to be longer
and larger when hot, and fhorter and fmaller when cold; a
thoufand experiments prove this, and the books of experi-
mental philofophy have fufficiently expatiated upon it; on
the contrary, it is found to be the property of weod, that
it is longeft in cold weather and fhorteft in hot ; this change
is owing to the-remains of the fap yet in the wood, which
being condenfed by cold, is enlarged in its furface, as all
liquors are, when frozen into ice; and fhrinks into a lefs
{pace or bulk again, when liquated by heat.
It follows from this that all wood muft change its
furface more or lefs, according as it contains more or lefs
fap, and this may be made a teft of great ufe for the determin-
ing what kinds of wood have moft, and what leaft fap.
This would be a very valuable piece of knowledge, fince
there are many ufes for which that fort of wood muit always
ferve beit, which has the {malleft quantity of fap remaining
in it. See HyGroscore.
Thus, in the great article of preferving flour, no barrels
are at prefent ufed but thofe of feafoned dry oak ; the
whole advantage of this wood is, that it contains lefs fap
than others ; for the fap in the wood makes the flour damp,
and it then becomes rancid, and breeds worms. (See MEAL.)
So that if any other wood can by this means be found out
to contain lefs fap, when dried in the common way, than
oak does, it will be fo much the better for this purpofe ; or,
if a cheaper wood fhould be found only to contain as little
fap as the oak, it would do as well, and the price of oak
would be faved in thefe veffels.
A proper way of trying when the fap was fufficiently ex-
haled out of trees, might alfo be found by this experiment,
and much benefit would accrue from it ; for our fhips, when
made of timber not fufficiently dried, prove injurious to the
health of people on board ; and it has been remarked, both
by the French and ourfelves, that many more men in general
die in the firft voyage of anew fhip than in the fame time in
an old one ; and indeed the firft fix months are ufually ob-
Ens ferved
Phil.
WOOD.
ferved in this cafe to be moft fatal. The exhalation of
the fap from the wood of the veffel is certainly the occafion
of this, and if it couid be contrived to have this fap pro-
perly exhaled before the timber was ufed, it would not only
revent this mortality among the men, but the veflel itfelf
would be the founder and the better for it. Deflandes,
Trait. de Phyf.
Woods are diftinguifhed into divers kinds, with regard to
their natures, properties, virtues, and ufes. Of wood, con-
fidered according to its qualities, whether ufeful, curious,
medicinal, &c. the principal is that called timber, ufed in
building houfes, laying floors, roofs, machines, &c. See
‘TimsBer.
Woods valued on account of their curiofity are, cedar,
ebony, mahogany, walnut-tree, box, calambo, &c. which, by
reafon of their extraordinary hardnefs, agreeable {mell, or
beautiful polifh or grain, are made into cabinets, tables,
combs, beads, &c.
The medicinal woods are, guaiac, which the Spaniards call
ligno fan&o; aloes, or agallochum ; faffafras, nephriticum, fan-
tal, logwood, afpalathum, eagle-wood, or pao d’aquilo, &c.
Woods ufed in dyeing are, the Indian wood, Brafil, Cam-
peche, &c.
In extracting the colouring-matter of dye-woods, and in
making fome other colours for the ufe of calico-printers, Mr.
Parkes obferves (Chem. Eff. vol. ii.), that it is of great
confequence to heat the veffels by fteam ; forby this method
of preparing decoétions, the workmen are prevented from
ever giving the materials a greater heat than that of 212°;
and the injury which was formerly done by the burning of
the groffer matters at the bottom and fides of the copper is
avoided. Several manufaturers, fays this ingenious chemitft,
have now adopted this method. This leads us to take notice
of a beneficial application of charcoal, as a flow conductor
of caloric, for preferving an equable temperature. Ground
charcoal, it is faid, will condu& heat more flowly than even
dry fand, in the proportion, according to Guyton, of three
totwo. Accordingly, all thofe veffels which are heated by
fteam, if they were mad¢ double, and the fpace between the
inner and outer veffel filled with ground charcoal, the heat
would be fo prevented from efcaping, that any given tempe-
rature might be maintained for a long time, and thus there
would be a material faving in the article of fuel. Moreover,
when churches or other large buildings are to be warmed
by fteam, thofe parts of the conduéting-pipes which are not
within the buildings fhould be always furrounded in this
manner, and then no heat could efcape until it had been con-
veyed ‘to the {pace which it was intended to warm by it.
Thus alfo in the manufaétories of ftarch, paper, gun-
powder, blue, and a variety of other articles, every part
of the apparatus for drying thefe by fteam, and which is
not actually within the drying-rooms, ought to be fecured
in the fame way. The common fteam-working apparatus,
and other culinary utenfils, would be much improved by
being fitted with double covers, and by filling up the inter-
mediate fpaces with carbonaceous matter. Moreover, by
fecuring the conduéting-pipes in this manner, buildings
— be effe&tually warmed, and proceffes conduéted at any
diftance from the boiler, as fteam is the moft faithful carrier
of heat that can poflibly be; for it cannot depofit it on any
bodies that have already acquired the temperature of 212°.
It is alfo this non-condu@ting property of charcoal that ren-
ders it fo common, fays Fourcroy, cited by Parkes, in
France as a material for coating furnaces, and for confin-
ing the heat, to which ufe its incombuttible nature adapts
it in a peculiar manner, as it is the moft refra€tory body that
8
is known, provided it be excluded from oxygen. Charcoal
is applicable to other purpofes in domeftic economy; fuch
as the preferving of animal food from taint, by covering it
with a few pieces of frefh-burnt charcoal, and the recovery
of it by boiling it for fome minutes in water with a few
ounces of fuch charcoal. By the fame means, molafles or
treacle may be deprived of its difagreeable tafte, fo that it’
might be ufed inftead of fugar. A patent has likewife been’
taken out for refining fugar by means of charcoal by M.
Cronftat, who required for it, of the joint body of fugar-
bakers in London, a remuneration of 50,000/.; and Mr.
Parkes apprehends, that in a {mall concern of this kind efta-
blifhed in the metropolis, which manufa€tures double loaves
of a finer quality than thofe of any other houfe, the purpofe’
The empyreumatic flavour
is effected by the fame means.
acquired by fome brandies in diftillation may be removed,
fays the ingenious writer now cited, by digelting them in
charcoal ; and common malt-vinegar, boiled on charcoal, be-
comes colourlefs, without lofing its ftrength. Water, which
in long voyages acquires a difagreeable tafte and {mell from
long ftanding in the wooden cafks, may be purified by filtra-
tion through ground charcoal ; or it may be kept {weet in
cafks that have been charred withinfide. : {
For the above-mentioned purpofes, the charcoal fhould be
frefh made, or heated red-hot under a cover of fand, imme-
diately before it is ufed; and the requifite quantity fhould
be previoufly afcertained by experiment. In fome cafes, it
fhould be ufed in the form of powder, having been pounded
immediately from the fire, before it has been expofed to the
air, and the refidue fhould be preferved for future ufe in
bottles clofely ftopped. For other ufes to which charcoal is
applied, fee Cuarcoat and Carzon.
Wood ufed for fuel is required of various kinds, in re-
gard to the various works to be performed by it.
Neri every where commends oak for the wood to be
burnt in the glafs-houfes, as the propereft wood for making
a ftrong and durable fire with a good flame.
Imperato, on the contrary, commends afh on the fame
occafion ; becaufe, as he fays, it gives a fubftantial rather
than a great flame: and Camerarius defervedly commends
juniper wood, as affording a lafting, ftrong, and {weet fire,
could plenty of it be had. Among the ancients, Pliny
commends light dry wood ; and Plutarch, the tamarifk in
particular, for making the glafs-houfe fires; but glafs-
making requires fo great a fire, as cannot be eafily made
from fuch wood. Nor can afh be proper, becaufe, though
it gives a good fire, it foon decays. Merret’s Notes on
Neri, p.275.
If wood be burnt in the open air, the greateft part of it
will be diffipated in gas. Common oak, properly charred,
will lofe only from ds to .%,ths of its weight; whereas,
if the fame kind of wood be burnt in an open fire-
place, thg refiduum of the combuftion will not be more
than about z3,th, or }.th of the original weight of the
wood employed. Dr. Watfon fays, that he obtained 22
grains of charcoal from 96 of dry oak: others have given
different refults. From Neumann (Chem. vol. ii.) we learn,
that forthe reduétion of the metallic oxyds, the charcoal of the
heavier woods, e. g. that of the oak and beech, is preferable ;
and that, for common fuel, fuch charcoal gives the greateft
heat, and requires the moft plentiful fuphty of air to keep
it burning, while thofe of the lighter woods preferve a
glowing heat with a much lefs draught of air; and that
for purpofes which require a fteady and ftill fire, charcoal
made from wood previoufly divefted of its bark fhould be
employed, as it is the cortical part which crackles and flies
off
_
WOOD.
off in {parks during combuftion, which the coal of the wood
itfelf feldom does. The charcoal of wood is faid to be effential
to the perfeGtion of bar-iron; but when wood became fcarce,
and government reftri€ted its ufe, cinders and coke were
fubftituted for it ; and thus the quality of Englifh iron was
fo much debafed, that Ruffian and Swedifh iron, which is
prepared by means of the coal of wood, are employed by
thofe who work in this metal. The fuperiority of the iron
made with charcoal is attributed by M. Haflenfratz to its
combination with potaffium. It was by 1 Eliz. c. 15. that
it was enacted, that no oak, beech, or afh-timber, one foot
fquare at the ftub, fhould be converted into charcoal for
making iron in any part of England or Wales, except in
the county of Suffex, the weald of Kent; and certain parifhes
in the county of Surrey. This reftri€tion led to the prac-
tice of making bar-iron with the coke of pit-coal, the
method of preparing which was kept a fecret from the
generality of the trade. When Mr. Henry Horne pub-
lifhed his ‘¢ Effays on Iron and Steel,”? in the year 1773,
he gave direétions for a better method than they had before
known of charring pit-coal, fo as to make it a proper fuc-
cedaneum for wood-charcoal in the manufaéture of iron.
Since that time the coke of pit-coal has come into very general
ufe, fo that the confumption of this fubftance is now very
confiderable. (See Coxg.) Crayons of charcoal are bett
made of the willow ; whereas the coals of the hard woods,
fuch as box and guaiacum, are much harder than others,
whilft the charcoal of the kernels of fruits is quite foft and
friable. As a pigment, the coal of ivory, or that which is
procured by burning real ivory in clofed veffels, is the moft
intenfely black, and the moft beautiful. The beft charcoal
for ufe as a powder for cleaning the teeth is made from the
fhell of the cocoa-nut. The difference between the char-
coals of animal and vegetable fub{tances may be determined
by the following teft. A vegetable coal will burn on a
red-hot iron into white afhes, which will be readily diffolved
by fulphuric acid into a bitterifh liquor ; whilft the afhes
of animal fubftances are little affected by that acid, and
form with it a compound with a very different tafte. (See
AsHEs, Carson, CuarcoaL, and Gun-Powder.) For
the method of charring wood, fee Timprer and CHar-
RING of Pofls. This appears to have been a very ancient
practice. The piles that formed the foundations of the
Temple of Diana at Ephefus, not long fince taken up, ap-
peared to have been charred; and about fifty years ago
fome oak-ftakes were found in the bed of the Thames in the
very {pot where Tacitus fays that ‘the Britons fixed a num-
ber of fuch ftakes, to prevent the paflage of Czfar’s army ;
and thefe ftakes, which were charred to a confiderable depth,
had completely retained their form, and were firm at the
heart. About fixty years ago one of the timbers that fup-
ported Trajan’s bridge over the Danube, near Belgrade,
was taken up, and the outer part, to the depth of half an
inch, was found to be converted into an agate, the inner
parts being flightly petrified, and the central being full
perfe& wood, though this timber had been in the water
“1700 years. (See Kirwan’s Geological Effays, cited by
Parkes in his Effays, vol. ii.) Many other inftances occur
of wood petrified and converted, more or lefs, into agates of
various colours. Writers on this fubject have recommended
the praétice of charring every piece of wood before it is
placed in the ground. Dr. Watfon, (late bifhop of Lan-
daff,) in his “ Chemical Effays,’’ vol. iii. fuggefts the
propriety of charring all the wood that is ufed in mines and
Jubterraneous drains, and particularly that which: covers
troughs, through which a current of water pafles, and
which rot in a few years by the alternate change of wet and
dry. In this conneétion we may add, on the authority
of Chaptal, in his “‘ Chemiftry applied to the Arts,’ that
when old chefnut and other trees are rotted within the trunk,
and threatened with fpeedy deftruétion by the progrefs of
the carious trunk, it may be {topped by applying fire to
the decayed part, fo as to char the whole of the neighbour-
ing furfaces.
Woop, in Gardening, is a term ufed to fignify the fhoots
or branches left in fruit-trees. See Pruninc, &c.
Woop, an epithet applied to various forts of weeds.
See Weep.
Woop and Bark of Trees, Canker or Erofton of, in Agri-
culture and Gardening, a difeafed ftate in thefe parts of them.
It has been ftated by a late philofophical writer, that* the
caufe feems to be an excefs of alkaline and earthy matter in
the defcending fap, as he often found carbonate of lime on
the edges of the canker in apple-trees; and that ulmin,
which contains fixed alkali, is abundant in the canker of the
elm. The old age of a tree, in this refpeét, is, it is thought,
faintly analogous to the old age of animals, in which the
fecretions of folid bony matter are always in excefs, and
the tendency to offification great.
It is fuggefted, that perhaps the application of a weak
acid to the difeafed part might be of ufe; or that where
the tree is of great value, it might be watered occafionally.
See CANKER.
Woop, Lignin? in Chemiffry, the fubftance which con-
ftitutes the bafis of wood ufually fo called.
To obtain this fubftance in a ftate of purity, it is necef-
fary to. digeft wood in a fufficient quantity of water and
afterwards of alcohol, by which means all foreign fubftances
foluble.in thefe fluids will be removed; the fimple woody
fire will thus remain, which poffeffes the following pro-
perties.
It is compofed, in general, of longitudinal fibres eafily
feparable from one another. Thefe fibres, when very much
fubdivided, become fomewhat tranfparent. They have no
{mell nor tafte, and are not altered by expofure to the
atmofphere.
The woody fibre is infoluble in water and alcohol. It is
foluble in a weak alkaline folution without being decom-
pofed, and may be again feparated by an acid. Concen-
trated alkaline folutions render it brown, and decompofe it,
efpecially when affifted by heat.
When heated it becomes black without melting, exhales
ftrong acrid fumes, and leaves a charcoal, retaining exadtly
the form of the original mafs. When diftilled in clofe
veffels it yields an acid liquor, of a peculiar tafte and {mell,
called the pyroligneous acid, and which was properly confi-
dered as a difting acid. Fourcroy and Vauquelin, however,
long ago demonftrated, that it confifts of nothing but the
acetic acid combined with an empyreumatic oil. (See Acr-
Tous and PyroticNeous Acid.) Pure acetic acid is now
prepared from wood both in this country and France.
The fibre of different woods has been analyfed by Gay
Luffac and Thenard by means of the oxymuriate of potafh.
The following are the refults :
Oak. Beech. Mean.
Oxygen 41.78 42.73 42.25
Carbon - 2.54 51.45 52.00
Hydrogen 5-69 5.82 5-75
100.00 100.00 100.00
Wood when burnt with a {mothered flame leaves, as is
well
WOOD.
well known, a quantity of charcoal behind. The following
is the proportion yielded by one hundred parts of different
woods, according to the experiments of Proutt ;
Bisck ath? ie = tants 25
Guaiacum——s- . - 24
Pine - - - - 20
Greenoak - - - 20
Heart of oak - -— - 19
Wild ath - - - 17
White afh Coens - 17
Count Rumford, by continuing a very moderate fire for
ninety-fix hours, procured much larger proportions of char-
coal from different woods than were obtained in the above
experiments of Prouft. According to this chemift, one hun-
dred parts of different wood yielded,
Table of Incinerations.
Athes from
1000 Paris of
Names of Plants. wei gies
Green.
Wood of a young oak, May 10
Bark of ditto - - =
Perfe& wood of oak - -
Alburnum of ditto - - .
Wood of black poplar, Sept. 12
Bark of ditto - 2 - <
Wood of hazel, Mayr -~— =
Bark of ditto - - - - -
Perfeét wood of mulberry, November
Alburnum of ditto - - - -
Bark of ditto - - - « -
Perfe& wood of hornbeam, November
Alburnum of ditto - . . =
Bark of ditto - - - -
Wood of horfe-chefnut, May 10 -
nN
~I
fon)
SIHOWAT HUN W OF WD OP
4
4
88
See Dr. Thomfon’s Syftem of Chemiftry, vol. iv. 5th edit.
Woop, On making Bread from. Profeffor Autenrieth,
of Tubingen, has lately attempted to make bread from
wood, and his experiments feem to have been attended with
confiderable fuccefs. He had been led to-form the opinion
that the woody fibre was only rendered unfit for food from
the foreign fubftances ufually attached to it, and from its
compa aggregation. The firft of thefe difficulties he
attempted to obviate, by feleGing thofe woods which have
little tafte and fmell, and which confequently contain lefs
foreign matters ; fuch, for example, are the birch and beech,
efpecially the birch, which was the wood he chiefly employed
in his experiments.
To render wood alimentary, it is neceflary to reduce it to
a ftate of extremely minute divifion, or abfolute powder.
It alfo requires the repeated aétion of the heat of an oven,
by which means it is not only better fitted for being ground,
but probably alfo undergoes fome internal change which
renders it more digeftible, as is evidently the cafe in regard
to coffee. Wood prepared in this way acquires the {mell
and tafte of corn-flour. It is, however, never white, but
always yellowifh. It alfo agrees with corn-flour in requir-
ing the addition of fome leaven, to enable it to undergo the
Poplar = - = 43:57
Lime tet inscnte sie
Fir - - - - 44-1 8
Maple “Ade - 42.23
Elm - - . 43-27
Oak G46 dello Sd sz no
The woody fibre, when completely burnt, always leaves 3
certain proportion of earthy and faline matters, which con-
ftitute the a/kes of wood. Different woods yield very dif-
ferent proportionsof afhes. See AsHEs and CHARCOAL, where
other experiments by Mr. Mufhet on this fubjeé are related.
The following Table exhibits the quantity of afhes left
by different woods, according to Sauflure junior. Sauffure
has extended the inveftigation to herbaceous and other
plants ; but we have omitted thefe, from their not being im-
mediately conneéted with the prefent fubje&t. See CARBON+
Conftituents of 100 Parts of Athes.
Soluble | Earthy } Earthy
Salts. |Phofphates Carbonates
Merallic
Silica. Cxyds.
fermentative procefs, and the four leaven of corn-flour is
found to anfwer the beft. With this it makes a perfe@ly
uniform and fpongy bread, like common brown bread; and
when it is thoroughly baked, and has much cruft, it has a
much better tafte of bread than what in times of {carcity is
prepared of bran and hufks of corn.
To make wood-flour in perfe&tion, the wood, after being
thoroughly ftripped of its bark, is to be fawed tranfverfely
into difks of about an inch in diameter. The faw-duft is to
be preferved, and the difks to be beaten to fibres iN a pound-
ing-mill. The fibres and faw-duft mixed together are next
to be deprived of every thing harfh and bitter, and which is
foluble in water, by boiling es in alarge quantity of water
when fuel is abundant, or by fubjeéting them for a longer
time to the aétion of cold water, as by placing them in a
rivulet, for example, enclofed ina fack. The whole is
then to be completely dried, either by the fun or fire, and
repeatedly ground in a flour-mill till it pafs through the
boulting-cloth.
The ground wood is next to be baked into fmall flat
cakes, with water rendered flightly mucilaginous by the ad-
dition of fome decoétion of linked. or any other fimilar fub-
ftance. Profeffor Autenrieth prefers marfh-mallow roots,
of
WOOD.
of which one ounce renders eighteen quarts of water fuf-
ficiently mucilaginous, and thefe ferve to form four pounds
and a half of wood-flour into cakes. ‘Thefe cakes are to
be baked in an oven until they are quite dry, and become of
a brownith-yellow colour on the furtace. After this they are
to be broken to pieces, and again ground repeatedly, until
the flour pafs through a fine boulting-cloth, and upon the
finenefs of the flour does its fitnefs to make bread depend.
The flour of a foft wood, fuch as birch, will be fufficiently
prepared by the procefs as defcribed; but the flour of a
hard wood will require the fteps of baking and grinding to
be repeated. ay
That the wood thus prepared is altered in its nature and
rendered foluble, is proved by the quantity of real ftarch
that is obtained from it by the fame procefs, by which it is
feparated from wheat-flour. If wood-flour tied up in fine
linen be long kneaded in a veflel of water, the water is ren-
dered milky, and depofits flowly a quantity of ftarch, which
with boiling water forms a thick, tough, trembling, tenacious
jelly, like that of wheat-ftarch, and it is only neceffary to
fee this ftarch to be convinced that the wood-flour is foluble
and nutritious. This ftarch cannot be afcribed to the mu-
cilaginous matter added to the ground wood before it is
baked, as the added mucilage does not amount to more
than the one-hundred and forty-fifth part of the wood,
whereas the wood-flour lofes about half its weight by the
feparation of the ftarch. The refiduum left in the linen
feems to be the woody fibres unchanged, which have not
been ground fufficiently fine.
Wood-flour does not ferment fo readily as wheaten-flour ;
but profeffor Autenrieth found fifteen pounds of birch-wood
flour, with three pounds of four wheat leaven, and two
pounds of wheat-flour, mixed up with eight meafures of
new-milk, yielded thirty-fix pounds of very good bread.
The beft mode of preparing it was to mix up the five
pounds of wheat leaven and flour with a portion of the
wood-flour and milk to a preparatory dough; let it ftand
for fome hours in a moderately warm place to rife, and then
to knead in thoroughly the reft of the wood-flour and milk.
This dough is rolled out into thin cakes, allowed to ftand
in a warm place to rife for a longer time than wheat-flour
requires, and laftly to be put into the oven and baked
thoroughly. ;
Profeffor Autenrieth made many experiments upon ani-
mals, as well as upon himfelf and family, in order to afcer-
tain the nutritious properties of wood-fiour, in the various
forms of foup, dumplings, cakes, &c.; and he found that
it was not only very palatable in all thefe forms (efpecially
when combined with milk or fome fatty fubftances), but
alfo fufficiently nutritious, and that it did not diforder the
digeftive organs, or apparently produce any other ill effects.
From thefe experiments, it is obvious, fays the writer
from whom we have made thefe extraéts, that in cafes of
neceflity wood may be made to furnifh a confiderable quan-
tity of nourifhment ; but it is no lefs obvious, that the pro-
cefs is fo troublefome and expenfive, that it never can be-
come an article of food, except where there is an abfolute
fcarcity of provifions. On fuch occzfions the labour is of
very fecondary importance, and at any rate cannot be fo
profitably applied as in procuring the means of fubfiftence.
In fome diftri€ts of Norway and Lapland, the bark of
the fir is manufaétured into a fpecies of bread, apparently
much inferior in quality to the bread of wood-flour, and
this with dried fifh and a little rein-deer tallow conftitute
the chief articles of food among the lower claffes, during
the protra€ied and rigorous winter of thefe inhofpitable
climates. See Von Buch’s Travels in Norway and Lapland.
Woop, Difillation of. See CuarcoaL, Cotourn, Gux-
Powder, Pyroicnrous Acid, and Woop /upra.
Woop, Tenacity and Strength of. See Conrston and
Srrenetu of Materials.
Woop and Wood, a term in fhip-building, implying
that when a tree-nail, &c. is driven through, its point is
direétly even with the infide furface, whether plank or
timber.
Woop, Cord, denotes wood for the fire, generally the
branches or loppings of trees, piled up in order. See
Corp.
Woon, Foffil, Subterraneous. There are divers places where
wood is found under ground: fuppofed to have been over-
turned, and buried there from the time of the Deluge, or
at fome other period. ,
Whole trees, or parts of them, are very frequently found
buried in the earth, and that in different ftrata; fometimes
in ftone, but more ufually in earth; and fometimes in {mall
pieces loofe among gravel. Thefe, according to the time
they have lain in the earth, or the matter they have lain
among and in the way of, are found differently altered from
their original ftate ; fome of them having fuffered very little
change, and others being fo highly impregnated with cryf-
talline, fparry, pyritical, or other extraneous matter, as to
appear mere mafles of ftone or lumps of the common mat-
ter of the pyrites, &c. of the dimenfions, and more or lefa
of the internal figure of the vegetable bodies, into the pores
of which they have made their way.
The foflil wood, which we find at this day, may, accord-
ing to thefe differences, be ranged into three kinds: 1. The
lefs altered. 2. The pyritical, And, 3. The petrified.
Of the trees or parts of them lefs altered from their ori-
ginal ftate, the greateft ftore is found in digging to {mall
depths in bogs, and among what is called peat or turf-earth,
a fubftance ufed in many parts of the kingdom for fuel. In
fome places there are whole trees fcarcely altered except in
colour; the oaks in particular being ufually turned to a
jetty black: the pines and firs remain as inflammable as
ever, and often contain between the bark and wood a plain
refin. Parts of trees have been alfo found unaltered in the
{trata of clay and loam, among gravel, and fometimes even
in folid ftone. See Fofil Plants, and Bog Woop.
It is idle to imagine, that thefe have been thus buried
either at the Creation, or, as many are fond of believing,
at the univerfal Deluge : at the firft of thefe times the ftrata
muft have been formed before trees were yet in being, and
the peat wood is fo far from being of antediluvian date,
that much of it is well known to have been growing within
thefe three hundred years, in the very places where it is
now found buried. See Morass.
The fubftances that are more altered are the larger and
longer branches of trees found bedded in the {trata of ftone,
and partly affuming its nature ; and the fhorter and {maller
branches found in pits of blue clay, which externally bear
the refemblancé of what they once were, but, having their
pores filled with the matter of the common vitriolic pyrites,
internally appear to be maffes of that matter.
The irregular mafles or fragments of wéod are principally
of oak, and moft ufually found among gravel, but varionfly
altered by the infinuation of cryftalline and ftrong particles.
Thefe make a beautiful figure when cut and polifhed, as
they commonly keep the regular grain of the wood, and
fhew the feveral circles which mark the different years
growth. Thefe, according to the different matter which
has filled their pores, affume various colours, and the ap-
pearance of the various foflils that have impregnated them.
Of thefe fome pieces have been found with every pore pr
6 wit
WOOD.
with pure pellucid cryftal, and others in large maffes, part
of which is wholly petrified, and fome mere {tone, while the
reft is crumbly and unaltered wood.
All thefe pieces of petrified wood are ufually capable of
a high and elegant polifh. Hill.
. Wood has been found in falt-mines, inclofed in a mafs of
hard falt, and its pores filled with the matter of the falt in
which it lay. .Wood has likewife been found converted as
it were into iron, or thoroughly impregnated with the par-
ticles of this metal. A&. Erud. ann. 1710.
Woon, Petrified. The opinions of the judicious part of
the world have been very different in regard to the bodies
preferved in the cabinets of the curious, under the name of
petrified wood ; fome affirming thefe bodies to have been
only pebbles, or flints accidentally formed in this fhape,
and with veins refembling thofe of the wood; and others
affirming with equal warmth, that they have been really
wood, into which iftony matter has been brought by
water.
_ Many fubftances, it is certain, have been preferved in the
cabinets of collectors, under the title of petrified wood,
which have very little right to that name. But where the
whole outer figure of the wood, the exa¢t lineaments of the
bark, or the fibrofe and fiftular texture of the ftriz, and the
veftiges of the utriculi and trachez or air-veffels are yet re-
maining, and the feveral circles yet vifible, which denoted
the feveral years growth of the tree, none can deny fuch
fubftances to be real foffil wood.
Many good arguments have been produced on both fides
the queftion, but M. De la Hire has attempted to bring the
difpute to a certain conclufion, by means of fome peculiarly
happy fpecimens, which were of the palm-tree petrified,
found in the defarts of Africa: thefe on comparing them
with pieces of the palm-tree cut out of the recent wood,
appeared to have every where the beautiful and regular
veins of that wood, and left no room to doubt but that
they certainly had been once the vegetating wood of that
tree, though now converted into hard ftone; the petrified
pieces were perfect {tone, in all its qualities; they had its
hardnefs, its found when ftruck upon, and were, as many
other ftones are, opake in fome places, and tranfparent in
others; they were found on weighing them to be often of
the {pecific gravity of recent pieces of the palm wood of
the fame dimenfions.
Father Duchat alfo, an author of unqueftioned credit,
affirms, from his own perfonal knowledge, that in the king-
dom of Ava there is a river whofe waters petrify recent
wood into flint ; and that he has often feen trees ftanding in
it, whofe bottom part, fo far as covered with the water, has
been true flint, while all above was mere dry wood, and fit
for firing. Mem. Acad, Par, 1692.
Woop, Shining. There are a great many things in which
a piece of rotten wood that fhines in the dark agrees with
a burning coal; and there are alfo many things in which
they differ. They agree in thefe particulars: 1. They have
light refiding in them, and are not like bodies which are
only luminous according to the quantity of light which
falls upon them from other bodies, and which they reflec.
2. Both fhining wood and burning coals require the prefence
of the air to keep them fhining, and both require alfo.an
air of a confiderable denfity; and both haying been de-
prived of their. fhining quality by the pumping out of the
air, will recover it again on the admitting of frefh air to
them. 3. Both of them will eafily be quenched by put-
ting them into water, and many other liquors. And, 4. As
a live coal will not be extinguifhed by any coldnefs of the
air, neither will the thining wood be deprived of its light on
any additional coldnefs in element.
However, they differ in the following particulars: 1. A
burning coal is eafily put out by compreffion, the treading
on it and {queezing it together readily divefting it of its
light ; on the other hand, compreffion or crufhing of any
kind feems not to have any effe& upon the fhining wood ;
its bruifed parts fhining as brightly as its entire ones. If
a piece of this fhining wood be fqueezed between two
glafles, this experiment will be moft fairly tried ; and in this
cafe, though the contexture of the whole be evidently
broken, and the parts feparated; the light is as ftrong in
them as while the piece was entire. 2. A burning coal ex-
tinguifhed by the drawing out of the air will, after a few
minutes, be irrecoverable, on the »admiffion of air in any
manner ; but, on the contrary, the fhining wood, when thus
extinguifhed and kept extinét for half-an hour, will be im-
mediately re-kindled on admitting the air toit. 3. A live
coal, included in a fmall glafs, will continue fhining but a
few minutes; but a piece of fhining wood, in the fame cir-
cumitances, will continue bright. for feveral days. 4. The
coal, while it,burns, fends forth fmoke and other exhala-
tions ; the rotten wood fends out none, and confequently a
coal all the while that it is fhining watftes itfelf at a great
rate; but the rotten wood does not waite itfelf at all.
And finally, the burning coal is a€tually and vehemently hot ;
the rotten wood, though it fhines, is not fo much as warm.
Phil. Tranf. N° 32.
The light of fhining flefh and fifh, when putrefied, is
wholly of the fame nature-with that of rotten wood, as to
its dependence on the air for its {plendour ; and in the fame
manner lofes its light in the exhaufted receiver, and regains
it on the admiffion of the air into it again, in the fame
fudden manner. Phil. Tranf. N°31. See Licut, and
PuTREFACTION.
Woop, Bog, or Subterraneous, a name given by the inha-
bitants of many parts of this kingdom to fuch wood as is
found buried in the earth in boggy places, and which is
found hard and ftrong at this time. See Fo/il Woop /upra.
We have in the Philofophical Tranfactions (N° 275-
p- 983, &c.) an account of vaft quantities of this fort of
wood found under ground in Hatfield Chace. Many of
the roots and bodies of trees are found there ; which are
of all growths, and are moftly fuch trees as are the growth
of our own foil, fuch as oaks, firs, birch, beech, yew, holly,
willow, afh, and the like. The roots of all thefe trees
ftand in their natural pofitions as when growing, and
ftand as thick together as they could grow in a foreft.
The bodies are ufually broken off, and laid all along juft
by them.
The large trees are ufually found fallen in a north-eaft
dire€tion, and the {maller ones lying all ways ; the fir-tree
or pitch-tree is more common than any other kind, dnd is
found fometimes of twenty, thirty, and thirty-five yards
long, and fo found and firm that many of them have been
fold to make mafts for fhips. Oaks have been found of the
fame length, though wanting fome yards of their natural
tops; thefe have been fold at ten or fifteen pounds a piece,
and are as black as ebony, and very found and lafting in
whatever fervice they are put to. The afh-trees do not
preferve their firmnefs in this manner, many of them are fo
foft that the workman’s fpade cuts through them; and
when expofed to the air, they ufually fall to pieces; but
the willows, though a much fofter wood than the afh, pre-
ferve their texture, and are found very itrong and firm. In
fome of the fir-trees it is very obfervable, that they have fhot
out-
WOOD.
outfide branches after they were fallen, which have grown
into large trees. Many of thefe foffil-trees appear plainly to
have been burnt ; the fir-trees are particularly very common
in this ftate: and of thefe fome are burnt quite through,
others only on one fide. Some of thefe alfo have been found
with the plain marks of human work upon them; many
with their branches chopt off, and their trunks cut into two
or three pieces. Some fquared and others in part cleft, and
the wooden wedges ufed in cleaving them are ftill found re-
maining in the cracks. Stones are found in fome of them
in the place of wooden wedges, but in none iron ones. The
heads of axes are alfo fometimes found ; they are of a ftrange
- form, and fomewhat reprefent the facrificing axes of the an-
cients. Thefe are found at fuch depths, that it is impoffible
they fhould have ever been lodged there fince the time of
this place’s being a foreft ; nor ever could have been found,
but by means of the ground’s being drained by a late inven-
tion. The general opinion as to thefe trees is, that they
were buried in this manner at the time of the univerfal De-
luge; but they are plainly of later origin as foffils, the
coins of fome of the Roman emperors having been found
buried under them.
The earth of bogs is not the only foil that preferves thefe
trees; for in the low parts of Lincolnfhire, between the
towns of Burningham and Brumley, there are feveral large
hills compofed only of loofe fand, and as this blows away
there are continually difcovered whole trees, or parts of
trees, and particularly the roots and ftumps of firs, and
fome other kinds, all with the marks of the axe upon them,
and looking as frefh as if done but yefterday. Under thefe
hills, and in the bogs before-mentioned, not only the wood
of the fir-tree, but its cones are found in immenfe number ;
many bufhels being often laid in a heap together. In cut-
ting a drain for a river of a confiderable depth, there were
found at the very bottom feveral parcels of cut wood, in
poles, beams, and the like; the head of an axe was alfo found
fomewhat refembling the ancient battle-axe, and a coin
of the Roman emperor Vefpafian; but what was yet more
remarkable was, that what they were now funk to feemed
to be the original furface, the ground not being loofe, like
all above it, but found and firm, and lying in ridges and
furrows, with the evident marks of having formerly been
ploughed. So that all the bog-earth above feems plainly
to have been added fince ; and that the foffil wood, fuppofed
of antediluvian origin, is but of the time of the ancient
Romans, or lefs than that.
’ All the bogs in this kingdom afford in like manner foffil-
trees ; and not only thofe, but other places, have at all
times accidentally difcovered them. Giraldus Cambrenfis
tells us, that fo long fince as in king Henry the Second’s
time, the fands on the fhores of Pembrokefhire were driven
off by peculiar ftorms and tempelfts, and that deep under
thofe fands there were then difcovered great numbers of the
roots and bodies of trees in their natural poftures ; and many
of thefe had the ftrokes of the axe upon them, the marks
at that time remaining as plain as when firft made. Some
of thefe refembled ebony ; and many other fuch trees were
difcovered at Neugall in the fame county, in the year 15go.
Camden tells us of fuch wood found in the bogs in Somerfet-
fhire, Chefhire, Lancafhire, Weftmoreland, Yorkthire, Staf-
fordfhire, and Lincolnfhire ; and fince his time many other
counties have been found to be as fruitful in it. Dr. Plot
mentions them in many parts of his Hiftory of Stafford-
fhire, and by their ftanding in their natural poftures, as to
the roots at leaft, properly concludes, that they certainly
once grew there, and were not brought from elfewhere.
Vor. XXXViII.
Dr. Leigh, in his Hiftory of Lancafhire, gives an ac-
count of the fame fort of trees found in the draining of the
boggy lands at Martin-Meer ; and determines them not to
have been of the ancient date many pretend, in referring
them to the Deluge.
He obferves, that they are plainly of no older date than
the time of the favage inhabitants of England, about the
time of the Roman conquefts ; for in this place, befide the
roots and bodies of trees and their fruit, there were found
eu canoes, or {mall boats, fuch as the wild inhabitants
ufed at that time. And in another moor in the fame county,
a brafs kettle, with a {mall mill-ftone, and fome beads of
wrought amber. In the fame place were alfo found feveral
human bodies whole and entire, at leaft to outward appear-
ance, and the whole head of an hippopotamus, or river-horfe.
This is perhaps the hardeft thing to be accounted for of the
whole fet, as to its coming there. The boggy places in
. Anglefea, and the Ifle of Man, are all full of buried trees
of the fame kind; and the bogs of Ireland abound no lefs
with them. England, and its adjacent iflands, are not the
only places where this buried wood is found ; for Verftegan
tells us, that the moors in the Netherlands abound with
them; they all lie north-eaft, as our’s do. Helmont alfo
mentions the Peel there, a morafs of eight or nine miles
broad, which is full of them. The French naturalifts tell
us of foffil-trees alfo in their country ; and in Switzerland
and Savoy ; but all in the low grounds.
Ramazzini tells us, that in the territories of Modena,
which are now a dry and fruitful country, yet in the time
of the Cxfars were only a great lake, there are found at
the depth of thirty, forty, and even fifty feet, the foil of a
low marfhy country, with fedges, water-grafs, and other
marfh-weeds ; and under this there lie the trunks of trees, and
their roots ftand near them in as natural a pofture as when
growing. Many old coins of the Roman emperors are alfo
found there; as alfo feveral bufts, wrought marble, and
fquared ftones, evidently fhewing the work of fuch tools as
the Romans have been known to ufe. Some of the trees
in thefe places ftand upright. See more on this fubje&
under the article Morass.
Woop, Cutting of. See Curtine.
Woop, Meafure of. See MEasuRE.
Woop, Stack of. See Stack.
Woon, Staining of. See Dyrtne of Wood, &c.
Wood may be ftained yellow, by brufhing it over feveral
times with the tinéture of turmeric root, made by putting
an ounce of the powdered root to a pint of fpirit, and after
it has ftood fome days, ftraining off the tin@ture. A redder
caft may be given to the colour by adding a little dragon’s
blood. A cheaper, and lefs bright and firong yellow
may be given to wood by rubbing it over feveral times
with the tin€ture of French berries, made boiling hot ;
and when the wood is dry, brufhing it over with a weak
alum-water ufed cold.
In order to render thefe ftains more beautiful and du-
rable, the wood fhould be brufhed after it is coloured, and
then varnifhed with the feed-lac varnifh, or with three or
four coats of fhell-lac varnifh.
For a bright red ftain for wood, make a ftrong infufion
of Brafil in ftale urine, or water impregnated with pearl-
afhes in the proportion of an ounce to a gallon; to a
gallon of either of which add a pound of the Brafil
wood. With this infufion, after it has ftood, with fre-
quent ftirring, two or. three days, ftrained and made
boiling hot, brufh the wood over till it appears ftrongly
coloured ; and while it is wet, brufh it over with alum-
4G water
Woo
water made in the proportion of two ounces of alum to
a quart of water.
For a lefs bright red, brufh over the wood witha tinéture
made by diffolving an ounce of dragon’s blood in a pint of
{pirit of wine. ‘
For a pink or rofe red, add to a gallon of the above in-
fufion of Brafil wood two ounces of pearl-afhes, and ufe
it as before: obferving to brufh the wood over often with
the alum-water. Thefe reds may be varnifhed as the
yellows.
Wood may be ftained blue by means either of copper or
indigo. The brighter blue may be obtained by brufhing
a folution of copper (fee Verpiter), while hot, feveral
times over the wood: and then brufhing a folution of
pearl-afhes in the proportion of two ounces to a pint of
water hot over the wood. It is {tained blue with indigo,
by brufhing it with the indigo prepared with foap-lees
as when ufed by the dyers, boiling hot ; and then with
a folution of white tartar or cream of tartar, made by
boiling three ounces of either in a quart of water, brufh-
ing over the wood plentifully before the tinéture of in-
~ digo be quite dry. Thefe blues may be brufhed and var-
nifhed as the reds, if neceflary.
Wood may be ftained green by diffolving verdigrife in
vinegar, or the cryftals of verdigrife in water, and with
the hot folution brufhing over the wood till it be duly
ftained.
A light red-brown mahogany colour may be given to
wood by means of a decoétion of madder and fuftic wood,
ground in water, in the proportion of half a pound of
madder and a quarter of a pound of fuflic to a gallon,
or, inftead of the fuftic, an ounce of the yellow berries
may be ufed. Brufh over the wood with this folution,
while boiling hot, till the due colour be obtained. The
fame effe& may to a confiderable degree be produced by
the tin@ure of dragon’s blood and turmeric root, in fpirit
of wine.
For the dark mahogany, take the infufion of madder as
above, and fubftitute for the fuftic two ounces of log-
wood: and when the wood has been brufhed over feveral
times, and is dry, brufh it over flightly with water in which
pearl-afhes have been diffolved, in the proportion of about
a quarter of an ounce to a quart. The wood, in the better
kind of work, fhould be afterwards varnifhed with three or
four coats of feed-lac varnifh; but for coarfe work, with
the varnifh of refin and feed-lac, or they may be well
rubbed over with drying oil.
Wood may be Ssnet purple by brufhing it over feveral
times with a ftrong decoétion of logwood and Brafil,
made in the proportion of one pound of the logwood
and a quarter of a pound of the Brafil, to a gallon of
water, and boiled for one hour or more. Let the wood,
well coloured, dry, and be then flightly paffled over by
a folution of one drachm of pearl-afhes in a quart of water.
A folution of gold in fpirit of falt or aqua regia will give
a durable purple ftain to wood.
For a deep black the wood is brufhed over four or five
times with a warm decoétion of logwood, made as above
without the Brafil, and afterwards as often with a decoc-
tion of galls, made by putting a quarter of a pound of
powdered galls to two quarts of water, allowing it to dry
thoroughly between the feveral applications of the liquors :
thus prepared, it receives a fine deep black colour, from
being wafhed over with a folution of vitriol in the pro-
portion of two ounces to a quart: in the room of which
fome ufe a folution of iron in vinegar, keeping the vine-
Wood
gar for this purpofe upon a quantity of the filings of the
metal, and pouring of a little as it is wanted. ators
good black is alfo obtained, more expeditioufly, by brufh-
ing over the wood, firft with the logwood liquor, and
afterwards with common ink.
A very fine black may be produced by brufhing the
wood feveral times over with a folution of copper in aqua
fortis, and afterwards with the decoétion of logwood, re-
peated till the colour be of fufficient force, and the green-
nefs produced by the copper overcome. The blacks may
be varnifhed as the other colours.
Where the ftains are defired to be very ftrong, as in the
eafe of wood ufed for fineering, it is generally neceflary it
fhould be foaked, and not bruthed ; for which purpofe the
wood may be cut into pieces of a proper thicknefs for in-
laying. Lewis’s Phil. Com. Techn. p. 97. 434. Hand-
maid to the Arts, vol.i. p. 508, &c.
Woon, Stealing of. See Larceny.
Woon, Engraving on. See Woon-ENGRAVING, infra.
Woon, Painting on. See PAINTING.
Woon, Sculpture in. See Scucprune.
Woop, Sylva, in Geography, a multitude of trees, ex-
tended over a large continued traét of land, and propa-
gated by nature, or without culture.
Many great woods only confift of trees of one kind.
At Cape Verd, in Africa, are woods of orange and lemon
trees; in Ceylon, are woods of cinnamon-trees; in the
Molucca iflands, woods of clove-trees; in the iflands of
Nero, Lontour, Lofgain, &c. woods of nutmeg-trees ;
in Brafil, woods of Brafil-trees, &c.; in Numidia, woods
of date-trees; in Madagafcar, woods of tamarind-trees,
&c.
Woon-Afhes, in Agriculture, the afhes which are formed
by burning wood.
The afhes of fome forts of wood, too, are found to be
more powerful as a manure than thofe of others, as thofe
from the afh and fome other fuch trees.
It is faid by fome that they are an excellent dreffing for
improving cold wet pafture land; and that poor hungry
paltures have been very profitably benefited by them, to near
double their former value ; that nothing equals them on low
fpongy pafture land. Others, however, have tried them
on grafs-lands with little or no effe@.
The difference in the burning and forming of them may
ee caufe this difference in the effe€&ts which they have
on land.
Woop-Bound, a term ufed to fignify fuch land as is
encumbered with tall woody hedge-rows, fo as to prevent
the free circulation of air and admiffion of the fun, by
which the natural fertility and ftrength of it cannot be fully
exerted or brought into aétion. See Woop-Land.
Woon-Coppices. In the firft raifing of coppices, two
things are to be confidered ; firft, the nature of the foil, that
fuch trees may be planted in it as will thrive well there ;
and fecondly, the ufes that the wood is intended to be fold
for, that fuch kinds may be planted as will be moft proper
for thofe ufes. ‘
If the principal vent for wood be for the fire, the beft
trees for fire-wood muft be planted, fuch as the oak,
beech, hornbeam, or other hard wood. Thefe are the
mott profitable for felling as fire-wood, and one or mare of
thefe grow in any foil.
If there be a demand in the country where the coppice
is to be planted for hoops and hop-poles, then the ath, the
chefnut, the oak, alder, and hazel, are to be planted.
According
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According to the profits of the underwood, the thicknefs
of the ftandard-trees is to be regulated; for as they ftand
more or lefs thick, they more or lefs injure the underwood.
It is alfo to be confidered at what growth the underwood
is to be fold. The taller and larger the underwood of a
coppice in general is, the more profitable will it be for
firing, and all other ufes, and the ftandards will be the
better for its being left to grow to a proper height, for
their bodies will be always, unlefs very great accidents
occur, carried up ftraight as far as they are fhaded by the
coppice-wood.
A deep foil makes the fhrubs as well as trees grow more
vigoroufly than any other, and they will be fooner fit for
cutting in fuch places. The perfon who owns thefe
woods muft contrive to cut down only a certain quantity
of them every year, and regulate this fo that he may have a
conftant fucceffion of a like quantity; that part of the
wood which was at firft felled, may be grown up to its
fize for felling again by the time the laft is cut. This is,
in different places, to be calculated to all the various num-
bers between eight years and twenty or thirty.
The cutting of wood feldom yields the more and the
better timber; but the cutting of it oftener has greater
advantages, in that it makes it grow thicker, and gives the
feedlings time to come up. If many timber-trees grow
in the coppice, and are to be cut down, they and the un-
derwood fhould be felled together, cutting off the ftumps as
clofe to the ground as may be, in the trees, and in the
fhrubs and underwood the ftumps fhould be left about half
a foot high, and cut flanting and very {mooth. :
Sawing is the beft method of felling timber-trees ; but it
fometimes kills the root ; and if this is obferved to be the
cafe in the coppice, no new fhoots arifing from the root,
then it is proper to ftub up the root, that it may not un-
neceflarily encumber the ground, and that the other young
plants may have the benefit of it.
In the firft raifing of coppices from feed, the ground
mutt be prepared by good tillage, as much as if it were
intended for corn. ‘The feeds of the feveral trees are to
be fown in February, and if the foil be fhallow, the
ground fhould be ploughed into great ridges: this will
make the foil lie the thicker upon the top of each ridge,
by which means the roots will have more depth to run
to for nourifhment, and in a few years the furrow will
be filled up to .the level of the reft with the dead leaves 3
and thefe, as they rot at the bottom, will make a kind
of foil, through which the young fhoots will fpread, and
be conduéted from one ridge to another, and fo the
whole ground will be occupied by them. If the coppice
be to be raifed on the fide of a hill, plough the ridges
crofs-way of the defcent of the hill, that the water may
be detained among them, and not fuffered to run off, as
it otherwife would by the furrows; but if it happen
that the ground be over-wet, which is more rarely the
cafe, then the contrary method is to be obferved, and
the furrows ploughed deep and ftraight downwards, that
all water may be carried off by them, as by fo many
trenches or drains.
Some fow a crop of corn along with the feeds of the
underwood, for the advantage of the firft year ; but as the
feafon of fowing the feeds of the trees is too late for the
fowing of the corn, it feldom turns to much advantage.
It is better to fow the trees alone, and keep them well
weeded the two firft years; after which they are {trong
enough to take care of themfelves againft fuch enemies.
In very barren ground, where the young trees can
hardly ftand the heat in fummer, it is proper, after fowing
.
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them, to fcatter a quantity of furze-feed over the land 3 the
furze will grow quick, and over-top the trees at firft, but
it will ferve as a guard to them at this time, defending
them from injuries, and keeping the ground moift about
their roots. In a few years the trees will grow up beyond
thefe buthes, and they will then foon deftroy them by their
dropping.
In the raifing of coppices, the neareft diftance for the
plantations ought to be five feet for the underwood, but
as to what number, and fcantlings of timber are to be left
on each acre, the ftatutes in this cafe direé&t; but it
is an ordinary coppice, which will not afford three or
four firfts, fourteen feconds, twelve thirds, and eight
wavers, according to which proportion the fizes of young
trees in coppices are to fucceed one another. In coppice
or underwood felled at twenty-four years growth, there
are to be left twelve ftore-oaks upon every acre, or, in
defeét of them, the fame number of elms, beech, or afh:
thefe are to be ftraight-bodied trees, and are to be
left till they are ten inches in diameter, at a yard from
the ground; but it is better for the owner to have a
much greater number of timber-trees, efpecially in places
where underwood is cheap; and as to the felling, it is
always neceflary to begin regularly with one fide, that
the carriages, neceffary to the taking off the wood, may
come on without injury to the reft: and in large woods,
a cart-way fhould always be left in the middle, quite
through the wood. The timber of the underwood may
be cut from the month of O&ober to February ; but the
laft_ month is much the beft, in places where there is
but a fmall quantity to be felled, and it can all be got
down before the {pring is too much advanced. All the
wood fhould be carried out by Midfummer, and made u
by April at -the lateft ; for when the rows and brubh lie
longer than this unmade up, and unbound, many of the
fhoots and feedlings are fpoiled by them. It is always
worth the owner’s while to inclofe the coppice well the
winter before felling, to keep- out the cattle, which
would elfe greatly damage the fupply from the feedlings
and young fhoots.
New-weaned calves are the leaft prejudicial to newly
cut woods of any creatures, and may be put in where there
is much grafs; the next in harmleffnefs to thefe are
young colts, which, at about a year old, may be put in
to feed in the fame manner ; but about May they mutt all
be put out. :
If the woods happen to be cropped by cattle, it is beft
to cut them up, and they will make new fhoots ; for that
which has been bitten by the cattle will not grow for
feveral years in any degree.
If the coppice-woods are too thin, this is to be remedied
by laying down the longeft and {malleft fhoots of thofe
fhrubs or trees which are the mott advantageous, in the
place, or of fuch as are neareit the bare place; thefe
will each fend forth a great number of fuckers, and
the whole wood will be thickened as much as defired
in a very little time. Mortimer’s Hufbandry, vol. ii.
p: 64. See Coppice.
Woon, Almiggim. See Atmiccim.
Woop Anemone. See ANEMONE.
Woon-Bine, or Wood-bind, in Botany, a {pecies of lonicera ;
which fee.
Woop-Bind, Spanifh,
fee.
Woon-Chat, in Ornithology, lanius minor primus of Al-
drovandus, a {pecies of butcher-bird, wth a horn-coloured
bill; the feathers at the bafe are whitifh; above is a
4G 2 black
a {pecies of ipomoeca; which
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black line drawn acrofs the eyes, and then downwards
on each fide the neck; the head and hind part of the
neck are of a bright bay; the upper part of the back
dutky; the coverts of the tail grey ; the fcapulars white ;
the coverts of the wings dufky; the quill-feathers black,
having a white {pot at the bottom ; the throat, breaft, and
belly of a yellowith-white; the legs black. In the fe-
male, the upper part of the head, neck, and body, are
reddifh, {triated tranfverfely with brown; the lower parts
of the body are of a dirty white, rayed with brown ;
the tail of a reddifh-brown, marked near the end with
dufky, and tipt with red. Pennant.
Woon-Cock, Scolopax ruflicola of Linnzus, called by
other writers Ja becafé, a well-known bird. diftinguifhed
by its fize, which is fomewhat fmaller than that of the
partridge, and by its colour, which is on the back a va-
riegation of black, grey, and a reddifh-brown; on the
forehead the black predominates; the quill-feathers are
dufky, indented with red marks; and on the belly a
pale grey, variegated with tranfverfe ftreaks of brown.
Its beak is three inches long, dufky toward the end, and
reddifh at the bafe, and the upper chap a little longer
than the under: the tongue flender, long, fharp, and
hard at the point; the eyes large, and placed near
the top of the head, that they may not be injured when
the bird thrufts its bill into the ground: from the bill to
the eyes is a black line; the forehead is a reddifh afh-
colour ; the chin is of a pale yellow; the tail confifts
of twelve feathers, dufky or black on the one web, and
marked with red on the other; the tips above are afh-
coloured, below white: the legs and toes are livid, the
latter divided almoft to their origin, having only a very
{mall web between the middle and interior toes.
Thefe birds, during fummer, are inhabitants of the
Alps, Norway, Sweden, Polifh Pruffia, the Mark of Bran-
denburg, and the northern parts of Europe; whence they
emigrate at the approach of winter into milder climates,
where the ground is open and adapted to their manner
of feeding. The time of their appearance and difap-
pearance in Sweden coincides exa@tly with that of their
retreat from and arrival in Great Britain. They live on
worms and infeéts, which they fearch for with their long
bills in foft ground and moilt woods. They generally
arrive here in flocks, taking advantage of the might or a
mift; they foon feparate: but before they return to
their native haunts, pair. They feed and fly by night;
beginning their flight in the evening, and returning the
fame way to their day-retreat.
They leave England the latter end of February, or
beginning of March; though they have been known to
continue here accidentally. In Cafewood, near Tun-
bridge, a few breed almoft annually. During incubation
they are very tame. They come over to the coafl of Suf-
folk fparingly in the firft week of Oéober, the greater
number not arriving till the months of November and
December, and always after fun-fet. They are determined
in their flight by the wind, and arrive feparate and
difperfed. . When the red-wing appears on the coaft in
autumn, the wood-cocks are at hand; and when the
Royfton crow is arrived, they are come, Between the
12th and 25th of March they flock towards the coaft
to be ready for their departure, having the red-wings for
their harbingers in fpring, as in autumn. If the wind be
favourable, they immediately depart ; but otherwife, they
are detained in the neighbouring woods, or among the
ling and furze on the coaft: as foon as a fair wind {prings
up, they are fuddenly gone.
woo
In the fame manner'they are known to quit France,
Germany, and Italy ; making the northern and cold fitu-
ations their general fummer rendezvous. In the winter
they are found as far fouth as Smyrna and Aleppo, and
alfo in Barbary; and fome have appeared as far fouth
as Egypt, which feems to be the limit of their migration in
that way. In Japan they are found very common. Thofe
that refort into the countries of the Levant probably come
from the defarts of Siberia or Tartary, or the cold moun-
tains of Armenia. ;
Our f{pecies of wood-cock is unknown in North America ;
but they have a fort of wood-cock refembling ours in its
general appearance ; about half its fize, and wanting the
bars on the breaft and belly. Pennant.
They hate flying high, and they are afraid to fly among
trees, becaufe, like the hare, they fee but very badly ftraight
before them; and it is owing to this imperfeGtion in their
fight, that they are fo eafily taken in nets fpread in their
places of refort.
The draw-net, in countries which are very woody, is ex-
tremely profitable in this {port, it being no uncommon thing
to take ten or a dozen wood-cocks at a time in it.
There is another method of taking thefe birds in high
woods, with thofe nets called Aays, of the nature of the
rabbit-hays, only with fmaller mefhes. The wood-cocks
are to be driven into thefe, and there fhould always be at
leaft two or three of them planted together. When the
{portfman has provided himfelf with nets, he is to take five
or fix perfons into the wood with him. The proper woods
for this purpofe are thofe of feven or eight years’ growth ;
and the people are to go into fome part of them near the
middle. The nets or hays are to be placed in the fame
manner as they are for taking of rabbits, but two or three
joining together at the end, and hanging over flopewife
that way which the wood-cocks are intended to be
driven.
The nets being thus fixed, let the company go to the end
of the wood, placing themfelves at about ten rods diitance
from one another ; they muft all have fticks in their hands,
and they are to move forward flowly towards the nets, mak-
ing a noife by ftriking the fticks againft the trees and
branches, and by hallooing with their voices: in this man-
ner they are to move up to the net ; and the wood-cocks in
that part of the wood will all be terrified before them, but
will not take wing, but run along upon the ground, and
thus be driven along like a drove of beafts, fo that when the
company come up, they will find almoft all of them in the
net. When that part of the wood is thus driven, the nets
are to be turned the other way, and placed flopewife in the
contrary direction, and the company retiting to the other
end of the wood, are to drive the = I a 2 that are in
that part with the fame noife, till they have fent them into
the nets in the fame manner.
Thus all the wood-cocks in the wood may be taken with
very little trouble, and this may be done equally at any time
of the day.
Another way of taking this bird is by means of noozes or
{pringes.
The wood-cock and the {nipe are both eafily taken with
bird-lime, when their places of refort are known, but they
are not fo eafily found as many other birds.
The cuftom of the wood-cock is ufually to be upon the
banks under hedges, and by the fides of ditches toward the
fun ; and they will fuffer the fportfmen to come nearer them
in the day-time after a moon-fhiny night, than after a dark
one. The reafon of which is, that having fed well by
moon-light, they are only fit for reft the dey following ;
but
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‘but when the night has been dark, they are feeking food all
day long.
The {nipes naturally lie by the fides of rivers, when the
plafhes and ponds are frozen, and they always lie with their
heads up or down the ftream, never tranf{verfely.
In order to take either of thefe birds by bird-lime, the
f{portf{man muft be provided with a large number of {mall
and {mooth twigs, neatly and evenly covered with good
bird-lime. Thefe muft be placed floping, fome one way,
fome another, and the whole place about where they refort
mutt be covered with them. The fportfman then mult con-
ceal himfelf very carefully, that the fight of him may not
frighten away the game. See Cock-Road.
Woon-Cock Apple, in Rural Economy, a fine cyder fruit.
See AppLe-Tree.
Woon-Cock Shell, aname given by the Englifh naturalifts
to a peculiar kind of the purpura. It is called in French,
becaffe, from the length of its beak. There are two fpecies
of this, a prickly and a {mooth one.
The prickly kind is an extremely beautiful and elegant
fhell. It is of a yellowifh colour ; and its tail or beak (for
the hinder extremity of the fhell, which runs out into an
immoderate length, is fometimes called by the one, fome-
times by the other of thefe names) is furnifhed with four
rows of large and very long fpines: between the rows of
thefe, there are alfo rows of {mall and fhort fpines. The
body of the fhell is furrowed very deep, with a number of
tranfverfe circular lines ; and both this and the clavicle are
befet with feveral rows of long fpines.
The {mooth becafle, or wood-cock fhell, is a very elegant
{pecies, but much lefs fo than the other. It is of a yel-
lowifh colour, radiated with black and grey lines. It is all
over deeply furrowed, and the ridges are befet with tuber-
cles, the clavicle is elevated, and the tail extremely long,
and hollowed into a fort of tube. The mouth of this, as
well as of the other, is fmall and roundifh, and in this
{pecies is of a light flefh-colour.
Woop-Cock Soil, in Agriculture, a term applied to fuch
land ‘as has the mould of a dapple-brownifh colour, and
which is faid not to be of a good quality for many purpofes.
See Sor.
Woon-Corn is a certain quantity of oats, or other grain,
anciently given by cuftomary tenants to their lord, for the
liberty to pick up dead or broken wood.
Woop-Lvil, or Cramp in the Legs, a difeafe among fheep,
which is fo named in confequence of its being fuppofed in
general to arife from the drippings of trees in cold and wet
weather. It fhews itfelf by feizing the legs of the fheep,
and making them totally incapable of walking; and will
fometimes all at once fpread through the whole flock.
In regard to the means of cure, a tea-{poonful of the
flour of muftard has been advifed to be given every night
and morning. The affected parts fhould alfo be well rubbed
with warm flannel, and the fheep be kept dry, which are
very effectual aids. The ufe of a little oil of turpentine
externally may often alfo be advantageous, where the other
mode of rubbing does not fucceed: and in bad cafes the
ufe of mild mercurials with opium may be had recourfe to
with much benefit.
Woop-Fuel, Saw for cutting of, in Rural Economy, a
tool ufed for this purpofe. On the continent they employ
an improved inftrument of this kind, the iron part of which
confifts of a faw, three inches in breadth, and fixteen inches
in length, double toothed, in the manner of the gardener’s
pocket faw, and fixed in a frame of tough afh-wood, as
below. The edge part of the faw is made broader than the
10
WOO
back, in order that it may work more freely and with
greater eafe.
The frame of the faw at the top part has a ftrong cord
tied round each fide of it, fo as to, tighten the faw and keep
it from bending, being capable of being twifted tighter by
a {mall thin piece of wood put between the double cord,
and which may be kept from untwifting by being refted
againft the crofs-bar in the upper, part, which is mortifed
and firmly faftened into the two fide pieces, being the only
means that keeps the frame together in a fafe manner. The
fide pieces are each twelve inches in length ; and the addi-
tional length of the handle part of one of them five inches.
Tt is evident that this faw will, on the principle of leffening
friction, and of keeping the cutting part from bending,
work with much greater facility and expedition than the
common carpenter’s faw.
With this wood-faw twice as much work may be done in
a day as with the common hand-faw that is in general ufe in
this country.
Woon-Geld, Woodgeldum, in our ancient cuftoms, the
gathering or cutting of wood within the foreft. Or it may
denote the money paid for the fame to the forefters. Some-
times it alfo feems to fignify an immunity from this payment,
by the king’s grant. Crompton fays exprefsly, it fignifies
to be free from the payment of money for taking of wood
in a foreft. See Gexp.,
Woop-Hay, an ancient cuftom at Exeter ; by which a log
out of every feam of wood brought over Ex-bridge is taken
towards the reparation of that bridge. Antiq. of Exeter.
Woop-Land, in Agriculture, a term ufed by the farmers
of many counties of England for a fort of foil, from its
conftant humidity and dark colour, refembling the foil in
woods, which, of whatever’ nature it originally is, will al-
ways be made to appear thus from the continual dropping
of trees, and the want of a free air and fun, together with
the fall of leaves, deftroyed and wafhed to pieces by the
wet.
This foil in the open countties has a confiderable quan-
tity of clay in it, and holds the water a long time that once
falls upon it : in wet weather it fticks firmly to the plough-
fhare, and in dry is very apt to crack. In uncultivated
places it ufually produces rufhes and rufh-grafs. A moift
ae dripping year is extremely detrimental to this fort of
and.
Ass to the clearing of wood-land in order to bring it into
a ftate of cultivation and improvement, the firft ftep is that
of properly digging out the roots of whatever farts they
may be, after the wood has been cut off, to prepare the
ground for the operation of the plough, without mixing
the under ftratum of the land with the fertile furface mouidy
layer of earth. The hollows and pits are then to be filled
and levelled.
In fome inftances it may be beneficial to encourage and
promote the fward and herbage by fowing over the furface
fuitable grafs-feeds, after it has been broken and fpread
over with the colleéted and decayed or burnt woody and
leafy matters, ftocking the land hard with fheep, and mow-
ing off occafionally the wood-fhoots that may arife; thus
keeping the whole in a ftate of clofe pafturage, until the
{maller root parts that may have been left in the land be-
come fufliciently de¢ayed, to render them obedient to the
plough, when the land may be broken up for corn. The
ufe of lime and calcareous {fubftances in mixture with thefe
matters, or {pread alone over the land, would alfo ferve to
encourage the finer forts of herbage, the delight of fheep ;
and, of courfe, induce them to eat the grafg more clofe,
and
woo
and bring the land fooner into the ftate of a thick fet
{ward, the productive matrix of corn-crops.
Woop-Lark, in Ornithology. See Wood-Larx.
Woop-Layer, in Agriculture, a term ufed to fignify the
young oak or other timber plants which are laid down into
hedges, among the white thorn or other plants ufed in fences.
See Hence.
Woon of Life, in Botany. See Guaracum.
Woon-Lock, in Ship-Building, a piece of elm, clofely
fitted and fheathed with copper, in the ne og or fcore of
the pintle, near the load-water-line ; fo that when the rud-
der is hung, and the wood-lock nailed in its place, it cannot
rife, becaufe the latter butts againft the underfide of the
brace and butt of the fcore.
Woopn-Loufe. See MILLEPEDEs.
Woop-Meil, a coarfe, hairy kind of ftuff, made of Ice-
land wool, with which the fhip-carpenters, in fome of his
majefty’s yards, line the ports of fhips of war.
oop-Mite, in Natural Hiflory, the name of a little ani-
mal frequently made the fubje& of microfcopical obferva-
tions, and by fome called the qwood-loufe; though that lefs
properly, as there is another larger animal generally known
by that name.
The wood-mite is in fhape and colour very like a loufe,
and is frequently found running very nimbly, but always by
ftarts and jumps, on old books and rotten wood. The eyes
of this creature are of a fine gold colour, and can be thruft
out or drawn in at pleafure; and when examined by the
microfcope the periftaltic motion of the guts is feen very
diftin@ly, and beautifully ; and what is more wonderful,
there is obferved a very diftin@& and regular motion in the
brain.
This probably is the fame animal with the pediculus pul-
fatorius, defcribed by Dr. Derham, as one of the death
watches. Baker’s Microfcope, p. 185.
Woop-Men, certain foreft-officers appointed to take care
of the king’s woods. .
Woop-Mote, the ancient name of that foreft-court, now
called the court of attachment.
Woon-Pecker, in Ornithology, the Englifh name of fome
{pecies of picus.
The green wood-pecker, os viridis of Linnzus, called
alfo the rain-fowl and pluvialis avis, weighs about fix ounces
and a half, is thirteen inches long, and twenty and a half
broad; the bill is dufky, triangular, and near two inches
long ; the crown of the head is crimfon, {potted with
black ; the eyes are furrounded with black, beneath which
the males have a crimfon mark; the back, neck, and leffer
coverts of the wings, are green; the rump of a pale yellow;
the greater qeillifeathors are dufky, {potted on each fide
with white ; the tail confifts of ten ftiff feathers with black
tips, and barred alternately with dufky and deep green;
the whole hinder part of the body is of a very pale green ;
the thigh and vent are marked with dufky lines; the legs
and feet all of a cinereous green.
The greater-{potted wood-pecker, picus major of Linnzus,
called alfo witwall, weighs two ounces three-fourths, is nine
inches long, and fixteen broad; the bill is one inch and a
quarter long, of a black horn colour; the irides are red;
the forehead is of a pale buff colour; the crown of the
head of a glofly black ; the hind part marked with a rich
dies cskeston {pot ; the cheeks white, bounded beneath by
a black bar pafling from the corner of the mouth, and fur-
rounding the hind part of the head; the neck is encircled
with a black colour ; the throat and breatt are of a yellowifh-
white ; the vent-feathers of a light crimfon ; the back, rump,
woo
and coverts of the tail, and leffer coverts of the wings, are
black ; the {capular feathers and coverts, adjoining to them,
are white; the quill-feathers black, elegantly marked on
each web with round white fpots: the four middle feathers
of the tail are black ; the next tipt with yellow; the bot-
tom of the two outmoft black, the upper parts a dirty
white ; the exterior feather marked on each fide with two
black f{pots; the next with two on the inner web, and one
on the other ; the legs are of a lead colour. The female
wants the crimfon {pot on the head. This fpecies is much
more uncommon than the preceding ; and keeps altogether
in the woods.
The middle wood-pecker, or picus medius of Linnzus, «
agrees With the preceding in fize and colours, except that
the crown of the head in this is of a rich crimfon; the
crown of the head in the male of the former being black,
and the crimfon in form of a bar on the hind part.
The lefler-fpotted wood-pecker, picus minor of Linnzus,
is alfo called hickwall, and has all the charaéters and actions
of the greater kind, but is more rare. Pennant.
Woop-Pigeon. See Ring-Dove.
Woop-Plea Court, is a court held twice a year in the
foreft of Clun, in Shropfhire, for determining all matters
relating to wood, and the feeding of cattle there. Perhaps
it was originally the fame with wood-mote court.
Woop-Pucerons, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by M.
Reaumur to a fmall fpecies of infeét of the puceron kind,
of a greyifh colour, and diftinguifhed by its two hollow
horns on the hinder part of its body.
Thefe animals very much refemble, both in fhape and
fize, the pucerons of the alder; but as thofe live always on
the furface of the ftalk, thefe make their way deep into the
wood of a tree.
M. Reaumur found large quantities of thefe lodged at
a confiderable depth in the wood of fome elms, after they
were cut down ; the paffages, by which they had made their
way in, were not to be found; but they were lodged in
ine and long holes, of the diameter of a goofe-quill,
and running many inches along the tree in a longitudinal
diretion.
All the pucerons found in thofe places appear to be
females, and none have wings; they all have vaft numbers
of young ones of different degrees of maturity within them,
and thefe may be forced out with prefling their bodies.
Reaum. Hitt. Infeé. vol. vi.
Woon-Roof, or Wood-ruffe, in Botany. See AsPERULA.-
The leaves and roots dried have been efteemed aperient
and diuretic ; and recommended in obftructions of the liver,
and thence fuppofed efficacious in the jaundice: but they
are now difufed.
Woon-Sage. See SAGE.
Woopn-Soot, in Agriculture, a fubftance of the foot kind,
which has been found highly beneficial as a manure in cafes
of cold clayey or {tiff loamy foils or lands, when in either
the ftate of pafture or in that of tillage for grain, or other
arable crops.
It is ftated to be ufed in thefe proportions on different
forts of land. On light loams, when for pafture, from
twenty-two to twenty-four bufhels on the acre; when for
barley, from thirty-three to thirty-four ; for turnips, from
thirty-three to thirty-fix.
On chalky loams, when for pafture, from twenty-three to
twenty-lix bufhels on the acre; when for turnips, from
eee ee to thirty-eight ; for, barley, from thirty-five to
orty.
On ftrong loams, when for patture, from twenty-two to
twenty-
woo
twenty-fix bufhels on the acre ; when for artificial grafles,
or green crops, from twenty-eight to thirty-four. See
Soor and Wood-Soor.
Woop-Sorre/, in Botany. See Wood-Sorrev.
Woon-Spite, in Ornithology, an Englifh name given by
many to the common green wood-pecker.
Woon-Wa/h, in Agriculture, aname fometimes applied to
dyer’s-broom by farmers.
Woon, Waxen, in Gardening. See GrnistTa.
Woop, in Geography, a county of Virginia, with 3036
inhabitants. f
Woop Creek. See Preston’s Creek.
Woop Crees, a river of New-York, which runs into the
*“Hudfon, near Fort Edward.—Alfo, a river of New York,
connected with the Mohawk by the canal at Rome, through
which the navigation is extended into Oneida lake.—Alfo,
. ariver of New York, which rifes in Kingfbury, and runs
N. by Port Anne village, into lake Champlain, at White-
hall landing, formerly Skenefborough.
Woop Jfland, a {mall ifland near the coaft of Maine; 15
miles N.E. of Cape Porpoife. N. lat. 43°26'. W. long.
70° 24!.
Woop River, a river of North America, which runs into
the Miffiffippi, N. lat. 44°. W. long. 92° 25'.—Alfo, a
river of North America, which runs into the Mifliffippi, N.
lat. 38° 25'. W. long. go° 58).
WOODBERRY, a townfhip of Pennfylvania, in the
county of Huntingdon, with 1107 inhabitants.
WOODBRIDGE, a large and populous market-town
in the hundred of Loes, and county of Suffolk, England,
is fituated on the banks of the river Deben, at the diftance
of 8 miles E.N.E. from Ipfwich, and 77 miles N.E. by E.
from London. It is faid to have taken its name from
a wooden bridge built over a hollow way to make a commu-
nication between two parks, feparated by the road which
leads towards Ipfwich ; and near the {pot where this bridge
is fuppofed to have ftood is a houfe, which to this day re-
tains the name of the Dry Bridge. But when it is confi-
dered that in ancient times this town was written Oddebruge,
or, asin Domefday-book, Udebruge, it may with greater
probability be fuppofed thence to have derived its prefent
appellation. The principal ftreets in Woodbridge, one of
which is nearly a mile in length, contain many good
houfes, and are well paved. The market-place is well-
built, and in the centre of it is an ancient fhire-hall, where
the quarter feffions for the liberty of St. Ethelred are held ;
under which is the place for the corn-market. A weekly
market, granted in the reign of Henry III., is held on
Wednefdays, and here are two annual fairs. The only ma-
nufaétures are thofe of fack-cloth and falt: but the com-
merce is of great importance. The Deben, which towards
its mouth is called Woodbridge-haven, is navigable up to
the town, which thereby carries on a very confiderable traffic
in corn, flour, malt, and various other articles, with Lon-
don, Hull, Newcaftle, and the continent : here are feveral
docks for building veflels, with commodious wharfs and
quays. In the population return of the year 1811, Wood-
bridge is {tated to contain 702 houfes, occupied by 4332
perfons. The church, a fpacious ftructure, is confidered
to have been built in the reign of Edward III. by John,
lord Seagrave. It confifts of a nave, chancel, and two
fide aifles, the roofs of which are fupported by fourteen
beautiful flender pillars. The exterior walls are of black
flints, as is alfo-a large quadrangular tower, 108 feet in
height ; near the top, the flint and ftone are curionfly inter-
mixed in various devices. On the fouth fide of the church
formerly ftood a priory for black canons of the Augutftine
*)
wood
order. At the diffolution the fcite was granted by
Henry VIII. to John Wingfield. After pafling through
feveral families, the eftate was divided and fold, when
the capital manfion, called the abbey or priory, was pur-
chafed by Francis Brooke, efq. of Ufford. The town con-
tains meeting-houfes for Independents, Quakers, and Me-
thodifts ; alfo a free grammar-{chool for ten boys, fons of
the poorer inhabitants of the town, who are to be inftructed
in Latin and Greek, and fitted for the univerfity. Here: is
hkewife an alms-houfe, worthy of particular notice, which
was founded and endowed in 1587, under a patent of queen
Elizabeth, by Thomas Seckford, efq. for thirteen men and
three women. The endowment was an eftate in Clerken-
well, London, then let for 112/. 135. 4d.; but leafed in
1767 for fixty years at 563/. per annum, clear of all charges.
And as vaft’ fums have been recently expended upon the
eftate, it may reafonably be fuppofed that a confiderable
advance will take place at the expiration of the leafe. The
governors are the maiter of the roils and the chief juftice of
the common pleas, who are empowered to make fuch regu-
lations as from time to time fhall be neceffary. By the laft
ordinances, the annual allowance to the refidents in the
alms-houfe was increafed to 27/. for the principal or nominal
governor, and 2o/. to each of the other twelve poor men,
befides wearing apparel, and a chaldron and half of coals.
The three women are appointed as nurfes and attendants
on the men, and receive 12/. per annum, and clothing. The
men wear a filver badge, with the Seckford arms, and are
required to attend divine fervice at the parifh-church. on
Sundays, Wednefdays, and Fridays, and all holidays.—
Kirby’s Suffolk Traveller, 8vo. 1764. Beauties of Eng-
fand and Wales, vol. xiv. Suffolk, by F. Shoberl.
WoopsrinGE, a town of New Jerfey ; 4 miles N. of
Amboy.
WoopsrinGE, a townfhip of Conneéticut, in the county
of New Haven, with 2030 inhabitants ; 7 miles N.W. of
New Haven.
WOODBURY, a town of the ftate of Conneéticut, in
the county-of Lichfield, with 1963 inhabitants; 30 miles
S.W. of Hartford.—Alfo, a town of the ftate of New
Jerfey, on the E. fide of the Delaware ; 9 miles S. of Phi-
ladelphia. N. lat. 39° 51’. W. long. 75° 15’.—Alfo, a
town of Vermont, in the county of Caledonia, with 254
inhabitants; 20 miles N. of New Haven.—Alfo, a town-
fhip of Pennfylvania, in the county of Bedford, with 1658
inhabitants. ;
WOODCHESTER, a parochial village in the hundred
of Longtree, and county of Gloucefter, England, is
fituated 25 miles S.W. from Stroud, 124 S. from Gloucef-
ter, and 104 W. by N. from London. In 1811 the num-
ber of houfes in the parifh was 162, and the inhabitants 845.
By itsname Woodchetter indicates its having been originally
a Roman ftation, and many Roman antiquities have been
frequently difcovered there, of which the moft remarkable
is a mofaic pavement, partially laid open by digging graves
in the church-yard under which it lies. It appeared to have
formed a fquare of 48 feet 10 inches; and for fize and
richnefs of ornament is certainly fuperior to any fimilar
teflellated pavement hitherto difcovered in Britain. The
tefera were imbedded in a cement about 8 inches thick : and
under all were flues croffing each other at right angles. Befides
this curious work, others have been occafionally difcovered
at Woodchetter : particularly in 1795 and 1796, the ground-
plot of a very extenfive Roman building was laid open, of
which the remains in the church-yard formed the N. extre-
mity, and the other parts extended under an adjoining or-
chard and field. The plan of this building comprifed two
courts,
Woo
courts, which, with the great room, containing the princi-
pal pavement, ran through the middle, having numerous
apartments of different dimenfions branching out from them.
In three large rooms on the N. fide of the great or firit
court were found fragments of columns, ftatues, and mar-
bles. The fecond or inner court had galleries on three fides.
The great mofaic pavement feemed to have belonged to the
cavaedium, an interior court or hall, which communicated
with feveral fuites of rooms. Various parts of the building
appear to have belonged to the apartments allotted for baths,
exercife, &c. That thefe remains were portions of a {plen-
did Roman villa is fcarcely to be doubted ; and from their
charaéter the villa may have been the refidence of the pro-
pretor, while Britain was fubje& to Rome. Fragments of
itatues, pottery, ftags’-horns, glafs, and coins, have been
found among the ruins. Of the coins, the oldeft was one of
Hadrian, and the lateft of Valens. A dagger of iron,
much corroded, two fpurs of the fame metal, a {mall brafs
hatchet, a fibula, a key apparently of hardened clay, &c.
were alfo difcovered. The manor of Woodchetter belongs
to lord Ducie, who has a feat at Spring-park, in the parifh,
now deferted. Itis fomantically fituated amidft fine woods.
A. full account of the Roman villa, with plates, has been
publifhed by S. Lyfons, in imperial folio.
WOODCOCK, ,in Biography, one of the Hereford
waits, with a ftrong hand on the violin, fo famous in our
outh for playing Vivaldi’s Cuckoo concerto, that he was
ent for far and near to perform it at country concerts. See
VivaLpl.
WOODCUTTER’s Creek, in Geography, a river of
Eaft Florida, which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 29° 57’.
W. long. 81° 40!.
WOODEN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Lublin ; 52 miles N. of Lublin. \
Woopen Ball, a fmall American ifland, near the coaft
of Maine. N. lat. 43° 50! W. long. 68° 4o!.
Woopven Frames, for preferving and retarding the Bloffoms
of Fruit-trees, in Gardening, fuch as are contrived for the
purpofe of protecting the bloffoms of them from the de-
ftructive effets of {pring-frofts, &c. In this intention nets
of different kinds, and fcreens of canvas rolled up in the
day-time and let down at night, or in the time of heavy
rains, have been moftly employed while the trees are in
flower; but thefe frames are found to be fuperior, efpe-
cially in expofed northern fituations. By means of thus re-
tarding and defending the bloffoming of thefe forts of tender
trees, until the frofts be chiefly over, much advantage is
faid to be gained in the fetting of the fruit.
Thefe frames are con{truéted in a fimple cheap manner ;
the revolving parts of which are covered with the branches
of the filver fir, or thofe of fome other fuch tree, which are
found to anfwer the purpofe very effectually ; and when
they are ‘properly formed, they will open and fhut with the
greateft cafe and expedition. They are in ufe from about
the middle of February until towards the end of April, or
later in fome cafes; being only opened as there may be a
neceflity in the ftate of the bloffoms.
They have been employed with great fuccefs for peaches
and apricots, and may be. ufed for many other forts of tender
fruit-trees.
In forming them, the upright pofts are made of wood,
two inches {quare, and fourteen feet fix inches long, into
which crofs-bars are mortifed; the poles ftanding fix feet
afunder. The upper leaves, which open outward on their
pivots, are made of inch-deal, by an inch and a quarter in
breadth. There are {mall pieces of wood nailed on the in-
fides of the upper and middle bars, to prevent the leayes of
woo
the frames from falling inward on the wall. The lower
leaves of-the frames, which open out above, in order to
admit the rays of the fun to the lower parts of the wall, re-
volve on pivots. The bottom or low end of the frames ftand
out two feet from the wall, and every other pole in them is
fixed at the top, with an iron holdfaft immediately under
the coping of it. The leaves of the frames are covered with
branches of the filver fir, fo as to wholly occupy the vacant
{paces at the end, middle, and fides of them. The crofs-
bars are made of inch and quarter wood, and of a breadth
to correfpond with the upright poles into which they are
mortifed. There are {mall wooden pins in the ends of the
crofs-bars, to hold the frames tight when they are up. The
{pace between the wall and the frames fhould have a fort of
partition at every twelve feet, formed by the filver fir-
branches, tied to the trees andevery fecond pole, which will
prevent a too free circulation of air along the wall, and pre-
piece a degree of ferenity very effential to the fetting of the
ruit. :
Thefe frames may be found very beneficial in many open
and expofed afpeéts of garden-grounds. See a paper on
the fubje& in the firft volume of the ‘ Memoirs of the
Caledonian Horticultural Society.”
Woonrn Hoop for Cheefe, in Rural Economy. See Dat-
RYING. ;
Wooven Horfe, in Military Language. See Horse,
Wooden.
Woonen Horfe-Collar. See Cotrar.
Woopen Saddle. See Pack-Saddle.
Woopen’s Ifland, in Geography, a rocky iflet in the
North Pacific ocean, on the S. coait of King George III.’s
Archipelago: fo called by captain Vancouver, from Ifaac
Wooden, one of his crew, who fell overboard near it, and
was drowned, alittle to the eaft of Cape Ommaney.
WOOD-ENGRAVING, or Xylography, is the art of
making fuch incifions and hollows, imitative of natural or
ideal objeéts, at the will of the defigner, on a block or
tablet of wood, as may afterward yield impreffions on paper,
its furface being fupplied with printers’-ink in the manner of
letter-types.
The wood of the apple or pear-tree, either of them oc-
cafionally, but more frequently the pear-tree, was ufed by
thofe engravers of the European continent, who flourifhed
during the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries, and is believed to
have been ufed for the fame purpofe, from a much earlier
period, in China. The reafon of this preference is the
f{uperior compactnefs of the texture of thofe woods; but
the wood of the box-tree has Jatterly—for the fame reafon,
namely, becaufe it is yet more compact than the pear-tree in
dts grain, and harder in its fubftance—fuperfeded it ; at leaft
for the {maller purpofes of fuch book-blocks as are intended
to be combined in the letter-prefs, and printed at the fame
operation with alphabetic types.
The inftruments ufed in this art are few and fimple ;
and are probably the fame now, with a few improvements
of no great importance, that have been in ufe from the ye
commencement of the art: namely, gravers, more or lefs
{quare or lozenge in their proportions, according to the
breadth and depth of the lines required to be cut ; /crapers,
of various fizes, both flat and round, but chiefly the latter ;
knife-tools and /pit-flickers, for the finer lines, pecks, or
ftipplings ; and gouges, for the broader and deeper hollows,
which are intended to be left untouched by the ink and
paper in the procefs of printing.
The defigns which formed the fubjeéts of the more an-
cient engravers in wood, confifted either of pure outlines,
or very little more than outlines; the engraved blocks or
tablets
»
WOOD-ENGRAVING.
_ tablets furnifhing merely the lineaments of the figures, &c.
reprefented, and the colourift, or illuminift, (as he has fome-
times been termed,) fupplying the reft. By degrees a few
light hatchings were introduced, thinly fcattered upon the
folds of the draperies, fhadows of the flefh, and other parts
of the defign ; and occafionally, when the opening of a door
or a window, or the mouth of a cavern, was to be exprefled,
the block was left untouched, that it might print black in
fuch places, and thereby diminifh the tafe of the colourift.
It was foon difcovered, that with little additional labour of
the wood-engraver, much more might be accomplifhed. It
was eafy to reprefent the’ bugbear figure of Lucifer with
its appropriate blacknefs, and at the fame time to exprefs
the internal markings of his body and limbs, by means of
thin lines cut in the block, and which would be rendered
white in the impreffion.
The ornamental borders which, in fome inftances, fur-
rounded the devotional cuts of thofe times, were rendered
more attraétive to the eye, by the oppofition of broadifh
white and black lines ; and fometimes intermediate {paces of
greater extent were enlivened by large white dots cut out,
or perhaps punched at equal diftances, on the block ; or
decorated with fprigs of foliage, or {mall flowers, re-
lieved by a fimilar procefs, upon a black ground. Grada-
tions of fhadow next began to be attempted in the figures
and other parts of wood-engravings, by means of white
dots, differing from each other in their magnitude and proxi-
mity according to the degree of fhade or darknefs required.
This mode of finifhing engravings in wood appears to
have been praétifed at Mentz, among other places, at an
early period of the invention of typography, and was after-
wards occafionally reforted to by the wood-engravers of
other countries; efpecially thofe of Paris, where, at the
clofe of the 15th and commencement of the 16th centuries,
numerous {mall books of devotion were printed by Antoine
Verrard, Simon Voftre, and others, in which the borders
furrounding the pages were decorated by figures very deli-
cately engraved, and relieved upon a black ground, fpecked
over, with extreme nicety of workmanfhip, with minute
white dots, fuch as have been defcribed.
Thefe innovations or improvements in the art of wood-
engraving, were fuch as involved but little additional labour
or difficulty in the execution; at the fame time, they
were calculated to give to the decorations of books a
fhewy effe&t : but the artifts of Germany, finding or fancy-
ing them to be incompatible with the purpofe of imitating
by wood-cuts the appearance of their original defigns, the
former and more fimple method was again reforted to.
It appears to have been at the earlier period of the art
the practice of thofe mafters, who furnifhed defigns for the
wood-engravers to work from, carefully to avoid all crofs-
hatchings, which it is probable were by many perfons con-
fidered as beyond the power of the xylographift to repre-
fent. Wolgemuth perceived that though it was difficult to
effe@& crofs-hatchings, it was not impoffible; and in the
cuts of the Nuremberg Chronicle,—the execution of which
he doubtlefs fuperintended, befide furhifhing the defigns,—
a fuccefsful attempt was firft made to imitate the bold
hatchings of a pen-drawing, croffing each other, as occafion
prompted the defigner, in various dire&tions. To Wolge-
muth belongs the praife of having been the firft who duly
‘ appreciated the powers of this art ; and it is more than pro-
bable that he proved with his own hand, to the artifts who
were employed under him, the practicability of the ftyle of
workmanfhip that he required. : ‘
Engraving on wood now offered inducements to its prac-
tice, which had not before been contemplated. Albert
Vor. XXXVIII.
Durer early applied himfelf to the ftudy and further advance-
ment of an art which at once promifed to reward his labours
with fame and fortune; and fo well had Nature qualified
him for the tafk, that before the termination of the 15th
century, he produced his feries of wood-cuts of the Apoca-
lypfe ; a work which it cannot be doubted was received
throughout Europe with wonder and univerfal applaufe.
Mr. Bartfch ftrongly infifts that neither Durer, Schau-
flein, Burgmair, nor the other great defigners of the Ger-
man fchool, who were contemporaneous, or nearly fo, ever
engraved in wood themfelves ; but that all they did was to
furnifh the defigns, leaving the tafk of cutting them upon
the tablets to the ordinary engravers in wood. Mr. Ottley
is, however, perfuaded that this opinion is in a great meafure
erroneous, notwithftanding the infcriptions which Bartfch
refers to, written anciently upon the backs of fo many of
the engraved tablets of the celebrated triumph of Maximilian,
and other works defigned by Hans Burgmair, and recording
the names of the individual wood-engravers who were em-
ployed to execute particular pieces of thofe extenfive under-
takings.
One hundred and thirty-five of the folio tablets of Maxi-
milian’s triumph are ftill preferved in the imperial library
at Vienna, where an edition of them was ftruck off in the
year 1796. According to Bartfch, they were engraved
from the defign (for the whole forms but one long pro-
ceflion) not of Albert Durer, as had formerly been fup-
pofed, but of Hans Burgmair, in 1516 and the three fol-
lowing years. The names of the different wood-engravers
employed are written, fays Mr. Bartfch, upon the backs
of feveral of the blocks, in the following manner. Upon
N° 18. of the edition juft mentioned, “* Der kert an die
Ellend. hat Wilhalm gefchitten;”’ i. e. this block joins to
that which reprefents the elks. It was engraved by Wil-
liam : and fo of the reft.’
The names or initials of engravers found upon the backs
of thefe extraordinary, tablets are feventeen in number,
and are as follow: 1. Jerome André, furnamed Refch,
or Rofch (one of the moft eminent engravers of Nurem-
berg.) 2. Jan de Bonn. 3. Cornelius, (perhaps Corne-
lius de Bonn.) 4. Hans Frank. 5. Saint German, 6. Wil-
helm. 7. Corneille Liefrink. 8. Wilhelm Liefrink. 9. Alexis
Lindt. 10. Joffe de Negker. 11. Vincent Pfarkecher.
12. Jaques Rupp. 13. Hans Schaufelien. 14. Jan Ta-
berith. 15. F. P. 16. A monogram, compofed of H. F.
17. W. R.
The imperial library likewife poffefles an hundred and
twenty-two blocks, engraved from the defigns of Burgmair,
reprefenting the faints, male and female, of the family of
Maximilian. One hundred and nineteen of thefe were re-
publifhed in the year 1799; and upon the backs of the
blocks were found the names of the eight following en-
gravers on wood; wiz. 1. Hans Frank. 2. Corneille
Liefrink. 3. Alexis Lindt. 4. Joffede Negker. 5. Wolf-
gang Refch. 6. Hans Taberith. 7. Wilhelm Taberith.
And, 8. Nicholas Seeman. Probably no writer who has
entered upon a critical examination of thefe early works
has been fo well qualified to judge of them as Mr. Ottley :
and that gentleman, while he admits that thefe infcriptions
of names fufficiently prove that the great bulk of the
numerous wood-cuts bearing the initials of Burgmair, were
not cut upon the wooden blocks by, his own hand; and
that by parity of reafoning it might be fair to conclude the
fame of a large proportion of thofe bearing the monograms
or initials of Durer, and other eminent defigners; yet he
can by no means perfuade himfelf that the abilities of the
ordinary wood-engravers, who abounded in Germany at the
4H clofe
“WOOD-ENGRAVING.
clofe of the rgth century, could have been fuch as to render
them in any material degree inftrumental in eee about
that fudden and confiderable improvement which took place
in their art at that period. They had been accuftomed to
manufacture the barbarous wood-cuts ufed by the illuminifts
and venders of playing-cards, and were probably incapable
of comprehending or appreciating thofe delicate, but free
and mafterly touches, which characterize the defigns of a
great and finifhed artift like Durer; and if fo, wholly un-
qualified to reprefent them with any tolerable degree of
fidelity. We may, therefore, readily believe that the nume-
rous and flourifhing fchool of wood-engravers, which we
find fpreading over Germany, and from thence to Italy, in
the early part of the 16th century, owes its excellence to
the great defigners of that time ; and efpecially to Albert
Durer, who during his youth affiduoufly applied himfelf
to the practice and improvement of the art, and afterward
taught it to numerous pupils, who, already grounded in the
principles of defign, and working continually under the eye
of their matter, by degrees became qualified to affift him
atly in his numerous works of this kind. The intel-
ligence, the delicacy, and the feeling, which we obferve in
the execution of moft of the wood-cuts of Albert Durer,
can only, Mr. Ottley thinks, be accounted for in this way ;
and the reader will probably admit that his opinion on the
fubje& is not a little ftrengthened by the circumftance of
Durer having been himfelf the publifher of all his chief
works of this kind, more efpecially when added to the fa&,
that of the years 1509, 1510, and 1511, during which fo
large a proportion of his wood-engravings were executed,
we have fearcely any thing by his hand engraved in
copper.
The fudden and confiderable improvement of which we
have fpoken, confifted of a fuperior ftyle of execution, as
well as of defign. The meagre and miferable forms derived
from the legends of fuperftition, and the Greek painters of
the dark ages, began to give way to a clearer view of nature;
and the few and fcanty fogte lined hatchings, which rather
indicated than exprefled fhadow, were fuperfeded by thofe
bold courfes of lines, as if hatched with a pen, and croffed
with fecond and in fome inftances with third courfes of
lines, which Wolgemuth introduced, and Durer im-
proved.
This mode of execution appeared to many perfons fo
very difficult, and requiring . much more of pains and
patient labour than they were warranted by other parts of
thefe engravings in believing to have been beftowed on them,
as to have excited confiderable doubts whether the prints
which contain thefe dark croffings were really impreffed
from wooden blocks. They were by fome perfons rather
fuppofed to have been printed from cafts, for which the en-
geared blocks ferved perhaps as matrixes ; and a controverfy
inging on this doubt has been for fome time carried on by
antiquarian inquirers, with fufficient boldnefs on both fides.
The truth, however, could only remain with one party, and
the fubfequent produétion by Mr. Ottley, of fome of the
engraved blocks of wood themfelves, either from the hands
of Albert Durer, or thofe of his difciples, has proved that
the dark croffings were aétually delivered from wood, and
fettled the controverfy, as far as refpeés that artift and his
contemporaries, if not his fucceffors.
The readers of our account of the German {chool of en-
graving, may have obferved that ourfelves were among the
number of fceptics. As the truth was our objeét, we wil-
lingly confefs our earlier miftake now that the fa& is afcer-
tained ; and have too much refpeét for truth and the public
to feel the leaft backwardnefs in recording it. Whether we
12
flatter ourfelves that we can afford this record out of the
ftock of our reputation, is for our private feelings. If from
our expreffion of doubt, refearch in the right direétion,
and fatisfactory afcertainment, have refulted, our fcepticifm
has not been in vain ; nor have we been in vain anxious to
tell what we believed, as well as what we knew. Refpe&-
ing the dark crofs-hatchings which fo frequently occur in
the works of Albert Durer, Mr. Ottley’s argument is con-
clufive : yet there are two things in his book on engraving,
for which we cannot award to him the fame approbation ;
and thefe are, his difcontinuing his hiftory precifely at the
fame epoch where Mr. Landfeer had been obliged to break
off a courfe of (publifhed) leGtures that are confeffedly im-
perfeét ; and his mif-itating both the words and meaning of
that writer, in the only plate where he profeffes to have
quoted him.
We fhall next proceed to defcribe the modes of workman-
fhip, or execution, which have prevailed among the more
modern practitioners of the art ; beginning with that which
is in ufe for the more common or ordinary purpofes, and
following with thofe refinements of the art which are prac-
tifed only by its fuperior profeffors. Our account will be
followed by fome anecdotes and remarks relative to the
earlier-hiftory of the art, which we hope will prove in no
fmall degree worthy of the notice of the connoiffeur and
print-colle&tor.
Before the artift begins his engraving, the furface of the
block or tablet which is to receive it, mult, by means of ar
inftrument termed a /craper, fucceeding to a fine watch-
fpring faw, be made level, and fufficiently {mooth for the re-
ception of the defign which is intended to be reprefented.
Should this defign be very fimple in its nature, fuch as a
fmall pebniatvicdl diagram, for example, being previoufly
drawn on paper either with a black-lead pencil, or Indian
ink, it is fometimes laid on an engraver’s fand-bag, or other
fuch hard cufhion, and the block being carefully placed over
it, a fmart blow ftruck on the back of the block with a
broad-faced hammer, will transfer the lines from the paper
to the wood, in a manner fufficiently plain and accurate for
fuch purpofes, when by means of the gravers, gouges, {era
pers, &c. which have been before mentioned, the engraver
begins his work of incifions and hollows, feooping away the
whole furface of the block, except the diagram, or other
fimple defign required. ,
In other cafes, the defign to be engraven is either traced
by pafling a blunted fteel-point over the outlines, the back
of the drawing being rubbed with powdered red-chalk, or is
fketched out with a black-lead pencil, and the different
fhades wafhed in with Indian ink, in the fame manner as a
chiaro-fcuro drawing on paper. This method is ufed in
making drawings for cuts to be introduced in common and
cheap publications, in which a bold fhewy effe& is chiefly
required. In engraving fuch drawings made on the wood,
the artift renders the feveral forms ie tints by incifions cut
in the block ; and the principle on which he proceeds may
be readily conceived by recolleé&ting (what we have alluded
to in an earlier part of this article), that were the block to
be printed before the engraver commenced his operations,
it would yield merely a black {pot : every incifion therefore
made in the block will produce the impreffion of a white
line or hatching, and thus afford the means of introducin
any portion of light that may be required. By the multi-
plication of thefe white lines or hatchings, the engraver
lightens the tint at his pleafure ; and by the various widths,
thickneffes, croffings, and intertextures of the incifions thus
made in the wood, not only the forms and various gradations
of fhadow from light to darknefs, but alfo the textures or
external
WOOD-ENGRAVING.
external charaters of the various ae which may enter
into the compofition, may be very well reprefented.
Another mode of proceeding is occafionally reforted to
in cafes where engravings of a fuperior and more elaborate
charater are required, and which we have reafon to believe
was firft praétifed in England by our countryman, Mr.
John Thurfton. In thefe cafes, all the light and curious
part of the defign are hatched in, line by line, by the draftf-
man or defigner himfelf, on the block, and which is per-
formed either witha pen and Indian ink, after the manner of
thofe ancient artifts of the German fchool of whom we have
treated, or elfe with the more modern and elegant inftrument, a
black-lead pencil. In fome inftances we have known the
whole compofition in all its details, both of light and obfcu-
rity, thus finifhed upon the wood in the moft elaborate
manner, before the engraver began his work of incifion and
feooping ; but in moit inftances, the fhadows and parts re-
quiring lefs definition, and where the engraver may with
more fafety be left to the guidance of his own judgment,
are merely wafhed in with a camel’s-hair pencil and Indian
ink, as in the foregoing method. Or elfe the defigner ufes
a black-lead pencil, with which he rubs or fcumbles in the
lJefs important tints. And the drawing on the wood being
thus prepared, the engraver proceeds with the manual and
linear portion of it, by cutting away the interftices between
the pencilled or penned lines, as in the ancient manner, and
the wafhed portion is treated in the modern method which
we have defcribed above.
Confiderable fill on the part of the engraver is fometimes
requifite in finifhing the work, in order to unite and harmo-
nize the whole, in which the defigner’s aid is not unfrequent-
ly required, who on a proof impreflion taken for the pur-
pofe hatches and works, with a fine camel’s-hair pencil and
white paint, over the diflonant parts, regulating at the fame
time the general effe&t, the drawing of the parts, and the
ftyle of execution. This touched-proof, viewed in the re-
verfing glafs, is carefully copied by the engraver on his
block, which concludes the procefs.
There is, however, in the nature of things, no reafon
whatever why thefe two characters of engraver and defigner
may not exift united in the fame individual ; nor are the in-
ftances of fuch union unfrequent in fact. Mr. Bewick, of
Newcattle,—whofe highly-enriched volumes of engravings of
birds and quadrupeds, adorned with delightful vignettes,
are mafter-pieces of the art, and have merited and found a
place in almoft every library, —pofleffes, with his xylographic
powers, a fund of exquifite humour, an originality of
thought, and an accuracy of obfervation of the details of
nature; together with an adequate talent of exprefling thofe
obfervations, which are really as furprifing as they are di-
verting and initru€tive.
We believe that this artift, or his deceafed brother, was
the firft who adopted an expedient which the prefent writer
has been informed was originally fuggefted by Mr. Bulmer,
proprietor of the Shakfpeare printing-office,—that of low-
ering a little the furface of his engraving, by means of a very
broad flat fcraper, in thofe parts where tendernefs and deli-
cacy of impreffion were more peculiarly defirable ; a thing
trivial in itfelf, yet of fufficient importance in works that
have pretenfions to be regarded as highly fimfhed, to have
been fubfequently imitated by moft of the other engravers
im wood. Among thofe who in modern times have united
in themfelves the charaéters of defigners and wood-en-
gravers, fhould alfo be mentioned Mr. Clennell, who has exes
cuted fome of his own energetic compofitions in a vigorous
and matterly ftyle, which few have been able to furpafs.
Mr. Thurfton,—more verfed in all the technic varieties of
linear praticability, and more accomplihed in his academie
powers of delineating the human form through all its grada-
tions of aétion, charater, and expreffion, than any of his
predeceffors in the xylographic art,—in his habits of thought
and ftyle of defign, is poetical, didaétic, profound, Aik -
goric, recondite, ideal. Of the profeflors of imitative art,
who have wifely employed their talent to a moral purpofe,
few have improved and delighted us fo much, or caufed us
to refle& fo varioufly or fo deeply. But though Mr.
Thurfton has engraved very fuccefsfully on copper, we be-
lieve that he has always entrufted his defigns on wood to
be executed by others, (fome of them latterly by a fon of
promifing talents, ) and from the black-lead drawings of this
artift, performed on the blocks themfelves, have been pro-
duced the beft engravings of the London and Liverpoo?
{chools. We fubjoin the names and monograms of the
principal of thofe artifts who have been engaged in their
execution :—T.. Clennell, C. Nefbit ofS, R. Branfton Bo,
J. Thompfon Tt, H.F. P. Hole, W. Hughes.
By the two latter of thefe we have feen land{cape fub-
jects of recent execution, which have excited in us no fmall
degree of admiration of their profeffional powers. In a
park-fcene after Cuitt, engraved by Mr. Hughes, (who pro-
feffes to have ftudied under Mr. Hole,) the trees more efpe-
cially,—which have been generally and juftly regarded as ob-
jects more difficult to exprefs in this mode of art, than
almoft any other fpeciesof objeéts whatever,—are treated with
a degree of loofenefs, freedom, and local knowledge of the
characters of their various foliage, and modes of branchin
and ramification, that we believe is quite unprecedented, aid
much more refembling an etching on copper from the needle
of Waterloo or Middiman, than any former produ@tion of
the wood-engravers’ art. And there has alfo very lately
appeared a book, entitled ‘* The Club,” after the deligns of
Thurfton, which is not lefs excellent in its way. It confifts
of twenty-four charaéteriftic head-pieces of the feveral mem-
bers of the club, a title-page reprefenting the club col-
le&tively, befide various tail-piece vignettes, and impreffes
us with a depth of philofophical penetration into the human
charaéter in all its varieties both natural and aflumed ; for
here the nicer phyfiognomical traits which mark the leffer
difcriminations between wit, humour, and ridicule, in their
various modifications, are faithfully rendered : indeed with a
degree of delicacy and fidelity which until now we had not
conceived to lie within this province of art,
In wood-engravings, like the beft of thefe modern pro=
duétions which we have mentioned, there is more ori inal
feeling, more of the truth of nature, and the blandifh-
ments of art, than in all the dry, monkifh, legendary
rubbifh put together, toward which the dealers in and
writers on fuch rarities (who are frequently the fame per-
fons) are fo very anxious to attra@ and retain the public
attention, and which are fo ardently fought after by the
wooden and would-be connoifleurs of the day.
Some few connoiffeurs there are, neverthelefs, that with
great fenfibility to the beauties of meritorious works of this
kind, colle& alfo the early rarities of the art as curiofities,
and as interefting fteps in tracing the march of European
xylography, from its rude outfet towards its prefent attain-
ments: but the-idle occupation which fo many expenfive
books have ridiculoufly promoted, the affe@ed exquifitenefs
of regard for what is merely fcarce, and which, if it were
plentiful, would be juftly efteemed as mere rubbifh, can
{carcely be too feverely reprehended, when we obferve that
4H 2 by
WOOD-ENGRAVING.
by giving an erroneous direétion to the public tafe, it
operates as the very bane of modern merit, and of all prin-
cipled encouragement of the art.
A man who colleés thefe early rarities, and thefe only,
may be pretty certainly pronounced to be a perfon of no
intrinfic relifh for the produ@tions of art, and by no re-
mote analogy may be eafily perceived to be in the predica-
ment of Rochefoucault’s man of gravity, who aflumes a
myfterious carriage of the body to cover the defects of
the mind.
Between the territories of Error and Truth, there is no
neutral ground ; neither can be made to recede without the
other’s advancing. Among the caufes that, concurrently
with the above, have retarded the progrefs of the art of
wood-engraving, indifferent and bad printing ought firft and
chiefly to be mentioned ; for this evil is feverely felt by
all modern defigners and engravers on wood, (and, like moft
other evils, by far the moft heavily by the bett, ) the delicate
parts of whofe moft elaborate performances are fo fre-
quently marred by this operation.
The bad printing of wood-cuts generally proceeds from
one or more of the following miftakes, to ufe the mildeit
term that occurs to us: Printers being unable of them-
felves to judge of the effe& required in an impreffion ;
their being generally too much reitriéted in price by the
publifhing-bookfellers to afford the neceflary attention, even
were they better informed; the falfe refpe&t exacted by
opulence, which renders them too ignorantly proud to fub-
mit to the diretion of artifts, who are generally poorer men
than themfelves ; with which caufe, prejudice in favour of
old methods of praétice is always ready to unite itfelf ;
the practice of over-damping Englifh, French, and even
India paper. ‘To which may be added the ufe of blanketing,
and the negleGting to have the engravings properly made
ready under the direétion of the artift: all of which
lead to the general corollary, or inference, that the en-
graver fhould always fuperintend the printing of his own
works.
Woop-Encravine, Origin and Ancient Hiftory of.
Father Du Halde adduces very fatisfattory reafons for
our believing that the art of engraving on wood ex-
ifted and was praétifed in China for feveral centuries be-
fore its appearance in Europe. Whether it is of Chinefe
tran{plantation, or {pontaneous European growth; whether
it was introduced by the Venetian traders and travellers
to India, or was re-invented, as the baron Heinnekin fup-
pofes, in Germany, by the Briefmalers and Formfchnieders,
who fabricated playing-cards, and the miferable legends
of monkifh fuperftition ; or whether it was not difcovered,
as Papillon has afferted, at Ravenna, as early as the year
1285; have been examined with great critical attention,
and at leaft as much perfeverance as the public will fym-
pathize with, by the abbé Zani, Mr. Ottley, and others.
To the works refpetively of the Italian abbé, and the Eng-
lifh hiftorian and connoiffeur, we refer thofe who may be
defirous of obtaining more local and detailed information
concerning the early curiofities of the art than belongs to
the plan of our Cyclopedia. The ftory of the two Cunio,
which they have repeated at great length from Papillon, and
illuftrated by their own more profound knowledge of the
fubje&, is romantic in the extreme: fo much fo, that the
antiquarian intereft which the reader may feel with us on
the lowe of the curious wooden blocks from “ the life of
the great and magnanimous Macedonian king,” merges in
the chivalry and fine art, the poetic and piftoral fervour,
and the tragic fate, of the twin brother and fifter, the ancient
pride of Ravenna, and of the illuflrious houfe of Cunio.
Papillon relates, that when he was a young man, he “ dif.
covered an epoch of engraving prints and chara@ters on
wood, certainly much more ancient than any hitherto
known in Europe;’’ and the ftory of his difcovery is, that
being employed about a century ago in papering a clofet
for a Swifs captain of the name of De Gredax} in the
— of Bagneux, near Mont-Rouge, the captain, find-
ing he poffefled a tafte for fuch matters, fhewed him two
or three very ancient volumes, and they converfed toge-
ther concerning the prints contained in them, and the
antiquity of engraving on wood. Papillon proceeds to
give the defcription of ‘the principal, #. ¢. the moft ancient,
of thefe volumes, as follows :—Upon a cartouch, or fron-
tifpiece, decorated with fanciful ornaments, and meafuring
about nine inches in width by fix in height, with, at the
top of it, the armorial bearings no doubt of the family of
Cunio, are rudely engraven the following words, in bad
Latin, or ancient Gothic Italian, with many abbreviations,
which were rendered and explained to him by M. de Greder,
“‘ The heroic afions reprefented in figures, of the great and
magnanimous Macedonian king, the bold and valiant Alexander ;
dedicated, prefented, and humbly. offered to the moft holy father
pope Honorius 1V., the glory and fupport of the Church and
to our illuftrious and generous father and mother, by us, Alef
fandro Alberico Cunio, cavaliere, and Ifabella Cunio, twin
brother and fifer: firft reduced, imagined, and attempted to be
executed in relief, with a fmall knife, on blocks of ‘wood, made
even and polifhed by this learned and dear fifter, continued and
Jinifbed by us together, at Ravenna, from the eight pidures of our
invention, painted fix times larger than here reprefented ; en»
graved, re by verfes, and thus marked upon the paper to
perpetuate the number of them, and to enable us to prefent them to
our relations and friends, in teftimony of gratitude, friendfbip, and
affedion. All this was done and ipber by us when only fixteen
years of age.””
The cartouch mentioned above is enclofed in a fquare
formed by a fimple black line, one-twelfth of an inch in
thicknefs; a few light hatchings, irregularly placed, and
executed without precifion, indicate the fhadows of the or-
naments. ‘ Immediately following this frontifpiece (fays Pas
pillon) are the eight pictures, engraved in wood, of the fame
dimenfions, and {urrounded by a fimilar fillet: they have
alfo a few faint hatchings, to indicate the fhadows. At the
bottom of each of thefe prints, between the broad line or
fillet which bounds the fubje&, and another parallel line dif-
tant from it about the breadth of a finger, are four Latin
verfes engraved upon the block, which poetically explain the
fubje& ; and above each is its title. The impreffions of all
of them are of a grey tint, and {potty ; as if the paper had
not been damped or wetted before it was laid upon the en-
graved blocks. The figures, which are paffable in refpeé
to their outlines, although of a femi-gothic tafte, are {uffi-
ciently well chara¢terized and draped ; one may perceive by
them that in Italy the arts of defign were then beginning by
degrees to experience melioration. ‘The names of the prin- >
cipal perfonages reprefented are engraved under their figures,
as Alexander, Philip, Darius, Campafpe, and others.”
Papillon next defcribes the eight engravings feverally,
which bear the names refpeétively of the twins Alexander
and Ifabel Cunio, and it would appear from his defcriptions
that Ifabel was the fuperior artift of the two.
Upon the blank leaf which follows the laft print, badly
written in old Swifs characters, and with ink fo pale as to
be fearcely legible, is the following memorandum.
“ This precious book was given to my grandfather,
Jan. Jacq. Turine, a native of Berne, by the illuftrious
count di Cunio, magiftrate (podefta) of Imola, who ho-
5 noured
WOOD-ENGRAVING.
noured him with his liberal friendfhip. Of all the books
I poffefs, I efteem it the moft, on account of the quarter
from whence it came into our family ; and on account of
the fcience, the valour, the beauty of the amiable twins
Cunio, and their noble and generous intention of thus
gratifying their relatives and friends. Behold their fingular
and curious hiftory in the manner in which it was feveral
times related to me by my venerable father, and according
to which I have caufed it to be written more legibly than
I myfelf could have done it.”” What follows is written in a
better hand, and with blacker ink.
«‘ The young and amiable Cunio, twin brother and fifter,
were the firft children of the fon of the count di Cunio,
which he had by a noble and beautiful Veronefe lady, allied
to the family of pope Honorius IV., when he was only a
cardinal. This young nobleman had efpoufed this young
lady clandeftinely, without the knowledge of the relations
of either of them ; who, when they difcovered the affair by
her pregnancy, caufed the marriage to be annulled, and the
prieft who had married the two lovers to be banifhed. The
noble lady, fearing equally the anger of her father and
that of the count di Cunio, took refuge in the houfe of one
of her aunts, where fhe was delivered of thefe twins.
Neverthelefs the count di Cunio, out of regard to his fon,
whom he obliged to efpoufe another noble lady, permitted
him to bring up thefe children in his houfe, which was
done with every inftrution and tendernefs poffible, as well
on the part of the count as on that of his fon’s wife, who
conceived fuch an affeétion for Ifabella Cunio, that fhe
loved and cherifhed her as if fhe had been her own daughter ;
loving equally Aleflandro Alberico Cunio her brother,
who, like his fifter, was full of talent, and of a moft amiable
difpofition. Both of them made rapid advances in various
{ciences, profiting by the inftruGiion of their mafters ; but
efpecially Ifabella, who, at thirteen years of age, was
already confidered as a prodigy ; for fhe perfeétly under-
ftood and wrote Latin, compofed verfes, had acquired a
knowledge of geometry, was fkilful in mufic, and played
upon feveral inftruments; moreover, fhe was prattifed in
drawing, and painted with tafte and delicacy. Her brother,
urged on by emulation, endeavoured to equal her; often, how-
ever, acknowledging that he felt he could never attain to fo
high a degree of perfection. He himfelf was, neverthelefs,
one of the fineft young men of Italy ; he equalled his fitter
in beauty of perfon, and poffeffed great courage, elevation
of foul, and an uncommon degree of facility in acquiring
and perfecting himfelf in whatever he applied to. Both of
them conttituted the delight of their parents, and they loved
each other fo perfe&tly, that the pleafure or chagrin of the .
one or the other was divided between them. At fourteen
years of age, this young gentleman could manage a horfe,
wa§ practilfed in the ufe of arms, and in all exercifes proper
for a young man of quality ; he alfo underftood Latin, and
had confiderable fkill in painting.
“¢ His father having, in confequence of the troubles of Italy,
taken up arms, was induced, by his repeated folicitations,
to take him with him the fame year, (viz. at the age of 14,)
that under the eyes of his father he might make his firft
campaign. He was entrufted with the command of a
fquadron of twenty-five horfe; with which, for his firft
effay, he attacked, routed, and put to flight, after a vigor-
ous refiftance, almoft two hundred of the enemy; but
his courage having carried him too far, he unexpectedly
found himfelf furrounded by many of the fugitives; from
whom, neverthelefs, with a valour not to be equalled, he
fucceeded in difengaging himfelf, without fuftaining any
other injury than that of a wound in his left arm. His
father, who had flowrto his fuccour, found him returning with
one of the ftandards of the enemy, with which he had
bound up his wound: he embraced him, full of delight at
his glorious achievement, and at the fame time, as his fon’s
wound was not confiderable, and as he was defirous to re-
ward fuch great bravery upon the fpot, he folemnly made
him a knight, (¢. ¢. a knight-banneret, ) although he was al-
ready one by his birth ; dubbing him in the fame place where
he had given fuch proofs of his extraordinary valour. The
young man was fo tran{ported with joy at this honour conferred
on him in the prefence of the troops commanded by his
father, (who, in confequence of the death of his father, which
had recently happened, was now become the count di
Cunio,) that, wounded as he was, he inftantly demanded
permiffion to go and fee his mother, that he might inform
her of the glory and of the honour which he had juft ae-
quired ; which was granted by the count the more readily,
as he was glad to have this opportunity of teftifying to that
noble and affliéted lady (who had always remained with
her aunt a few miles from Ravenna) the love and efteem
which he ever continued to entertain for her; of which he
certainly would have given more folid proofs, by re-efta-
blifhing their marriage, and publicly efpoufing her, had
he not felt it his duty to cherifh the wife his father had
obliged him to marry, by whom he had feveral children.
“The young knight, therefore, immediately fet out,
efcorted by the remains of his troop, out of which he had
eight or ten men killed or wounded. With this equipage,
and thefe attendants, who bore teftimony to his valour
wherever he paffed, he arrived at the refidence of his mother,
with whom he ftaid two days; after which he repaired to
Ravenna, to fhew a fimilar mark of refpeé to the wife of
his father, who was fo charmed by his noble aétions, as well
as by his attentions towards her, that fhe herfelf led him
by the hand to the apartment of the amiable Ifabella, who,
feeing him- with his arm bound up, was at firft alarmed.
He remained a few days in that city; but impatient to re-
turn to his father, that he might have an opportunity of
diftinguifhing himfelf by new exploits, he fet off before his
wound was yet healed. The count reprimanded him for not
having fent back his troop, and for not remaining at Ravenna
till he was cured, and would not permit him to ferve again
during the reft of the campaign: fhortly after, when his
arm was perfedtly healed, he fent him home, faying to him
pleafantly, that he did not choofe to be outdone by him all
the remaining time the troops would continue in aétion that
year. It was foon after this that Ifabella and he began to
compofe and execute the pictures of the a¢tions of Alexander.
He made a fecond campaign with his father, after which he
again worked upon thefe piétures, conjointly with Ifabella,
who applied herfelf to reduce them, and to engrave them
on blocks of wood. After they had finifhed and printed
thefe pieces, and prefented them to pope Honorius, and to
their other relations and friends, the cavalier joined the army
for the fourth time, accompanied by a young nobleman,
one of his friends, called Pandulfio ; who, enamoured of
the lovely Ifabella, was defirous to fignalize himfelf, that
he might become more worthy of her hand before he ef-
poufed her. But this laft campaign was fatal to the cava-
ler Cunio: he fell, covered with wounds, by the fide of
his friend, who, whilft attempting to defend him, was
alfo dangeroufly wounded. Tfabella was fo much affeGted
by the death of her brother, which happened when he was
not yet nineteen, that fhe determined never to marry: fhe
languifhed and died, when fhe had fearcely completed her
twentieth year. The death of this beautiful and learned
young lady was followed by that of her lover, who had
always hoped that his attentions and affe€tions towards her
would be,rewarded by her confent at length to become
all
WOOD-ENGRAVING.
and alfo by that of her mother, who could not furvive the
lofs of her beloved children. The count di Cunio, who
had been deeply afli&ted by the death of his fon, could
{carcely fupport that of his daughter. Even the countefs
di Cunio, who loved Ifabella with great tendernefs, fell ill
of grief for her lofs ; and would have funk under it, had
fhe not been fupported by the manly fortitude of the count.
Happily the health of the countefs was, by degrees, re-
eftablifhed. Some years afterwards, the generous count di
Cunio gave this copy of the aétions of Alexander, bound, as
it now 1s, to my grandfather ; and I have caufed the leaves of
paper to be inferted, upon which, by my orders, this hif-
tory was written.”
From the name of pope Honorius IV. being engraved
on the frontifpiece of shee ancient prints, it is certain that
this precious monument of the art of engraving on wood
was executed between the years 1284 aid 1286 ; becaufe
that pope governed the church only for the {pace of two
years, ending in April 1287. The epoch, therefore, of
this ancient {pecimen of engraving, is anterior to all the
books printed in Europe that have been hitherto known.
Papillon adds, that it is very probable that the copy of the
work, which is recorded to have been prefented to pope
Honorius, may very poflibly be preferved in the library of
the Vatican.
The baron Heinnekin and our countryman Strutt dif-
truft the truth of this ftory of the twins and their ancient
work ; but the latter has let efcape that he read the ori-
ginal French with hafty inattention, and the former, after
offering his objeCtions, is compelled to add, “ ftill there
muft be fomething true in Papillon’s account; for, from
my knowledge of his charaéter, and his manner when I
conyerfed with him, I am firmly perfuaded that he did not
invent that which he told me.”
On the other hand, Zani confeffes his entire belief of the
account of Papillon, finding in it, as he ftates, ‘* every mark
of truth:’? and Mr. Ottley conclufively adds, that ‘* Pa-
illon from his infancy had begun to colle& materials for
uluftrating the hiftory of his favourite art, of which, as is
well known, he became a profeffor of fome eminence, having
been inftruéted in it by his father, who was alfo an engraver
on wood. This practical experience combined with re-
fearch could not but give him great advantages, and render
him the lefs liable to be deceived in his decifions.
*¢ His remarks, indeed, are thofe of a man well accuftomed
to examine ancient prints. The blocks, he fays, appear
to have been printed by means of the preflure or friction
of the hand, with a light tint of Indigo in diftemper; he
defcribes the impreffions to be granulous in fome places, as
if the paper had been applied to the engraved block without
being firft damped. Now, it is well known that many of
the very early wood-prints were printed without any mix-
ture of oil in the colours ufed for the purpofe; and there is
good reafon alfo to believe that the paper was often applied
in its dry ftate. The obfervations of Papillon are, there-
fore, not only evidence that he examined thefe prints with
great attention, but that his eye was habituated to very
nice difcrimination, touching all thofe particulars which,
perhaps, more than any others that could be named, are
guides to enable us to judge of the antiquity of wood-
engravings. And the ais of Papillon’s charaéer
feems to preclude the idea that he had any intention to
deceive.”
The general corollaries refulting from thefe elaborate
inquiries, which have been purfued to much greater length
than we have chofen to follow, are, that the origin of Euro-
pean wood-engraving is unknown, (that is to fay, that po
pefon is acquainted with the precile facts of oe firft en-
aa on wood in this part of the world, or when it was
one) ; and the relu€tant acknowledgment that it cannot be
fhewn to be an European difcovery at all.
Notwithftanding the detailed prolixity with which the
chevalier Cunio’s own account of his graphic enterprize is
written, and though he ftates that himfelf and his fifter in-
vented the eight defigns or pi€tures from which their tablets
were engraven, he fays nothing of the far more important
fa&, had it been fo, of their having invented an art of mul-
tiplying thofe defigns, fo much more likely to have been
announced by an ardent youth of fixteen, had there been the
leaft foundation for fuch an announcement. No. He was
too fincere: and he probably knew alfo that pope Honorius,
and his noble relatives, were too well acquainted with fimilar
procefles employed by the Italian carvers, fealers, book-
binders, and other artifans of Venice and Ravenna, (for the
bindings of books were even then ornamented by means of
heated iron ftamps,) to have believed him, had he been lefs
attentive to truth. He evidently regarded, and expeéted that
his readers would regard, what he terms in one place engray-
ing, and in another execution in relief with a {mall knit, as
an expedient which might have been adopted by any other
perfon in the exifting ftate of that kind of knowledge, and
which himfelf and fifter pra€tifed—in all probability from
the imperfe& report of fome inexperienced reporter, who
might be their inftru€tor in drawing.
At the period of which we are treating, Venice, as is well
known, was the f{plendid emporium of exotic luxuries ; and
the reader will not hefitate to believe, that, with the facili-
ties of Italian intercourfe which then fubfifted, much of the
imported knowledge would travel at leaft to Ravenna, along
with thofe foreign commodities and that commercial enterprize
which were then f{preading through Europe. The father
and the uncle of Marco Polo, who had penetrated to Tar-
tary and to China, returned from their nineteen years of
travel in the Eat, in the fame year in which the Cunio were
born. Nothing, therefore, is more likely, under all the
attendant circumftances, than that thefe travellers brought
home the information neceflary to the rude practice of the
wood-engravers’ art from China, which we are inclined to
deem the parent country of wood-engraving, paper, and
printing ; and that it thus became known, though through
what particular medium cannot now be traced, to the illuf-
trious and romantic twins of Ravenna.
Should it be objeéted here, that Marco Polo has not no-
ticed this art, in the account which he has left us of the
marvels which he had witneffed in China; the anfwer is ob-
vious. Marco did not himfelf travel thither until after the firft
return of his father and uncle, nor did his book appear until
ten years after that of “ the heroic aétions of the great
and magnanimous Macedonian king,” when wood-engraving
would a4 to have been no marvel. Marco very wifely
preferred inftru€ting the public in matters with which they
were not hitherto acquainted.
In corroboration of this account may be mentioned, that
the manner in which the work of the Cunio is defcribed to
have been performed, is precifely that in which the Chinefe
have from time immemorial engraven on wood, and in
which they ftill continue to praétife that art, as may be
feen by any perfon who may pleafe to indulge himfelf in
the curiofity of infpeéting thofe engraved or carved tablets
of wood which are preferved in the mufeum of the Honour-
able Eaft India Company, in Leadenhall-ftreet.
We have purfued this mixture of faét and probability thus
far, becaufe it appeared to us to contain the bett evidence
on the fubje& that is now obtainable; and becaufe even
this feems to render the ufelefsly-protracted and never-ending
difputes, which have been fo long kept up by certain inte-
refted
WOOD-ENGRAVING.
reiled print-dealers and their prey, and their literary jackalls,
about the fuperior pretenfions of Italy or Germany to the
difcovery of this art ; a mere recreation of idle credulity ; a
waft ng of controverfial ink and ftrength in ftrenuous idle-
nefs; an affair of {purious importance between ‘“ tweedle
dum and tweedle dee.’’
If ridicule might find any other place in our Cyclopedia
than under the letter R, we fhould here have recommended
thefe rakers together of early German and Italian rubbith ;
thefe difciples of their rival pretenfions ; thefe admirers of
the miferable virgins, and meagre faints and faviours of thofe
dark ages of art, which preceded the refurre€tion of the
antique fculpture; thefe complimenting and catalogue-
making worfhippers of the pagods of tafteleffnefs, who
affe@t fuch an exquifite feeling for their wooden prodigies,
to be confiftent, and ufe their utmoft diligence in feekin
after the chips of the twins of Ravenna, or the {till earlier
chips of the wood-engravers of China, and to tell the tafte-
lefs and doting world of bibliographical cognofcenti, that
thefe antique excifions are “ graceful,’’ or even more “ ele-
gant,”? than thofe which Cupid in fhaving from his bow, in
the celebrated picture by Corregio, in the colletion of the
moft noble the marquis of Stafford.
In order to confer as much of fa€titious importance as
might be found praéticable on thofe relics of early Euro-
pean engraving and printing, for which thefe writers affect
fo great veneration; and to keep up the delufive idea that
xylography and block-printing were invented here rather
than /een elfewhere, the difference between change of form
and change of colour in rendering impreffions has been dwelt
on with fome emphafis: but nothing in the procefs of im-
preffing ftamps is of more frequent and ordinary occurrence,
than for fufficient dirt to accumulate in an intaglio ftamp
that has lain by for any length of time, to produce a change of
colour in the firft impreffion yielded after fuch lapfe of time.
It muft even have been a common, becaufe obvious and effi-
cient, mode of cleaning out the engraver’s work. How
frequently muft this have occurred in fealing, for example.
How frequently does it occur now: and here, without genius
or meditation, is the link fupplied at once in the chain of
petty caufes and effects, that has been fo much magnified
by the ftupidity and tafteleffnefs of modern dealers and
colle&ors. :
Of the impreffion of eight copies, mentioned by Papillon,
of the life of Alexander, from the hands of the Cunio, it is
not known that any remain; nor will this excite furprife,
when we refle& that entire editions of fome works that have
been fubfequently printed, have been {wept from the face
of day. The wood-engravings which fucceeded thefe by
the interefting twins of Ravenna, or were produced about
the fame period, appear to have been honeltly thought of at
the time; that is to fay, thought of very little, becaufe
unworthy of being thought of much. From their non-
importance, they have either all difappeared, or, from the
fame caufe, not having been dated, the age of fuch of them
as do remain, if any remain, is not known. The former of
thefe is probably the chief reafon of their difappearance ;
for who would think of feeking for the tops of ballads, or
the dying {peeches of criminals, or dirty playing-cards, which
were printed even fifty years ago, or of preferving fuch
things if accidentally found ? and the early European wood-
engravings of which we are treating, until Michael Wolge-
muth arofe, and introduced his better works of this kind
into the Nuremberg Chronicle, were fcarcely of more con-
fequence than thefe loweft objets of the notice of the
vulgar.
But though the prints have difappeared, a decree of the
fenate of Venice remains to atteft their former exiftence, and
that “the art and myftery of making cards and printed
figures had,” in the year 1441, “‘ fallen to total decay, and this
in confequence of the great quantity of playing-cards and
coloured figures printed, which are made out of Venice.”’
The decree proceeds: ‘‘ to which evil it is neceflary to
apply fome remedy, in order that the faid artifts, who
are a great many in family, may find encouragement
rather than foreigners; let it be ordered and eftablifhed,”’
&c. &e.
This edi&, as Mr. Ottley has well obferved, {peaks of
“the art of making cards and printed figures in terms which
would have been every way appropriate, had the ediét had
for its object the eftablifhment of the oldeft manufaGture of
Venice ; and when coupled with other circumttances, efpe-
cially the account of the two Cunio, furnifhes a ftron
ground for the conje€ture that engraving in wood had from
a very early period been praétifed by the Venetians, who
may eafily be fuppofed to have learnt it in the courfe of
their commerce with the Chinefe.’’ '
The * printed figures,” which are fpoken of along with
the playing-cards in the Venetian edit, were of the fuper-
ftitious or devotional chara€&ter to which we have already
alluded, and which are defcribed by Heinnekin as being foon
afterward common in Germany andthe Low Countries, when
they were, — both the legendary wonders and the playing-
cards,—defignated by the fame general term, and manufac-
tured by the fame hands; that is to fay, cut in wood by
the Form/chnieders, and coloured afterward by the Brief-
malers. sAnd to this teftimony of the German writer, the
profeffor Fufeli adds, that ‘¢ in the vulgar tongue of Zurich,
and ftill more in that of the Roman Catholic cantons of
Switzerland, Helgen, which isa corruption of Heiligen, mean-
ing holy faints, is ufed to denote any hiftorical print.””_ The
reafon he gives for which is, ‘‘ the firft prints reprefented
the figures of faints, or other devotional fubjeéts, and
were, on that account, termed Helgen; the term, in pro-
cefs of time, became generic, as others do, and is now
ufed to denote prints of any kind, even thofe of profane
fubje&s.”’
Of thefe fuperftitious excitements of the vulgar, the baron
ftates, that he faw feverat which he believes to be of an-
cient date in the library of Wolfenbuttel. ‘“ Thefe pieces,”’
fays he, ‘¢ are of the fame dimentions as our playing-cards :
they meafure three inches and a quarter in ‘height, by two
inches and a half in width.’? here are alfo in the fame
library, at the end of the book entitled “ Ars Moriendi,”
five prints, in which are engraved divers figures of angels,
devils, dying perfons, faints, &c. fimilar to playing-cards,
and of the fame fize, each figure being marked with a letter
of the alphabet. {
An engraved outline of a figure of this kind, of St. Bridget
writing, with the Virgin and Child above, furrounded by
a fort of cloud of Gothic feroll-work, and behind her a
pilgrim’s hat, wallet, and ftaff, Mr. Ottley has brought for-
ward from the colleGtion of earl Spencer. Perfpetive is
grofsly violated here, and it is of more than twice the dimer-
fions of an ordinary playing-card ; but this print, with an-
other mentioned by M. Thierry as being in the hbrary of
the public Academy at Lyons, and which is faid to be dated
1384, Mr. Ottley thinks may help to fill up the chafm be-
tween the work of the Cunio; and the larger print of St.
Chriftopher croffing the water with the facred Infant, which
is dated 1423, is alfo in the colleGtion of the fame noble
earl, and will be found mentioned in a more particular
manner in the commencement of our account of the GERMAN
School of Engraving. WOODFORD
woo
WOODFORD, in Geography, a county of Kentucky,
bordering on the Ohio, with 9171 inhabitants, of whom
3179 are flaves. Verfailles is the chief town, containing 488
inhabitants, of whom 235 are flaves.—Alfo, a town of
Vermont, eaft of Bennington, in the county of Bennington,
with 254 inhabitants. ,
WOODGURRY, atown of Hindooftan, in Bednore ;
35 miles N.E. of Simogu. ;
WOODIOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Coimbetore ;
10 miles N. of Daraporum.
elmaaanidc a town of Tunis; 7 miles N.W. of
abs.
WOODRUFF, Sweet, in Agriculture, a perennial
plant, which is eat by different forts of live-ftock ; and the
aromatic flowers of which, when infufed in water, in
flavour, it is faid, the fineft teas.
WOODS, Lake of the, in Geography, a lake of North
America, fo called from the multiplicity of wood growing
On its banks, fuch as oaks, pines, firs, &c. Its greateit
length is about 70 miles, and greateft breadth forty. It
gue but few iflands, and thofe fmall. N. lat. 49°. W.
ng. go°.
Woops, a town of South Carolina; 32 miles W.N.W.
of Georgetown.
Woops’s Bay, a bay on the ftraits of Magellan ; 15 miles
W. of Cape Froward. S. lat. 53°58!. W. long. 72° 55’.
Woops’s J/land, a {mall ifland near the north coaft of
Jamaica. N. lat. 18°12!. W. long. 76° 8/.
WOODSAMADRUM, a town of Hindooftan, in
Golconda ; 12 miles S. of Damapetta.
WOODSBOROUGH, a pott-town of Maryland; 75
miles N. of Washington.
WOODSIA, in Botany, owes its name to Mr. R.
Brown, who dedicates this genus to the commemoration of
Mr. Jofeph Woods, F.L.S., an excellent Britifh botanift.
A valuable paper on the Rofes of this country, about to
appear in the Tranfaétions of the Linnzan Society, will
abundantly prove Mr. Woods’ claims to fuch a diftinétion,
even were it far lefs indifcriminately beftowed than ufual.—
Brown Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 11.170. Sm. Compend.
Fl. Brit. ed. 2.152. Purfh 660.—Clafs and order, Cryp-
togamia Filices. Nat. Ord. Filices dorfales.
Gen. Ch. Fruéification in roundifh groups, on the back
of the leaf. Jnvolucrum cup-like, open, fmall, nearly flat,
jagged, fringed with awl-fhaped, incurved, jointed hairs.
Cap/fules feveral, obovate, on fhort ftalks, crowded, in the
centre of the involucrum, each bound by a vertical, jointed,
elaftic ring, and burfting irregularly at one fide. Seeds nu-
mereus, kidney-fhaped, granulated, extremely minute.
Eff. Ch. Groups of capfules fcattered, roundifh, each
feated on a capillary-fringed involucrum.
Obf. We gladly here adopt the term group, as technically
fynonymous with Sorus, (fee that article, ) inftead of dot,
fpot, or line, which are liable to much exception.
1. W. ilvenfis. Long-leaved Woodfia. Br.n. 1. Purth
n.2. (Acroftichum ilvenfe; Linn. Sp. 1528. Fl. Dan.
t. 391. Polypodium ilvenfe; Swartz Syn. Fil. 39. Willd.
Sp. PL. v. 5.198. ‘ Schkuhr Crypt. 16. t.19.”? Ne-
phrodium lanofum; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 270.
Lonchitis afpera ilvenfis; Dalech. Hift. 1221. f. 3.)—
Frond pinnate ; leaflets lanceolate, deeply pinnatifid, with
numerous, nearly uniform, oblong lobes. ‘This appears to
have been firft difcovered in the Mediterranean ifle of Ilva,
whence the fpecific name, which is very exceptionable, the
fame {pecies being found on rocks in the north of Europe,
as well as in North America, from Canada to Virginia.
We have American fpecimens from Mr. Francis Boott,
woo
agreeing exaGtly with Siberian ones in the Linnzan herba-
rium. We know not of this fpecies having been deteéted
in Britain. The fronds, five or fix inches high, grow ereé,
in denfe tufts. Their ffalks, not quite half that height, are
brown, bearing, like the mid-rib of each principal leaflet,
many i{trap-fhaped, taper-pointed, membranous fcales. ‘The
frond itfelf is oblong, or lanceolate, compofed of twelve or
more pairs of oblong lanceolate deaflets, or pinne, oppolite
or alternate, each about an inch long, numeroufly pinnatifid ;
their lower fegments wavy, nearly equal and uniform ;
upper confluent ; their upper furface is even, nearly fmooth,
of a fine n ; lower covered with pale brown fcales, and
crowded hairy groups of capfules.
2. W. hyperborea. Round-leaved Woodfia. Brown
n.2.t.11. Purfhn.1. Sm. Compend. 158. (Acrof-
tichum hyperboreum ; Liljebladin Stockh. Tranf. for 1793,
2o1.t.8. A. alpinum; Bolt. Fil. Brit. 76. t. 42. Poly-
podium hyperboreum ; Swartz Syn. Fil. 39. ‘Willd. Sp.
Pl. v.5. 195. Sm. Engl. Bot. t. 2023. P. arvonicum ;
Fl. Brit. 1115. P. ilvenfe ; With. 774. Filicula pumila,
Lonchitidis _Maraute fpecies Cambrobritannica; Pluk.
Phyt. t. 89. f. 5.)—Frond pinnate; leaflets heart-fhaped,
rounded, pinnatifid, lobes rounded, waved, unequal.—Na-
tive of alpine rocks, chiefly in the northern parts of Eu-
rope. It occurs, though rarely, on the higheft fummits of
the Welfh and Scottifh mountains. A f{maller plant than
the preceding, often not above an inch high, though gene-
rally about three inches. The feafits are fhorter, and more
rounded, as well as their lobes ; of a thinner texture ; much
lefs deeply pinnatifid, except at their bafe, where the bot-
tom pair of lobes are often fo deeply feparated, as to form
two little yen wavy, or obfcurely lobed, and fometimes
of unequal fize. The main ftalk is {caly ; leaflets hairy on
both fides.
We readily agree with Mr. Brown, that fome intermediate
varieties of each {pecies render the {pecific chara¢ters of both
confiderably difficult. Yet there feems no reafon to doubt
their being diftin@ plants. Mr. Bauer’s delineation of this
fern, inthe Linnean Tranfations, excellently engraved by
Warner, is one of the fineft illuitrations of a natural pro-
dution that can any where be feen.
WOODSTOCK, (New,) in Geography, a borough and
market-town «in the hundred of Wootton, and county of
Oxford, England, is fituated 8 miles N.N.W. from Oxford,
and 624 W.N.W. from London. It has a market on
Tuefday, and fairs on the 5th of April, Tuefday in Whit-
fun-week, 2d of Auguft, 2d of O&ober, Tuefday aftet the
1ft of November, and 17th of December. The town fends
two reprefentatives to parliament, the mayor being the
returning officer. The corporation confifts of a mayor, a
high-{teward, a recorder, town-clerk, four aldermen, and
fixteen common-council men. In 1811, the houfes in
Woodftock were 235, and the inhabitants 1540. The
fouth part of the prefent church is a fragment of an ancient
chapel; but the northern face and the tower were erected
in 1785. Adjoining to the church is a grammar-{chool,
founded in 1585 by Mr. Cornwell, a native of the place ;
and near the fouthern entrance of the town is a range of
alms-houfes, ereéted in 1793 by the duchefs of Marlborough,
for fix poor widows. ‘The town-hall, a ftone building, has
under it the market-place, and was ereéted in 1766, from a
defign of fir William Chambers, at the expence of the late
duke of Marlborough. ‘The principal manufactures of the
town are thofe of gloves and of polifhed fteel. Various
articles ef this {teel have been executed with great delicacy,
and fold at high prices. . This manufacture was introduced
into Woodftock at the beginning of the lait century ; but
it
Woo
it has much declined, on account of the cheapnefs of the
cutlery goods furnifhed by Birmingham and Sheffield.
The glove-manufaéture is of later date ; but has increafed
in the prefent day fo much, that from 300 to 400 pairs of
gloves are made weekly in the town and the neighbouring
villages, and thus afford employment for about 1400 women’
and girls, and 70 men. Old Woodftock, of which only
one manfion and a few irregular houfes remain, ftood ina
fheltered fituation on the little river Glyme, which fupplies
the magnificent piece of water in Blenheim-park. The
manor-houfe, or royal palace, on the N. bank of the deep
valley of the Glyme, within the bounds of the park, was the
refidence of Fair Rofamond, whofe romantic adventures are
deeply interwoven with the hiftory of Henry II. ; but the
building has long difappeared. _In this palace, that king, in
1164, received the homage of Malcolm, king of Scotland,
and Rice, prince of Wales. In 1275 Edward I. held a par-
liament at Wood{ftock, and there was born his fecond fon,
Edmund, as was alfo the renowned Black Prince. Wood-
ftock was inhabited occafionally by Richard II., and there
Henry III. narrowly efcaped affaffination by a fanatic
prieft: an attempt was there alfo made by Morifco on the
life of Henry VIII. The old palace was afterwards em-
ployed as a prifon for Elizabeth, his daughter. In the time
of the civil wars it fuffered feverely from the parliament’s
party; and about a century ago the gate-houfe, the laft
fragment of the edifice, was pulled down. But Woodftock
is moft worthy of note for having produced Chaucer, who
was born there about 1328. The houfe in which he after-
wards refided, while the court was in the palace, ftood at
the W. end of the town, near the ufual entrance into
Blenheim-park. Some relics of this building are {till
pointed out. i ;
The great objet of attraction at Woodftock is the mag-
nificent palace of Blenheim, with the furrounding grounds,
water, and park. The honour and eftates of Wooditock,
long belonging to the crown, were in 1705 conveyed by
queen Anne, on the addrefs of the houfe of commons, to
the illuftrious John, duke of Marlborough, to preferve the
memory of his eminent fervices as a warrior and a {tates-
man; particularly for the fignal vi€tory obtained by him,
and prince Eugene of Savoy, at Blenheim, in Germany,
over the French and Bavarians, on the 2d of Auguft 1704.
The houfe was erected by fir. John Vanbrugh, at a con-
venient diftance from the S. brink of a deep dell, in which
ran the Glyme. The general diftribution of this fuperb
ftru@ture confilts of a central mafs of building, inclofing
two {mall courts, and connected by colonnaded wings to two
fpacious quadrangles, forming the grand court of entrance.
The centre is ornamented with a Corinthian portico, fur-
mounted by a pediment and military emblems. The wings
are crowned with towers ferving at once to contain the
chimneys, and to contribute to the piéturefque grandeur of
the edifice. The garden-front, extending from E. to W.
348 feet, is grand and magnificent. The interior of the
manfion contains many noble apartments, adorned with
paintings of eminent matters; particularly with a feries of
mythological pi€tures from the admirable pencil of Titian,
prefented to the firft duke of Marlborough by the king of
Sardinia, and with portraits of many eminent characters by
the beft artifts. The library, occupying the whole of the
W. front, 183 feet long and nearly 32 wide, is a magnifi-
cent room, originally deftined to be a pi€ture-gallery, but
afterwards furnifhed with the grand Sunderland colleétion of
books, containing upwards of 17,000 volumes. At one end
isa marble ftatue of queen Anne by Ryfbrack. In the W.
wing is the chapel appropriately fitted up, and containing a
monument, by the fame fculptor, of the firft duke, his
Vou. XXXVIII.
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duchefs, and their two fons, who died young. In the E.
quadrangle of offices is the theatre, originally a green-houfe,
calculated to accommodate 200 fpeétators, Near the E.
angle of the manfion an obfervatory was ereGted by the late
duke of Marlborough, and provided with a complete
apparatus for aftronomical obfervations by Ramfden; a
grand telefcope by Herfchel was prefented to the duke by
his majefty, after his vifit to Blenheim in 1786. The ftate-
approach to the palace is by a flraight avenue from the N.
extremity of the park, over the river, by a bridge of one
{pacious and two {maller arches. Flowing in a deep dell,
the {mall ftream is made to aflume the appearance of a
naturally-winding river, expanding below the bridge into a
broad irregular lake ; thus, with the bridge, according with
the grandeur of the palace and the noble extent of the park.
A lofty column is ereéted in the midft of the great avenue,
furmounted by a ftatue of the great duke, and charged on
the pedeftal with infcriptions {tating his fervices and re-
wards. In the N.W. part of the park of Blenheim,
veltiges may be traced of the ancient road, Akeman-ftreet.
Nearly two miles W. from the park is the village of Stones-
field, at which place was difcovered, in 1711, a teffellated
pavement 35 feet by 20, reprefenting, among other figures,
a Bacchus, with his thyrfus and cup, mounted on a tyger.
In addition to this curious antique, in 1779 were difcovered,
near the fame fpot, the areas of a number of other apart.
ments paved in the fame manner; and adjoining were the
remains of a bath with its hypocauft: Roman coins from
Vefpafian downwards were found on the fame {pot. A
plan and fome account of thefe remains have been publifhed
by Henry Hakewill, efq. architeé&t.—Beauties of England
and Wales, Oxfordfhire, by J. N. Brewer, 8vo. 1811.
The Blenheim Guide, by Dr. Mafon, 12mo. 1817.
Havell’s Views of Seats include two fine Engravings of
Blenheim Palace, and a critical Account of the Houfe,
Scenery, &c. folio, 1818.
Woopstock, a town of the ftate of Conneticut, in the
county of Windham, with 2654 inhabitants ; 57 miles
S.W. of Bofton.—Alfo, a town of North Carolina, on the
left bank of Pamlico river ; 22 miles N.N.E. of Newbern.
—Alfo, a poft-town of Virginia; 112 miles W. of Wathing-
ton.—Alfo, a poft-town of Vermont, in the county of
Windfor, with 2672 inhabitants; 5 miles N.W. of Windfor.
—Alfo, a townfhip of New York ; 46 miles S. of Albany.
—Alfo, a poft-town of New Jerfey ; 26 miles S.S.W, of
Philadelphia.
WOODVILLE, Wiu1am, M.D. in Biography, was
born at Cockermouth, in the year 1752. Having received
a good claffical education in his native town, he was placed
with a refpe€table apothecary, to whom he ferved a fhort
apprenticefhip. He afterwards proceeded to Edinburgh,
where, after the ufual refidence, he obtained, in 1775, the
degree of M.D., having written and defended a very
ingenious thefis ‘* De irritibilitate fibrarum motricium.’?
After pafling fome time on the continent, he returned and
fettled near his native place, wherethe practifed his profeffion
five or fix years. Dr. Woodville then came to London,
and was foon appointed one of the phyficians to the Mid-
dlefex Difpenfary, the duties of which office he difcharged
in an exemplary manner. In 1790 he publifhed the firft
part, which was afterwards completed in four quarto
volumes, of a highly valuable work, intitled “ Medical
Botany.’”’ In 1791 he was eleGted phyfician to the Small-
pox Hofpital, in the room of the late Dr. Archer; and it
may truly be faid, that no man ever devoted, more con-
{cientioufly or zealoufly, time and great talents, to the pro-
motion of an obje&, than did Dr. Woodville to ae pee
ment in the medical treatment of the patients, as well as in
41 the
Woo
the general government of the eftablifhment. T'o the
officers of the hofpital, and thofe governors who took moft
intereft in its welfare, his merits were well known; and
fome of the fruits of his genius and induftry are before
the public in a volume which was publifhed in 1796, inti-
tled “ The Hiftory of the Small-pox in Great Britain, &c.”
This work, which it was the author’s defign to occupy
two volumes in $vo., was well conceived, including a brie
hiftory of the difeafe, and a review of all the publications on
the fubjeét of inoculation, with an experimental inquiry
into the relative advantages of the various meafures that had
been recommended. Only the firft volume of this work,
which is well written, and contains much valuable inform-
ation, was publithed, the happy difcovery of the efficacy of
vaccination having, in the author’s opinion, fuperfeded the
neceflity of the fecond appearing. Dr. Jenner’s grand dif-
covery made a due impreffion on the mind of Woodville ;
and as no other man had equal opportunities of witnefling and
lamenting the ravages of the {mall-pox, fo no perfon could
be more fincerely anxious and aétive in the adoption of thofe
means that were found adequate to guard mankind againft
that peftilence. It is very true, that on the fubje& of
vaccination he was, like every body elfe, at firft {ceptical ;
but he fuffered no opportunity to be loft of afcertaining its
efficacy, and then e proclaiming his belief in it. Un-
happily, in fome of his early experiments an error was com-
mitted ; he was not aware of the influence of the variolous
atmofphere of the hofpital. The refult was, that in certain
inftances, either pure fmall-pox matter, or a deteriorated
vaccine lymph, had been inferted into the arms of fome
patients. The effets were faithfully detailed; but being
fo different from thofe that had been defcribed by Dr. Jenner,
that excellent man and benefaGtor to the human race vifited
Dr. Woodville, with whom he argued and remonftrated on
the fubje&. It is to be regretted that fome afperities of
remark took place between them, although both were
equally and honourably engaged in the developement of
truth. The difcuffion, however, as is always the cafe,
proved very ufeful in the diffemination of the new practice ;
and if Dr. Jenner had reafon to find fault with the refult of
Dr. Woodville’s early proceedings, he muft have been
abundantly gratified by his fubfequent experiments and
publications. The ample field in which Woodville was placed
enabled him to vaccinate great multitudes, fome thoufands
of whom he afterwards telted by variolous inoculation, and
thus gave that publicity to vaccination, and that confidence
in it, which it could not otherwife have attained in the courfe
of many years. He was alfo ardently engaged in the inquiry
into the nature and origin of the vaccine lymph; and, at his re-
quett, the writer of this fhort article three times inoculated him
with frefh preafe from the heel of a difeafed horfe. If in
the heat and bitternefs of contention men feek an apology
for unguarded expreffions and affertions, this cannot be
granted to thofe who calumniate the dead; and therefore
the ftatement in a late hiftory of vaccination of Dr. Wood-
ville having fallen a vitim to the drinking of ardent
fpirits, is deferving of reprobation. Dr. Woodville cul-
tivated the fociety of his profeffional brethren, by whom, on
account of his talents and companionable qualities, he was
held in high eftimation ; and one of thofe who enjoyed the
intimacy of his friendfhip, from the period of his fettling in
London until the day of his death, contradiats the above
unfounded calumny. His difeafe, which terminated in
dropfy, had made fuch gradual advances during the laft year
of his life, that he frequently talked of his death, which no
‘pan ever contemplated with greater equanimity, as likely to
take place about a certain afhgned riod.
He died at the hofpital on the 26th of March 1805 ; and
5
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on the 3d of April, a warm and juft eulogium was pronounced
over the body in the faloon by his friend Mr. Highmore.
His parents having been Quakers, he by his own defire was
interred in the Friends’ burial-ground in Bunhill-fields, after
a very appropriate addrefs at the grave by Mrs. Pryor.
The editor is indebted for the preceding article to his
much-efteemed friend J. Norris, efq., no lefs diftinguifhed
by his mental and moral qualities than by judgment and
ra of reputation in his profeffion.
OODVILLE, in Geography, a polt-town of Virginia;
94 miles W. of Wathingtor. gotten ote a
WOODWARD, Jouy, in Biography, was born in
Derbythire in 1664, and, being intended for trade, was
apprenticed in London; but in a little while abandoned the
fhop for the fake of {cientific purfuits. In 1687 Dr. Bar-
wick took him into his family, and for the {pace of four
years gave him inftru€tion in medicine and anatomy. He
then recommended him to the medical profefforfhip in
Grefham college, to which he was elected in 1692. Having
dire&ted his particular attention to foffils, with a view to
which he had travelled through many diftri&s of England,
he publifhed in 1695 ‘* An Effay towards a Natural Hiftory
of the Earth and terreftrial Bodies, efpecially Minerals; as
alfo of the Sea, Rivers, and Springs; with an Account of
the Univerfal Deluge, and of the Effeéts that it had upon
the Earth,” 8vo. His preparatory knowledge for a work
of this kind was very flight, and therefore the execution of
it was attacked by Dr. Martin Lifter, and others. How-
ever, in the imperfeé ftate of geology at that time, his per-
formance engaged notice, si he was chofen in 1693 a
fellow of the Royal Society. At this time he was in pof-
feffion of an ancient iron fhield, in the concavity of which
was a {culpture reprefenting the ftory of Camillus and the
Gauls at Rome; and as it was a great curiofity among the*
learned, Dodwell gave an account of it in a Latin treatife,
entitled “* De Parma equeftri Woodwardiana Differtatio.’’
By this circumftance Woodward was led to increafe his
acquaintance with a certain clafs of literati, though he did
not efcape the ridicule of the wits. In 1695 he was created
M.D. by archbifhop Tenifon, and in 1696 he obtained the
fame degree from Cambridge ; and thus honoured, he was
prepared for an admiffion into the College of Phyficians as
a fellow in 1702. But purfuing his inquiries into natural
hiftory and antiquities, he publifhed fome pieces in thefe
departments: wiz. ‘*Some Thoughts and Experiments
concerning Vegetation,’? communicated to the Royal So-
ciety, and printed in the Philofophical Tranfactions for
1669; ‘‘ Naturalis Hiftoria Telluris illuftrata et au€ta: ac-
cedit Methodica Foffilium in Claffes Diftributio,”’ 1714,
intended as a grand reply to thofe who objeed to his
Natural Hiftory of the Earth, which had been tranflated
into Latin by Scheuchzer at Zurich; and ‘* An Account
of fome Roman Urns, and other Antiquities, lately digged
up near Bifhopfgate ; with brief RefleGtions upon the aa-
cient and prefent State of London: in a Letter to Sir
Chriftopher Wren.”? In his medical capacity, he publifhed
in 1718 “ The State of Phyfic and of Difears, &e.”” 8vo.,
in which he advanced the notion, that the bile and its falts,
re-abforbed into the blood, were the true caufe of life and
animal motions, and that the fame fermenting in the fto-
mach were the caufe of difeafes; whence he was led to
conclude that emetics to evacuate the morbid bile, and oily
and unguinous medicines to correét it, were univerfal re-
medies. This publication produced a controverfy with Dr.
Freind, in which Woodward was anfwered both ludicroufly
and ferioufly, fo that he gained little credit by his medical
theory or practice. His chagrin, however, was diverted by
the ftudy of foffils, and the augmentation of his cabinet of
{pecimens.
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fpecimens. He foon,after fell into a decline, which ter-
minated his life in his apartments at Grefham college in
1727, at the age of 63. He bequeathed his perfonal pro-
perty to the univerfity of Cambridge, for the endowment
of an annual leGturefhip, on a fubje&t taken from his own
writings in natural hiftory or phyfic. Soon after his death
were publifhed an Englifh edition of his ‘‘ Method of
Foffils,”’ with various additions; and “ A Catalogue of
Foffils in the Colle@tion of J. Woodward, M.D.,” in
z tomes, Svo., a work of permanent eftimation among geo-
logifts. In 1737 Dr. Templeman publifhed Woodward’s
« Sele& Cafes and Confultations in Phyfic,’”? in which fome
valuable obfervations are interfperfed. One of his hypo-
thefes was, that the life refides in the blood, and in the
feparate parts of the body, not in the nerves; in confirmation
of which he made many experiments, eftablifhing the vis in-
fita of mufcles. Biog. Brit. Haller. Gen. Bioge _
Woopwarp, an officer of the foreft, whofe fundtion is
to look after the woods, and obferve any offences either in
vert, or venifon, committed within his charge ; and to pre-
fent the fame; and in cafe any deer are found killed, or
hurt, to inform the verderor thereof, and prefent the delin-
quents at the next court of the foretft.
Woodwards may not walk with bows and fhafts, but
with foreft-bills. Arcum et calamos geftare in forefa non licet,
fed (ut referipti utar verbo) hachetum tantummodo. ‘Term.
Hil. an. 13 Ed. ITI.
WOODWARDIA, in Botany, a very fine and well-
marked genus of ferns, dedicated by the writer of this
article to the honour of his long and highly-valued friend,
and botanical companion, Thomas Jenkinfon Woodward,
efq., LL.B., F.L.S., one of the beft Englifh botanifts,
whofe {kill and accuracy are only equalled by his liberality
and zeal in the fervice of fcience. Mr. Woodward’s name
is well known as the important affiftant of Dr. Withering in
his national Flora (fee Wirnerincia), as well as by his
communications to the Linnean Society ; amongit which,
an eflay on the Britifo Fuci, written in conjun&ion with the
prefent learned bifhop of Carlifle, and printed in the third
volume of that Society’s ‘I'ranfaAions, ftands con{picuous.—
Sm. Mem. de l’Acad. de Turin, v. 5. 411. t.9. f. 3.
Tra@ts 238. t.1. f. 3. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 5- 416. Swartz
Syn. Fil. 116. Sprengel Crypt. Engl. ed. 131. t. 4. f. 29.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 523. Purfh 669.—Clafs and order,
Cryptogamia Filices; fe&. annulate. Nat. Ord. Filices
dorfifere.
Eff. Ch. Groups of capfules oblong, diftin&, flraight,
ranged in a fimple row, in bordered cavities, parallel to
each fide of the rib. Involucrum fuperficial, vaulted, fepa-
rating towards the rib.
Obf. Mr. Brown has feparated from this genus, by the
name of Doodia, Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 151, fuch fpecies
as have a flat involucrum, unconneéted at its inner margin,
and originating from an interbranching, or conneéting, vein,
at its oppofite fide. In thefe the cap/ules are not funk into
any bordered cavity, nor are the groups, with their involu-
crums, fo turgid, or prominent. Woodwardia caudata,
Cavan. Leccion. 264. Swartz Syn. Fil. n. 2. Willd. n. 2,
belongs to this genus of Doodia; and Mr. Brown defines
two others, a/pera and media,’ as likewife natives of New
Holland, in which country, it feems, no true Woodwardia
has been found.
Narrow-leaved Woodwardia. Sm.
1. W. anguflifolia.
n.1. Swartz n.1. ( W. floridana; Schkuhr Crypt.
Purfh n. 4.
103. t. 11.”? W. onocleoides ; Willd. n. 1.
Onoclea nodulofa; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 272.
Swartz Syn. Fil. r11. Acroftichum areolatum; Linn.
woo
Sp. 1526. A. n. 12; Linn. Am. Acad, 274. Olmunda
caroliniana ; Walt. Carol. 257- Lonchitis major virginiana,
folio vario, alis Polypodii in modum conjunétis; Morif.
fe&. 14. t. 2. f. 24. Filix floridana, prelongis et anguftis
pinnulis, &c.; Pluk. Amalth. t. 399. f. 1.)—Fronds pin-
nate; leaflets linear, acute, entire; the barren ones finely
ferrated.—In cedar and cyprefs {wamps, from New Jerfey
to Florida, frudtifying in Auguft. Perennial, about a
foot high. Pur/b. The root is creeping, fealy and fhaggy,
bearing feveral talked, upright, {mooth fronds, of a lanceo-
late figure, with a long taper point: the barren ones con-
fifting entirely of lanceolate, acute, finely ferrated aflets,
decurrent at their bafe, and fomewhat confluent: the fertile
of rather fewer, more diftant, longer and narrower ones,
likewife flightly decurrent and confluent at their bafe, each
leaflet being nearly covered at the back, on each fide of the
rib, with a clofe feries of turgid, nearly cylindrical, groups,
a quarter of an inch long, of numerous cap/ules, every group
clofely covered. by its own convex involucrum. Each group
Is encompaffed with a confiderably elevated uninterrupted
line, bordering the hollow in which it lies. Willdenow has
moft unadvifedly changed the eftablifhed fpecific name,
without any right or pretence, furely for the worfe rather
than the better.
2. W. japonica. Blunt-lobed Japan Woodwardia. Sm.
n.2. Swartz n. 3. Willd. n. 3. Sprengel as above,
f. 29. (Blechnum japonicum; Thunb. Jap. 333. t- 35-
Linn. Suppl. 445.)—Frond pinnate; leaflets feffile, half
pinnatifid, with clofe, obtufe, ferrated lobes. Rows of
fruétification extremely clofe and crowded.—Gathered by
Thunberg near Nagafaki, and in other parts of Japan,
fru€tifying in June. Frond two feet, or more, in height.
Stalk roughifh, and fomewhat fealy, not fmooth. Leaflets
five or fix inches long, pointed, quite feffile, fcaly at the
bafe, each divided about half way to its rib into twelve pair,
or more, of broad, bluntifh, rounded, ferrated lobes, above
an inch long, and half an inch broad, quite clofe and parallel
at the fides; paler beneath. Groups oblong, three or four
in a continued line, clofe to the rib on each fide. The in-
volucrum reflexed to one fide, after the cap/ules are fallen,
leaves the cavity expofed, and like a box with its lid. The
capfules appear all to be inferted into that margin of the
cavity to which the involucrum, or lid, is attached.
. W. orientalis. Sharp-lobed Japan Woodwardia.
Swartz n. 4. alfo p. 315. Willd. n. 4. (‘ Blechnum
radicans; Houtt. N. Hift. v. 2. t. 97. £. 1.”?)—Frond
pinnate ; leaflets ftalked, deeply pinnatifid, with fpreading,
acute, ferrated lobes. Rows of fruétification clofe. In-
volucrum fomewhat crefcent-fhaped.—Gathered by Thun-
berg in Japan. Very diftin& from the laft, as well as from
W. radicans. The frond is more coriaceous than either, and
feems to be rather glaucous. Sta/é fmooth and naked, at
leaft in its upper part. Leaflets the fize of the laft, but
tapering at their bafe into a fhort ftalk; their fegments con-
fiderably diftant from each other, except at the very bafe,
and fomewhat revolute; fharply ferrated, particularly at
the point. Groups flightly lunate outwards, efpecially the
upper and fhorter ones, about feven in each row, crowded,
and clofe to the rib. Perhaps it was from a {pecimen of
this, confounded with the preceding, that Profeffor Thun-
berg defcribed the main ffa/k as altogether fmooth, and
zigzag.
4. W. virginica. Virginian Woodwardia. Sm. n. 3.
Swartz n. 7. Willd. n. 6. Ait. n.2. Purfh n. 2.
(W. Banifteriana; Michaux Boreal.-Amer. v. 2. 263-
Swartz n. 8. Blechnum virginicum; Linn. Mant. 307:
Filix mas, vulgari fimilis, pinnulis amplioribus planis, nec
412 erenatis,
woo
crenatis, virginiana; Pluk. Almag. 151. Phyt. t- 179
f. 2,)—Frond pinnate; leaflets {effile, deeply pinnatifid,
with {preading, obtufe, flighcly crenate lobes. Rows of
fruétification accompanying their mid-rib as well as the ribs
of the lobes.—In the fwamps and fhady woods of Virginia
and Carolina. P ig We received it from Kew garden
in 1785. ‘The fruttification is perfe&ted in July and Au-
gut. The ae is eighteen inches, or more, in height,
with a pale {mooth fall. Leaflets alternate, above a finger’s
length, and about an inch, or more, in width, bright green,
{mooth; their numerous fegments f{preading moderately
from each other, forming an acute angle at the bafe ; their
margin is fomewhat revolute, and very obfcurely crenate.
Frudification mo{t abundant on the leaflets of the upper half
of the frond, forming lines all along their principal rib, at
each fide, as well as along the rib of each fegment ; the
groups finally confluent. The depreffions in which the
groups are feated are very flight, though not imperceptible,
and the involucrum of each is narrower, lefs vaulted, and
fooner turned afide, than i any other fpecies with which
we are acquainted, fo that the prefent plant is in fome mea-
fure intermediate between Woodwardia and Doodia. Per-
haps it may prove thefe two genera not to be diftin@, but
while they remain fo, we concur with Mr. Brown in keeping
this {pecies where it is. Plukenet’s figure was drawn by
Mr. Baniiter, the original difcoverer of this fern.
5-_W. thelypterioides. Small Woodwardia. Purfh n. 3.
—* Frond pinnate; leaflets feflile, linear-lanceolate, pin-
natifid; villous at the bafe: fegments of the barren ones
oblong and bluntith ; of the fertile ones shortened, triangular,
and acute; all entire. Stalk downy, angular.””—In fandy
{fwamps-of South Carolina, near Charleftown, fructifying
in July. Refembles the preceding, but is not half the fize.
Purfh.
6. W. fimbriata. Fringed Woodwardia.— Frond pin-
nate; leaflets feffile, deeply pinnatifid, with f{preading,
rather acute, lobes, fringed with fharp teeth.—Gathered
by Mr. Menzies, on the weft coalt of North America.
This is larger in every part than W. virginica, and diftin-
guifhed from that {pecies by its more acute fegments, whofe
margin is very confpicuoufly and copioufly fringed with
prickly teeth, directed towards the point. Groups of Paps
fules large and turgid, ranged, a little obliquely, along the
ribs of the fegments, from three to five pair on eaeh feg-
ment, none at the mid-rib of the leaflet itfelf. IJnvolucrum
ftrongly and permanently vaulted. The bottom lobe of
each leaflet, at the lower fide, is fhortened, dilated, and
half heart-fhaped, as is more rarely the cafe in W. virginica.
Several of the upper Jeaflets are decurrent and confluent ; the
top ones undivided, and barren.
7. W. radicans. Rooting-ftalked Woodwardia. Sm.
n. 4. Swartz n.5. Willd. n. 5. Ait.n.1. Schkuhr
Crypt. 104. t.112.” (Blechnum radicans; Linn. Mant.
307, excluding the reference to Plukenet, fee W. virginica.
Filix italica non ramofa maxima glabra, polypodii folio,
gallas ferens, D. Micheli; Till. Pif. 62. t- 24.)
6. W. flans. Swartz n.6. “ Schkuhr Crypt. 104.
t. 113.” Willd. —Frond pinnate; leaflets nearly feffile,
deeply pinnatifid, with parallel, taper-pointed, fharply fer-
rated lobes.—Native of deep clayey fifflures of rocks in
Madeira, according to Koenig. Found alfo in Italy and
Portugal. A hardy greenhoufe plant in England, and one
of the moft handfome of its tribe. The fronds are two or
three feet high, and a foot and a half or near two feet in
breadth, of a fine green, fmooth, beautifully reticulated
with veins, each main flalk producing at the back, near the
top, a round fealy bud, or bulb, the origin of a young
woo
plant. Leaflets generally alternate, often a {pan long, fome-
what peétinate, with a long very “flender at their
numerous fegments more or Tet crowded, flightly curved
lanceolate, minutely and fharply ferrated, each taperin: te
a fharp elongated point. Groups of capfules about feven
pair on cach fegment, (none at the mid-rib of the /eafet,)
clofe, dire&t, {carcely ever at all divaricated, turgid, pale
brown, the cavities in which they lie very neatly and con-
{picuoufly bordered: uppermolt leaflets fimple and con-
fluent, as in the foregoing {pecies. We know not how the
W. flans, which Cavanilles feems, by Swartz’s work, to
have firft noticed, is fuppofed to differ from the radicans ;
but Willdenow afferts, on a comparifon of numerous {peci-
mens, from different countries, that there is no {pecific dif-
tinction between them.
8. W. di/par. Various-leaved Woodwardia. Willd.
n. 7. ( Filix latifolia, pinnulis feré acuminatis, dentata;
Plum. Fil. 1 3: t 16.) — Fronds pinnate; leaflets feffile,
lanceolate, pointed, pinnatifid, with elliptic-lanceolate, en-
tire lobes. Fruétification crowded on the much fmaller
lobes, of a feparate narrower frond.—Found by Plumier in
Martinico. Willdenow appears to have adopted this {pecies
entirely from Plumier, a hazardous meafure, as its genus
can only be pete’ from analogy. The barren fr ap-
proach the lait {pecies in fize, but their fegments are fhorter.
entire, rather obtufe, and by no means taper-pointed.
Thofe fronds which bear fruit have /affes fimilar in fhape
and lobes to the others, but about one-third as large, at
mott, bearing a fimple crowded row of frudification clofe to
the rib of each fegment. The groups of capfules are fome-
what elliptical, and there is nothing adverfe to the generic
chara&ter of a Woodwardia; but, on the other hand, there
is no particular indication of that chara&er.
, The root is defcribed above an inch thick, and fix inches
inlength; externally black, with feveral vermicular branch-
ing fibres, clothed with tawny or golden pubefcence.
Stalk of each frond near eighteen inches high, pale brown
and {mooth, leafy from its middle part to the fummit,
where it terminates in a large ere& leaflet, conftra&ed ex-
a@tly like the reft, being equal in fize to the larger lateral
ones, and confiderably exceeding thofe immediately below
it. Such is the habit of W. anguffifolia, but not of the
other f{pecies in general.
WOODY Fibrous Matter, in Agriculture, that which is
produced from {mall particles of different forts of woody
fubftances.
When merely formed of thefe parts, it is fuppofed to be
the only vegetable matter that requires the aid of ferment-
ation to render it nutritive to plants. The ufed bark of
the tanner is a fubftance of this fort, which is very ab-
forbent and retentive of moifture, but not penetrable by the
roots of plants. See Tanners’ Bark.
Woody fibrous matter may likewife be prepared fo as to
become a manure, by the action of lime upon it.
At is obferved in the “ Elements of Agricultural Che-
miftry,”’ that as woody fibre confifts principally of the ele-
ments of water and carbon, the latter being in larger
quantities than in the other vegetable ee any pro-
cefs that tends to ab{tract carbonaceous matter from it,
mutt bring it nearer in compofition to the foluble principles ;
and that this is done in fermentation, by the abforption of
oxygen and production of carbonic acid; and that a fimilar
effect is produced by lime. See Lime,
te as gS ay See NIGHTSHADE.
oopy Head, in Geography, a high cape on the coaft
of New Zealand, in the 5 ee Pacific ae S. lat.
37° 42:
Woopy
woo
Woopy Jfland, an ifland in Hs Eaft Indian fea. N. lat.
1°46', E. long. 106° 5’. See VicroiRe.
WWicoot Point, a Pape on the weft coaft of North Ame-
rica. N. lat. 50°. W. long. 128° 5!. ‘
WOODYCUTTY, a town of Hindooftan, in Canara ;
iles E. of Onore. h
; WOOF, among Manufadurers, the threads which the
weavers fhoot acrofs, with an inftrument called the /buttle,
between the threads of the warp, to form the web. i
The woof is of different matter, according to the piece
to be wrought. In taffety, both woof and warp are filk.
In mohairs, the woof is ufually flax, and the warp filk. In
fattins, the warp is frequently wool, and the woof filk.
WOOFE, a name given in fome parts of England to the
fea-wolf, or /upus marinus ; which fee. é
WOOGINOOS, in Botany. See Brucea Aatidy-
enterica. ‘
f WOO-HOO-SHIEN, in Geography, a town of China,
in the province of Kiang-nan, near the river Yang-tfe-kiang,
a narrow cut leading from the river to the city, and flowing
through the fuburbs. This is a place of confiderable trade ;
in the fuburb there are feveral good dwelling-houfes, appa-
rently belonging to perfons of diftinétion ; and in the city
itfelf there are many fhops, which, it_is faid, would not
difgrace the Strand or Oxford-ftreet in London. Thefe
thops are {pacious, confifting of an inner and outward com-
partment, and well fupplied with articles of all kinds, both
of raw and manufaétured produce. The porcelain fhops
are particularly large, and contain great varieties of the
manufacture. The main {treet leading direftly through the
city is not lefs than a mile in length. Several itreets
branch off from this, which are all paved, and contain good
houfes. The number of fhops that are filled with lanterns
of all defcriptions, both horn and paper, indicate manu-
faGtories of thofe articles. The principal wall of the city
extends on the north face; and the other is fo overtopped
with houfes, that it almoft efcapes notice in pafling down
the main ftreet, which it croffes. On the declivity of a hill
to the northward are the temple and ancient tower. The
temple, to which there is an afcent by a very fteep ftone
itair-cafe, refembles that at Nankin, the god Fo being re-
prefented by the fame attributes, and the principal hall
being furrounded by fimilar figures of fages, in the fame
ftyle. In another temple in the fuburb there was a greater
refemblance to that of Nankin. Woo-hoo-fhien does not
feem to be populous in proportion to the number of fhops,
and the quantity of accumulated produce expofed for fale.
The fuburb near the city contains feveral good fhops, which
were crowded with people. Ellis’s Journal of the late
Embafly to China, vol. ii. Lond. 1818. ‘
WOOJEDA, a town of Algiers, in the province of
Tremecen, anciently called Guagida; 20 miles W.S.W.
of Tremecen.
WOOL, in Natural Hiftory and Manufadures, Latin
lana, lanicium, Fr. laine, fignifies foft hair or down, more
particularly that of fheep, but is applied to the foft hair of
other animals, as of the vicunna, commonly called Vigonia
wool, that of the yak of Tartary, &c.; and alfo. to fine
vegetable fibres, as cotton. The Romans applied the
term extenfively to the foft hair or down of all quadrupeds,
and even to that of birds, as lana anferina, the wool or
down of the goofe ; lana caprina, goat’s-wool.
They alfo applied the term to vegetable fubftances :
—“‘ Nemora /Ethiopium molli canentia lana.”?
Virg. Georg. i. 120.
“ The trees of Ethiopia, white with foft wool, or cotton.”
Woo
The diftinétion between wool and hair is rather arbitrary
than natural, confifting in the greater or leffer degrees of
finenefs, foftnefs, and pliability of the fibres. When they
poffefs thefe properties fo far as to admit of their being
{pun and woven into a texture fufficiently pliable to be ufed
as an article of drefs, they are called wool. The gradations
between wool and hair on the fkins of fome animals are often
too minute to admit of accurate diftin@tion. The fleeces of
many fheep contain fibres fo hard and coarfe, that they may
mott properly be called hair; and fome hairy animals produce
on part of their fkins fibres pofleffing all the properties of
wool; even in fleeces from the fheep, we may fometimes
obferve the very fame fibre to be a coarfe hair at one end,
and at the other end a comparatively foft wool. The power
of words, when inaccurately applied in retarding the pro-
grefs of improvement, may frequently be traced in the moft
common occurrences of life, and we are perfuaded it has
had no inconfiderable effe& in this inftance, in preventing
the cultivation of wool, in Europe, on the {kins of other
animals befides fheep. No one will deny that it is impoffible
to produce wool on the backs of the ox or the afs, if we
reftriét the term wool to the fleece of the fheep ; but if by
wool we mean a foft fine hair, poffeffing all the properties
which render it fuitable to be fpun, woven, and fulled,
to make cloth, the oxen of Thibet and the afles of Chili do
produce and have for centuries produced fuch wool. Man
of the affes and oxen even in this kingdom have foft woolly
tufts of hair on fome parts of their flins, and if fuch cattle
were feleGted, and the breed cultivated, it is probable we
might obtain from them a valuable addition to the materials
on which national induftry might be profitably employed.
Sheep’s-wool appears to be the produét of cultivation ;
we know of no wild animal which refembles the wool-
bearing fheep. The argali, from which all the varieties of
fheep are fuppofed to be derived, is covered with fhort
hair, at the bottom of which, clofe to the fkin, there is a
fofter hair, or down. (See ArGani and SHEEP.) This is
not peculiar to the argali; almoft all quadrupeds inhabitin
cold climates are covered in the fame manner with a fok
hair or down, which is protected by a coat of longer
and coarfer hair. By removal to a temperate climate,
or when placed under the foftering care of man, and pro-
tected from the inclemencies of the weather, and fupplied
regularly with food, the coarfe long hair falls off, and the
animal retains only the fofter and fhorter hair, or wool.
It is alfo obferved that European fheep, removed to tropi-
cal climates and much expoied, foon become languid and
fickly, and lofe their fleece, which is fucceeded by aco-
vering of fhort coarfe hair. Sheep in expofed fituations in
Enrope often produce fhort coarfe white hairs called kemps,
intermixed with the finer wool; on removal to a warmer
fituation, and to a richer patture, the coarfe hairs fall off,
and do not grow again. Thefe facts are fufficient to prove
the effect of cultivation on the fleece ; and it muft be ob-
ferved that fheep’s-wool of a good quality is never found but
in thofe countries which have been the feats of the arts, and
where a contiderable degree of luxury or refinement exifts,
or has once prevailed. ‘This is a ftrong prefumptive proof
that fuch wool has been originally obtained by a careful and
long-continued attention to the feleGion of thofe fheep
which produced the finelt and moft valued fleeces.
Angora, the ancient Ancyra, the former feat of arts ang
manufactures, {till retains its breed of fine-woolled animals,
among which the goat at the prefent time produces a fleece
nearly equal to filk in luftre and finenefs; and the cat and
the rabbit of that diftriét yet produce fine long wool. Da-
mafcus, and the other ancient cities of Afia Minor, preferve
in
WOOL.
in their vicinity the traces of the former cultivation of fine-
wooiléd animals. The Tarentine fine-woolled fheep, fo much
valued by the Greeks and Romans, were obtained from
Afia Minor, and were on that account fometimes called
Afiane. It is highly probable that thefe fheep came ori-
ginally from the more eaftern feats of luxury, where the foft
fleeces are now grown, of which the fhawls and cloths of
India are fabricated. .
In countries where manufa@tures have once flourifhed,
their effets continue for a long time vifible in the race of
fheep which {till remain there. Even in the prefent condi-
tion of the fleeces from Barbary and the adjoining ftates, the
experienced eye may perceive the veftiges of a fine-woolled
race of fheep, degenerated by utter neglect, in a climate
naturally unfavourable to the produétion of fine wool. In
Sicily and the fouthern parts of Italy, the remains of the
ancient T'arentine breed preferve to the prefent day a race
of fine-woolled fheep, but greatly degenerated by neglect.
In Portugal the fine-woolled fheep retain more of their ori-
ginal purity, but are ftill much neglected. In Spain atten-
tion to the growth of fine wool appears never to have been
entirely loft fight of, and it is here that the race of fine-
woolled fheep exift in the higheft degree of perfection,
though, as we fhall afterwards ftate, probably inferior in
fome important qualities to the original Tarentine race.
Some writers have afferted that fine wool is the refult of cli-
mate and food ; but this is not the fat, though we admit
that both have fome influence on the quality of wool. It is
the breed alone that primarily determines the finenefs of
the fleece ; this has been ably demonftrated by the experi-
ments of lord Sommerville, Dr. Parry of Bath, and others
in this country, and by experiments on a larger fcale in
Sweden, Denmark, Saxony, and France. ,
It has been afcertained by Mr. Bakewell of Difhley, in
Leicefterfhire, that the form of animals might be changed
by fele&ting fuch as had any remarkable peculiarities, and
continuing to breed from them fora few generations, when a
new race is eftablifhed, in which thefe peculiarities continue
permanent. It has been afcertained by careful obfervations,
both of cattle-breeders and phyfiologifts, that in producing
a new breed from two varieties of the fame fpecies, the fe-
male has more influence over the form of the progeny than
the male; but with refpe& to wool the cafe is reverfed, the
quality of the fleece depending more on the fire than the
dam. Beginning to breed from a coarfe-woolled ewe and a
pure fine-woolled ram, the produce of the firft crofs will
have a fleece approaching one-half to the finenefs of that of
the ram ; and continuing to crofs this progeny with a fine-
woolled ram, equal to the firft in quality, the fleece of the
{core and crofs will approach three-fourths to the finenefs of
the firft, and in a few croffes more will be brought to an
equal quality. If we ftate it numerically, and fuppofe the
wool of the ewe to be twice as coarfe as that of the ram, or
as 320 to 160, the firft crofs will have the fibre reduced to
240, the fecond to 200, the third to 180, the fourth to 170,
the fifth to 165, the fixth to 1624, which to all practical
purpofes may be regarded as equal to the firft number. This
ratio of approximation may be ftated as corre&t on a large
feale of experiment. If we breed with a fine-woolled ewe
and a coarfe-woolled ram, the feries would be reverfed, and
in a few generations all veftiges of the fine-woolled race
would be nearly, if not entirely, extin&. The ancient Ro-
mans, in the time of Columelle, feem to have been full
aware of the effeéts of breed on the finenefs of the wool,
and as much as 200/. fterling was paid for a fine-woolled ram.
When a flock of fine-woolled fheep are once formed,
they can only be kept pure by feleéting and preferving the
fineft-woolled rams, and moft carefully avoiding al! inter-
mixture with fheep from coarfer-woolled flocks that may
exift in the country. Where this is negleéted, the quality
of the wool will foon be debafed.
But fuppofing all the flocks in a country were of the fine-
woolled race, accidental varieties of coarfe-woolled fheep
will occur among them, or of fheep having fleeces intermixed
with coarfe hair. If thefe be not carefully examined and
removed, the wool will deteriorate, and more fo where the
climate is variable, and the fheep are expofed to great and
fudden viciffitudes of temperature.
What has been ftated may fuffice to explain the circum.
ftauce of fine-woolled breeds of fheep being only found in the
vicinity of prefent or ancient manufactures, or where they
have been tranfported from fuch diftri€ts. Wherever fine-
woolled fheep are neglected by man, the wool becomes
either coarfe, or intermixed with coarfe hairs ; the latter is
the cafe in the Shetland ifles, and in all countries where the
arts and manufaétures have been entirely deftroyed, and
eee barbarians have fucceeded as the poffeffors of the
oil. :
Moft ancient writers on wool, and even many moderns,
feem not to be aware of any difference in wools, except the
finenefs or coarfenefs of the fibre; but the length of the
fibre conftitutes a far more important diftinétive character.
Long wool, or what is called combing-wool, differs more
from fhort or clothing wool, in the ules to which it is ap-
plied, and the mode of stamahaiber than flax from cotton.
Sheep’s-wool may, therefore, be divided into two kinds.
Short wool, or clothing-wool, and long or combing wool :
each of thefe kinds may be fubdivided into a variety of forts,
according to their degrees of finenefs. This -procefs is the
proper labour of the wool-forter.
Short wool, or clothing-wool, may vary in length from
one to three or four inches; if it be longer it requires to be
cut or broken, to prepare it for the further procefles of the
cloth manufa€ture. Short or clothing wool is always
carded or broken upon an inftrument with fine fhort teeth,
by which the fibres are opened and fpread in every direc-
tion, and the fabrics made from it are fubjected to the pro-
cefs of felting, which we fhall afterwards defcribe. By this
procefs, the fibres become matted together, and the texture
rendered more compaét.
Long or combing wool may vary in length from three
to eight or ten inches : it is oa oe on a con or inftru-
ment, with rows of long fteel teeth, which open the fibres,
and arrange them longitudinally : in the thread {pun from
combed wool, the fibres or filaments of the wool are arranged
in the fame manner, or fimilar to thofe of flax, and the
pieces when woven are not fubjeéted to the procefs of
felting.
The fhorter combing-wools are principally ufed for hofe,
and are fpun fofter than the longer combing-wools, the
former being made into what is called hard worfted yarn, and
the latter into foft worfted yarn.
Short Clothing-Wool.—The principal qualities deferving
attention in clothing-wools are the regular finenefs of the
hair or pile, its foftnefs and tendency to felt, the length
and foundnefs of the ftaple, and the colour. The wool-
buyer alfo regards as important the clean ftate of the fleece,
and to the grower its weight is particularly deferving atten-
tion ; for in fleeces equally fine, from fheep of the fame fize,
fome may be much heavier than others, the fibres of wool
being grown clofer to each other on the fkin.
The finenefs of the hair or fibre can only be eftimated to
any ufeful purpofe, in the woollen manufacture, by the
wool-forter or wool dealer, accuftomed by long e to
ifcern
WOOL.
difcern a minute difference, which is quite imperceptible to
common obfervers, and fcarcely appreciable by the moft
powerful microfcopes. Of the various attempts that have
been made to reduce the finenefs of wool to a certain
ftandard, by admeafurement with a micrometer, we fhall
afterwards {peak. From fome experiments we have made,
as well as from thofe made by Mr. Luccock, Dr. Parry,
and others, we may eftimate the thicknefs of the hair of the
fineft Spanifh and Saxony wool to be not more than the
fifteen-hundredth part of an inch, and that of the fineft
native Englifh to be from twelve to thirteen-hundredth
parts, whilft the inferior forts gradually increafe to the
fix-hundreth part of an inch and more. A difference in the
fize of thefe fibres, too minute to be noticed by the common
obferver, may occafion a difference of 40 per cent. or more in
the value of the wool. The finenefs of the hair has been
ever confidered as an important quality fince the clothing
manufacture emerged from its rudeft ftate. Fine wool was
formerly valued becaufe a finer thread could be fpun from
it, and a thinner fabric made, than from the coarfer wools ;
but fince recent mechanical improvements have been intro-
duced into the woollen manufaéture, it has been found
practicable to fpin coarfe wools to the fame length as the
finer wools were formerly {pun to. It is well known, how-
ever, to cloth-manufaCturers, that whatever be the finenefs
of the yarn, unlefs the wool be fine, it is impoflible to make
a fine, compact, and even cloth, in which the thread fhall be
covered with a thick foft pile; nor would a thin cloth
made from coarfe wool have the fame durability or appear-
ance as one from fine wool of equal weight per yard. Fine
wool will, therefore, always preferve a fuperior value to
the coarfe ; indeed it was long confidered as the principal
and almoft the only quality deferving the attention of the
wool-grower, the wool-ftapler, and the clothier.
The regular finenefs of the fibre is alfo an obje& of con-
fiderable importance ; the lower end of the itaple, or that
part of the fleece neareft the fkin, will fometimes be very
fine, and the upper part coarfe. In fome fine fleeces there
will frequently be an intermixture of long, filvery, coarfe
hairs, and in other fine fleeces an intermixture of fhort,
thick, opaque hairs, called kemps. When the wool is thus
irregularly fine or intermixed, it is technically called not
being ¢rue grown. The fine fleeces of Spain and Portugal,
particularly of the latter country, are many of them injured
by the intermixture of the long filvery hairs before-men-
tioned: whether this be owing to the original Tarentine
breed having been croffed with the coarfe-woolled native
fheep of Spain, (fee the article Sueep,) and {till preferving
a tendency to revert to their firft condition, or whether it
be the effe& of heat onthe fkin, is uncertain. The Saxony
fleeces, from the fame breed, removed to colder climates,
are generally free from this defe&t. The coarfe fhort hairs,
or kemps, are not uncommon in fome of the fine-woolled
flocks of England and Wales, particularly thofe which are
more expofed to the inclemencies of the weather, and have
a fcanty or irregular fupply of food. It has been ob-
ferved, in the firft part of the article Surrp, that in fome
flocks the proportion of fine wool in each fleece is much
greater than in others, for in few or none is the wool grown
uniformly fine over the whole body.
On the Merino fheep the fleece is more regular, whatever
be the degree of finenefs, than on any of our native Eng-
lifh fine-woolled breeds. The Merino fleece admits of a
divifion into four forts, the refina, the fina, and the tercera,
with a very minute portion of coarfe from the fhanks and
head, which is not fent to market. The three forts are
diftinguifhed in commerce by the marks R, F, and T.
On the average, there will be in each fleece nearly three-
fourths of the beft or.R wool. The fecond and third forts,
or the F and T, will alfo contain a confiderable portion as
fine as the beft; but being fhorter and difcoloured, or in-
termixed with coarfe hairs, which require their locks to be
feparated from the beft fort, or the refina.
In the native Englifh fleeces, however fine fome part may
be, the proportion of the beft fort rarely exceeds one-third
part, and is frequently not more than one-fixth part of the
whole fleece.
The value of the beft part of a Spanifh fleece, or the
R wool, varies greatly in different flocks. When this fort,
from the moft efteemed flocks, may be worth fix fhillings
and fixpence per pound in the Englifh market, the R wool
from another flock may not be worth more than three fhil-
lings and fixpence. The F and T wools are from 25 to
50 per cent. lower than the firft fort: thus, the inferior forts
from the fineft piles may be of greater value than the beft
fort or R wool of other piles; but they are never inter-
mixed by the dealers, as they are applicable to different
fabrics. In the Englifh mode of wool-forting, there will
frequently be eight or ten forts in a fingle fleece; and if the
beft wool of one fleece be not equal to the fineft fort, it is
thrown to a fecond, third, or fourth, or.a ftill lower fort,
which is of an equal degree of finenefs with it. The bef
Englifh fhort native fleeces, fuch as the fine Norfolk and
South Down, are generally divided by the wool-forter into
the following forts, varying in degree of finenefs from each
other, which are called,
Prime,
Choice,
Super,
Head,
Downrights,
Seconds,
Fine abb,
Coarfe abb,
Livery,
Short coarfe or breech wool.
Befides thefe forts of white clothing wool, two and
generally three forts of ‘grey wool are made, confifting of
locks which may be black, or intermixed with grey hairs.
Some wool-forters alfo throw out any remarkably fine locks
in the prime, and make a {mall quantity of a fuperior fort,
which they call picklock. The origin of fome of the above
names is obfcure, but the names of the finer forts appear to
indicate either a progreflive improvement in the quality
of the wool, or in the art of wool-forting. The relative
value of each fort varies confiderably, according to the
greater demand for coarfe, fine, or middle cloths; and the
variation during and fince the late war in the Spanifh penin-
fula has been much increafed by temporary caufes. Before
that period, when the R wool of good Spanifh piles fold at
from five fhillings and fixpence to fix fhillings per pound,
the prime from Herefordfhire fleeces was fold at about
three fhillings and fixpénce, and that from the Norfolk and
South Down from three fhillings to three fhillings and two-
pence fer pound. The higher price of the Herefordfhire
was in part owing to its being in a cleaner ftate. The
Spanifh wool is alfo cleaner than any of the Englifh wools,
being fcoured after it is fhorn; but the latter is only im-
perfeétly wafhed on the fheep, previoufly to its being fhorn.
A pack of Englifh clothing wool of 240 pounds weight,
in its marketable ftate, will wafte about 70 pounds in the
procefs of the manufacture: the fame quantity of Spanith
wool, as fent to market, will not wafte more than 48 pounds
ou
WOOL.
on the average. This contributes to enhance the difference
between the prices of each, as well as the fuperior finenefs
of the latter. .
Different wool-forters make a confiderable variation in
their modes of forting the fame kind of fleeces: fome divide
them into more forts than others; but the following table
will thew what may be taken as the average relative value of
each fort, when the prime is worth about three fhillings and
two-pence per pound, and may ferve to” fhew the fill re-
quired to eftimate the value of fine Englith wool in the
fleece.
Se te ait
Prime - - 3.0 to 3 4
Choice - - 2m to 2 8
Super - . ar oD to 22
Head - - 1 8 to 1 10
Downrights - Ly 5 to 1 6
Seconds - - iy 4g to Jong:
Fine abb - 1 0 to Lo}
Coarfe ditto - 0.4 Onitysto © 10
Livery - = arya to © 10
Short coarfe - °o 7 to o 8
The demand for coarfe woollen goods having greatly
increafed of late, the prices of the lower forts are confider-
ably advanced from the above-ftated prices, and are at pre-
fent as under :
Samia
Short coarfe - Lie 4)
Livery _ - - 1 .§
Fine abb - 1 6
Seconds - . ual
re = : a per pound in London.
Super - - 20
Choice - - 2. ad
Prime ° - 2.6
Picklock - 3.12
The Softnefs of fine clothing Wool is next in importance to
the finenefs of the fibre, though it has been too little at-
tended to in the culture of Englifh wool! This quality is
not dependent on the finenefs of the fibre ; it confifts in the
peculiar feel which approaches to that of filk or down, but
in which the wool of all European fheep is inferior to that
of Eaftern Afia, or to the wool of the vicunna, or lama of
Peru and Chili. In foreign European wools there are differ-
ent degrees of this property, where the fibre is equally fine.
In our native Englifh wools, the like difference exifts be-
tween the foftnefs of wool poffefling the fame degree of fine-
nefs, but grown in different diftri&s. In the harder wool,
the fibre is elaftic and hard to the touch, and cloth made
from it has the fame harfh feel; it is alfo more loofe in its
texture, and the furface of the thread is generally more bare.
The difference in the value of cloth from two kinds of wool,
equally fine, but one diftinguifhed for its foftnefs, and the
other for the contrary quality, is fuch, that with the fame
procefs and expence of manufaéture, the one will make a
cloth more valuable than the other from twenty to twenty-
five per cent.
hough the Englifh woollen manufa&tures had been car-
ried on Ese fo long a period, the caufe of this difference in
cloths made from wool equally fine was but very imperfe&ly
known till the prefent century. Mr. Robert Bakewell, then
of Wakefield in Yorkhhire, firft dire&ted the attention of
wool-growers and manufadturers to this fubject, in a work,
entitled * Obfervations on the Influence of Soil and Climate
3
on Wool.?? The reafon why the manufa@turers remained
fo long ignorant refpeéting it arofe, he obferved, from
the manner in which the woollen-trade had been carried
on in Yorkfhire, the great feat of the manufacture of
Englifh clothing-wool, the divifion of employment there
not permitting the wool-dealer, or even the clothier, to
witnefs the nal refult of the procefs. The wool-buyer
in the diftant counties, and the wool-forter, who divided the
fleece, were equally unacquainted with the cloth manufac-
ture. The Yorkfhire clothier fold his goods in an undrefled,
and often in an undyed {tate ; they were bought and finifhed
by the cloth merchant, who was formerly unacquainted with
the previous procefles of the manufacture, or the qualities of
wool. Ina promifcuous lot of undreffed cloth bought at
the ,fame price, and apparently of the fame quality in the
rough ftate, if fome pieces were finifhed much better and
fofter than others, it was attributed to lucky chance, the
patron divinity of the ignorant. Mr. Bakewell proved that
the hardnefs of Englifh wools does not depend on the nature
of the food, or even entirely on the breed ; it is the effect
of the foil a€ting on the furface of the fleece. The wools
from chalk diftri€ts, or light dry calcareous foils, have the
natural yolk or moifture abforbed by the particles of cal-
careous earth that penetrate the fleece, and the wool is
thereby rendered hard. The fame effe& is produced on a
fkin where lime is ufed ; it may alfo be produced by keeping
wool for a longer or fhorter time in a dry hot temperature ;
and when sekhes been fo dried, no procefs will reftore to
it its priftine foftnefs. On the contrary, wools grown on
rich loamy argillaceous foils are always diftinguifhed for
their foftnefs. The quantity of greafe or yolk in the fleece
has a confiderable degree of influence on the foftnefs of
Merino wool, the pile being fo clofe as in a confiderable de-
gree to prevent the earthy particles from penetrating the
fleece ; but in all Englifh fleeces the wool is grown thinner
on the fkin, and admits the more eafy accefs of the abforbent
particles. Expofure to the direét rays of a fummer fun has
alfo a tendency to injure the foft a I of the wool. We
fhall have occafion to refer to the methods recommended
by Mr. Bakewell to improve the foftnefs of wool on foils
naturally unfavourable to its growth.
Of fine European wools, de Saxony generally poflefles a
greater degree of foftnefs than the Spanith, which we believe
to be owing to the fheep being lefs expofed to the aétion of
light and heat. The native fine Italian wool, before the in-
trodu€tion of the Merino race, poffefled a confiderable
degree of foftnefs, judging from wools which we have feen
from thence, but they were deficient in foundnefs, and not
true grown. The wools on the chalk foils in the fouthern
and eaftern fide of England are generally hard, except, asin
Kent, where the chalk is covered by thick ar aipreon
beds. Nottingham foreft, Chamwood foreit in Leicefter-
fhire, and fome parts of Shropfhire, produced not the finett,
but fome of the fofteft wools in England before the late in-
clofures. The Cheviot hills in Cumberland are not
paftured by the fineft-woolled Englifh fheep, but their
fleeces poffefs a degree of foftnefs exceeding any from the
other diftri€ts of England, and they are rendered foft by
artificial means, which we fhall defcribe. It is ftill fome-
what uncertain, whether there are two diftin& breeds of
fheep, from which the fine fhawl wool of India are grown ;
or whether one fpecies of the animal which yields it is not
to be clafled with the goat. The fleeces from India, which
we have feen, are grown on a very {mall fheep; clofe to the
fkin, there is a wool as foft as the fofteft fur; this is covered
by long coarfe hairs growing through it. When the wool
is once fhorn, the feparation of thefe hairs from the foft
wool
WOOL.
wool is a work of extreme difficulty ; but on the back of
the fheep we believe the feparation can be made with great
eafe. he foftnefs of the Indian wool is not even diftantly
approached in the very fofteft Merino fleeces from Saxony
and Spain; this may be proved by comparing the finett
caflimere cloth from Saxony wool, with the fhawls or fhawl-
cloth of India. The ancient Tarentine fheep, called by
way of excellence ‘ molles oves,’ were treated with pecu-
liar care by the Romans, and clothed in fkins, which we
believe was intended to preferve the foftnefs of the wool, as it
is {till praétifed in fome parts of Afia for that purpofe. In
Europe no experiments have been made direétly to improve
the foftnefs of wool, though wool approaching in foftnefs
to that of India would be a molt valuable acquifition to
our manufaétures. ‘To be convinced of this, it need only
be ftated, that the yarn from Indian wool has been fold
here at three guineas per pound, not on account of the
fuperior finenefs of the {pinning, but for the foftnefs of the
wool. For coarfe goods, indeed, fuch as blankets, car-
pets, and cloths called duffields, raifed with a hairy pile, a
confiderable degree of hardnefs or elafticity of the fibre is
an advantage; but in all the finer articles of the woollen or
worfted manufature, the oppofite quality is of great
value.
The felting property of wool is intimately conneéted
with its foftnefs, the fofteft wools having the greateft ten-
dency to felt, and the hard wools are all defeétive in this
refpet. The felting property appears to depend on a
peculiar ftru€ture of the furface of the fibres, by which they
are difpofed to move in one dire¢tion more eafily than
another. This is perceptible in drawing a hair through the
fingers, firft from the end to the point, and again from the
point to the end; in one direétion the hair feels perfectly
{mooth, in the other dire€&tion a peculiar roughnefs is felt.
The caufe of this is fuppofed to be owing to the furface of
the fibres having laminz, like the fcales of fifhes, with the
edges laid over each other. Indeed in the furs of fome
animals we have obferved with a powerful microfcope, that
the furface is compofed of laminz laid over each other,
refembling the arrangement of the leaves of the artichoke.
On this property the procefs of hat-making depends; the
fhort fibres of the fur being repeatedly comprefled, move
and interlock with each other, fo as to form a compact fub-
ftance ; this motion is further aided by heat and moifture.
A fimilar procefs takes place to a certain degree in cloth
fubje&ted to the ftrokes of a fulling-mill; the fibres cohere,
and the piece contraéts in length and breadth, and its tex-
ture is rendered more compaé& and uniform. This procefs
is eflential to thé beauty and ftrength of woollen cloth; and
it is obferved, that the fofter wools felt in much lefs time
than the harder, and form a clofer pile on the furface of the
cloth, on which account it is a-common prattice to mix a
certain quantity of foft wool with the hard, to enable the
former to felt with more facility.
The length and foundnefs of the ftaple of clothing wool is
the quality next to be confidered. By the ftaple of wool is
meant the feparate locks into which the fleece naturally
divides in the fkin, each lock confifting of a certain number
of fibres, which colleétively are called the ftaple.
The beft length of ftaple for fine clothing-wool, if found,
is from two to three inches. If it be longer it requires
breaking down to prepare it for the procefs of carding.
Saxony wool, being generally more tender than the Spanith,
and more eafily broken down, is fometimes four or five
inches long ; but as it works down eafily, it is preferred, on
account of the length of its ftaple, for fuch goods which
VoL. XXXVIII.
require fine fpinning, as caffimeres, peliffe cloth, and fhawls.
Much of the Englifh clothing-wool of a middle quality
is grown longer than is defirable for the purpofe of the
clothier, and when found is thrown out for the hofiery
trade, if the demand for the latter be great. As the grower
could not fhorten the length of the ftaple without diminifhing
the weight of the fleece, he has no motive to induce him to
grow fhorter wool; but the objet might be obtained with
much benefit to himfelf by fhearing twice in the year, once
the latter end of April, and again the latter end of Augutt ;
the wool would then be grown of a fuitable length for the
card, and from experiments that have been made we believe
the weight would exceed what can be obtained from one clip:
the increafe would not be lefs than fifteen per cent., and
the condition of the fheep thereby improved.
The foundnefs of the ftaple in clothing-wools is not fo
important as in combing-wools; but for fome kinds of co-
lours which injure the wool, it is particularly defirable that
the fibre {hould be found and ftrong; this is judged of by
drawing out the flaple and pulling it by both ends, The
foundnefs and ftrength of the ftaple depend primarily on
the healthy ftate of the animal, and on a {ufficient fupply of
food. ‘The ftaple on fome parts of the fleece will always be
more tender than on other parts, but by mixture they tend
to form a denfe pile on the furface of the cloth.
The colour of the fleece fhould always approach as much
as poffible to the pureft white, becaufe fuch wool is not only
neceflary for cloths dreffed white, but for all cloths to be
dyed bright colours, for which a clear white ground is re-
quired, to give a due degree of richnefs and luftre. It is
probable that all fheep’s-wool was firft of a black or
reddifh colour : the latter is gften’referred to by the ancients.
Before the invention of dyeing, coloured wool muft have
had a preference to white; but after the a& of communi-
cating beautiful colours to the fleece, white wool would be
in the greateft demand, and thofe fheep which had white
fleeces would be feleéted to breed from. The moft ancient
flocks of fheep which we have any record of are thofe of La-
ban and Jacob, defcribed in the book of Genefis. The fleeces
appear to have been principally brown, or {potted and ftriped,
which was in all probability the general colour of the flocks
throughout that part of Afia. We learn that in the courfe
of twenty years a great change was effected in the colour of
a large portion of the fheep of Laban: though Jacob ap-
pears to have concealed from his father-in-law the method
by which this change was effected, we are exprefsly told in
the fequel that it was by crofling with rams which had fleeces
of the colours required.
Dark-brown or black woolled fheep are not uncommon in
many parts of the European flocks, but fuch wool being
of lefs value than the white, thefe fheep ought always to be
expelled. Some of the Englifh fine-woolled fheep, as the
Norfolk and South-Down, have black or grey faces and
legs. In all fuch fheep there is a tendency to grow grey
wool on fome part of the body, or to produce fome grey
fibres intermixed with the fleece, which renders the wool
unfit for many kinds of white goods; for though the black
hairs may be too few or minute to be deteéted by the wool-
forter, yet when the cloth is ftoved they will become vifible,
forming reddifh fpots, by which its appearance is much in-
jured. The Herefordfhire fheep, which have white faces,
are entirely free from this defeét, and yield a fleece without
any admixture of grey hairs. We have no doubt that by
carefully rejeGting thofe fheep from the South-Down flocks,
in which the grey is moft apparent, this defeét might be
gradually removed. It is paeetaly defirable with refpe&
4 to
WOOL.
to thefe fheep, as the wool grown on chalk foils, though
lefs foft than on other foils, 1s generally whiter, and better
fuited to fuch goods which require the procefs of bleaching
or ftoving, and do not require to be fo much fulled as many
other cloths.
The ancients were fo well ‘aware of the neceflity of ex-
pelling dark-coloured wool from their flocks, that in fele&-
ing the fheep to breed from, they did not truft to the colour
of the fleece alone, but carefully examined the mouth and
tongue of the ram, and if the leaft blacknefs or fwarthinefs
appeared he was immediately reje¢ted; and though fome
moderns have doubted the ufe of this precaution, we believe
it was well founded.
‘¢ Tllum autem, quanivis aries fit candidus ipfe,
Nigra fubeft udo tantum cui lingua palato,
Rejice, ne maculis infufcet vellera pullis
Nafcentem.”? Vir. Georg. iii.
Pliny alfo ftates, that particular attention was on this
account had to the colour of the mouth. ‘* Arietum maxi-
me fpeétantur ora.”” We are informed that this kind of
infpeGtion takes place in the Spanifh flocks at prefent, a
practice in all probability derived from the Roman fhep-
herds, as we believe the flock to have been from thofe of
Italy, or the Tarentine breed. The colour of the foil on
which fheep graze, if very dark or red, communicates to
the wool a tint more or lefs ftrong, which is indelible, and
renders fuch wool lefs proper for cloths or hofiery goods
that are to be finifhed white ; for though the colour may be
improved by ftoving, yet on wafhing the cloths, they foon
return to a brownifh or yellowifh tint. The tint from
the foil is, however, rarely ofgfufficient ftrength to be re-
garded for dyed goods, excepting for exceedingly light
colours.
The cleannefs of wool is principally regarded by the pur-
chafer, as it affe&ts the weight. To the grower thofe fleeces
are generally the moft profitable that are well filled with
the greafe, or yolk as it is called, becaufe it keeps the’ wool
in a found ftate, and improves its foftnefs. It ought, how-
ever, to be wafhed out as much as poflible before it is ex-
pofed to'fale. The fleeces of the Merino fheep are more
plentifully fupplied with: yolk than thofe of any of our
native fine-woolled breeds; indeed it is fo abundant, that
the Englith mode of wafhing on the back of the fheep will
fearcely produce any effe& upon the fleece. The yolk or
greafe in the fleece appears, from the experiments made
upon it by M. Vauquelin, to be a native-foap, confifting
principally of animal oil combined with potafh. It is moft
copioufly produced in thofe breeds which grow the fineft
and fofteft wool, and is always moft abundant on thofe parts
of the animal which yield the fineft parts of the fleece. To
this fubje€&t we fhall again refer in treating of the improve-
ment of wool. This yolk, though fo beneficial to the wool
in a growing ftate, becomes injurious to it when fhorn ; for
if the fleeces remain piled in an unwathed ftate, a ferment-
ation takes place, the yolk becomes hard, and the fibre is
rendered hard and brittle: This effe&t takes place more
rapidly in hot weather. The Spaniards remove this yolk in
agreat meafure by wafhing the wool after it is fhorn and
forted. In Saxony fine-woolled fheep of the fame race are
wathed in ‘tubs: with warm water, foap-lees, and uvine, and
afterwards in ‘clean water.
In England the wool is wafhed on the back of the theep
by immerging the animal in water, and {queezing the fleece
with the hand. From. thefe different modes of wafhing, the
wool is left'more or lefs pure. Mr, Bakewell, in his Ob-
fervations on the Influence of Soil and Climate on Wool, has
given the following table, containing a ftatement of the quan-
tity of neat wool in every hundred pounds, taken on an
average of each fort, and fuppofing each to be free from
lumps of pitch employed in marking the wool, and cleared
from what are called the dog-locks. The firft column repre-
fents the average weight after the wool has been fcoured
perfectly clean with foap and water, and dried; the fecond
the amount of waite.
, Pure Wool. Walle.
100 lbs. of Englifh wool wafhed on the
fheep’s back tors - ‘I 75 25
Ditto Saxony fleece-wool - + 80 20
Ditto Spanifh R, or refine - - $8 12
Ditto Spanifh and Portugal unwafhed - 75 55.
Ditto Englifh fleeces unwafhed - - 60 40
Ditto lightly greafed wools of Northum- 6
berland Sallyed on the fheep’s back 5 35
Hence it is obvious, that the ftate of the fleece with
refpe& to cleannefs is an obje& of great importance to the
wool-buyer. The Englifh Merino fheep, from the diffi-
culty of wafhing the wool on the fheep’s back, have ge-
nerally been fhorn in an unwafhed ftate, and the wool
offered for fale in this ftate. The purchafers were fre-
quently unacquainted with the great amount of the lofs it
would fuffer by wafhing, and were much difappointed at
the refult. ‘This circumftance, we conceive, more than any
other, tended to prejudice the manufacturer againft the
Anglo-Merino wool. The wool is alfo injured by remain-
ing in the greafe, as we have before ftated, and though this
has been contradiéted, we have no befitation in afferting the
fa& from our own experience. Indeed the French manu-
faturers of fine cloth affert, that the beft wools from Spain,
though cleared ina great meafure from the yolk, yet {till retain
fufficient to injure the wool if it be fuffered to grow old when
itis packed, the yolk becoming rancid and hard, and commu-
nicating the latter property to the wool. We have frequently
obferved this effet in the wools from Portugal, that retain
a greater portion of the yolk than thofe from Spain.
After wool has been wafhed in the ufual manner prac-
tifed in England, and piled or packed, a certain procefs
takes place in eight or nine weeks, called /weating. This
is well known to wool-dealers and manufaéturers, but has not
been before noticed by any writer that we are acquainted with.
It is evidently an incipient fermentation of the remaining
yolk; and the inner part of the pack or pile becomes fen-
fibly warm. This procefs produces a certain change in the
wool, whereby it becomes in a better condition for manu-
fa€turing, being what is called in the north of England lefs
fuzzy. This effe& refults from a diminution of the natural
elaticity of the fibre.
When this fermentation takes place in unwafhed wool, it
proceeds farther, and injures the colour and foundnefs of the
ftaple or fibre. A fimilar effe& is produced in wool or
cloth which has been oiled, and remains fome time in an un-
fcoured ftate. » Inftances of fpontaneous combuftion from
heaps of refufe wool remaining in a greafy ftate have been
known to occur, and occafion the molt ferious accidents in
woollen factories.
The weight of the fleece is an obje& of great import-
ance to the grower. It is generally fuppofed by the Eng-
lith wool-dealers, that an increafe of weight implied an in-
creafe of coarfenefs ; indeed the words coarfe and heavy are
confidered by them as fynonymous, but this is not abfolutely
19 the
WOOL.
the cafe ; a fleece grown upon the fame animal may be in-
creafed in weight either by the fibres becoming coarfer, or
by their being grown longer, or by a greater number of
fibres being grown in the fame fkin. To the wool-grower
it can never anfwer to increafe the weight of the fleece on
{mall fine-woolled fheep, by growing the wool coarfer ; if
this be his obje&t, the long-woolled breeds of fheep are to
be preferred. He may produce wool fomewhat longer by
increafing the quantity of food ; but it generally lofes fome-
thing of its finenefs, and is lefs fuitable for the cloth trade.
He may, however, increafe the weight confiderably by fe-
leGting fuch breeds as grow the wool clofe upon the {kin,
and are thickly covered with wool over every part of the
body. In this refpeét, the Merino fheep have greatly the
advantage over any of the native breeds of Englifh fheep ;
many of them yielding from three to four poundsof pure wool,
whilft the fineft Englifh fleeces rarely exceed two pounds, and
would lofé one-fourth of this weight when brought to a pure
ftate by fcouring. It has been doubted whether all fheep’s-
wool, when clean, poffefles the fame {pecific gravity ; but ad-
mitting there may be fome variation in the wool from different
piles, we conceive that it is too minute to deferve the atten-
tion of the wool-grower or manufaéturer.
The filaments of fine wool being fo minute, it requires
an eye habituated by long experience to appreciate the re-
lative finenefs of two piles, which may differ in value as
much as twenty-five per cent. TEven thofe who have been
long praétifed in fuch examinations find it difficult to form
immediately a correét opinion of the finenefs, if they are
removed for a few weeks from all opportunity of viewing
wool. It is not furprifing then that the wool-grower, who
only direéts his attention to the fubje& during one part of
the year, fhould often be unable to judge whether his wool
has improved or not fince the preceding fummer. On this
account it would be highly defirable that fome eafy and
correét method of admeafurement by the micrometer could
be invented, which might enable the obferver to decide this
with certainty. Mr. Daubenton employed a graduated
fcale, adapting it to the eye-piece of a compound micro-
fcope; but his method does not admit of accuracy. Mr.
Luccock made ufe of a more fimple inftrument, which
we have feen; it confifted of a lens about half an inch
in focal length, adjufted to a graduated feale. On this
{cale a number of fibres were ftretched and comprefled
by a flider and fcrew into a given {pace ; the filaments
covering this {pace were then counted by the aid of the
lens, and a number of admeafurements being taken of
the fame fort, the mean of the whole was fuppofed to
give the correét diameter of the filament. In this me-
thod, however, fome of the filaments muft unavoidably
overlap part of the others, on which account a greater num-
ber will be feen in a given fpace than there would be were
the whole diameter of each fibre vifible. The error refult-
ing from this may be ftated at one-fifth. Thus Mr. Luccock
makes the beft Englifh wool to meafure the fourteen-
hundredth part of an inch, which is finer than the beft
Spanifh, as meafured by Dr. Parry, by a more accurate
but more laborious method. According to Mr. Luccock, a
fample of moderately fine Spanifh wool reached to the
fixteen-hundredth part of an inch; according to Dr. Parry,
the very beft Spanifh is not fmaller than the fourteen-
hundredth part of an inch.
With the above deduétion of one-fifth, which we believe
to be a near approximation to correétnefs, the diameter of
the-fibres of the beft Englifh wool, as forted in the ufual
method, will be nearly as follows :
Parts of an lich.
Prime - - ess
Choice = - - eet ie
Super 7 7 i rE oy
Head - - - ais
Downrights - 2 st
Seconds - - - a
Abb - - - - set
Fine livery (variable) - ile
The method of meafurement adopted by Mr. Luccock
might be fufficiently corre& with the deduétion of one-fifth,
were the inftrument always ufed by the fame perfon, and a
fimilar degree of preffure given in each experiment ; but as
this is required, it becomes uncertain in its refults, and
inadequate to pra¢tical purpofes.
Dr. Parry’s method of meafurement is effected with an
inftrument fimilar in principle to the lamp micrometer of Dr.
Herfchel, of which an account is publifhed in the Philofophi-
cal Tranfa@tions for 1782. (See Micrometer.) An obje&
of a known diameter being placed in the focus of a compound
microfcape, and ftrongly illuminated, a piece of white paper
is placed horizontally at fome diftance beneath it; then
looking through the microfcope with one eye, and keeping
the other fleadily open, you will fee the obje& apparently
projected on the paper, which is to be meafured, whilit
viewing it, with a pair of compafles. Divide the length of
the image fo meafured with the known diameter of the ob-
je@, which will give the ee power of the micro-
{cope. ‘This being found, place the obje& you with to
meafure in the focus, and projeGting its image on the paper
as before, meafure it with the compafles, and divide the re-
fult by the magnifying power, which will be the real mag-
nitude of the objet required.
The light of a lamp is to be preferred to day-light, and
the fibres to be meafured are to be /fretched on a glafs, and
waxed down at both ends. The under fide of the glafs
fhould be blackened with Indian ink, except in three parts,
the middle, and near the two ends. © The unblackened {paces
being placed in the focus of the microfcope, ten or more
filaments may be examined and meafured fucceflively, both
in the middle part of the glafs, and near the ends, which
will give the diameter of the filament at the upper and lower
end of the ftaple, and in the middle. Each lock of ten
filaments being thus examined in three different parts, the
mean of the three meafurements mult be taken for the mean
diameter of each filament, and the mean diameter of the
ten filaments may be taken for the finenefs of the whole
Jock.
In place of the blackened glafs, we would recommend a
thin flide of ivory or brafs, about five inches in length,
and half an inch in breadth, with three tranfverfe flits or
openings, one in the middle, and the two others about
three-fourths of an inch from each end. On this flide the
filaments may be ftretched, it will not be liable to break, and
the edges of the filaments will be more correétly defined
than when a plate of glafs is placed under them.
_ The farther the paper is removed from the eye, the larger
will be the apparent fpace covered by the image of the
objeét, but it muft not be too far for the hand to meafure it
with compaffes. But if in place of the compaffes we have
a fheet of pafteboard graduated into minute divifions from a
black line upwards, and a fliding index be adjufted, the
pafteboard may be placed at a much greater diftance, the
obferver adjulting the flide, until the edge of it and the
black line coincide with both edges of the filament. An
4K2 horizontal
WOOL. :
horizontal pofition for the microfcope will be the moft con-
venient, illuminating the object with a lamp and lens. In
this way, the apparent diameter may be greatly increafed,
and we think the obfervations might be made with greater
eafe and accuracy. :
By the above method the diameter of very minute fila-
ments may be afcertained, and minute differences detected,
which the unaffifted eye is unable to dete&t. We are aware,
however, that it requires fome addrefs and time to enable
the obferver to manage the inftrument, on which account it
cannot, we fear, be made generally ufeful.
The following admeafurements of different fine wools
were taken with Dr. Parry’s inftrument ; the firft column
reprefents the outward end of the filament, the fecond
the middle, and the third the’ bottom, in fraétional parts of
an inch; the latter column the mean of ten filaments of
the fame wool.
Taste of comparative Diameters of the Filaments of
various Clothing Wools, by Dr. Parry.
Inne
End
T | Mean.
Spanih Ewe - - 337s
Lafteria Pile - = +ayr wet
Ewe - - - sere, | wr
Coronet Pile - ‘ air | tess
Native Merino Ram - tse | ma
Saxon - > ~ Trrv T13T tite asx
Pidet’s Merino Ram tres Tr aire ator
Beft Negrette Pile - | rtye | +135 asaya | wr
Alva Pile - = ase | tase | are ay
Rambouillet Ewe ee ee ees ee
Imperial Pile - ee ee ee ee
Morte - - - ars rort Tbs Tra7
Ryeland - - = | rows | rrve | rises | T1398
South Down - - cers | oi'sr | rire | 328s
| Anglo Negrette Ram vere | rors. | tise | torr
| Negrette Ram, Marquis : : 3 :
of Bath 2 - wor sys | rai | Terr
| Charenton Ram - | reer | ore tos0 | TOOT
| Ryeland Ram - - eS ee ee
i i 1 ' 1
Cape, 4th Crofs me, tae vor FT vss
Wilts Ewe - -e| srs | rt | vee | vor
Long Wool, or Combing Wool, being prepared for {pinning
by a procefs entirely different from that of fhort or clothing
wool, and the pieces made from it being finifhed in a very
different manner, the qualities moft required in this kind of
wool are length and foundnefs of the ftaple, without which
the fleece is unfuited for the comb. The finenefs of the
hair is a fecondary quality, required only in certain kinds of
ods. The wool-comb is an inftrument of fimple con-
itru€tion, confifting of a wooden handle, with a tranfverfe
piece or head, in which are inferted three rows of long fteel
teeth. The wool, which is to be combed after hw 4 clean
fcoured, dried, and oiled, is firft drawn upon thefe teeth
with the hand, until the comb is fufficiently loaded. It is
then placed on the knee of the comber, and another comb of
a fimilar kind is drawn through it, and the operation is re-
peated till all the hairs or fibres are combed {mooth in one
dire&tion. This operation requires confiderable ftrength,
but the comb being previoufly heated, and the wool tho-
roughly oiled, facilitates the procefs. When completed the
combed wool is drawn off with the fingers, forming what is
called a fliver; the fhorter part of wool fticks in the
teeth of the comb, and is called the noyl: this is fold to the
clothiers.
From the above defcription, it is evident that if the ftaple
of the wool be not found, the greater part of it will be
broken by the procefs of combing, and form noyls. The
ftaple muft alfo have a fufficient degree of length for the
combs to operate upon it. Length and foundnefs of the
ftaple are therefore the moft effential and charatteriftic qua-
lities of combing-wools.
Long wools may be claffed into two kinds: firft, thofe
fuited for the manufaéture of hard yarn for worfted pieces ;
and fecond, thofe fuited for the manufa@ture of foft yarn
ufed for hofiery. The former require a greater length of
ftaple than the latter. The firft may therefore be called
long combing-wool, and the latter fhort combing-wool ;
between thefe there are gradations of wool, which may be
applied to either purpofe.
Long combing-wool fhould have the ftaple from fix
inches to eight, ten, or even twelve, in length. Before the
recent improvements in {pinning by machinery, a very great
length of ee was confidered as an excellence in long
combing-wools ; and on this account the hog-wool, or the
firft fleeces from fheep which had not been fhorn when
lambs, was more valuable than the wether wool from the
fame flock, and bore a higher price than the former, by at
leaft fifteen per cent. Since that time the wether wool has
rifen in relative value on account of the evennefs of the
ftaple, each lock being nearly equally thick at both ends;
but the ftaple of hog-wool is pointed, or what is technically
called /pirey. Eight inches, if the wool be found, may be
regarded as a very proper length for heavy combing-wools.
The longer ftapled wool was formerly worked by itfelf,
and ufed for the finer fpun yarn, or mixed in fmall
quantities with the wether wool, to improve the fpinning.
It is found that an equal length of ftaple contributes to the
evennefs of the thread when {pun by machinery, and a very
great length of ftaple is rather injurious than otherwife in
the procefs of machine fpinning. To the wool-grower,
however, it muft always be defirable to increafe the length
of his heavy combing fleeces, as he thereby materially in-
creafes the weight; and we have not yet learned that the
price has ever been reduced on this account, for if the wool
be too long for fome branches of the worfted manufa&ture,
there are others in which it may be worked with advantage.
The length of the ftaple may be increafed by a plentiful
fupply of nutritious food. The fame effeé&t may alfo be
produced by letting the wool remain.a longer time on the
fheep before it is thorn. We have feen a {taple of Lincoln-
fhire wool which was twenty inches in length: it had grown
two years without fhearing. This, however, would be un-
attended with any advantage to the grower. The more
frequently fheep are fhorn, provided the wool is fufficiently
long, the greater will be the weight grown in a given time
on the fame animal ; for, from obfervations which we have
made, we are fatisfied that wool is grown more rapidly im-
mediately after the fheep are fhorn than at any a time.
Length of ftaple in wool depends primarily on the breed,
but may be more affeéted by culture than many other quali-
ties of the fleece. The foundnefs of the ftaple may be eafil
judged of by pulling both ends of it with the wee wi
confiderable force. In weak or unfound wool the ftaple
eafily breaks in one or more parts, and on obferving it, it
will be feen that the fibres are much thinner in the part
which breaks. This is occafioned either by a deficient ip.
ply
Ee
WOOL.
ply of food, by difeafe, or by inclement feafons, which
caufe a ftoppage in the growth of the fleece. This goes on
to a greater or lefs degree. In fome inftances, the hoppers
has been fo entire that the upper part of the ftaple is nearly
feparated from the lower, and is only conne&ted with it by
a few filaments: in fuch cafes, the ftoppage has continued
for a confiderable time, and the bottom part of the ftaple
may be confidered as a new fleece, protruding the old one
from the fkin. Conneéted with the foundnefs of wool,
there is another property required ; this is, that the ftaple be
free and open, or that the fibres fhall not be matted or
felted together ; an effeét which takes place frequently when
the wool is unfound. It is in fat a natural felting of the
wool on the back of the animal, when by any caufe it has
ceafed to grow. Sometimes the lower part of the fleece
next the fkin will be fo completely matted as to form a fub-
ftance nearly as hard as a hat, and will hold to the fkin by a
few hairs only. Thefe are called cotted fleeces; all ap-
proach to this ftate is peculiarly injurious to combing-wools.
The wool-buyers generally throw out the cotted and un-
found fleeces when they pack the wool from the grower, and
buy them at a very reduced price. The foftnefs of combing-
wool, though of lefs importance than in clothing-wool, yet
enhances its value, as it is found that fuch wool makes a
clofer and fofter thread, and in every procefs of the manu-
faGture finifhes more kindly. Combing-wools grown on light
calcareous foils are deficient in this refpeét ; fuch are the
combing-wools of Oxfordfhire and the Cot{wold hills,
which are formed of that f{pecies of lime-ftone called oolite,
or roe-ftone. A copious fupply of the yolk is neceffary to
the healthy condition of the fleece, and as this in many
flocks is nearly equal in weight to the wool, the fleeces
contain from fix to eight pounds or more of it before
they are wafhed, for in the unwafhed ftate they often weigh
eighteen pounds in many of the long-woolled flocks in
England.
The whitenefs of the fleece is lefs important in, the long
combing than in clothing wool, provided it be free from
grey hairs. The latter circumftance does not frequently
occur in combing-wools. There is, however, a peculiar
colour communicated by the foil, which is fometimes fo
deep as to injure the wool for particular ufes, and what is of
more importance, there is a dingy-brown colour given to the
fleece by impoverifhed keeping or difeafe, which is called a
winter fain ; it is a {ure indication that the wool is not in a
thoroughly found ftate, and fuch fleeces are carefully thrown
out by the wool-forter, being only fuited for thofe goods
which are to be dyed dark colours.
The finenefs of heavy combing-wool is of lefs importance
than the other qualities. In every fleece of this kind there
will be a certain {mall portion of fhort clothing-wool on the
fhanks, the belly, the throat, and the buttocks. The
clothing-wool from fuch fleeces is not often divided into
more than two or three low forts, and the combing-wool is
feldom thrown into more than four forts, that is, two forts
of the hog-wool, and two forts of the wether-wool, of
which three-fourths, if the fleece be good, will form the
beft fort in each.
There is, however, a fine long combing-wool which is re-
quired for bombazines and'the finer kinds of worfted goods;
this is moft frequently felected from the longer parts of
clothing fleeces, and admits a divifion into four or five
forts, the fineft being equal in hair to that of the head or
fuper in clothing-wool; whereas the beft fort of the com-
mon heavy combing-wools feldom ranges higher in point of
finenefs than the coarfeft fort of clothing-wool above the
breech locks ; wiz. the low abb and the livery.
Short combing or hofiery wool requires a different length
of itaple, according to its finenefs: for the better forts,
the ftaple fhould not be fhorter than four or five inches; the
lower forts may range as high as eight inches. A greater
length than this is not defirable for any kind of foft worfted.
What has been faid of the foundnefs and finenefs of ftaple
required for long combing-wool, applies equally to the
hofiery wool, but in this the finenefs of the hair and foftnefs
are of more importance. Moft of the fleeces which yield
fine combing-wool produce nearly an equal quantity of fhort
wie er is eae in the fame manner as the regular
clothing forts. e combin
lng Len bing forts for the hofiery are gene-
Super matching,
Fine matching,
Fine drawing,
Altered drawing,
Brown drawing,
Saycatt.
The names of thefe forts derive their origin from ancient
procefles of the manufaéture, with which we are unac-
quainted at prefent. The lower fort, or faycaft, was pro-
bably at firft the long coarfe combing-wool, thrown out for
the manufa@ture of fays, of which we have frequent men-
tion in the earlieft hiftory of the woollen trade in England.
The relative value of thefe forts, ‘compared with each other,
varies according to the demand for the finer or coarfer kinds
of hofiery, and is alfo affe&ted by the clothing trade. When
any clothing fort which ranges in finenefs with one of the
combing forts is in great demand, the wool-forter will break
down the fhorter combing-wool of this fort, and throw it to
the clothing-wool, which enhances the price of the former
by making it fearce. The finenefs of thefe forts out of the
beft combing-wools, ftated numerically, as compared with
clothing forts, will be nearly as under, in the fraGtional
parts of an inch.
Super matching — - = ates
Fine matching 2 s ae
Fine drawing 5 a ee
Altered drawing - = ew
Brown drawing = - - =
Saycatt = Jie
Mott of the beft forters throw out the hog combing-wool
from the beft forts, making a fuperfine hog for the bomba-
zine trade, hog-wool being lefs fuitable for the hofiery,
which does not require yarn fo finely fpun as for hard yarn.
As all the different forts of fhort combing-wool, together
with feveral forts of clothing-wool, will frequently occur in
one Englith fleece, it is obvioufly the intereft of the grower
that his fleece fhould produce as great a proportion of the
beft forts as can be done without materially diminifhing the
weight.
Skin Wool, or Pelt Wool, is the wool feparated from the
fkins of flazghtered fheep by the fellmonger. The quantity
of this wool, in a country like England, where fo much ani-
mal food is confumed, is very confiderable, and has been
eftimated at near 50,000. packs of 24o0lbs. per annum, for
England and Wales. Soon after fhearing, the fkin-wool is
too fhort to be worked by itfelf, and is generally kept and
mixed in with the longer wools. The procefs by which
wool is feparated from the fkins has a tendency to make it
hard, and deitroy or injure its felting or milling property,
on which account fhort-f{kin wools are feldom ufed for the
manufacture of cloth, but more generally for flannels, ferges,
and thofe kinds of goods which require little or no milling ;
4 the
WOOL.
the fineft: kinds are much ufed for ftockings made of
yarn from carded wool. In the fpring, when the wool on
the fkins has acquired a confiderable length, it is thrown
into combing forts; the finer kinds are ufed for knitting
hofiery yarn, and the coarfer for hard yarn for the warps
of ferges and other goods, having a warp of combed and a
weft of carded wool. The value of fkin-wool is feldom
equal to that of fleece-wool of the fame degree of length
and finenefs, owing to the felting property being injured,
which renders it more unfit for the manufacture of woollen
cloth.
Lamb's Wool:—The wool of the lamb is, with certain
exceptions, fofter than that of fheep’s-wool, from the fame
flocks. It poffeffes the property of felting in a remarkable
degree, and on this account is principally manufactured into
hats, except fkin lamb’s-wool, which lofing its felting pro-
perty in a great degree, is employed in the manufacture of
flannels and woollen yarn for lamb’s-wool hofiery. In the
northern parts of Europe, the lambs of fome of the breeds
of fheep poffefs a fleece fo delicately foft, that it con-
ftitutes a moft valuable fur, being dreffed on the fkin, and
ufed as a coftly article of attire. According to Pallas, the
inhabitants of the Ukrain and Podoli, as foon as the lamb is
dropped, (which comes into the world with a pretty wavy
fkin, even without the affiftance of art,) to augment its
beauty, and make it bring a higher price, few it up ina
fort of coarfe linen fhirt, fo as to keep up a conftant gentle
preflure on the wool, pouring warm water over it every day
to make it foft and fleek; only letting out the bandage a
little from time to time as the animal increafes in fize, but
ftill keeping it tight enough to effect their purpofe, which
is to lay the wool in beautiful gloffy ringlets, and thereby
produce a delicate {pecies of fur in great requeft for lining
clothes and morning-gowns. By this treatment, the itaple of
the fine foft wool which rifes in the infancy of the lamb takes a
handfome arrangement ; and the animal is killed younger or
older according to the fpecies of fur intended to be pro-
duced ; from a fhort glofly nap, like fatin, only fit from its
thinnefs for the purpofe mentioned above, to a warm thick
fur for a winter great-coat. The firft of thefe furs in efti-
mation and price is a fine black, that looks like filk damafk ;
an inferior black fur comes next, much thicker, ufed for
peliffes, or. - foubes, as the upper winter garb worn out of doors
is called ; and the leaft in eftimation is the whiteft, except it
be of a very pure colour and filky appearance, where it isa
rival to the firft ; efpecially for night-gowns, a very common
drefs both morning and evening amongft the Ruflians ;_ par-
ticularly in the interior parts of the empire.
The Boucharian fheep, as defcribed by Pallas, grows a com-
pact, foft, and elaftic wool, which is‘elegantly formed into
frizzled ringlets. In the lamb, the wool is formed into
delicate little circular waves, as if preffed clofe to the fkin
by art; but when taken from the mother, or killed imme-
diately after birth, they are {till more beautiful, and often
elegantly marbled with feathered waves, like filk damafk.
Thefe three furs are the fineft and moft precious of the kind
known to Europe and the Ealt; they are brought to us by
the Boucharian Tartars and Perfians, who fell them dear.
The moft prized are, the b/ue, the black, and the filver grey ;
but of the unborn lamb-fkins, as the fine glofly thin furs are
called, which fo much refemble filk damafk, the fine black
is deareft and molt efteemed. To obtain thefe valuable furs,
the Boucharian Tartars purchafe whole flocks of male lambs
jult dropped from their mothers: as to kill a female till pat
the age of breeding is held as a kind of crime by all Tartar
hordes ; fuch is their reverence for an animal which confti-
tutes their greateft riches, and the propagation and care of
which are the gréat bufinefs of theirlives ; fo that all the fur
we fee of this fpecies fold by the Tartars are from young
rams. The Boucharians are of opinion, that art is neceflary
to preferve thefe furs in their greateft beauty ; and under
that idea, keep the lambs under fhades, &c. during the me-
ridian ardour of the fun; but Dr. Pallas has reafon to think,
that thefe precautions are ufelefs, as he obferved that the
fame variety of fheep produced the fame fine hues equal in
every ref{peét, without any fort of care, in the hands of the
Kirguite Tartars.
It is very remarkable that the lamb’s-wool, in many of the
Merino flocks, is coarfer than the fheep’s-wool. In fome
of the flocks, the lambs are at firft covered with coarfe
hair, which falls off afterwards, and they produce the fineft
wool.
Wool from other animals befides the fheep is employed
in manufaCtures, and {pun and woven into fabrics of different
kinds, either unmixed or mixed with fheep’s-wool. The
goats of Thibet, which grow the fine fhawl wool, produce
it as a fine down at the bottom of the long coarfe hair, with
_which the animals are covered. Many of the common goats
in Europe grow a fimilar down, which, by cultivation,
might become a valuable article of commerce. It is not,
however, yet clearly afcertained, whether the fhawls and
fhawl cloth of India are all manufaétured from goat’s-wool ;
part of it appears to be made from fheep’s-wool peculiarly
foft and fine. The Angora goat grows a hair extremely
fine and filky, which as much ufed in fome of the French
worlted cre mixed with filk. This goat is properly a
long-woolled animal. Dr. Anderfon fays, that the Angora
goat will profper and preferve its peculiarities in France
and Sweden. The wool of the vicunna, called Vigonia wool,
is generally of a reddifh-fawn colour; it is peculiarly foft and
filky, but intermixed with long coarfe hairs, which are very
difficult to feparate. (See Vicunna.) From the lama and
pacos of Peru a ftronger and longer {tapled wool is obtained,
which is fometimes white. Under a liberal government
which proteéted and encouraged commerce, we have no
doubt the fleeces of thefe animals might be greatly improved,
and would become an article of great value. The wool
from the yak of Tartary, and the mufk ox of Hudfon’s bay,
has yet received little attention. We have feen ftockings
made of the latter, and which are worn in that country ;
the wool was foft but not fine, and much intermixed with
long coarfe hairs. '
The quantity of fheep’s-wool annually grown in England
and Wales was eftimated, by perfons in the wool trade
examined before the houfe of commons in the year 1800, at
fix hundred thoufand packs. Mr. Luccock, in his Treatife
on Wool, feems to confider this eftimate as greatly exceed-
ing the real amount, and has given an eftimate founded on
the fuppofed extent of furface paftured by fheep, and the
quantity of fheep ef acre in each county. This table we
{fubjoin, as the only attempt that we know of to determine
the queftion on certain data; though we confider it only
as an approximation to truth, and are inclined to believe
that the quantity is under the real amount. Such is alfo
the opinion of the moft intelligent perfons in the wool
trade, whom we have had an opportunity of confulting.
From this table, it will appear that the total amount, in-
cluding fkin-wool and lamb’s-wool, is fomewhat fhort of
four hundred thoufand packs, which is probably one-fourth
below the true quantity, could it be afcertained. Mr.
Luccock is i:eclined to believe that the flocks of fheep in
England and Wales are not fo numerous as formerly, but -
he lays thofe of Ireland and Scotland -are rapidly in.
creafing. Even in England and Wales, he fays, we have
more
WOOL.
more than three millions of acres capable of being improved,
and carrying a more numerous ftock. We have two mil-
lions of fheep whofe fleeces are fcarcely wool, and which
might be brought to contribute their fhare to fupport the
woollen manufaéture, and to increafe the wealth of the
country. 1
It may be proper to remark, that the quantity of wool
grown annually in England is more variable than is ge-
nerally fuppofed, owing to the variable temperature of our
climate. In long-continued and fevere winters, the fheep
not obtaining the fame quantity of food, and being alfo ren-
dered lefs vigorous by the cold, do not grow fo much wool
as in milder feafons. The difference between the weight
of the fleeces grown in fevere and in very mild feafons,
may be ftated at one-fifth of the whole annual clip: indeed
we believe it exceeds that proportion. About the year
1700, the annual value of Englifh wool was eftimated at
two millions fterling. If we fuppofe the average price at
that time to have been eight-pence fer pound, or eight
pounds. ger pack, this will make the total weight of
wool two hundred and fifty thoufand packs. _Indeed when
we confider the improved flate of our agriculture, the
great increafe of our population, and of our woollen exports,
we may fairly ftate the prefent weight of wool grown to be
double the amount of what it was at the period referred to.
In a fubfequent part of this article, it will be feen that the
cloth manufaétures of Yorkfhire, principally from Englifh
wools, have increafed eight-fold in the laft eighty years ; and’
though the woollen manufaétures have removed from fome
other fituations, yet the great increafe on the whole in Eng-
land cannot be doubted. Since the date of Mr. Luccock’s
table in 1805, in confequence of the high price of long
combing-wool, the growers have paid more attention to the
weight of their fleeces ; and many who had rendered their
fleeces lighter by exehanging the Lincolnfhire for the
Leicetter breeds of fheep, have fince been reverting to the
former breed, or rather to a mixed breed, endeavouring to
combine the improved form of the Leicefter fheep with the
heavy fleece of the Lincoln. The quantity of long comb-
ing-wool grown annually is greater than it was even ten
years fince; the high and increafing price and demand
operating naturally as a premium for its cultivation.
Tasre I.—Shewing the Produce of Englifh Long Wool.
Diftrict.
County.
Teefwater Yorkfhire -
( Holdernefs =
Lincoln rich land
marfhes -
mifcellaneous land
Norfolk = : =
Cambridge -
| Huntingdon
( Leicefter -
Northampton
Rutland = -
Lincoln
Leicefter
Stafford -
Romney Marfh
Other Marthes
South Hams
Gloucefter -
t oaeell -
Kent -
Devonfhire
Cot{wold
Slaughtered
Weight of
Fleece.
No. of Acres. No. of Packs,
No. of Sheep.
100800
61250
127680
413875
175000
758485
55428
187600
87500
398650
560000
117000
182875
14000
4.6920
65000
387500
200000
67200
14310
84000
1241625
87560
505657
38500
41688
87500
380528
649000
114000
160000
S722
185000
108330
ASB |S)
200000
2520
477
2800
46561
2916
16855
1223
1390
2552
I 1100
16000
2370
3333
113
5400
3160
6458
6666
COMIWAYWNN HAIN CII DONO Wow
3939563
1176770 Sheep
196128 Producing long-fkin wool 5720 Packs.
Carrion wool 286
4153308
131794.
Neat Total
TABLE
Diftri&t.
Norfolk
Wilthire
Weftern
Hereford
Welfh
Carrion of ditto brought forward .
Wool trom
Ditto
WOOL.
Tasie II,—Englifh Short Wool.
Counry.
Norfolk ~ = 3 ei 2 1260572
Suffolk - - - - - 817000
Cambridge oe ca) be! Re 817600
Huntingdon - - = - 144000
Bedford = - - : - - 268800
.} Effex - A epee - = 778400
Suflex Downs” - - - = 211200
Low Land - - 623840
Kent - - - - - 728000
Hampbhhire - - - - 774900
Ifle of Wight = - 3 & 5 87500
Surrey - - - - - 327600
Wiltthire Downs - - - 437000
afture - - - 235000
Berkfhire - - = = ° 408800
Oxford sh SATE De 380730
Bucks - - - - - 408800
Herts - - = Alcs = 369600
Middlefex - - - - 76000
Dorfet - - - - 5 7.00000
Devon - - - - - 873700
Cornwall - - - - = 812000
Somerfet - - - - = 851200
Gloucefter - - ” = x 528000
Hereford - - - - - 672000
Monmouth “0 aye ar oc= 322625
Worcefter - “ie eee - 369600
Shropfhire | - . - - 739200
Stafford - - - apts 549360
Warwick - 2), (Rekes lcs 365925
Leicefter - - - - - 50000
Lincoln - - - tr ins 309120
Nottingham - - - - 435680
Derby - = bie - - 553280
Chefter - - - - - 538000
Lancafter - J 2 = i 952000
York Weft Ridng - - - 1429250
Eaft Riding Hy, O- Dats 454720
North Riding - - - 1200000
Weftmoreland - -— - - 431200
Cumberland - - - - 856800
Durham - . - - - 414400
Northumberland - - - 1108800
North Wales - - - - 2035200
South Wales - - - - 2284800
Ifle of Man - 2 oor :
28412202
Slaughtered - ~~ - - = -
Carrion ae a 211087
Slaughter of long-wool fheep - 980642
Total of fhort wool
Ditto long ditto
lambs flaughtered - - -
orn - - - -
4221748 fheep
No. cf Acres. No. of Sheep.
683704
497000
67744
1080co
204000
519000
316800
547000
524475
516600
61000
283000
583500
117500
306600
304584
222968
2770CO
14854299
3-25
3
Grand total
Weight of
Fi
jecce,
8
wie
hale
+l
WD RWWWWwWw NW
& us >
34
Various.
3
43
4
33
4
4
+2
Various.
, 2
Various.
3 1
2
2
34
sf
Various.
3
Various.
I
32
Various.
2
Various.
Packs Skin Wool.
28580
1429
12258
286
2918
7800
No. of Packs.
5697
5176
202737
WOOL.
Ibs. oz.
N.B.—The average fleece of England,
nearly, - 4
Do. — fhort wool a ing:
Do. long wool 7 tel
Do. ftock per acre in 10 fh
England - = ° a zy ih.
Do. do. long wool — - 20 fh,
Do. do. fhort wool = aH
Do. produce fer acre gti eg
long fleece wool - < ‘
Do. do. fhort do. 3 THe ES
Do. do. long fkin wool Opis
Do. do. fhort do. - Omnis
Do. do. fkin wool of] greg
the kingdom, nearly - -J
The wool of Scotland may, perhaps, be eftimated at
70,000 packs, of which the greater part, particularly that
grown in the Highlands, is of the very coarfeft kind. Of
the quantity of wool grown in Ireland, we can form no cor-
rect eftimate, but it cannot be great. From the returns at
the Cuftom-houfe, it appears that the quantity of wool im-
ported from Ireland and the Ifle of Man in 1816 amounted to
about 2600 packs; whilft the value of woollens imported from
England was upwards of 500,000/. fterling. The woollen
and worfted manufa@tures in Ireland areno where on an exten-
five {cale ; perhaps 60,000 packs are the full amount of the
wool annually fhorn in Ireland: this was the amount {tated
about a century fince.
The quantity of wool imported into England may be
feen from the following return at the Cuftom-houfe for the
year 1817, amounting to about thirty thoufand packs.
‘The qualities we have annexed in the latt column.
An Account of the Quantity of Sheep and Lamb’s Wool im-
ported into Great Britain, in the Year ending 5th January
1817; diftinguifhing the Countries from whence imported.
Countries from whence Year ending
imported. 5th Jan. 1817. Quality.
Ibs.
Rufiary oe : = 228,673 Coarfe.
Denmark - - 80,646 | Principally coarfe.
Iceland and Ferde_ - 332395 Coarfe.
Pruffia - - - 16,712 | Fineclothing-wool.
Germany - - | 2,816,655 | Principally ditto.
Holland - - =| 143,390 Ditto.
Flanders - - - 77025 Ditto.
France - - - 221,595 Ditto.
Portugal, &c. - - | 493277 Ditto.
Spain - - - | 2,958,607 Ditto.
Gibraltar- - - 25,692 Coarfe.
Italy - = =| 108,234 | Principally fine.
Turkey - - - 26,821 Fine.
Ireland and Ifle of 6 Various, none
Man (produce) 09377 very fine.
(foreign) — - 1,171
New Holland - - 13,611 Fine Merino.
Cape of Good Hope 9,623 Ditto.
he Statesof Aime, 433465 geAOwR:
Spanifh colonies in 6 Ditt
South America Eesti ey « mio:
Brafils - - - 5512 Ditto.
Britifh Weft Indies - 6,329 Ditto.
Total - - | 8,117,864
Vou. XXXVIII.
The whole of the imported wool, with fearcely an ex-
ception, is worked on’ the card, none of it being fuited for
the comb. The coarfer kinds are principally employed
for carpets, &c. ; and the fine from Spain, Germany, Por-
tugal, and France, fupply our manufaétures of fuperfine
broad cloths, caflimeres, &c. So large a portion being of
the finer kinds, the total value cannot be lefs than one
million and a half pounds fterling.
Wool of New Holiand.—The annual value and amount of
the fine wool imported into England for our own manufac-
tures being fo great, we muft furely applaud the meritorious
exertions of thofe who attempt to fupply the demand with
the produce of our own country, or of our dependent colo-
nies, and more particularly if they can raife this fupply from
parts where no wool was before grown. In this view, it can-
not fail to be highly interefting to learn, that the exertions
of one enlightened agriculturift have been eminently fuccefs-
ful in {preading over an immenfe region dependent on Eng-
land the very fineft-woolled fheep, where the foil had never
before yielded any produce ferviceable to civilized man.
John Macarthur, efq. defcended from an ancient family
in Argylefhire, captain in a regiment then commanded by
general Grofe, went to New Holland in 1789. Fortunately
for the future profperity of the colony, his aétive {pirit of
inquiry and enterprife led him to direét his attention to the
natural advantages which the foil and climate prefented te
the agriculturift, and having by purchafe and grants ob-
tained a confiderable tra€t of country, he quitted the fervice
in 1793, and commenced his farming operations. His ftock
at firft confifted only of a few oxen and thirty Bengal ewes,
growing a coarfe kind of wool or hair. About the year
1795, he obtained from captain Kent, of the Royal Navy,
one Merino ram and two ewes, purchafed from the Dutch
governor of the Cape of Good Hope. With thefe he
began to crofs his coarfe-haired fheep, and to fele& the
fineft-woolled progeny to breed from. Having occafion to
return to England in 1802, he brought over {pecimens of
his wool, which were fhewn to a body of the clothiers from
the weft of England, then in London on public bufinefs,
who were fo fenfible of the advantages which might refult
from encouraging the growth of fine wool in the colony,
that they prefented a petition to the privy council, by whom
Mr. Macarthur was examined. His plans being approved}
the privy council recommended the fecretary of ftate for the
colonies to give him an additional grant of land, in a tra&t of
country, from its fertility, called the cow-paftures,forming part
of Camden county. On his return he took with him three
Merino rams and two ewes, purchafed from his majefty’s
flocks ; and thus encouraged, he proceeded with rapid fteps
in the increafe and improvement of his flocks, the climate
being every way fuited to fecure the healthy condition of the
fheep, and preferve the finenefs of the wool.
The numbers increafe four-fold every five years, fo that
his flocks already amounted to about four thoufand fheep and
lambs, including the fine and mixed breeds, when the unfortu-
nate difputes with governor Blight, and the fubfequent arreft
of the latter, obliged Mr. Macarthur once more to return to
England, and in fome degree interrupted the progrefs of im-
provement. In 1817 his flocks had increafed to about feven
thoufand, and the wool which has been fent to this country
at different times, is become an important fource of profit,
the better fort being equal to the beft Merino piles. from
Spain or Saxony. What we have feen more nearly re-
fembles the latter, and were they both in the fame ftate of
cleannefs, the moft experienced eye could not difcern any
difference between them in finenefs of the hair, length of
ftaple, foundnefs, colour, or other properties.
4L The
WOOL:
_ The wool has been hitherto wafhed on the fheep’s back
in the Englifh metfod, by which it is not rendered fo clean
as by the Spanifh or German mode; but making allowance
for the additional wafte, its value is equal to that of the
very beft Merino wool imported from any part of Europe.
The quantity imported this year is about eighteen thou-
fand pounds weight, and a farther arrival is expected.
The laudable example of Mr. Macarthur has been followed
by other perfons in the colony, and the total amount of
oui tent from thence this year is about fifty thoufand
pounds weight ; and fueh is the fpirit of agricultural im-
provement, that at the annual fales of fheep eftablifhed by
Mr. Macarthur, rams and ewes have been fold at from ten
to thirty guineas each. Though the abfence of Mr. Mac-
arthur impeded the progrefs of improvement, yet this will
be more than compenfated by the valuable information he
has obtained with refpeét to the management and improve-
ment of his flocks, from obfervations made on the continent ;
and he has further benefited the colony by taking back
with him a feleétion of olive-trees, vines, and oranges. The
drynefs and mildnefs of the climate of New Holland, and
the almoft total abfence of briars and underwood, are ex-
tremely favourable to fheep. His ftock is divided into
flocks of about four hundred, with fhepherds and Spanifh
dogstoeach. Under thefe propitious circumftances, and
as the flocks double in number every thirty months, we may
anticipate, that in the courfe of twenty or twenty-five years,
the importation of fine wool from this colony will be fully
equal to the total amount at prefent imported into England
from all the different countries of Europe. It might repay
the exertions of thisenlightened agriculturift, and of the Bri-
tith government, could they procure from India the animals,
whether fheep or goats, which yield the peculiarly foft
wool for fhawls. This would be a moft valuable article,
and is much wanted by our manufacturers.
There can fearcely be a doubt, that under the favourable
climate of the Britith fettlements in New Holland, all the
Afiatic wool-bearing animals, particularly thofe of Cafhmere
and Thibet, might be introduced with every profpeét of
fuccefs. The coarfe wool grown in the colony is chiefly
manufaGtured in the country for domettic ufe. It is efti-
mated that there are at prefent fixty thoufand fheep in the
eolony, and a little perfeverance and attention would fuffice
to change the coarfe-woolled breeds into finer ones; a
change which is at prefent rapidly taking place, and deferves
the greateft encouragement, as wool is the only article of
produce which the colonifts have at prefent to export in
exchange for Britifh manufa€tured goods.
The Improvement of Wool depends primarily on attention
to the breed of fheep, but there are various circumftances of
foil, climate, and food, which are important to be regarded.
The experiments that have been made in various parts of
Europe within the laft half century, have fufficiently re-
moved the prejudice that long prevailed, refpeéting the im-
poffibility of growing the fineft clothing-wool in almoft
every part of the globe where fheep will fubfift and thrive.
It is different with the long combing-wools, to grow which
in perfeGtion, luxuriant paftures feem abfolutely requifite,
and thefe cannot be obtained under a parching fun, nor
could the animal fubfift in tropical climates, covered with
fuch a load of wool as is grown on our fheep in Lincoln-
fhire. Under fuch cireumftances, an entire change feems to
take place in the animal fyftem; the long-woolled theep
become: difeafed and feverifh, and only recover by calling
the fleece, which is replaced by a coat of fhort hair. The
rich pafture in England, and the oppofite coafts of Flanders,
feem mpre favourable to the growth of heavy combing
It
fleeces, than any other country in the known world; and the
Leicefterfhire and Lincolnfhire fheep feem way well
fuited to thefe paftures, and the prices of the wool ob-
tained at prefent are fufficient to fecure attention to
its cultivation. At one period, indeed, during the Ameri-
can revolution, the price of long combing-wool not being
more than about three-pence per pound, the growers turned
their attention principally to the improvement of the car-
cafe, and negleéted the weight of thefleece. At prefent
the price is about eighteen-pence, and the average weight
being about eight pounds, the wool forms an important ob-
ject, and the growers are endeavouring to-increafe the weight
of their fleeces. For the common purpofes of the worfted ma-
nufactures, this wool is fo well fuited as to leave nothing fur-
ther to be defired; and itis this kind which foreign manufac-
turers are fo defirous to obtain from us. In many fituations,
however, where heavy long-woolled fheep are introduced,
and where the foil is not fufficiently rich to grow it in per-
fection, it would be poffible to grow a fleece weighing five or
fix pounds of very fine combing-wool, by crofling the long-
woolled ewes with the Anglo-Merino rams. The increafing
demand for finer goods, and the great improvement made in
the {pinning of combing-wool by machinery, make fuch a
change defirable where the paftures are not fufficiently rich
to bear the heavy long-woolled breeds of Leicefter and
Lincoln.
In many cold and expofed fituations it would be defirable
to provide better fhelter for the flocks ; and the praétice of
greafing, hereafter defcribed, might be introdueed with t
advantage, and would tend to preferve the fheep anf iim
prove the quality of the wool.
The experiments made on the fine-woolled fheep on a
large {cale in different parts of Europe, prove that the pe-
culiarities of food and climate have comparatively {mall in-
fluence on the quality of clothing-wool, and that it may be
grown equally fine in fituations where the fheep are confined
and kept on dry meat a great part of the year, as in Saxony,
Sweden, and Denmark. It may alfo be grown in the
richeft paftures, provided the paftures be over-ftocked, to
keep the herbage bare. There cannot, however, be a doubt,
that a dry light foil, particularly in the moift climate of
England, is moft favourable to the health of the fheep, and
to the quality of the wool.
The experiments that have been made in England on
the Merino fheep have not been fo fuccefsful as in other
countries, principally arifing from two caufes.
In the firft place, the demand for meat in England will
always make the wool but a fecondary object with the gra-
zier, and no crofs of the Merino fheep with the Englifh has
yet produced a race that equal in fymmetry of form the
South Down fheep, or that will produce the fame quantity of
meat to the butcher in the fame fpace of time, and with the
fame food. In the feeond place, the mode of wafhing the
Merino and Anglo-Merino wool in England will, fo long
as it is practifed, prevent the wool from obtaining its proper
value in the market. From the great quantity of natural
yolk or greafe in the Merino fleece, it is impoflible to wath
the wool on the fheep’s back by mere immerfion in water.
In Spain no attempts are made to wafh the wool upon
the fheep’s back, but all the fleeces of a pile are regu-
larly forted, and the different forts fcoured and dried be-
fore the wool is packed. But where the quantity of
wool which any one grower pofleffes is fmall, as in Eng-
land, it would not anfwer to fend for wool-forters from a
diftance ; and to wath the wool before it is forted, would fo
intermingle the fine with the coarfe locks, as to render
the feels forting extremely difficult and expenfive. In
Saxony
WOOL.
Saxony and Sweden the wool is’ wathed on the fheep’s backs.
The following account of the procefs’ is thus deferibed by
baron Schulz. The fheep are firft wafhed with one part
clear ley, and two parts lukewarm water, and then in an-
other tub with lefs ley in the water; after which the fheep
are wafhed, laying them always on their backs, with their
heads up, in a tub with clean water; and laftly, there is
poured on the fheep, when ftanding on the ground, a fuf-
ficient quantity of water, which is as much as poflible
{queezed out of the wool. The fheep are afterwards driven
into an unpattured meadow adjoining, and remain there, to
prevent their foiling themfelves in the fheep-houfe. They
remain there a day and a night, or longer, till the wool be
dry, which in fine weather will be in three days. Some
perfons wafh their fheep twice, but the wool becomes harder
in confequence of it, and has a greyer appearance.
The great quantity of greafe which the fineft Spanifh
wool contains at the firft wafhing mixes with the ley-water,
and makes it quite foapy; but this greafe is wanting in the
fecond wafhing, fo that the water is not in the leaft foftened.
Some mode of wafhing like the above muft be introduced
in England, before the manufa€turer will encourage the
Anglo-Merino wool; for after his purchafe, when he thinks
he has obtained fufficient allowance in the price to cover the
wafte, he is generally much difappointed in finding the lofs
in the manufacture fo greatly to exceed his expe€tation, and
he is deterred from making a fecond trial.
In the northern counties of England, and in Scotland,
a practice has long’ prevailed of greafing the fheep with a
mixture of tar and butter, to preferve the animal from the
effe&ts of moifture, and the inclemency of the weather in
hilly and expofed fituations. This praétice feems at prefent
peculiar to Britain, but the ancients evidently made ufe of
mixtures of the dregs of olive wax, tar, wine, and other in-
gredients, to protect the flin of fheep after fhearing, and
to foften and improve the wool. Such was the praétice of
the Italian fhepherds, as defcribed by Virgil:
« Aut tonfum trifti contingunt corpus amurca,
Et {pumas mifcent argenti vivaque fulfura,
Idzafque pices et pingues unguine ceras -
Scyllamque helleborofque graves nigrumque bitumen.”
Georg. lib. iii.
That this practice was extremely beneficial in warm cli-
mates, by proteCting the fkin of the fheep from infeéts after
fhearing, and by keeping the wool in a foft ftate, cannot
be doubted.
The praétice of greafing the fheep in Scotland, and the
northern counties of England, with a mixture of tar and
butter, feems to have been introduced merely to preferve the
fheep, and was generally fuppofed to be injurious to the
wool. Indeed the great proportion of tar, too frequently
employed, gave fome ground for entertaining this opinion ;
and the breed of fheep, on which this mixture was moft ge-
nerally applied, is naturally the worft which exifts in Britain
for the produGtion of wool, the fleeces more nearly refem-
bling coarfe hair than wool ; but Mr. Bakewell, in his Treatife
on Wool, obferves, that “¢ in Northumberland, where the fine-
woolled fheep have received the benefit of greafing with a
mixture in which the proportion of tar was merely fufficient
to give it due tenacity, the wool is greatly improved by the
procefs, but the ignorance or felfifhnefs of the wool-buyers
for a long time prevented the acknowledgment of the fact.”
Many were afraid to purchafe the wool on account of its
dirty appearance, but its value is now better underftood in
the Yorkfhire markets, and it is purchafed by the manufac-
turers of coloured cloth in preference to the ungreafed wool
of the fame degree of finenefs. The fame ptefereice is alfo
given to the cloths in the halls, where they are fold in an
undreffed {tate. When thefe cloths are finifhed, their fupe-
riority is more apparent, poffeffing a degree of foftnefs far
beyond the ungreafed wool. Thefe wools appear to im-
prove in every procefs of the manufaCture, and yield a cloth
of greater value by twenty or thirty per cent. than the
non lian hard wools, though the latter may be equally
ne.
But even in Northumberland, where the wool is fo
greatly improved by the prattice, its good effe@s in this
refpeé are not fufficiently known, and the operation is delayed
till the approach of winter. By this delay, the upper part
of the ftaple which is firft grown, is deprived of the advan-
tage of being kept in a moift foft ftate during the fummer
heat. When the operation has taken place, a perceptible
improvement may be obferved in the wool which is after-
wards grown. The line of diftin@tion is clearly marked by
the ftain which the unguent leaves in the ftaple, the bottom
part of which, where it is applied, is finer and fofter than
the upper part which was grown before’ its application.
This difference is fo great, that a careful examination of the
fine-greafed wools of Northumberland might alone be fuf-
ficient to demonftrate the advantage of the praétice, and
the inconvenience of delaying the operation to the end of
the year. To derive the moft advantage from the oint-
ment both to the wool and the fheep, it fhould be aps
plied immediately after fhearing, and again at the approach
of winter. By the firft greafing, the wool will be kept foft
and moift during the fultry heats of July and Augutft, and
the top of the ftaple would not become harfh and dif-
coloured, which is frequently the cafe with Englifh wool.
One acknowledged advantage of greafing immediately after
fhearing fhould not’ be overlooked ; it deftroys the fheep-
tick, and has/a tendency to prevent cutaneous diftempers,
and to proteé the fkin from the bite of the fly. The man-
ner of preparing the ointment in Northumberland is as fol-
lows :—From fixteen to twenty pounds of butter are placed
over a gentle fire, and melted ; a gallon of tar is then added,
and the mixture ftirred with a ftick until the tar and butter
are well combined, and form a foft tenacious ointment.
Some {kill is required in its application, the want of which has
prevented the practice from prevailing more generally. If the
ointment be rubbed on the wool, it colleéts on the top of the
itaple, where it detains the loofe foil, and becomes hard, and
is injurious to the wool. The proper method is to divide the
ftaples or locks with one hand, and apply the ointment with
the finger immediately upon the fkin; it is thus kept con-
ftantly foft by the warmth of the animal, and is equally
diffufed through the fleece. Attention to this cireum-
{tance is of the greateft importance to the fuccefs of’ the
practice. The quantity laid on each animal varies in dif-
ferent diftri@s. In the lighter mode of greafing, one gallon
of tar and twenty pounds of butter will be Fafficient for
fifty fheep. In Scotland, where greafing is applied merely
to preferve the animal againft the inclemency of the cli-
mate, a much larger portion of tar is ufed: this would be
very injurious to the wool, were it of any other than the
very coarfeft kind.
Could a cheap fubftitute for tar be found, which would
poflefs equal tenacity, the ointment might be applied with
great advantage to all our native breeds of Englifh theep,
both for the prefervation of the animal and the improve-
ment of the wool. Mr. Bakewell ftates, that long combing-
wools, which have been greafed in this manner, produce a
fofter and fuperior yarn to any ever made from wool of the
native Englifh breeds which have not undergone the pro-
4L2 cefs.
*
WOOL.
cefs. On all chalk and light calcareous foils, the wool is
always much harfher than wools of the fame degree of
finenefs grown on argillaceous or filiceous foils; and this
arifes from the calcareous earth penetrating the fleece, and
abforbing the natural greafe, and thus rendering the fibres
hard and elaftic. Thefe foils cover a large portion of the
fouth-eaftern counties of England, and of fome of the mid-
land counties ; and it is well known to cloth manufacturers
that the wool from thefe diftri&s do not work fo well, nor
make fo foft a cloth, as wool on filiceous or argillaceous
foils. Nor will this wool felt in the fulling-mill like the
fofter wools. The practice of greafing would be of un-
doubted advantage in calcareous diftri@&s, applying the
ointment more ed than in the northern counties.
Perhaps twenty-five pounds of butter, and one of tar, or two
of bees’-wax, might be fufficient for one hundred South-
Down fheep ; and if the mixture were applied once after
fhearing, and again in OGtober, the expence would be
abundantly compenfated by the improved condition both
of the fheep and wool. The foftnefs of wool appears to
be effentially conne&ted with the property of felting, and
depends partly on the ftru€ture of the furface of the fibre,
and partly on its poffefling but a moderate degree of elafticity.
The procefs of felting is beft illuftrated in the hat manu-
fa@ture, where the fibres of wool or fur are brought into
conta&t by preffure and warmth, and form a compaé fub-
ftance without the aid of {pinning and weaving. In fome
parts of Tartary, coarfe cloth for tents is manufactured by
{preading the wool on the ground, and preffing it in warm
water with the feet ; this was probably the firft mode of
making cloth. All good woollen cloth is ftill woven com-
paratively loofe, and is made firm and clofe in the fulling-
mill. The fibres of wool or fur have a_ tendency
to move more eafily in one dire&tion when prefled, than
in the oppofite direction. This motion has been compared
to that of an ear of barley placed under the coat-fleeve,
with the points of the beards downwards; by the ation of
the arm the ear is moved in a retrograde direétion, until it
has advanced from the writ to the fhoulder. When
we draw a-hair of wool or fur through the fingers
in a dire@tion from the points to the root, we can
feel a fenfible degree of roughnefs, which is not felt if
the hair be drawn from the root to the point. Hence
we may fuppofe, that the furface is covered with a number
of points or rings, which are too minute to be obferved by
the microfcope, except in fome kinds of fur, as in that from
the South-fea feal, in which, with a powerful microfcope,
we have feen the furface covered with diftin& leaves or
points, fhaped like thofe of the artichoke. We have a
ftriking illuftration of this tendency of the fibre to move in
one dire&tion in that particular procefs of hat-making,
where it is intended to cover the felt or fubftance of the
hat with fur of a fuperior kind. The felt on which this
fur is to be laid being finifhed, the hair of the beaver is
uniformly fpread upon the furface, and being covered with
a cloth, it is prefled and agitated by the hand for a certain
time. The fibres of beaver-hair introduce themfelves by
their roots into the felt, and proceed to a certain depth,
and become firmly fixed in it. If the preflure were con-
tinued for a longer time, the hairs would pafs entirely
through the felt, going out at the under furface, as each
hair follows the direétion it acquired at the beginning of
the procefs.
As the felting property, therefore, feems to depend on
the minute ftructure of the furface of the fibre, it is eafy
to conceive how this may be injured by. a dry calcareous
foil, and how this property is beft preferved in thofe furs
9
which are grown under a covering of coarfe hair, and pro-
tected from external injury. The procefs of greafing is in
fome refpects a fubftitute for fuch a covering, and not only
defends the furface, but prevents the oly becoming
dry, harfh, and elaftic. The ancient Greeks and Romans
were in the prattice of covering their foft-woolled fheep,
called molles oves, with fkins: this has been fuppofed to
have been intended merely as a protection from briars and
underwood ; but we have no doubt that wool fo covered
would be much fofter than wool expofed to the aétion of
light, and of the foil. That the rays of the fummer fun
have a tendency to make wool both coarfer and harfher,
may be feen in the effe&t produced on fheep that are ex-
pofed to it without fhelter immediately after fhearing.
The top point of the ftaple which was grown at that time
is almoft always coarfer and harder than the bottom of the
ftaple which has been grown under the cover of the upper
part of the fleece, and confequently more protected from
light. An analogous effe& is produced on the fkins of
horfes kept in coal-mines, which become fleek and foft.
Thefe fa&ts may fuggeft to wool-growers defirous of im-
proving their wool, the advantage of providing fhade for their
flocks during the fultry heats of fummer. The natural in-
ftinéts of fheep might teach them the impropriety, not to {peak
of the cruelty, of keeping their fheep in fummer inclofed in
pens, and unfheltered, upon a dry foil, where the animals are
almoft roafted alive ; a practice not lefs injurious to the health
of fheep than to all the beft qualities of the wool. Next to a
regular fupply of food, proteétion from the effets of heat
and wet are objeéts of the firft importance in the manage-
ment of fheep ; and it may be {tated as an undoubted truth,
that whatever contributes to the comfort of the animal,
will enable it to fatten with a {maller quantity of food, will
tend to preferve it in a healthy ftate, and will alfo increafe
the quantity and improve the quality of the wool.
Woot, Chemical Examination of. "The chemical proper-
ties of wool are very fimilar to thofe of hair, and as we
omitted to {peak of thefe in their proper place, we fhall
introduce them here.
From the experiments of Achard and Hatchett, it ap-
pears that hair contains gelatine, to which it owes its fup-
plenefs and toughnefs. When hair is boiled in water, this
principle is feparated, and the hair becomes much more
brittle than before. Indeed, if the procefs be continued
long enough, the hair crumbles to pieces between the
fingers The portion infoluble in water poflefles, according
to Mr. Hatchett, the properties of coagulated albumen,
Mr. Hatchett has concluded, from his experiments, that
the hair which lofes its curl in moift weather, and which is
fofteft. and moft flexible, is that which yields its gelatine
mott readily ; whereas ftrongvand elaftic hair yields it with
the greateft difficulty, and in the fmalleft proportion.
This conclufion has been confirmed by a very confiderable
hair merchant in London, who aiflured him that the firft
kind of hair was much more injured by boiling than the
fecond.
Vauquelin has publifhed a curious fet of experiments on
human hair of different colours. He found it completely
foluble in a Papin’s digefter. During this procefs, ful-
phuretted hydrogen was evolved. The folution thus ob-
tained contains a kind of bituminous oil, which is depofited
very flowly. This oil was black when the hair was black,
but yellowifh-red when red hair was the fubje& of experi-
ment. . When this oil was removed, im and chlorine
produced copious precipitates. Silver was blackened, and
acetate of lead precipitated .brown. . When. concentrated
by evaporation, it did not concrete into a jelly.
Water
WOOL.
Water containing only four fer cent. of potath diffolves hair,
while hydro-fulphuret of ammonia is evolved. If the hair
be black, a thick dark-coloured oil, with fome fulphur and
iron, remain undiffolved. If the hair be red, this oil is yel-
lowifh. Acids throw down from this folution a preci-
pitate, foluble in excefs of acid.
Sulphuric and muriatic acids become red when firft
poured on hair, and gradually diffolve it, Nitric acid
turns hair yellow, and diffolves it, while an oil feparates,
varying in colour, as before-mentioned, according to the
colour of the hair employed. The folution contains a
great deal of oxalic acid, befides bitter principle, iron, and
fulphuric acid. Chlorine reduces it to a fubftance of the
confiftence of turpentine, partly foluble in alcohol.
Alcohol, digefted on black hair, extraéts from it two
kinds of oil. The firft, which is white, fubfides in white
fhining fcales as the liquor cools; the fecond is obtained
by evaporating the alcohol. It has a greyifh-green colour,
and at laft becomes folid. From red hair alcohol alfo ex-
traéts two oils, one white, as above, the other red as blood.
After this latter has been extraéted, the hair becomes
chefnut. Hence its red colour appears to depend upon
this oil.
Hair on incineration yields iron and manganefe, fulphate
and carbonate of lime, muriate of foda, and a confiderable
proportion of filica. The afhes of red hair contain lefs
tron and manganefe. Thofe of white hair {till lefs; but in
thofe we find magnefia, which is waating in the afhes of other
hair. The afhes of hair do not exceed .015 of the hair.
Hence, according to this analyfis, hair confifts of
r. Animal matters conitituting the greateft part.
A white folid oil, {mall in quantity.
. A greyifh-green oil, more abundant.
. Iron, ftate unknown.
. Oxyd of manganefe.
Phofphate of lime.
. Carbonate of lime, very fcanty.
« Silica.
. Sulphur.
Vauquelin infers from thefe experiments, that hair
depends for its colour upon a kind of oil, which varies ac-
cording to the colour of the hair in which it is found. He
alfo fuppofes, that fulphuret of iron contributes to the
colour of black hair. ‘The fudden change of colour in hair
from grief, he thinks, is owing to the evolution of an acid.
Bichat, however, attributes this change, perhaps with
greater probability, to the abforption of the colouring prin-
ciple. ‘To whatever caufe it be owing, the fa& appears
undoubted ; and it fhews a clofer conneétion between the
living powers and the hair, than many phyfiologifts are in-
clined to admit.
Wool appears, according to the experiments of Berthollet,
to coincide almoft exaétly in its chemical properties with thofe
of hair above-mentioned. When growing on the back of the
animal, it is enveloped in a greafy matter, called the yolg,
and which appears to be a kind of foap; or, more properly
{peaking, according to the experiments of Vauquelin, who
has examined it, of
1. A foap of potafh.
2. Carbonate of potafh.
3. A little acetate of potafh.
4. Lime.
5- A little muriate of potafh.
6. An animal matter.
This fubftance appears to have the property of prote@ting
the animal from infects to a certain degree, and of preferving
OWI An pwn
the foftnefs of the wool, which are perhaps its chief ufes. It ig
removed from the wool before it is manufaGtured, by the pro-
cefs termed /couring. The affinity of the animal matter of
wool for all colouring principles is very great, and in general
far exceeds that of the different vegetable fibres, as cotton,
flax, &c. for fuch principles. There is one kind of coarfe
wool, however, which, according to Dr. Bancroft, does not
poflefs this property, and receives colours with great diffi-
culty. See Dyer, and the preceding article.
Woot, Laws relating to. The jealoufy entertained on
the fubje& of our wools, may be learnt from the legal re-
ftri€tion which has been made in relation thereto; as alfo
with the view that as much employment as is poffible may
be found for the labouring clafles. This is effe@ed by the
prohibition of the exportation of wool in an unmanufac-
tured ftate, as will be feen below. It muft be obvious,
however, that it would be to little purpofe to be thus ftri@
re{peCting the article itfelf, if that which produced it was
not equally guarded ; therefore as early as 13 & 14 Ch. II.
c. 18. it was made felony to export fheep from England or
Ireland, or even to Scotland: now however the penalty is
forfeiture of every ram, fheep, or lamb, and the veffel in
which fuch is fhipped with intent to exportation from Great
Britain and the iflands belonging thereto; and offenders are
to forfeit 3/. for every fheep, &c. fo hipped, and to fuffer
three months folitary imprifonment, and till the forfeiture
be paid, but not to exceed twelve months; and for any
fecond offence s/. for each ram, &c. and fix months impri-
fonment, and till the fine is paid, but not to exceed two
years. 28 Geo. III. c. 38. § 2.
_ By the gth and 37th feétions, no wool, woolfells, mort-
lings, yarn, or wortted made of wool, woolfiocks, cover-
ings, cruels, waddings, or other manufaétures, or pretended
manufactures flightly wrought up fo that it may be reduced
to wool again, or mattrefles, or beds ftuffed with wool
combed or fit for combing or carding, may be fhipped or
exported, or carried or moved for that purpofe, from Great
Britain, or Guernfey, Jerfey, Alderney, Sark, or Man, to
any foreign place, on forfeiture of the wool, with the car-
riage, fhip, or cattle on which it is laden or removed ; but
300 fheep may be fent annually from Liverpool or White-
haven to the Ifle of Man (51 Geo. III. c. 50.); and the
perfon offending to forfeit 3s. for every pound weight, or
5o/. in the whole, and to be imprifoned three months, and
till the penalty is paid, but not to exceed fix months; but
for a fecond offence he is to forfeit the like fums, and to be
imprifoned for fix months, and till fuch fine be paid, not
exceeding two years; but this is not to extend to lambfkins
drefled for furs and linings.
__ And perfons qualified by the governors of the following
iflands may export the refpeétive qualities fet againft them
from Southampton to thofe places in every year :
Tods.
To Jerfey - - 4000
To Guernfey - 2000
To Alderney - 400
To Sark “ z 200
28 Geo. III. c. 38. § 16, 17. And 20,000 pounds weight of
worfted and woollen yarn may be exported annually from
London to Lower Canada, by permiffion of his majefty in
council. 47 GeollII.c.g. 52 Geo. III. c. 55.
By the 48 Geo. III. c. 44. wool may be fhipped in Eng-
land for exportation to Ireland, on being duly entered and
bond given for its true exportation there ; and upon obtain-
ing a licence under the hands of the commiffioners of the
cuftoms to allow it.
No
Woo
No wool fhipped to be fent coaftwife from one part of
Great Britain to another, until due notice be given and bond
entered into, and a licence obtained under the hand of three
commiffioners of the cuftoms. Penalty, forfeiture. 28
Geo. III. c. 38: § 34. And wool muft alfo be hipped
coaftwife in Britiih fhip, Britifh owned and manned, the
owner of which does not refide out of Great Britain. § 19.
and 12 Car. II. c.18. Formerly there were penalties and
forfeitures for keeping or removing wool in Kent and Suf-
fex within certain diftances of the fea (ten and fifteen miles),
without entry and bond, and procuring certificates or per-
mits, and alfo for removing wool within five miles of the
fea-coaft of Great Britain before fun-rifing and after fun-
fet; but by the 54 Geo. III. c. 78. all the regulations
formerly required antecedent to the removal of wool on land
throughout .England are repealed.
Wool to be packed in packs, or truffles of leather, or can-
vas, called ‘ Pack-cloths,’ or in linen or woollen, and to be
marked ‘ Wool,’ in letters three inches long, on forfeiture
of the wool, and 1s. per pound. 28 Geo. III. c, 38. § 28.
Perfons packing wool, &c. into boxes, barrels, cafks,
or chefts, and other than as above, or prefling or fteaning
the fame, to forfeit the goods, and 3s. per pound. Ibid.
O5.3.1+
: Lape for the conveyance of wool contrary to this
a& void, and the parties may be punifhed. § 45,46, 47) 48-
King’s hips empowered and required to fearch fhips for
wool fhipped without licence. § 49) 50» 51+
No: perfon can feize wool unlawfully removing but
officers of cuftoms, excife, and falt-duties, or perfons ac-
companied by a conftable (§ 52-); and perfons neglecting
their duty to forfeit 20/., and making collufive feizures or
agreements to be fubjeé&t to like penalties as exporters.
(s 53- 55-) Hindering, obftruéting, or beating officers,
ubjects offenders to tranfportation ; and bribery of them,
whether accepted or not, to the penalty of 300/. § 56, 57-
If any queftion arifes upon the growth of the wool, the
onus probandi is to lie upon the owners. § 60.
Informations may be laid in any court of record, and
penalties, &c. under 200/, may be determined before two
juftices of the peace; and juitices at quarter-feffions may
direé&t fhips, goods, wool, &c. to be fold. § 62, 63.
Profecutions to be commenced within three years.
UB
: Wool the growth of Ireland may be exported to Eng-
land, and no where elfe. 1 W. & M. c. 32. 7&8 W. III.
co 28 10&11 W.III. c.10. 26 Geo. III. c. 11.
And the Admiralty is to appoint three fhips of the fixth
rate, and eight or more armed floops, to prevent the ex-
portation of wool from Ireland to foreign ports. 5 Geo. II.
Ci 20.
Wool the produce of any of the colonies, &c. in America,
or countries on the continent of America, fubjeét to any
foreign European ftates, imported into certain Britifh Weft
India iflands, may be imported into Great Britain under the
regulations of the 12 Car. II. c. 18.
Thofe places are, Jamaica, Granada, Dominica, Antigua,
Trinidad, Tobago, New Providence, Crooked ifland, St.
Vincent, Bermuda, Caicos, Tortola, Curacoa, and the
Bahamas. 27 Geo. III. c. 27. 45 Geo. III. ¢. 57.
47 Geo. III. feff. 2. c. 34.
Britith hare or coney wool may not be exported, (except
to Treland, #3 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67.) on penalty. of
forfeiture. ‘The owner or fhipper to pay 100/., and the
mafter of the fhip 40/. 24 Geo. III. c. 21.
Woot, Cheefe made under, in Rural Economy, a term
woo
applied to that fort of high-tafted ewe cheefe which is
made before the fheep are fhorn. See Cuegse.
Woot, Pack of, a quantity of wool packed up clofely
tomeliee ina mae maaiet t phen ia kind, which, in
ondon is conftituted of two hundred.and forty .
See Woot. poe
Woot, Pocket of. See Pocker.
Woot, Sor pier ah See SARPLAR.
Woot-Stapler, a perfon who ftaples and deals in wool.
See Woot.
Woot-Stapling. See Sraprine of Wool.
Woot-Balls, in Natural Hiftory, mafles of wool com-
patted into firm and hard balls, and found in the fto-
machs of fheep, as the hair-balls are in oxen and other
animals. :
Thefe are doubtlefs formed in the fame manner as
thofe hair-balls of the outer covering of the animal ; but
they are much more uncommon ; they are found in num-
bers, three, four, or five, in the ftomach of the fame
animal. Their outfide has commonly much the fame
appearance of a puff-ball, and is ufually either in part or
wholly covered with a very thin and foft blackifh fmooth
fkin ; the inner fubftance is entirely wool, but that wrought
together as clofely as the hatter does his furs in the making
of them into hats.
They are ufually foft, fmooth, and fomewhat elaftic, of
a pale buff-colour, very light, and of irregular figures
rather cubic than globular,, and deldom of any great fize,
an inch in diameter being their common ftandard; More-
ton’s Northampt. p. 451. See Baus.
WOOLASSEY, in Geography, a town of ;
miles N.E. of Calcutta. Ao arcoits
WOOLDALE, a townfhip of England, in the Weft
Riding of Yorkfhire, near Wakefield.
WOOLDAW, a town of Bengal; 40 miles W. of
Nagore.
WOOLDERS, Single and Double-Handed, in Ship-
Building, are {ticks about three feet long, and four inches
in circumference, with ftraps of rope-yarn made’ faft, to
fix on the rope in making, and affift’ the men at the
hooks in clofing the rope. woe
WOOLDING, is winding feveral clofe turns of
rope in a tight manner round the maits and yards, that ~
are made of feveral united pieces, to ftrengthen and
confine the fame together. In making new mafts and
— this method is difcontinued, and iron hoops ufed in
eu.
Woolding is alfo the rope employed in this fervice.
WOOL-DRIVERS, are thofe who buy wool of the
fheep-owners in the country, and carry it on horfeback to
the clothiers, or market-towns, to fell it again.
WOOLER, anciently WiLLove, in Geography, a mar-
ket-town, and parifh in the ward of Coquet-dale, and county
of Northumberland, England. The former is fituated
near the Cheviot-hills, 17 miles S. from Berwick-upon-
Tweed, 46 N. by W. from Newcattle, and 320 in the ten
direGtion from London. In 1811 the houfes in the parifh
were 284, inhabited by 1704 perfons. A market is held on
Thurfday, and fairs on the 4th of May and 17th of OGober.
Wooler was a barony, and. confilted of feveral manors in the
time of Henry I., who conferred it on Robert de Mufcamp,
whofe fucceflor Robert, in the reign of Henry III., was
the moft powerful baron in the north of England: it now
belongs to the earl of Tankerville. The church was re-
built in 1765, and the town contains fome meeting-houfes
for diffenters, Situated near the confines between the king-
doms
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
doms of England and Scotland, the environs of Wooler
prefent many intrenchments, cairns, and other memorials of
the fanguinary confli€&s which in former times occurred be-
tween the rival nations on the borders. About ten miles N.
from the town, on the road to Scotland, is the celebrated
Flodden-field, where the Scotch, in 1513, received a fignal
defeat, and James IV. was flain.—Beauties of England,
Northumberland, by the Rev. J. Hodgfon, 8vo. 1812.
WOOLHASA, a town of Algiers; 6 miles N.W. of
Tackumbreet.
WOOLLEN Manuracture, Progre/s of the. The
origin of the woollen manufaéture, like that of many other
ufeful arts, is not precifely known. At a very early period,
domeftic fheep were extenfively fpread over Weftern Afia.
The introduétion of fheep into Europe is not recorded by
ancient writers, unlefs we {uppofe the expedition of the Argo-
nauts to Colchis refers to thisevent. Sheep were probably
firft domefticated for theit milk, and afterwards for their
fins, which muft have been the firft drefs of paftoral nations.
Sheep and goats, in the early ages of fociety, were nearly of
equalvalue. The Greeks, who oftentatioufly refer all ufeful
difcoveries to their own country, and rank their inventors
among the gods, have afcribed to Minerva the invention of
{pinning and weaving. Thefe arts appear, however, to have
been firft praétifed, at a very early period, in Egypt, and
applied to the {pinning and weaving of flax. At what time
they were firft applied to wool is unknown. Though Pliny
informs us, that Nicias of Megara difcovered the art of full-
ing cloth, the property which wool poffeffed of felting was
known in the Eaft at a much earlier period, and probably
gave rife to the firft manufaGture of woollen goods which
were not woven, but felted like the fubftance of hats.
On this fubje&, Mr. Luccock, in his Treatife on Wool, ju-
dicioufly remarks, ‘ whilft the fkins of fheep dreffed with their
wool on ferved as clothing, it is obvious that only one ufeful
fleece could be obtained from one animal, and as the fleece
is generally caft, or falls off once a year, this produce mutt
have been waited. In avery early period, however, the
property which wool pofleffes of felting was difcovered, or,
in other words, it was found that by preffure and moifture
the fibres of wool might be made to‘adhere together, and
produce a compact pliable fubftance, quite as durable and
more convenient than the {kins formerly ufed. This ap-
pears to have been the firft effort to produce a woollen ma-
nufa@ure.’”? It is probable the felting property was dif-
covered by accident, as fome fleeces will felt upon the fheep’s
backs; among farmers, thefe are called cotted fleeces.
When the application of this difcovery was firit made, the
knowledge of the art was foon widely fpread. The tents
of the Arabs and Tartars are, at the prefent day, all made
of felt from the wool of fheep, mingled with the hair of
goats, camels, and other quadrupeds, and may be confidered
as remains of the original art of cloth-making.
The art of {pinning and weaving threads made from wool
was, in all probability, derived from the Eaft ; they are alluded
to by Mofes as exifting nearly fifteen hundred years before
the Chriftian era, and it appears that the early patriarchs had
numerous flocks of fheep.
The greater part of thefe fheep, we are informed, were,
at firft, either dark-coloured or {potted ; hence we may infer
that the art of dyeing wool was then unknown. When the
feleGion and cultivation of white wool gave to woollen cloth
the property of receiving the tints of the dyer, the value and
ufe of wool mutt have greatly increafed, owing to the great
eftimation in which richly-coloured garments are held by
people advancing to a ftate of civilization.
f .
Thus, in addition to the fuperior pliability and comfort
of woollen cloth, compared with {kins or felts, the tafte for
it muft have been widely fpread by the art of dyeing. It
had alfo the great recommendation to its general adoption,
that it could be fabricated with eafe in every family. The
machinery required for the purpofe was extremely fimple.
The diftaff and the loom, fays Mr. Luccock, were little more
in the hands of the firft manufa@turers, than the fpade in
thofe of the hufbandman. Spinning and weaving, as we
have already obferved, were in ufe at leaft fifteen hundred
years before the Chriftian era ; but the manner in which they
were performed is not related until about three centuries
afterwards. Then the loom confifted of a frame of wood,
in fome refpe& different from the modern one, but well
adapted to the fame purpofes.
The alterations which have been made in it confift, per-
haps, more in the pofition of the beam, and the mode of
opening the web for the paflage of the fhuttle, than in any
other circumftance. Nor was the earlieft mode of {pinning
lefs perfeét, than that which was praétifed in the moft cele-
brated manufaéturing countries for many ages afterwards.
It was performed by means of a rod or ftaff, about which
the wool to be fpun was carefully wrapt, and held in the
left-hand, while a rough kind of {pindle, quickly twirled be-
twixt the right-hand and the thigh, was fuffered to continue
its motion when fufpended by the thread which the artift gra-
dually lengthened with his fingers. This leaft complex of
{pinning-machines is not entirely laid afide even now. A
few years fince it was not uncommon in the county of Nor-
folk, and its continuance in ufe through fo many ages is the
beft proof of its excellence.
The preparing of wool for {pinning was probably firft
effe€ted by the fingers, and afterwards by the fuller’s teazle
or thiftle, the dipfacus fullorum, which with its rough and
hooked points was well adapted to the purpofe, and has
continued in ufe to the prefent day. The card afterwards
uied was probably a fubftitute for the carduus, or teazle.
The application of the wheel to a fpindle, or the fpinning-
wheel, is, we believe, unnoticed in hiftory. Whenever thefe
inventions took place, it is probable their firft introduétion
contributed more to increafe the quantity, than improve the
quality of the yarn and cloth. For a confiderable period
after the commencement of the woollen manufaéture, the
improvements made in fpinning or weaving of wool were
effe€ted by the improved addrefs and {kill of the manufac-
turer; rather than by any alteration in his machinery, as we
now fee the manufaéturing nations of the Eaft execute very
elaborate works with initruments of the moft fimple con-
ftru€tion. In proportion as luxury and refinement increafed,
the demand for fuperior fabrics would induce the growers
of wool to pay great attention to the fleece, and to fele&
and preferve for breeding thofe fheep which produced the
fofteft and fineft wool ; with the ancients thefe terms were
{ynonymous. The produce of fine white wool from fheep
is entirely the refult of cultivation ; it has never been grown
except in countries were the woollen manufaétures have
flourifhed. The race of fine-woolled fheep has, however,
been partly preferved in thofe countries after the deftruétion
of their trade. The grower would alfo foon learn to pay par-
ticular attention to the whitenefs of his fleeces, as a clear
white ground is neceflary for receiving the mott brilliant dyes.
Blue, purple, and fcarlet, were the tints moft admired; and
though the ingredients, by means of which they were pro-
duced, are in eed meafure unknown, yet we have the moft
indubitable teftimonies to their excellency, and the eftimation
in which they were held. To produce them in their richeit
luitre,
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
juftre, a feleGtion of the wool moft adapted to receive them
muit be made, and this would operate with great precifion
upon the wool-forter’s attention.
While the manufa€ture of wool was confined to the
houfes of the grower, and the butinefs of it tranfacted by
his domeftics in a fecluded ftate, there was lefs room for the
ftimulation and exercife of invention than in after-ages, when
it became the appropriate calling of one particular part of
the community, and their fuccefs depended upon the opinion
which others formed of the fabric. Yet in the fimplett days
of Greece, it was not deemed an employment unfuitable to
palaces, nor did a princefs degrade her dignity by fuperin-
tending the labours of the loom, the diftaff, and the dyeing
wat.
We have little information refpeéting the woollen manu-
fa&tures of the Greeks and Romans, as diftin& from their
domeftic manufactures; but large eftablifhments were necef-
dary for the clothing of diftant armies, and for i com-
merce. ‘That the Romans had carried the manufacture of
fine woollen cloth to a high degree of perfeétion, is proved
by a variety of circumftances, and particularly by the great
attention paid to the cultivation of fine-woolled fheep, and
by the high prices at which the wool and fheep were fold,
as appears from the writings of Pliny, Varro, and Columella.
Pliny defcribes two kinds of fheep: the one which grew
coarfe long wool, and was on this account called hirtum or
hirfutum, and from its hardinefs and ruder treatment colo-
nicum or rultic; the other breed was called molle, from
the foftnefs of the wool, and genero/um or noble, from its ex-
cellence; alfo pellitum, from its being clothed with fkins to
proteét the wool. The race is fometimes alfo called Taren-
tinum, Apulum, Calabrum Atticum, and Grecum, from the
neighbourhood or diftri€& in which it chiefly lived ; but what
is of more importance, as fhewing the origin of the fine-
woolled fheep of Italy, the race is called Afianum ; and,
according to Pliny, a fimilar race exifted in his time at
Laodicea in Syria. The defcription given of thefe fheep
by Pliny agrees with the prefent race of Merino fheep.
There is not, fays Dr. Parry, throughout Europe, any breed
of fhort-woolled fheep now exifting befides the Merino, of
which the males are horned and the females not.
That the Romans imported their Tarentine fheep into
their weftern colonies, with the art of manufaturing fine
cloth, we learn from Strabo and Pliny. The former writer,
who flourifhed in the reign of Auguttus, fays, that in Tur-
detania in Portugal, then a part * Spain, “‘ they formerly
imported many garments, but now their wool was better
than that of the Coraxi, and fo beautiful, that a ram for the
purpofe of breeding was fold for a talent, and that fabrics
of extraordinary thinnefs were made of this wool by the
Saltrate.”? Probably this was fimilar to the fhawl cloth of
India, and woven in the fame manner, as Pliny calls it
{cutulatus, a term which he applies alfo to the {pider’s-web.
The little attic talent of filver is eftimated to equal in
value 216/. of Englifh money, which fhews the high eftima-
tion in which the beft wool was held even in the colonies of
Rome.
All ranks of people of both fexes among the Romans
chiefly wore woollen garments. In the reign of Aurelian,
270 years after Chrift, a pound of filk, according to Vopif-
cus, was equal to a pound of gold. A people fo pre-
eminent in wealth, and in all the refinements of art, would
naturally be folicitous to attain the higheft degree of ex-
cellence in the manufaéture of thofe fabrics, which were
calculated to gratify their paffion for adorning their perfons,
and it was equally as neceflary to confult their eafe as
their vanity. ‘The fummer-heat of Italy was fo t, that
the affluent could fearcely have fupported a woollen drefs,
had it not been made of the lighteft and thinneft cloth. We
find alfo, that during the Augultan age, and for a confider-
able time afterwards, it was the fafhion to wear cloths which,
as at prefent, were furnifhed with a raifed nap or pile. Such
cloths were called pexe, in contradiftin@ion to trite or
thread-bare. Thus Horace :
«
Si forte fubucula pexz
Trita fub eft tunice rides.””
“ You laugh if you efpy a thread-bare veft
Under a well-dreffed tunic.’’
And alfo Martial :
« Pexatus pulchre, rides mea, Zoile trita.’’
The term pexatus, applied to cloth, leads us to fuppofe
that the nap or pile was raifed with a comb, having very
fine teeth. Pliny informs us, that in his time the price of .
wool had never exceeded 100 feftertii the libra, or pound ;
now the Roman feltertius being about 8d. of our money,
and the libra about 5245 grains, it follows that an avoirdu-
pois pound, or 7008 grains, would have coft about 1/. 2s. of
our money. From the intercourfe with Perfia and the Eaft,
the Romans would become acquainted with the fhawl-cloths
of India, and would naturally with to imitate fo beautiful
and delicate a fabric. ‘Thefe are made from very foft fine
fhort wool, and not from combed wool, as has been gene-
rally fuppofed in this country. The exiftence of that ma-
nufaéture in Hindooftan for many ages, is a proof of the
high degree of perfe€tion to which the Fabrication of woollen
cloth had been carried in former times. For fhawl-cloth is
only woollen cloth, woven with a twill, and unmilled, but
it is fpun to a great degree of fintnefs, and from wool
fo peculiarly foft, that it has never been rivalled by any Eu-
ropean nations. The perfection of the colours, and the
fill difplayed in the weaving, we have no reafon to believe
are greater now than in the time of Alexander the Great ;
and if thefe manufaétures were fuccefsfully imitated by the
Greeks or Romans, or even diftantly approached in the ma-
nufa&ture of their fine cloths, we may form fome idea of
the perfe€tion to which they had arrived. When in the
decline of the Roman empire, their colonies were overrun
by favage barbarians, all their public eftablifhments and ma-
nufactures were deftroyed, but the art of producing from
the fleece a warm and fubftantial clothing was never entirely
loft, even during the darkeft days of ignorance. It began
to revive, and became the feparate occupation of one clafs
of the community about the middle of the tenth century in
the Low Countries, where it remained the glory of the
people, and the fource of their opulence, through more
than four hundred years. The wool which it confumed for
the firlt few years was the produce of their own paftures,
which had but lately been reclaimed from the foreft ; but as
the manufacture extended itfelf, the demands became larger,
and were fupplied from a greater diftance. The wealth
which it diitributed was foon vifible, and people crowded
into the country, engaged in its commerce, and pufhed
their {peculations with increafing vigour through a hundred
and fifty years, when an inundation of the fea threatened to
involve the art, the, artift, and the country, in one general
deftru€tion. The difperfion of the people who fled from
the calamity which appeared to overwhelm their hopes, in-
flead of deftroying the infant manufacture, gave it additional
vigour, and was the means of eftablifhing a conneétion be-
tween
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
tween the Netherlands and foreign countries, which proved
of the higheft importance to commerce. It contributed to
a much more fpeedy recovery of the arts conne¢ted with the
woollen manufacture, from the ruin which feemed to
threaten them, and gave a ftriking inftance of their partia-
lity for the feats where they have once flourifhed, under the
patronage of a government liberal enough to encourage, and
fufficiently powerful to proteét them, even in fituations at-
tended with natural difadvantages. The influence of thefe
manufactures upon the fleeces of the Low Countries mutt
have been very confiderable ; for before the year 960 we have
no reafon to fuppofe that their quality was fuperior to that
which we find in the neighbouring diftrits ; yet it was not
very long ere Flanders and Brabant became famous for the
manufacture of fine cloths, even at a period when they im-
ported but little foreign wool. Perhaps the fabrics might
not be equal to thofe which we now produce from the
fleeces of Spain, or even from the improved ones of our own
fheep, but they were preferable to thofe of England and the
nations of the continent, Italy and Spain excepted. It was
about the year 1200 that the merchants began to import the
wools of other countries, to extend their conneétions much
more widely, and to grow by this means {till more rich and
powerful. The manufactures required a larger quantity of
the raw material than ufual, and the population of the country
had reached that extent which does not admit of a great
number of fheep being kept, even though the employment
of the people depend upon the fleeces, and their fubfiftence
upon the food which they furnifh. We fhall obferve in-
ftances of a fimilar kind when we treat more particularly of
England. The operation of thefe two caufes was evidently
fufficient to induce the manufacturer to go farther from
home, and to feek the moft convenient methods of fupplying
hislooms. It might have been expected that he would have
turned his attention to France and to Germany ; but inde-
pendent of the hoftile difpofitions of fome of the neighbour-
ing fovereigns, the raw material was too bulky to be con-
veyed at an eafy expence through the bad roads of a half
cultivated country ; and the fhips of Spain and of Britain,
who found an intereft in fupplying the wants of the Nether-
lands, unladed their cargoes almoft at his very door, and fo-
licited in payment but little elfe than the goods which he
had manufactured.
Spain was the firft country on the weftern fide of Eu-
rope, where the Tarentine breed of fine-woolled fheep
were cultivated with fuccefs by the Romans. See SHEEP.
This breed, intermixed with the native flocks, gave rife
to the prefent fine-woolled fheep of Spain; and it does not
appear that this valuable race was ever greatly negleGted in
that country. That it abounded in fheep in what is called
the middle age cannot be doubted. At the, period when
the Saracens extended themfelves in Spain, about the eighth
century, to ufe the quaint words of Roderic, archbifhop of
Toledo, “it was fruitful in corn, pleafant in fruits, de-
licious in fifhes, favoury in milk, clamorous in hunting,
and gluttonous in herds and flocks,”—gulofa armentis et
gregibus. He wrote in A.D. 1243. In England at that
time fheep were fo fcarce, that a fleece was eftimated at
two-thirds the value of the ewe which produced it, together
with the lamb.
Into Spain the invaders either carried the arts of luxury,
or, what is more probable, improved them by their fuperior
induftry. The revenue of one of their fovereigns in the
tenth century amounted to fix millions fterling ; a fum, fays
Gibbon, which at that time probably furpaffed the united
revenues of the Chriftian monarchs. When, feveral centuries
afterwards, the Saracens were gradually expelled by their
Vox. XXXVIII.
Chriftian neighbours, Spain faw nothing but the change of
religion to compenfate the lofs of population, of agricultural
and mechanical fcience, of induftry, and wealth. On the re-
covery of the Seville from the Moors in 1248, not lefs than
16,000 looms are faid to have been found in that city. Of
thefe, the greater number was probably employed in the
fabric of woollen cloths. According to Uftarix, “ Theory
and Practice of Commerce,’’ the manufaétures of Segovia
flourifhed moft, both in point of number and quality, and
were in high efteem, being the beft and fineft that were
known in ancient times. ‘The temperature of the climate,
and the luxurious propenfities of the inhabitants, would natu-
rally determine thefe fabrics to be of the lighteft and fofteft
kinds. Hence in the midit of the boafted ancient manu-
fa&tures of England, we read only of two or three inftances
of the importation of Englifh cloth into Spain. The
Spaniards had certainly at that time their own native fleeces
beft adapted to their own tafte and climate.
We are told by Dillon, in his “ Hiftory of Peter the
Gruel,”? that the woollen cloths of Barcelona were in high
efteem in Seville in the reign of that prince, and in the
preceding century. So far back as 1243, the woollen cloth
of Lerida is fpoken of in terms of great eftimation. A few
years after, Baurlas, Valis, Gerena, Perpignan, and Tor-
tofa, were remarkable as manufaCturing towns, and for the
finenefs of their cloths, fuftians, and ferges. So great was
their exportation, that in 1353 there were 935 bales of
cloth taken on board a fhip from Barcelona to Alexandria
by a Genoefe privateer; and 1000 bales of cloth were
taken on board three Catalonian fhips in 1412, by Antonio
Dorco, in the port of Callus. We are told by the fame
author, that, according to records ftill extant in Barcelona,
confiderable orders for wool were fent to England in 1446,
in order to be manufaétured there and returned to England
in the form of cloth, the Spaniards themfelves difdaining to
wear it.
According to Lucius Marineus Siculus, who wrote in
the time of the emperor Charles V., Spain was then full of
herds and flocks, more efpecially it contained innumerable
fheep ; fo that many fhepherds, whom he knew, had flocks
of 30,000 each; on which account Spain not only fupplied
its own people moft abundantly, but alfo foreign nations,
with the very fofteft wool.
This account is confirmed by what is related by Sandoval,
who ftates, that in an infurreétion in Spain in 1519, the
army of infurgents, among whom were many cloth-workers,
ftipulated, among other points, that the cloths imported
into Spain fhould be of the fame fize and goodnefs as thofe
wrought there; and that the merchants and clothiers might
have eve to feize, in order to work up, half the wools fold
for exportation, paying the owners the price at which they
had been bought, Hence we learn the fuperiority of Spanifh
cloth, and the great fale of Spanifh wool to foreign countries
at that time.
Damianus a Goes, who was page to Emanuel, king of
Portugal, in 1516, has written a fhort account of the me-
morable things of Spain, which he dates at Louvain in the
year 1541. In this work he fays, that there are annually
exported from Spain to Bruges 40,000 facks of wool, each
felling at the loweft for twenty gold ducats.
Now from an authentic acquittance, preferved in the
Foedera, from queen Elizabeth to Cofmo de Medici, for a
fum borrowed by him of Henry VIII., we find that the
gold ducat or florin was in 1545 equal to five fhillings of
our money. In this year, the 36th of Henry VIII., the
bafe coinages began; but as queen Elizabeth feems to have
continued receiving the inftalments of the Florentine debt
4M for
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
for feveral years at the fame rate, when the fhilling was of
fomething more than the prefent value, we think it pro-
bable that the rate waa fixed at the beginning of the year
1545, when the fhilling was at 1s. 13d. of our prefent coin.
This wool was, Aetelore’ worth at leaft 5/. 141. 7d. the
fack of 1813 ]bs., and 11/. 9s. 2d. the fack of 364 lbs.
In 1560, in the time of Guicciardini, Spanifh wool in
the Netherlands was at a fomewhat lower price. He tells
us, “ that they ufed formerly to fend annually from Spain to
Bruges more than 40,000 facks, but that in this year the
Spaniards, having made more cloth at home, had fent only
25,000 facks, at 25 crowns each.’’ The crown being 4s. and
the fhilling 1s. od. of our money, this would be 1o/. 15. 1d.
the fack of 364 pounds. The depreciation feems in truth
to have arifen from a diminifhed demand for this wool in the
Netherlands. The wools imported into the Netherlands
from Spain were the lower or coarfer kinds.
The fuperfine wools of Spain feem to have been firlt in-
troduced among the Italian ftates. Thus Damianus a Goes
in 1541, after having {pecified the 40,000 facks to Bruges,
as before-mentioned, adds, ‘‘ and alfo to Italy, and other
cities of the Netherlands, are annually fent about 20,000
facks, of which thofe ufed in Italy, being of the choiceft
wool, are fold at from forty to fifty gold ducats each.””
From this account, we have a fair opportunity of drawing
two important inferences: the firft is, that the Spanifh wool
which went to the Netherlands was, as we have before ob-
ferved, of the coarfeft kind, being of only half the price
of that which was exported to Italy; fecondly, we can
compare the value of the latter with that of our Englifh
wool, the beft of which, according to the a& of parliament
in 1534, already quoted, did not in England exceed 5s. the
ftone of 14 pounds, of 6/. 10s. the fack of 364 pounds.
The fhilling, however, being then equal to 15. 44d. of our
coin, increafes the price of the fack 8/. 18s. 9d.; to which
add cuftom and fubfidy, 3/. 13s. 4d. or s/. os. 10d., and the
refult will be 13/. 19s. 7d. The additional charges of freight
and merchant’s profit would fcarcely bring the whole amount
to 16]. 16s. Ox the other hand, according to the teftimony
of Damianus a Goes, the Spanifh fack o 1812 pounds was
in 1541 worth r4/. 6s. 54d., and the fack of 364 pounds
28/. 14s. 6d. of our prefent money. If the author {peaks
only of the value of this wool in Spain itfelf, then a farther
addition muft be made of freight, merchant’s profit, and
probable duty to the crown. On the whole, this calcula-
tion is fufficient to fhew in the ftrongeft light the fuperior
price of fuperfine Spanifh wool, to that of the very beft at
that time produced in Britain.
Next in order of time to the Italians, the manufa&ture of
fuperfine wool feems to have been adopted by the French,
who, according to Guicciardini, in 1560 fent by land to
Antwerp fome very fine cloths of Paris and Rouen, which
were highly prized.
It is probable, however, that thefe cloths were made only
of mixed wool.
A ftrong confirmation of the early ufe of the beft Spanith
wool, unmixed with coarfer by the Italian ftates, is furnifhed
by Richelieu’s Political Teftament, printed in 1635, in which,
{peaking of the fine woollen manufaétures of France, the
author . “the Turks prefer the draps de fceau de Rouen
to all others, next to thot of Venice, which are made of
Spanifh wool.”
And the author of “ England’s Safety in Trade’s In-
creafe,”? written in 1641, tells us, that “ the greateit part
of their (the Venetians) wools from Spain, and the. reft
from Conftantinople, is commonly brought in Englith
fhipping.””
In 1646, Nicholas Cadeau and other Frenchmen had let-
ters patent for twenty years, for making at Sedan black and
coloured cloths, like thofe of Holland, of the fineft Spanifh
wool.
The inhabitants of the north of Europe, as before-men-
tioned, were not at firft able to manufa¢ture fine Spanifh
wool, without the afliftance of that which was longer and
coarfer. But what in the beginning was a matter of necef-
fity, became afterwards an obje& of choice ; and the more
filful clothiers, whether in Holland or elfewhere, either
carding the finer and dearer Spanifh with the coarfer and
cheaper Englith, or forming a warp of the latter, which they
covered with a woof of the former, contrived to make a
cheap and ferviceable cloth, which pleafed the eye equally
well with the more coftly fabrics of entire Spanifh wool.
This though generally concealed with great care at the time,
yet is afterwards candidly acknowledged by writers a€tually
engaged in the commerce of wool, and fufficiently refutes
the prejudices which had here prevailed from the middle of
the 16th to the middle of the 17th century. Hence it ap-
pears that our wool, when placed in conneétion with Spanifh,
was chiefly valuable from being well calculated not to im-
prove but to adulterate it.
A treaty between France and Spain in 1659, enabled
the former freely to obtain the wool of the latter, and thus
to gain great advantage over us in the Levant trade. From
the proximity of France to the woollen manufactures in the
north of Spain, it might have been expedted that the French
would have earlier engaged in this manufaCture ; but owing
to their frequent northern wars, and their attention being
dire&ted to the manufaéture of filk, the French do not
appear to have commenced the fabrication of woollens for
exportation extenfively before the 16th century. About
this time, France made great progrefs in her manufa€tures of
wool, and in fecuring the export trade, particularly that to
Tartary, for which fhe was better fituated than Holland or
England.
The nature of her trade to warm climates dire&ted her
attention to the fabrication of finer and lighter cloths,
than thofe made by her northern neighbours; in confe-
quence of which fhe preferved the greater part of the
Turkey trade to the period of the French revolution, and
in general fine French cloths had. aitained a celebrity for
their fuperiority, both in texture and dye, over thofe of any
other country in Europe. The native breeds of fheep in
France were greatly improved by intermixture with fheep
imported from Spain. With thefe advantages, France
might have nearly fecured a monopoly of the finer branches
of the woollen manufaéture, had not the abfurd policy of
her rulers, in the revocation of the edict of Nantz, driven
the manufaCturing Proteftants to other countries, where they
contributed, by their exertion, their fkill, conneétions, and
capital, to form eftablifhments which rivalled thofe of the
country from which they were expelled.
Notwithftanding this, as France fupplied the greater part
of her own population of twenty millions with cloth, befides
her foreign exports, we conceive that the woollens manu-
faétured in that country, before the late revolution, equalled
in quantity the cloth made in England at the time, and
greatly exceeded it in value. Under the emperor Napoleon,
the beft Merino flocks were imported in multitudes from
Spain, which have fpread over the country, and are equal
to fupply extenfively her manufaGtures of woollens, when
they fhall be again fully eftablifhed. Confiderable quan-
tities of fine wool have been imported from France into
England finee the peace of 1815. t
e
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
The confufion attendant on a great revolution, continued
for twenty years, gave fo fevere a blow to the manufaétur-
ing eftablifhments of France, that a confiderable time mult
elapfe before they are completely eftablifhed. Prior to this
revolution, the hipedink cloths of France were fuperior
to thofe of England, in texture, colours, and foftnefs. In
the finer articles of worfted goods, and in the mixed
worfted goods made partly with long combing-wool, and
partly with filk or goat’s-wool from the Levant, they fur-
pafled the manufaétures of this country ; but the manufac-
turers of the commoner kinds of worfted goods, as tam-
mies and fhalloons, could not rival us.in foreign markets
for want of a proper fupply of wool fuited to the purpofe.
The following were the principal feats of the fuperfine
and fine woollen manufatures in France, arranged ac-
cording to the different qualities of the goods made at
each, beginning with the fineft :
. The manufaétures of Gobelins.
Of Sedan.
Of Abbeville.
. OF Louviers.
. Of Elbceuf.
Of Rouen and Darnetal.
Befides feveral detached manufaéturing eftablifhments of
fuperfine cloth in Languedoc, Champagne, and other parts
of France.
At the Gobelins, fuperfine cloths of the very firft quality
were manufaétured ; but the manufaétures there were con-
fined folely to the broadeft white cloth intended to be dyed
{carlet or purple, and the brighteft colours from cochineal.
Sedan followed next to Gobelins for the beauty of its
fuperfine cloths, where they were alfo made of various
breadths and colours.
Abbeville may be placed next after Sedan: fome have
even fuppofed that it equalled Sedan in the finenefs of its
cloths ; but this arofe from the cloths of the latter place
being of various forts: the lower kinds were certainly infe-
rior to thofe of Abbeville ; but the quality of the greater
part of the cloths of Sedan were of a better kind than the
average quality of the cloths of Abbeville. In the manu-
fa&tures of Sedan, each manufacturer confined himfelf to a
particular kind of cloth, for which he became diftinguifhed,
fome being celebrated for fine, and others for fuperfine
cloths exclufively ; whereas in Abbeville, Louviers, and the
other diftri€&ts enumerated, there were manufaéturers who
made various forts, and the proportion of the fine to the
fuperfine was greater than at Sedan.
Elbceuf was one of the moft ancient feats of the woollen
manufaQure in France, but the quality of the cloths made
there had greatly degenerated from the years 1760 to 1770;
but afterwards the manufaéturers returned to the former
quality of their cloths, which were partly made of the fine
wools from Berry, and partly from fine Spanifh wool, or
from a mixture of Spanifh with the beft wools of Berry.
Rouen and Darnetal may be placed in the fixth clafs of
manufacturing diftri€ts of fine cloth, in which the fineft
wools of France were principally ufed, mixed with thofe
of Spain.
The eftablifhments for the manufaGture of common
cloth and coarfe woollens were much more widely fpread
over France. The goods appear to have been principally
confumed in that country to fupply the demand of a popu-
lation of twenty millions, and the numerous military elta-
blifhments, befides what might be fent to the French
colonies,
De Ee yo
As the French never exported any confiderable quantity
of common or coarfe woollen cloths, the manufa&tures
of thefe articles never equalled in extent thofe of England.
The circumftance of the coarfe cloth manufa@ture being fo
widely {pread over the country, tended alfo to prevent that
degree of riyalry which promotes the {pirit of improvement
where manufaétures are more concentrated ; add to this,
the French had not that abundant fupply of the coarfer
clothing-wools which could enable them to rival us in the
export of heavy woollen goods.
The worfted manufa@tures of France, including ferges
and thofe goods made with a warp of worfted, were princi-
pally carried on in four of the provinces of France, but more
extenfively in Picardy than elfewhere. The long combing-
wools which fupplied this manufaéture, were partly the
produce of France, and partly imported from Holland,
England, Flanders, and Germany. M. Rolland, in the
French Encyclopedia, defcribing the French manufaétures
in-the year 1783, foon after the American war, fays, that
during that war the Englith adminiftration tacitly en-
couraged the exportation of wool to promote the intereits
of agriculture. He defcribes the French combing-wool as
being coarfer and more harfh than the wool of Holland, as
wafting much more in the manufa@ture, and making goods of
a very inferior quality. The combing-wools of England,
though generally lefs found and fine, and of a lefs pure
white, than thofe of Holland, were particularly well fuited
to fome parts of the worfted manufaéture.
The combing-wools from Germany were coarfe and
harfh, and only ufed in default of other fupplies. Very
fine worfted yarn was alfo obtained from Saxony and the
environs of Gottingen ; but this yarn was tender, and re-
quired to be mixed with worfted yarn from Englifh or
Dutch wool. The yarn of Turcoign was fuppofed to be
Dutch, but was principally from Flanders and Artois.
The goat’s-wool came from the Levant, by way of Mar-
feilles, in bales of from 200 to 300 lbs. It fold from four
livres to twelve livres per French pound ; the price of that
mott generally ufed was about 4 livres 10 fous per pound.
The filks ufed in filk camelots, &c. were obtained from
Paris and Lyons.
The following table gives the quantity and value of
wool yarns and worfted pieces in Picardy ; but he fuppofes
the quantity to be under the real amount, the manufacturers
concealing the extent of their trade to avoid arbitrary
taxation.
Wool confumed in the Worfted Manufadures of Picardy.
fous. livres.
French wool 3200000 at 22 35.20000
Dutch ditto 180000 at 40 360000
Englith ditto 200000 at 32 320000
German ditto 100000 at 22 110000
3680000 4310000
Yarn imported.
liv. f.
Yarn of Turcoign 60000 at 8 10 510000
German yarn - 00000 at 7 oO 700000
Levant yarn, or
Be pee ain 220000 at. 5 10 1210000
Silk ufed in fine
worfted poods 20000 at 35 oO 700000
Total value of wool and yarn - - 7430000
4M 2 Brought
WOOLLEN
Brought forward - > 7430000
Combing and {pinning 3680000 Ibs. of wool 4310000
Winding, warping, and weaving - - 4770000
Dyeing of yarn and pieces” - - - 190000
Profit of the wool-dealers, manufa@turers 1300000
Total valué of 150000 pieces coming from] | 3
the manufaGturer = : =
Value of dyeing-wares - - - 500000
To which carriage and profit of the =r .
chant and draper < 3 » 08009
Total value of worfted goods in Picardy 20500000
One million and fifty thoufand pounds weight of wool
were alfo confumed in hofiery in the fame province, of
which the-greateft part was native ; and the remainder about
two hundred and fifty thoufand pounds weight from Hol-
land. The number of working manufaéturers in Picardy
is thus ftated :
50000 men who gain 140 livres per annum 7000000
50000 women 70 ooh, 9k 3500000
150000 children 40 ast 6000000
The greater part of the manufacturers refided in the
country, and were employed part of the time in agriculture ;
this was alfo the cafe with the manufacturers in the towns,
fo that not more than eight months in the year were de-
voted to manufaGtures. This change of employment, fo
conducive to the health and comfort of the labouring
claffes, may be regarded as prefenting the happieft form under
which manufaétures can be carried on. This was alfo ina
confiderable degree the fituation of the woollen and worfted
manufa@turers in Yorkfhire, before the late introduction of
machinery had driven the population into large factories ;
a change which may be regarded as one of the greateit
evils that ever affiGted civilized fociety, tending diretly to
degrade and enfeeble the human race, and to render man a
wretched machine, a prifoner from the cradle to the work-
houfe or the grave, devoid of moral feeling and phyfical
energy.
What was the extent of the worfted manufacture in the
other provinces of France where it was carried on, we have
no correét means of afcertaining. In the middle of the
laft century, the export of cloths and worited goods from
Languedoc alone amounted annually to about 60,000
pieces, fent to the Levant and to Barbary. At that time
alfo, Spain, and all the countries bordering the Mediterra-
nean, received worfted goods from France. In the variety
of worfted articles, in the ingenuity of the patterns, and the
fuperiority of the workmanthip, as well as of the dyes,
France may be regarded as having furpafied any other na-
tion in Europe, prior to the year 1780, or about the clofe
of the American revolution. Since that period, the manu-
fa&tures of England have aftonifhingly increafed, and have
obtained a decided preference in foreign markets.
The woollen manufaGtures of Saxony and Germany have
been long eftablifhed ; the fugitives from the edi& of Nantz
contributed much to improve and extend them. During
the late war, all the manufa@tures in Germany and every
part of the European continent fuffered greatly, but are at
prefent rapidly reviving, and will abridge the amount of our
exports in Europe.
In Ruffia, Sweden, and Denmark, the woollen manufac-
ture, as a diftin@& occupation, is comparatively new; yet
it has exilted long enough to produce great alteration
MANUFACTURE.
in their flocks. And as this change was attempted in a
more enlightened period, and conducted by {cientific men,
the beft means were adapted to promote the improvement,
and new breeds of fheep have been introduced into both
countries. The fame remark applies to Saxony and other
circles of the German ftates, and even Hungarian flocks
are not without evident indication of a change for the
better.
Of the worfted manufa€ture as diftin& from the woollen,
we have little information refpe@ing its origin. It com-
prifes all thofe goods made of combed wool in diltin@ion
from carded wool. We are unacquainted with the period
when the wool.comb was invented, or when worited
were firft manufaétured. It is probable, that worfted
aes were originally woven in the Eaft, and that the
snowledge of them was brought into Europe either by the
Armenian merchants, or thofe who returned from the ex+
travagant expeditions which were undertaken for the reco-
very of the Holy Land from the dominion of the infidels.
The garments which are now worn by the Turks, fome of
which feem to have been produced by means of the comb,
the incidental mention of that inftrument in an account
which we have of Angora, and the demand for worfted
goods through the Levant, confirm the conje€ture, and lead
us to fuppofe, that there exift very confiderable manufac-
tures of this kind in the Turkifh empire, although we know
little more of its domeftic and rural condition, than can be
obtained from the moft vague accounts and uncertain de-
duétions. After the art of {pinning worited yarn was
known in the-weit of Europe, the looms of the Nether-
lands became aétive in converting it into thofe peculiar kinds
of goods to which it was adapted, and it feems as though
the diftinG@ion between thefe and woollen articles was not
generally noticed until fome years afterwards. It might have
been expe&ted from the nature of the article, that the manu-
fa&ture of worlted goods fhould in many fouthern countries
have preceded that of cloth. Long-ftapled wool fuited to
the comb feems more fpontaneoufly the produce of unculti-
vated fheep, than fhort wool, which-is to be manufactured
by carding, and its mode of manufature more nearly re-
fembles that of flax ; hence it is not improbable, that worfted
goods were made in Egypt and the Eaft before the manu-
fa€ture of woollen cloth. This is, however, uncertain.
In the manufacture of long wool, the fibres are arranged
parallel to each other, like thofe of flax ; but before they
are fpun, they require to be laid even by fome kind of in-
ftrument, which fhall feparate the fibres, that they may draw
out eafily in fpinning. A comb of a very fimple conftruc-
tion, with a few wires for the teeth, was probably firft made
ufe of. It was afterwards found, that the application of
heat to the comb contributed more effectually to the regu-
lar arrangement of the fibres ; and thus the invention of the
common wool-comb arofe, but at what period is unknown,
Vulgar tradition afcribes the invention to bifhop Blaize, who
firft ufed it in Alderney ; but there does not appear any au-
thority in fupport of this opinion. The bifhop lived in
Armenia, and was raifed to the epifcopal dignity about the
time of Dioclefian, and fuffered martyrdom under that
tyrant. Before he was beheaded, he was tortured with
iron combs, with which his flefh was torn; and hence whea
an inftrument of that kind was brought into common ufe,
the workmen chofe him for their patron faint. . The tradi-
tions of the origin and progrefs of the worfted manufa@ure
are thus bint. imperfeét ; we fhall have occafion to fpeak
of its introduction and progrefs in this country in the fol-
lowing fection.
Rife
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
Rife and Progrefs of the Woollen Manufadures in England.
— The Romans, as we have ftated on the authority of
Camden, had a cloth manufacture at Winchelter. The firft
account of any diftin@& body of manufaéturers afterwards
occurs in the reign of Henry I., but either the people of this
country were wholly clothed in fkins or leather in the inter-
vening {pace, or, what is more probable, coarfe cloths were
manufaétured in a rude manner in moft of the towns and
villages in England. A great part, however, of the drefs
of the labouring claffes in the country was made of leather,
particularly the breeches and waiftcoats, even till the prefent
reign. George Fox, the founder of the Quakers, in the
reign of Charles I., travelled on his miffions through the
country, buttoned up ina leathern doublet, or waiftcoat with
fleeves, which fupplied the place of a coat. ° ‘This was not,
as his adverfaries afterwards affirmed, from any fuperttitious
prejudice ref{pecting that coftume ; it was the common drefs
of the labouring mechanics at that time, to which clafs he
belonged.
The firft account of any foreign weavers fettled in
England is recorded by William of Malmfbury and Giraldus
Cambrenfis, who relate that a number of Flemings were
driven out of their own country, by an extraordinary en-
croachment of the fea in the time of William the Conqueror.
They were well received, and firft placed in the neighbourhood
of Carlifle, and on the northern frontier ; but not agreeing
with the inhabitants, they were tranfplanted by Henry I.
into Pembrokefhire. They are faid to have been fkilful in
the woollen manufaCture, and are fuppofed to have firft intro-
duced it into England as a feparate trade. Cloth-weavers
are mentioned in the exchequer accounts as exilling in various
parts of England in the reign of Henry I., particularly at
London and Oxford. The weavers of Lincoln and Hun-
tingdon are reprefented as paying fines for their guild in the
5th of Stephen ; and in the reign of Henry II. (1189), there
were weavers in Oxford, York, Nottingham, Huntingdon,
Lincoln, and Winchefter, who all paid fines to the king
for the privilege of carrying on their trade. (Chronicon
Pretiofum, p. 64.) ‘There were alfo cloth dealers in various
parts of Yorkthire, Norwich, Huntingdon, Gloucetter,
Northampton, Nottingham, and Newcatftle-upon-T'yne ; alfo
feveral towns in Lincolnfhire, and at St. Alban’s, Baldock,
Berkhamftead, and Chefterfield, who paid fines to the king
that they might freely buy and fell dyed cloths. Thefe are
fuppofed to have been cloths imported from the Flemings.
The red, fearlet, and green cloths, enumerated among
the articles in the wardrobe of Henry II., were moit
probably foreign, as the Englifh had attained little kill
at that time in the art of dyeing. Madox’s Hiftory of the
Exchequer.
In the 31ft of Henry II. the weavers of London received
a confirmation of their guild, with all the privileges they
enjoyed in the reign of Henry I.; and in the patent he
direGted, that if any weaver mixed Spanifh wool with Englifh
in making cloth, the chief magiftrate fhould feize and burn
it. (Stowe’s Survey of London.) This abfurd ediét was
iffued under the pretext of the inferiority of the Spanith
wool, but was doubtlefs intended to encourage the growth
of Englifh wool, an article from which our kings derived a
confiderable revenue. The circumftance rather proves the
fuperior excellence of Spanifh wool at that time, and the
jealoufy which its importation had excited among the Englifh
wool-growers.
In the reign of Henry III. an a& was paffed limiting the
breadth of broad-cloths, raffets, &c. to two yards within
the lifts. In the year 1284, foreign merchants were firlt
permitted to rent houfes in London, and buy and fell their
own commodities, without any interruption from the citi-
zens. Previous to this date they hired lodgings, and their
landlords were the brokers, who fold all their goods, and
received a commiflion upon them. It was foon after pre-
tended that the foreign merchants ufed falfe weights, and a
clamour being raifed againft them, twenty of them were
arrefted and fent to the Tower. Amid{t the numerous
abfurd reftri€tions to which commerce and manufaé¢tures
were fubjeéted, we need not be furprifed at the little pro-
grefs which they made.
The materials which hiltory affords refpeG@ing the woollen
manufaéture before the reign of Edward III. are but
{canty ; it appears that the office of aulnager, or cloth
infpetor, was very ancient. In the reign of Edward I.
we are informed by Madox, that Peroult le Tayleur, who
held the office of aulnager of cloth in the feveral fairs of
the realm, having forfeited it, the king, by writ of privy
feal, commanded the treafurerto let Pieres de Edmonton have
it, if he were fit for it, and a writ was made out accordingly,
and he took the oaths of that office before the treafurer and
barons. The faéts above-ftated prove the exiftence of
the cloth manufature in England before the time of Ed-
ward III., who is generally fuppofed to have firft intro-
duced the art into the kingdom. There is no doubt, that
a new impulfe was given to it during this reign by the
liberal proteGtion granted to foreign manufafiures here :
in all probability, they firft introduced the manufa@ture of
ftuffs from combed wool or worfteds; an art requiring more
fkill, and more complicated procefles, than are employed in
the making of cloth.
In the year 1331, John Kemp, a mafter manufa&turer
from Flanders, received a proteétion to eftablifh himfelf here
with a number of dyers and fullers,to carry on his trade,
and in the following year feveral manufacturers came over
from Brabant and Zealand. It is faid, that the king’s
marriage with the daughter of the earl of Hainault enabled
him to fend over emiflaries without fufpicion, to invite the
manufacturers to this kingdom. Thefe manufacturers were
diftributed over thé country, at the following places :—The
manufacturers of fuftians (woollens) were eftablifhed at
Norwich, of baize at Sudbury in Suffolk, of fayes and
ferges at Colchefter in Effex, of broad-cloths in Kent, of
kerfies in Devonfhire, of cloth in Worcefterfhire and
Gloucefterfhire, of Welfh friezes in Wales, of cloth at
Kendal in Weftmoreland, of coarfe cloths, afterwards called
Halifax cloths, in Yorkfhire, of cloth in Hampfhire, Berk-
fhire, and Suffex, and of ferges at Taunton in Devonhhire.
(Rymer’s Feedera, vol..i. p. 195.) Frefh fupplies of fo-
reigners contributed to advance the woollen trade of thefe
diftriéts.
Kendal, in Weftmoreland, claims the honour of firft receiy-
ing John Kemp, where his defcendants {till remain, and the
woollen trade is at prefent carried on. In the following reign,
we find the manufaéturers of Kendal petitioning to be re-
lieved from the regulations impofed on broad-cloths. Ken-
dal green is mentioned by Shakfpeare as an article of drefs
in the time of Henry IV,, and there is reafon to believe,
that in the réign of Elizabeth, the woollen manufaCjures
of that town were as extenfive as at prefent.
In the year 1336, two woollen manufaQurers from Bra-
bant fettled at York, under the king’s protection: they are
{tiled in the letters of proteétion, ‘* Willielmus de Brabant
& Hanckcinus de Brabant, Textores.’”? Thefe perfons
probably laid the foundation of the woollen and worited
manufactures, which have fince fo extenfively flourifhed ia
the weftern part of that county. It is not very impro-
bable, that the manufaéturer Hancks, called Hanckcinus,
gave
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
gave the name to the fkein of worfted, which is to this day
called a hank.
The references which we have foon afterwards to the
woollen manufaéture, as exifting in the diftri&ts before-
named, tend to confirm the belief, that the diftribution of
the foreign manufa¢turers we have given is corre&t.. About
this time, we learn that Thomas Blanket, and other inhabit-
ants of Briftol, fet up looms in their own houfes, but were
fo haraffed by the impofitions of the mayor and bailiffs of
the place, that they were obliged to obtain letters from the
king to permit the free ufe of their trade, without impedi-
ment, calumny, or exaction. The letter to the mayor and
bailiffs accufes them in the following terms: “ vos diverfas
pecuniz fummas ab eifdem Thomas et aliis exigitis et ea
occafione multipliciter inquietatis et gravatis, ut afferunt.”
Dr. Parry has conje&tured, that blanket, which at firft meant
a coarfe white undreffed cloth, derived its name from the
fame Thomas Blanket of Briftol, The encouragement
given to the woollen manufacturers during this reign, and
the confequent confumption of wool at home, diminifhed
the export of it fo much, that a duty was laid on cloth ex-
ported to fupply the place. Blackwell-hall was appointed
by the mayor and common council of London for the
market, where cloth manufaCturers might fend their goods
for fale, in the year 1357.
In the courfe of the reign we find feveral other acts re-
lating to the meafurement and fulling of cloth, and the fees
to be paid to the aulnager.
In order to form a more diftin& idea of the relative value
of wool, cloth, and other articles, after and before the reign,
it may be proper to refer to the ftate of the filver coinage.
Grains.
The 28 Edward I. one fhilling contained 264
18 Edward III. - - - - 236
27 Edward III. - - - = 4 213
9 Henry V. - - - - 176
1 Henry VI. - - - - 142
4 Henry VI. - - . - 176
49 Henry VI. - - . - 142
t Henry VIII. - - - - 118
34 Henry VIII. - - - - 100
36 Henry VIII. - sit tier Ole) 760
37 eaenry WIE |p. 0) ses) I= 9 40
3 Edward VI. - - =) vas 78D
Rltdward Vis cs oo lel veins! Size
6 Edward VI. - - - - 88
2 Elizabeth - - - - 8&9
43 Elizabeth - - - - 86
at which it continued to the prefent reign.
The following account of the exports and imports in the
28th of Edward III., faid to be found in a record of the
exchequer, was publifhed by Edward Miffeldon, merchant,
in the year 1623.
Exports. z aa.
Thirty-one thoufand fix hundred and fifty-
one facks and a half of wool, at «bisa 529 (ome)
unds value each fack, amount to - |
Three thoufand thirty-fix hundred and
fixty-five felts at 40s. value, each hun- 6,073 « 8
dred at fix fcore, amount to - -
Whereof the cuftom amounts to - =!" *8x,6274)° 3) x
Fourteen laft, feventeen dicker, and five
hides of leather, after fix pounds vue} 89 5 0
the laft, amount to - - - -
Whereof the cuftom amounts to - - 617 6
Carried forward - 277,702. 5-3
£ s. d,
Brought forward - 2775702
Four thoufand feven hundred and feventy- ar
four cloths and a half, after gos. value 935549 O ©
the cloth,is - is z S
Eight thoufand and fixty-one pieces and a
half of worfted, after 16s. 8d. value act 6,717 18 4
piece, is - - -
Whereof the cuftom amounts to - - 215 13 7
Summary of the out-carried commodities 8
in value and cuftom - - i §29aeto4 217. 2
Imports.
One thoufand eifht hundred and thirty-
two cloths, after fix pounds value ae 10,922 0
°
cloth - - = 4
Whereof the cuftom amounts to - - gl 12 0
Three hundred and ninety-feven sre}
795
and three quarters of wax, after the 10 ©
value of gos. the hundred or quintal -
Whereof the cuftom is - - . 19,2700
One thoufand eight hundred and twenty-
nine tons and a half of wine, after 4os. 32659 © ©
ton - - = = - -
Whereof the cuftom is - oor = 182 0
Linen cloth, mercury, and grocery-wares
and all a ata of merchandize “t 23,014 16
Whereof the cuftom is - - - 285 18
Summary of the in-brought commodities,
in vale and cuftom, ig - = I 38:97 13 3
Summary of the impulfage of the out-
carried above the in-brought commo-¢ 255,214 3 I!
dities, amounteth to - - - -
Admitting the corre€tnefs of this ftatement, which we
have no reafon to doubt, we muft obferve, that the cloth
imported was of a higher value fer yard than the cloth ex-
ported. Hence it may be inferred, that for feveral years
after the arrival of the Flemifh weavers, we were partly
dependent on foreigners for our fine cloths; the coarfer
kinds then, as at the prefent day, forming the larger quan-
tity of our exports. It is obvious alfo, that worfted goods
had become an article of manufaGture, nearly equal in im-
portance with the woollen; and hence it is not impro-
bable, that the greater part of the Flemifh manufa&turers
were makers of ituffs and worfted goods, which was pro-
bably an entirely new trade in England.
The ftatutes in the following reigns, relating to the
woollen manufa&tute, prove the narrow. and felfifh policy
by which the manufa@turers were influenced: thefe itatutes
refer either to reftri€tions which they wanted to impofe,
in order to confine the trade to themfelves, or are made
to prevent them from fraudulently packing or weaving
their goods. In confequence of thefe fraudulent practices,
the 13th ftatute of Richard II. makes the following regu-
lations, which are curious, as marking the fpirit of the
manufaéturers, and alfo as proving the early eftablifhment
of the woollen trade in the weftern counties, where it now
flourifhes. It runs thus: ‘ Forafmuch as divers plain
cloths, wrought in the counties of Somerfet, Dorfet, Briftol,
and Gloucefter, be tacked and folded together for fale; of
which cloths a greater part be broken, bruifed, and not
agreeing in the colour, neither according to the breadth, nor
in no manner to the part of the fame cloths fhewed outwards,
but falfely wrought with divers wools, to the great lofs and
damage
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
damage of the people, infomuch that the merchants that
buy the fame, and carry them out of the realm to fell to
ftrangers, be many times in danger to be flain, and fome-
times imprifoaed and put to fine and ranfom. Therefore it
is ordained, that no plain cloth tacked and folded fhall be
fet to fale within the fame couities.”” The fame act permits
certain cloths of coarfe wool to be made of the breadth
of three quarters, and appoints one. weight and meafure
through the kingdom, except in the county of Lancatfter.
Another ftatute, in the fame reign, allows every perfon to
make cloth of what length and breadth he will, provided the
aulnage and other duties are paid, and it be meafured and
fealed by the king’s aulnager, and contain no deceit. The
kinds of worlted goods which might or might not be
exported, were alfo {pecified in this ftatute. During this
yeign it appears, notwithftanding the increafe of our trade,
that we annually exported about one hundred and thirty
thoufand packs of wool, paying a duty of one hundred
and fixty thoufand pounds.
In thé 4th of Henry IV. the cloths made in London
and the fuburbs were ordered to have a feal of lead attached,
and in a fubfequent ftatute no cloths were to be folded be-
fore the aulnager had fet his feal tothem. In the following
reign, the narrow cloths, called the dozens of Devonfhire
and Cornwall, are ordered to pay cocket cuftoms, after the
rate of broad-cloths.
In the reign of Henry VI. the exportation of woollen
yarn is prohibited, and this prohibition feems to have been
in full force when wool was allowed to be freely exported.
The only reafon affigned for this is, that the yarn paid no
duty. During this reign two cloth-fearchers were appointed
for every hundred throughout the realm, who were to in-
{pect and feal all cloth, taking one penny for each. This
proves that the manufacture of woollens had {pread over a
great part of the kingdom. It is probable that this infpec-
tion extended to all cloths made in private families, which
were fent to the fulling-mills.
The worfted trade was alfo increafing rapidly at this time:
four wardens of worfted-weavers were appointed for the city
of Norwich and two for the county of Norfolk, who were
to make due fearch of worfteds, and of what length and
breadth they were made. In the fame reign it was ordained,
that ‘if our woollens were not received in Brabant, Holland,
and Zealand, then the merchandize growing or wrought
within the dominions of the duke of Burgoine fhall be
prohibited in England, under pain of forfeiture.’? Hence
we learn, that we very foon began to fupply thefe fame
countries with woollens and worfteds, from which we had
received workmen a century before.
In the third year of Edward IV. the woollen trade had
increafed fo much, that the importation of woollen cloth,
caps, &c. was prohibited. Woollen caps or bonnets were
then univerfally worn; they were either knitted or made of
cloth, and a large quantity of wool muft have been con-
fumed in their fabrication. About the year 1482, hats
made from felts were introduced; but the manufacturers of
caps, called the cappers, continued a powerful body a cen-
tury afterwards. In the fame reign, the wardens of worfteds
at Norwich were doubled, or increafed to eight.
The manufa€ture of fine broad-cloth muft have been con-
fiderably improved about this time; for in the fourth of
Henry VII. it was thought prudent to fix a maximum on
the price of fine cloth, by which every retailer of cloth
who fhould fell a yard of the fineft fcarlet grained cloth
above fixteen fhillings, or a yard of any other coloured
cloth above eleven fhillings, was to forfeit forty fhillings fer
yard for the fame.
In the year 1493, in confequence of a quarrel between
Henry VII. and the archduke Philip, all intercourfe be-
tween the Englifh and Flemifh ceafed, and the mart for
Englifh goods was transferred from Antwerp to Calais.
This interruption to the regular courfe of trade was feverely
felt by the woollen manufaéturers. Lord Bacon, mention-
ing the renewal of the trade with Flanders, which took
place again in 1496, fays, ‘* By this time the interruption of
trade between the Englifh and Flemifh began to pinch the
merchants of both nations very fore. The king, who loved
wealth, though very fenfible of this, kept his dignity fo far
as firft to be fought unto. Wherein the merchant adven-
turers likewife did hold out bravely ; taking off the com-
modities of the kingdom, though they lay dead upon their
hands for want of vent.’? The merchant adventurers he
defcribes as “being a ftrong company, and underfet with
rich men.’? It is not, however, very probable, that this
company would continue to purchafe goods without a pro-
{pe&t of gain. Thefe merchant adventurers were divided
into two bodies; thofe of London, which were the moft
powerful ; and the merchant adventurers of England, who
paid a fine to the former on all goods fold at the foreign
marts.
In the reign of Henry VIII. the woollen trade, and par-
ticularly all kinds of worfted manufa€tures, appear to have
been in a very flourifhing ftate, though trade fuffered feveral
fevere checks from the wars in which we were engaged.
In the year 1527, Henry having entered into a league with
France againit the emperor Charles V., all trade with Spain
and the ie Countries ceafed. The goods fent to Black-
well-hall found no purchafers, the merchants having their
warehoufes filled with cloths ; the poor manufaéturers being
thus deprived of employment, an infurre€tion took place in
the county of Suffolk, where four thoufand of them affem-
bled, but were appeafed by the duke of Norfolk. The
merchants were fummoned to appear before cardinal
Wolfey, who in the name of the king reprimanded them in
an angry tone for not purchafing the goods brought to
market, and threatened them that his majefty would open a
new mart at Whitehall, and buy of the clothiers to fell
again to foreign merchants ; to which menace one of them
pertinently replied, “* My lord, the king may buy them as
well at Blackwell-hall, if it pleafes him, and the ftrangers
will gladlier receive them there than at Weftminfter.?—
“You fhall not order that matter,’? faid the cardinal ; ** and
I fhall fend into London to know what cloths you have on
your hands, and by that done, the king and his council fhall
appoint who fhall buy the cloths, I warrant you.”? With
this anfwer the Londoners departed. Grafton’s Chro-
nicle, vol. ii. p. 1167-8.
The interference of the cardinal raifed the fpirits of the
manufacturers for a time, but originating in ignorance of
the nature of trade, it could only have a temporary effe&,
and goods fell again till a truce between England and
Flanders was made for the benefit of trade. This fa@
fhews the dependance of England, even at that time, on the
export of manufaGtured woollens. In this reign we find’
Lancafhire and Chefhire firft named as feats of the manu-
faGture of coarfe woollens; they are mentioned, together
with Cornwall and Wales, as diftri&s where friezes were
made. It appears from various references, that Norfolk
and Suffolk were then flourifhing feats of the worfted ma-
nufaéture, and of all goods made with a worlted warp.
Wardens were allowed to the towns of Yarmouth and
Lynn, but with a felfifh reftri@ion, that the pieces were to
be dyed, fpun, or callendered in the city of Norwich. In
the laft year of this reign, an a€t was pafled to prevent any
12 perfons
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
perfons befides woollen manufaéturers, who bought wool for
their own ufe, and merchants of the ftaple, who bought for
exportation, to purchafe wool with the intent to fell again.
This a& extended to twenty-eight counties, and fecured
a monopoly of the wool to the merchants of the ftaple,
and to the rich clothiers. In the firft year of the fol-
lowing reign, Edward VI., it was repealed, fo far as
to allow every perfor dwelling in Norwich and Norfolk, to
buy wool the growth of that county, by themfelves or
agents, and retail it out in open market. The reafon af-
figned is this: That almoft the whole number of poor in-
habitants of the county of Norfolk and city of Norwich
had been ufed to get their living by {pinning of Norfolk
wool, which they ufed to purchafe by = pennyworth or
twelve pennyworth at a time, felling the fame again in yarn ;
and becaufe the grower chofe not to parcel it in fuch {mall
quantities, therefore for the benefit of the poor, the wool of
Norfolk was allowed to be purchafed by wool-dealers.
By this aé, the 33d of Henry VIII., for prohibiting the
exportation of yarn is made perpetual. The manufacture
of woollens in the counties adjoining London appear to
have been extenfive, particularly in the county of Berkthire ;
for in the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII., John
Winchcombe, of that county, commonly called Jack of
Newbury, was celebrated as the greateft clothier in Eng-
land. He kept one hundred looms in his own houfe, and
in the expedition againft the Scotch, he {ent to Flodden-
field one hundred men, fully equipped, at his own expence.
Even fo early as the 13th century, one Thomas Cole was
diftinguifhed by the name of the rich clothier of Reading,
in Berkthire. ; é
York, then the fecond city in the kingdom, and from its
conneétion with the port of Hull well fituated for the
export trade, was probably an early feat of the woollen
manufa@ture. We have already mentioned the fettlement
of two clothiers from Brabant in the time of Edward 1H) oe
We do not learn precifely in our early hiftorians, when the
manufa@tures emanated from that city into the weftern parts
of the county ; but from an aét in the 34th of Henry VIII.
we are informed, that the chief manufacture of that city
was the making of coverlets ; the a& recites, “ that the poor
of that city were daily employed in {pinning, carding,
dyeing, weaving, &c. for the making of coverlets, and that
the fame have not been made elfewhere in the faid county
till of Jate ; that this manufaéture had fpread itfelf into other
parts of the county, and was thereby debafed and difcre-
dited, and therefore it is enacted, that none fhall make
coverlets in Yorkfhire but the people of York.” Thus we
fee, under the flimfy pretext of public benefit, the manufac-
turers were willing to difguife that felfifh {pirit of monopoly,
which difgraces almoft every page of our commercial hif-
tory. The municipal regulations of the city of York,
which were, and {till continue to be, hoftile to a free trade,
probably obliged many manufacturers, who were not
fharers in the monopolies of the guild, to eftablifh them-
{elves in the weftern villages of the county, where provifions
were cheaper, and where they could carry on their trade
without reftri@tion. In the reign of Philip and Mary, foon
after this period, we have the following interefting account
of Halifax, in confequence of an a& paffed in the 37th of
Henry VIII. to prevent any other perfons than merchants
of the ftaple and woollen manufaéturers from buying wool
in the county of Kent and twenty-feven hires. The poorer
manufaéturers, who were unable to lay in their ftock of
wool at one time, being hereby deprived of their trade,
made application for redrefs, which was granted. The act
recites as follows: ‘* Whereas the town of Halifax being
8
planted in the great wafte and moors, where the fertility of
the ground is not apt to bring forth any corn nor good
grafs, but in rare places, and by exceeding and great in-
duftry of the inhabitants ; and the fame inhabitants alto-
gether do live by cloth-making, and the greater part of
them neither getteth corn, nor is able to ody a horfe to
carry wools, nor yet to buy much wool at once, but hath
ever ufed to repair to the town of Halifax, and there to buy
fome two or three ftone, according to their ability, and to
carry the fame to their houfes, three, four, or five miles off,
upon their heads and backs, and fo to make and convert the
fame either into yarn or cloth, and to fell the fame, and fo
to buy more wool of the wool-driver; by means of which
induftry, the barren grounds in thofe parts be now much
inhabited, and above five hundred, houfeholds there newly
increafed within thefe forty years paft, which now are like
to be undone and driven to beggary by reafon of the late
ftatute (37th of Henry VIII.) that taketh away the wool-
driver, fo that they cannot now have their wool by fuch
{mall portions as they were wont to have, and that alfo they
are not able to keep any horfes whereupon to ride or fetch
their wools further from them in other places, unlefs fome
remedy may be provided. It was therefore enaéted, that it
fhould be lawful, to any perfon or perfons inhabiting within
the parifh of Halifax, to buy any wool or wools at fuch
time, as the clothiers may buy the fame, otherwife than by
engrofling and foreftalling, fo that the perfons buying the
fame do carry the faid wools to the town of Halifax, and
there to fell the fame to fuch pcor folks of that and other
parifhes adjoining, as fhall work the fame in cloth of yarn,
to their knowledge, and not to the rich and wealthy clothier,
or any other to fell again. Offending againft this a& to
forfeit double the value of the wool fo fold.”
From this we learn that many woollen manufaéturers had
been either driven from York at an early period, by the op-
preflion of the municipal regulations, or had retired where
provifions were cheaper, and where they had better {treams
for the ereGtion of fulling-mills, and for other proceffes of
the manufadture, fuch as dyeing and fcouring.
The woollen manufactures alfo pineal retired from
the vicinity of the metropolis, owing to the increafed price
of provifions and labour, and probably alfo to the difficulty
of obtaining commodious ftreams for the f{couring and full-
ing of cloth, when the country round London became more
populous. In the latter part of the reign of Henry VIII.
we are informed, that the king demifed to William Webbe the
fubfidy and aulnage of all cloth made in the county of Mon-
mouth, and in the twelve fhires of Wales. A former aé&t
of this reign, {peaking of the manufaéturers of North Wales,
fays, they had been ufed to fell their cloths fo craftly and
hard rolled together, that the buyer could not perceive the
untrue making thereof. Thefe aéts prove the extenfion of
the woollen manufactures weftward.
In the fame reign, an a& mentions the woollen manufac-
tures as being eftablifhed in Worcefterfhire, but prohibits
any one from making cloth in the county, except within
the city of Worcefter, and in the towns of Evefham, Droit-
wich, Kidderminfter, and Bromfgrove; and forbids the
owners of houfes in thofe places from letting them at ad-
vanced prices to the cloth-manufaéturers. The woollen
manufaéture has continued to the prefent day at the two
laft of thefetowns. In the reign of Edward VI. Coventry
and Manchefter are mentioned as manufaturing places.
The manufa@turers in the old eftablifhed feats of the woollen
trade appear to have been greatly alarmed at the extenfion
of the cloth manufa¢ture, and to have exerted all their in-
fluence to reftrain it. Near the conclufion of the reign of
Philip
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
Philip and Mary, an a& in 53 fe€tions was paffed, relating
to the making of woollen cloths. It enaéts, that no perfon
fhall make woollen cloth but only in a market-town, where
cloth hath commonly been ufed to be made for the fpace of
ten years laft paft, or in a city, borough, or town cor-
porate. From this reftri€ting a&, however, the following
exceptions are made: to all perfons who dwell in North
Wales or South Wales, Chefhire, Lancafhire, Weftmoreland,
Cumberland, Northumberland, the bifhopric of Durham,
Cornwall, Suffolk, Kent, the town of Godalmin in Surrey,
or in Yorkfhire, being not within twelve miles of the city
of York, or any towns or villages near the river Stroud in
Gloucefterfhire. This a&t, fo abfurd and oppreffive, was
obliged to be modified in the firft year of the following
reign, by an aé entitled “ An A& for the continuing and
faking of Woollen Cloths in divers Towns in the County
of Effex.”? Bocking, Watherfold, Cockfhill, and Dodham,
are the towns fpecified. t
In confequence of the increafe of our manufaétures, the
export of wool had nearly ceafed before the reign of Eliza-
beth; and a confiderable advance appears to have taken
place in the price of food, clothing, and rents. The ex-
port trade of piped was carried on very extenfively by
three companies of merchants, the merchants of the Still-
yard, who were foreigners, the merchants of the Staple,
and the merchant adventurers, who were Englifh. See
STILLYARD, STAPLE, and ADVENTURERS.
The merchants of the Stillyard were of ancient ftanding,
and were originally from the Hanfe towns: they had great
privileges granted them, and particularly they were allowed
to export and import all wares and merchandize, on pay-
ment of the fmall duty of one and a quarter per cent. "This
gave them a decided advantage over the other companies ;
and it is alleged that they lent their name to cover the im-
port and export of goods belonging to private merchants,
and thereby evaded the regular duties on fuch goods. This
company had engrofled a confiderable part of the cloth
trade. In the year 1551 they exported 44,000 cloths;
foon after which this company was diffolved. The mer-
chant adventurers fucceeded to that branch of their trade:
according to the account of John Wheeler, fecretary to
the company, there were annually fhipped by them
60,000 white cloths, worth 600,000/., and 40,000 cloths
of all forts, baizes and kerfies, worth 400,000/., befides
wool and woolfels. We are told by Camden, that, in
this reign, the commerce between England and the Nether-
lands rofe to above twelve millions yearly, and the woollen
trade alone amounted to five millions. The Latin terms
which Camden employs, milliones aureorum, leaves the
amount intended uncertain: if we fuppofe it to be ducats,
the quantity is much greatet than England exported at that
time ; probably florins were intended, which makes the
amount about 750,000/.
Befides the exports to Antwerp, Englifh cloth was at
this time fent to Amfterdam, Hamburgh, Sweden, Ruflia,
and other countries. The woollen trade of England had
now advanced to a higher ftate of profperity than at any
former period ; and from this time it appears to have de-
clined until after the revolution of 1668. In this reign,
the price of wool, which we believe to mean long or comb-
ing wool, had advanced from 13s. 4d. to 22s. per tod; and
the fhilling containing the fame weight of filver as our late
coinage, viz. 86 grains, the relative value of a tod of long
wool was confiderably more than it has ever been during the
prefent reign.
The declenfion of our manufa€tures in the fucceeding
reigns of the Stuarts, as we have reafon to believe, extended
much more to woollen cloths than to worfted pieces. Long
VoL. XXXVIII.
wool, or combing-wool, was more the peculiar produce of
England than clothing-wools. The latter were grown in
abundance, and of a fuperior quality, in Spain, Portugal,
and France ; but the combing-wools of England, on account
of the fuperior foundnefs of the ftaple or fibre, and the
quantity fupplied, gave a decided advantage to our manu-
fa&turers of ftuffs or worfted pieces.
_ The perfecution of the Proteftants by the duke of Alva
in the Netherlands drove multitudes of the manufa@turers
into England, where they were gracioufly received by Eli-
zabeth, who gave them liberty to fettle at Norwich, Col-
chefter, Sandwich, Maidftone, and Southampton. Thefe
refugees contributed to extend our manufaGtures of worfted
goods and light woollens, called bays and fays ; they alfo in-
troduced the manufaéture of linens and filks, and it is fup-
pofed that they firft taught the art of weaving on the ftock-
ing-frame.
In the latter part of the reign of Elizabeth an aét was pafled
to relieve the counties of Somerfet, Gloucefter, and Wiltthire,
from thofe abfurd and oppreffive ftatutes which confined the
making of cloth to corporate towns. This a&, which gave
to all perfons refiding in thefe counties the privileges of free
trade, could not fail to extend and eftablith the woollen ma-
nufaétures in thefe parts, and they have remained to the pre-
fent time the principal feats of the fuperfine cloth trade,
whilft many manufa€turing corporate towns, which were
then flourifhing, have funk to decay. Various aéts, regu-
lating the length, breadth, and tentering of woollen goods
of different kinds, were alfo paffed in this reign, referring to
the counties of Oxfordthire, Devon, and the counties north
of Trent, particularly Yorkfhire and Lancafhire. The im-
portation of foreign wool-cards was alfo prohibited. The
aét recites, that many thoufands of woollen card-makers and
card-wire drawers, living in London, Briftol, Gloucefter,
Norwich, Coventry, and elfewhere, had heretofore fubfifted
themfelves and families upon that bufinefs, which was now
greatly impaired by the importation of wool-cards. No
laws prohibiting the export of wool were thought neceflary
in this period of our hiftory, and it continued to be exported
during the whole of this reign, as appears by the account
of the merchant adventurers, who exported it together with
cloth; but though wool was freely exported, an at -was
paffed to prevent the carrying of live fheep, lambs, or rams
out of England ; but the reafons for this act are not recited,
though it ftates it was for divers good caufes and confidera-
tions. The internal tranquillity that the country enjoyed
during this long reign, the influx of foreign makers of new
kinds of worfteds, and other articles not known before,
the opening of a new trade to Turkey and the Barbary
ftates, by treaty in the year 1579 and in 1585, all greatly
contributed to the extenfion of the woollen trade and manu-
faGtures. There were indeed other circumftances which muft
have operated againft our manufacturers in part of this
reign. The interruption of commerce between England and
the Netherlands in 1564, which lafted fome time, the wars
with Spain, the facking of Antwerp, in which the Englifh
merchants fuffered feverely, gave a confiderable check to the
foreign trade; yet we have feen that the merchant adventurers
alone exported woollens to the amount of one million fterling
towards the latter end of this reign. The demand at home
for woollens mutt alfo have greatly increafed during the long
period of domettic tranquillity which the nation at that time
enjoyed, and particularly from the prevailing tafte for coftly
dreffes which has fpread from the court through the country.
A great part of our woollen exports hitherto confifted of
white undreffed cloth ; but in the following reign of James I.
it was reprefented as bad policy to permit the exportation
of cloth in this ftate, and thereby lofe the profit on the
4N dyeing
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
dyeing and finifhing. A letter exiits addrefled to king
James on this fubjeét, afcribed to fir Walter Raleigh, but
without fufficient evidence, as the moft ancient manufcripts
of this letter in the libraries of the =o afcribe it to
John Keymer.’”? (Oldy’s Life of Sir W. Raleigh.) In this
letter it is ftated, ** that there have been eighty t oufand un-
drefled and undyed cloths exported yearly, by which the
kingdom has been deprived of four hundred thoufand
pounds for the laft fifty-five years, which is nearly twenty
millions that would have been gained by the labour of the
workmen in that time, with the merchants’ gains for bring-
ing in dyeing-wares, and return of cloths drefled and dyed,
with other benefits to the realm.”? The writer proceeds, in
another part, to ftate, that there had alfo been exported in
that time annually, of baizes and northern and Devonfhire
kerfies, in the white, fifty thoufand cloths, counting three
kerfies to a cloth, whereby had been loft about five millions
to the nation in labour, profit, &c. The author informs
us, that the baizes fo exported were drefled and dyed at
Amfterdam, and fhipped to Spain, Portugal, and other
kingdoms, under the name of Flemifh baize, fetting their
own feal upon them ; ‘fo that we lofe the very name of our
home-bred commodities, and other countries get the reputa-
tion and profit thereof.” The author concludes with aflert-
ing, that the nation lofes a million a year by the export of
white cloths, which might be dreffed and dyed as well at
home. This letter has been often quoted as containing un-
anfwerable reafons for confining the whole procefs of the
cloth manufaéture to our own country ; but, like other mo-
nopolifts, the writer feems to forget that there are two
parties in all mercantile tranfa@tions, and that manufactured
goods muft be fent in that {tate in which the purchafer is
willing to receive them, unlefs it be proved that he cannot
procure them elfewhere. Let us mark the refult. Alder-
man Cockayne, and other London merchants, had fufficient
influence with the government to obtain the prohibition of
the export of white cloths, and to fecure a patent for dref-
fing and dyeing of cloths. In confequence of which, the
Dutch and Germans immediately prohibited the importation
of dyed cloths from England, which gave fo great a check
to our export trade, that in the year 1616, the whole
amount of cloths exported of every kind amounted only to
fixty thoufand, fo that the export trade in woollens had
fallen to lefs than one-third of its former amount; and in
the year 1622, rn .
. Ss. -
2,320,436 12 10
2,619,315 © 0
All our exports of every kind
amounted only to :
Whilft our imports were =
Leaving a balance againft us of 298,878 7 2
It being from experience proved, that the policy of dref-
fing and dyeing all our goods at home had produced the
greateft injury to the woollen trade, the reitri€tions were
taken off, and the export for white cloth left free. In the
former reign, cloths about four pounds value were, by ftatute,
to be fent out dyed, by all perfons except the company of
merchant adventurers, who obtained a licence to export all
forts of white cloths ; and though this was itfelf a monopoly,
yet, as it gave foreigners an opportunity of receiving our
finer cloths in the ftate which they moft wanted, it was the
means of increafing our trade: indeed it is faid by Miffel-
den, that ‘* within a few years after granting this licence, the
vent for cloth in foreign parts increafed to twice as much
as it had been during the ftriét obfervance of the ftatute.”?
With this fa& before their eyes, it is fearcely poffible that
our ftatefmen at that time could have siecandad to the pro»
hibition of white cloth exports, unlefs they had been (as
was afferted) influenced by prefents from alderman Cock-
ayne and the rich merchants, who expeéted to receive the
benefit arifing from the prohibition, and the exclufive right
of dyeing and drefling. "The wool-growers equally felt the
ill effe&s of this prohibition. Wool is faid to have fallen
from thirty-three fhillings per tod to twenty fhillings; if
by this is meant the long combing-wools, the former price,
confidering the value of money at that time, is much higher
than it has been in the laft or the prefent century.
During the reigns of the Stuarts, the infamous policy they
adopted itruck not only at the liberty, but at the commer- -
cial profperity of the country. Archbifhop Laud, imbued
with the malignant zeal of a bigot, commenced his attacks
on the defcendants of the French Proteftants, eftablifhed as
manufacturers of woollens in Norfolk and Suffolk, from
which counties his perfecuting fury drove fome thoufand
families. Many of them fettled in New England; but others
went into Holland, where they were encouraged by the
Dutch, who allowed them an exemption from taxes and
rents forfeven years. In return forthis, the ftates were am’ ly
repaid by the introduétion of manufaGturers, with which or
were before unacquainted. In the year 1622, king James
iffued a proclamation to prohjbit the exportation of wool,
fuller’s-earth, &c. In 1640 wool was again admitted to be
exported on the payment of certain duties ; and we are told,
that in the fame year fir John Brownlowe, of Belton in Lin-
colnfhire, fold three years’ wool at twenty-four fhillings
per tod to a baize-maker of Colchefter. As itis reafonable to
fuppofe that this was the long combing-wool of that county,
it fhews the high relative price of the article at that time.
In 1647, owing to the high price of wool, its exportation
was again prohibited.
During the civil wars, the manufa&tures and export trade
of England declined, and the Dutch availed themfelves of
this to extend their own manufacture and export of woollens,
particularly to Spain, from whence they brought fine Spa-
nifh wool. At this time it appears, that the woollen manu-
fa@tures in Poland and Silefia were rapidly increafing ; and
the Englifh government received information that two hun-
dred and twenty thoufand cloths were made there annually,
befides confiderable quantities made at Dantzic, and in the
vicinity.
The duke of Brandenburg, it was alfo ftated to our
government, had ordered one Enoced thoufand ells of Silefia
cloth at Koningfberg for his troops, which had been hereto-
fore fupplied with Englifh cloth. The eftimation in which
our cloth had been held is faid to have been loft by negli-
gence in the manufacture, particularly in the {pinning and
weaving. The Dutch and Poles had a little before this
time received a great number of Proteftant manufacturers,
who fled from the perfecution of the duke of Alva in
Brabant and Flanders.
Here it may be proper to remark, that the Englifh as
a nation had little intercourfe with other parts of the
world, except through a few large trading companies:
hence they were extremely ignorant refpecting the {tate
of foreign countries, and fuppofed that the cloth trade
had been confined to their own country for three hun-
dred years ; and they confidered the eftablifhment of other
manufacturers as a novelty and infringement of their
juft rights. With thefe views, it was propofed to
obtain a complete monopoly of all the clothing-wools
in Spain, in order to prevent the Dutch and other nations
from rivalling our manufactures. This is the more extra-
ordinary, as the Englifh had not then learned, like the
Dutch, to manufacture Spanifh wool, without mixing it
with that of their own country. It is needlefs to fay, that
1 the
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
the negociation of fir William Godolphin for this felfith mo-
nopoly of wool was not fuccefsful. During the whole reign
of Elizabeth, when our woollen manufa&tures were in the
higheft ftate of profperity, wool and woolfels were per-
mitted to be exported. In the reign of James I. and
Charles I., when the trade was declining, proclamations were
iffued to prevent the exportation of wool, and alfo that of
fuller’s-earth. During the commonwealth, an ordinance of
parliament was iffued to prohibit the exportation of wool and
fuller’s-earth, on pain of forfeiture of the wool, and a penalty
of 3s. per pound on every pound of fuller’s-earth. ‘The firlt
aét of parliament which abfolutely prohibited the export-
ation of wool by making it felony, and which could not be
fet afide by a royal licence, is the 12th of Charles II., which
was paffed foon after the Reftoration.
The grounds of this meafure are ftated in the preamble of
the a&t: ‘ For the better preventing the loffes and incon-
veniences which have happened by and through the fecret
and fubtile exportation of wool out of the kingdom; and
for the better fetting to work the poor people and in-
habitants of the kingdom, to the intent that the full and
beft ufe and benefit of the principal native commodities of
the kingdom may redound to and be unto and amongft the
fubjeéts and inhabitants of the kingdom, and not unto any
foreign ftates.’’ Previous to this time, the proclamations
and ordinances iffued to prevent the exportation of wool,
for the moft part, fignified nothing more than the impofition
of a duty ora compofition for exporting by licence from the
government, what on other terms was forbidden, under
penalties of confifcation, fine, or imprifonment. We have
feen that, from the death of Elizabeth to the Revolution in
1688, the woollen trade was generally in a languifhing
ftate. In the year 1665, Thomas Telham of Warwick-
fhire, with two thoufand manufaturers, left the kingdom,
and eftablifhed themfelves in the Palatinate, and commenced
a woollen manufa&ture there, and were greatly encouraged
by the ele€tor. The ettablifhment was foon afterwards
joined by a number of manufaéturers from Hertfordfhire.
During the period from Elizabeth to the year 1668, the
Englifh appear to have made no improvement whatever in
their modes of manufaéture of woollen cloth, whilft the
neighbouring nations had been making a gradual progreffion,
both in the ftyle of their manufaGture, and the amount an-
nually produced. It was efpecially in the manufaéture of
fine cloths that their fuperiority was manifeft. ‘The Dutch,
in particular, were far'more expert than the Englifh in the
dreffing and dyeing of cloth. This will appear from the
following remarkable fa& flated by Coke, vol. ii. p. 169.
In the year 1668, one Brewer, with about fifty Walloons,
who wrought and dyed fine woollen cloths, came into Eng-
land, and received the royal protetion and encouragement.
By him the Englifh were firft inftructed how to manufacture
cloth of the beft Spanifh wool, without any admixture with
inferior wool; and alfo to manufaGture and dye fine cloths
cheaper by 40 fer cent. than they had done before. Ten
years before this time, it had been publifhed and admitted
in England, that ‘* Spanifh wool alone could not be wrought
into cloth.”? It may feem truly extraordinary that the
Englifh, who had fo long carried on the manufacture of
woollen cloth, had not availed themfelves of the revolution
in Flanders, which drove away the beft mafter manufac-
turers, to encourage their fettlement in this country. M.
Huet explains the fa& in a way which is not very creditable
to the liberality of the Englifh manufacturers, or to the
wifdom of our inftitutions. ‘¢ It was owing to the muni-
cipal laws of England, and its ufages towards ftrangers ;
who, befides being doubly rated at the cuftom-houfe, were
excluded from all companies or fraternities of trade ; and were
not allowed to carry on manufa€tures as mafters or partnerss
unlefs fuch as the natives were unacquainted with; fo that
none of the Flemifh mafter manufa@turers of fine cloth went
thither (to England), their’s being a myttery not accounted
new, though very much fuperior to the cloth working then
known in England. It was only thofe who wrought in
new kinds of worfteds, ferges, damafks, or ftockings, who
went thither. The fame policy was alfo adopted by the
Hanfe towns: hence the greater part of the vaft and pro-
fitable trade, which was loft to Antwerp, centered necef-
farily in Holland, where the manufaGturers from Brabant
were cordially received.”” This appears a fatisfactory ex-
planation why the Englifh, in 1668, were fo much inferior
to the Dutch in the manufaéture of fine cloth.
In the year 1660, however, our manufaéturers began to
be aware of the fuperiority of Spanifh wool, and to mix it
with the beft Englifh, probably in what were called med-
leys or mixture-cloths, or elfe employing the Englifh wool
for warp, and covering it with weft of Spanifh wool. The
beft Spanifh wool was then 4s. and the fecond fort 3s. per
pound, and the beft Englifh 1s. 6d. per pound.
It is deferving of notice, that, in the latter period of the
Commonwealth, our trade is faid to have greatly revived,
but to have fuffered a miferable depreffion almoft immedi-
ately after the reftoration of Charles II. In a letter of
M. Downing of the Hague to the prefident of the council
in London, 1660, printed in Thurloe’s State Papers,
vol. vii. p. 848.-it is ftated, that great quantities of wool
were brought fecretly from England to Holland; and he
adds, that the Dutch had at that time got in a great mea-
fure the manufacture of fine cloth, and would probably,
with Silefia, engrofs alfo the manufaéture of coarfe cloth,
and leave England nothing but its native wool to export.
In the year 1662, great complaints were made againft the
merchant adventurers for their negle& of the cloth trade 5
in reply to which they faid, that the demand for Englifh
cloths failed in the foreign markets, the white clothing
trade having abated from 100,000 cloths annually to
11,000. In the year 1663 our whole exports were only
about two millions, and our imports four, leaving a balance
of two millions againft this country. It is, however, de-
ferving notice, that the number of wardens for the infpec-
tion of ftuffs at Norwich being too few, they were at this
time increafed from five to eight. A letter on the ftate of
trade, publifhed in 1667, fays, clothing-wools were fo
much fallen at that time, that the beft Spanifh was fold at
25. 2d. a pound, and Englifh at 8d. per pound. The
writer afcribes the fall in the price of Englifh wool to our
wearing fo much Spanifh cloth, a great part not manufac-
tured by ourfelves, as Dutch blacks; but it is obvious,
from the price of Spanifh wool, that the low price of
clothing-wools at that time depended on a more general
caufe, affecting all manufacturing countries. To relieve
the cloth trade from the great depreffion under which it
laboured between the years 1660 and 1678, various {chemes
were devifed. Among others, the mayor and common
council of London paffed an a& * for the regulation of
Blackwell-hall, Leaden-hall, and Welth-hall, (the three
public markets for cloth in London,) and for preventing
foreigners buying and felling !’? By foreigners are under-
ftood all perfons not free of the city of London. This a&,
a moft fingular monument of the ignorance or felfifhnefs of
its authors, prohibits the fale of all woollen cloths fent to
London, except at the above halls, where certain duties
were to be paid upon them, and from whence they could
not be removed for three weeks, unlefs they were fold in
the meantime to fome draper, or other freeman of the city.
The hall-keepers were to attend ftrifly at the halls, and
4N 2 turn
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
turn out all foreigners and aliens coming to purchafe cloth ;
and every freeman of the city who fhould introduce a pur-
chafer into the halls not free of the city fhould forfeit, for
the firft offence, five pounds,—for the fecond, ten,—and
for the third, fifteen pounds! Thus, in thofe days, turn-
ing purchafers out of the public markets, and fecuring the
fale to a certain clafs of buyers, was confidered an a¢t for
the benefit of the public.
The Irifh had, a little before this time, commenced the
manufa@ture of woollens and worlfteds, which appears
greatly to have alarmed the Englith manufacturers. The
wools of Ireland had increafed in quantity, in confe-
quence of a tyrannical aét paffed a little before this period,
to prevent the Irifh from fending cattle to England, which
obliged them to convert their grounds into fheep-paftures.
They were, however, prohibited from exporting their wool
to foreigners, it being made felony ; and the exportation to
England, in any other than a raw ftate, expofed it to con-
fifcation. About the year 1640 fome clothiers from the
weft of England eftablifhed a woollen manufacture at
Dublin, where it flourifhed a confiderable time. About
the fame period, fixty families of manufaéturers from Hol-
land fettled at Limerick: thefe were ruined by the wars
which enfued. Other English clothiers fettled at Cork and
Kinfale ; a few French manufacturers of druggets fettled at
Waterford; and a more confiderable eftablifhment of the
cloth manufaéture was formed at Clonmel, fupported by
the capital of fome London merchants, who had agents
there. Thefe eftablifhments, though obvioufly inadequate
to the fupply of one-fourth’ part i 3 the population of Ire-
land, excited great jealoufy in the Englifh manufa¢turers ;
and during the great depreflion of the woollen trade be-
tween the years 1660 and 1668, a part of this diftrefs was
aferibed to the rivalry of the Irifh clothiers. The Englifh
farmers, at the fame time, afcribed the low price of wools
to the great importations of wools from Ireland; and the
merchants afcribed the failure of the foreign demand for
cloth to the clandeftine exportation of Englifh and Irifh
wools.
Sir William Petty, in the year 1672, eftimates the fheep
in Ireland at four millions, and the weight of each fleece at
two pounds. The latter, however, is obvioufly not more
than half the true average weight of the fleece, and the
number is fuppofed by fome to be below what it was
a few years afterwards. If the number of fheep be
corre&t, and taking the fleece of each at four pounds,
this would make the total amount of Irifh wools only
66,000 packs, of which three-fourths were confumed in
Treland.
The alarm and jealoufly excited in England by the Irifh
woollen manufa€tures produced meafures that almoft com-
pelied the Irifh to export their wools clandeftinely to the
continent. An aét was paffed in the year 1699 prohibiting
the exportation of woollen manufaétures from Treland,
except to a few parts in England and Wales, where the
duties impofed amounted to a total prohibition. Various
addreffes have been prefented to the king and both houfes
of parliament, “befeeching his majefty to take effectual
meafures to prevent the growth of the woollen manufactures
in Ireland.”” The Irith parliament was influenced to im-
pofe a duty in the fame year of four fhillings in the pound
on their own manufaétures when exported. Thefe unjutt
proceedings were intended to annihilate the export trade
for Irifh woollens; and, in confequence, their wool and
worfted yarn that was not confumed at home were fent to
England, or to the continent clandeftinely. The firft four
years after the deftruétion of their manufactures, thefe
exports to England were as follow ;
Stone of Wool, Stone of Yara, — ‘Total of Woot
islbs. per Stone. 18lbs, and Yarn.
1700 336,292 26,617 362,909
1701 300,812 235390 326,202
1702 3159473 432048 359,120
1703 360,862 36,873 3979735
The average annual amount of wool and yarn, as above,
may be ftated at thirty thoufand packs. But after this
period the exports to England declined, owing no doubt
to the clandeftine exportation of wool to the continent, for
which the numerous creeks and harbours offered fuch facility.
In 1711, and the three following years, the quantity ex-
ported to England was as under :
Wool. Yarn. Total.
1711 310,136 525273 365,409
1712 263,946 60,108 324,054.
1713 171,871 68,548 . 240,409
1714 1475153 58,147 205,800
A few years after this, the decline was ftill more confi-
derable in the amount of wool exported, but that of yarn
continued to increafe a little :
1726 51,371 87,261 138,632
1727 58,182 72,047 130,229
1728 49784 80,428 130,212
1729 38,667 91,854 130,521
A further encouragement to clandeftine importation was
given by an impolitic duty of 2s. 4d. per ftone on wool fent
to England, which, as the average price did not exceed
6s. 6d., was full thirty per cent. on the firft coft. It will be
feen fubfequently, that the woollen manufactures of Eng-
land were all this time progreffively increafing, fo that the
decline in the imports of wool from Ireland were not occa-
fioned by a declenfion of trade; the Irith had found other
markets for their wool.
From a work entitled ** A New Difcourfe of Trade,’?
by fir Jofhua Child, fuppofed to have been publifhed about
the year 1667, we learn feveral important particulars.
refpecting the woollen trade. ‘* Though our vent for fine
cloths and ftuffs to Turkey, Italy, Spain, and Portugal,
were, he fays, declined, yet we retained a confiderable part,
principally becaufe the wool of which our middling coarfe
cloths are made is our own, and confequently cheaper to
us than the Dutch can fteal it from us.’? In another part
he judicioufly obferves, that the acts for regulating manu-
fa€tures, refolve themfelves at laft into a tax on the com-
modity, without refpeét to the goodnefs of it, as moit
notorioufly appears in the bufinefs of aulnager, which
doubtlefs our predeceffors intended for a fcrutiny into the
goodnefs of the cloth ; and to that purpofe a feal was in-
vented as a fignal, that the commodity was made according
to the ftatute ; which feal, it is faid, may now be bought
by thoufands, and put upon what the buyers pleafe. Sir
Jofhua Child admits that wool was eminently the found-
ation of Englifh riches, and that all poffible means fhould
be ufed to keep tt within the realm ; but the only efficacious
meafures to effect it are not penal ftatutes, but encourage-
ment to trade. The impediments at that time he ttates
to be, rft, The high rate of intereft ; 2d, Want of hands,
which an a& of naturalization would cure ; 3d, Compulfion
(perfecution) in matters of religion. For he adds, ** while
our neighbours the Dutch have money at lower intereft
and more hands, by reafon of general liberty of confcience,
with other free privileges, both to natives and foreigners,
there is no queftion but they will be able to give a better
price for our wool than we can afford ourfelves, and the
that can give the beit price for a commodity fhall never fail
to have it by one means or another, notwithitanding the
Il oppolition
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
oppofition of any laws by fea or land; of fuch, force, fub-
tilty, and violence, is the general courfe of trade.”
The fame enlightened writer appears to have been the
firft Englifhman who faw the injuitice, abfurdity, and im-
policy of the numerous reftriftions by which the manu-
faéturers were obliged to make cloths of certain weights
and lengths, to keep only a certain quantity of looms,
or to prohibit dyers, fullers, &c. from carrying on other
branches of the trade. ‘ It would be (he juftly obferved)
for the advantage of the trade of England, to leave all men
at liberty to make what cloth and uff they pleafe, how
they will, when and where they will, and of any lengths or
fizes.””
One of the principal caufes of the decay of our woollen
manufactures fir Jofhua Child might not think it prudent
to ftate. This was the encouragement given to the con-
fumption of French cloths and woollens in England,
together with the total prohibition of Englifh goods im-
ported into France, or the impofition of duties which
amounted to a prohibition. The French, under the admi-
niftration of Colbert, had been extending and improving
every branch of the woollen manufa€ture, and were become
our great rivals in foreign markets, as well as at home.
In the year 1678, aéts were paffed, the 29th and 3oth of
Charles II., prohibiting the importation of French com-
modities for three years. From this time trade began gra-
dually to revive, and would have greatly increafed, had not
political caufes operated as a check to our profperity.
The improvements introduced in the manufaCture of fine
cloths by Brewer in 1668, and the more extenfive con-
fumption of Spanifh wool, enabled us to oppofe, with
fome fuccefs, the rivalry of the French.
After the acceffion of William, our manufa&urers, who
were warmly attached to the caufe of religious liberty,
being the greater part Proteftant diffenters, were animated
to uncommon exertions in the reftoration of their trade. This
is evident from the ftate of our exports in the following
year after the revolution in 1689, when they amounted
to near feven millions, of which the woollens were nearly
three millions. This is the largeft amount till the year
1715. A fhort time after the revolution, about the clofe
of the century, our writers on Political Arithmetic, Mr.
King and Dr. Davenant, give the following eftimate of
our national wealth, including wool, &c. :
£
The annual income of England, of which the
people fubfift - - - - ‘I FIeORIOOO
Yearly rent of land - = s S - _10,000;000
Value of wool yearly fhorn - - - 2,000,000
Woollen manufaéture of England - = 8,000,000
Woollen manufa€tures exported - - 2,000,000
From this period, the woollen trade of England kept
progeflively increafing, though fubje& to fome fluétuations.
In the following years the amount exported were as under:
£
1718 value of woollens exported 2,673,696
1719 - - = = - 257303297
1720 - = = = - 30593049
1721 - - Stee = 25004530
1722 - - - - - 3,384,842
About the year 1722, the plague at Marfeilles, by prevent-
ing the exportation of French woollens, increafed the de-
mand for Englifh manufaGtures confiderably. In the year
1737, the woollen exports amounted to 4,158,643/. ; and
' it is remarkable, that at that period the price of wool was
uncommonly low.
from 1739 to 1748, or to the peace of Aix- ¢ 3,327,057
la-Chapelle, was - - - - =
Yearly medium of woollen exports, from 1749
to 1753, was - - - - - I 451895195
From this time to the period of the American war in
1775, the woollen manufactures, and particularly the worfted,
ftill continued to increafe, with occafional checks. The
quantity of long combing-wools grown in England had
given to the manufacturers of worfted goods a decided ad-
vantage over thofe of France, though the ingenuity of the
latter in the manufaéture of les petites draperies, as the
worfted goods are called, was greatly fuperior to what our
own workmen had ever fhewn. The demand for worfted
goods at home, for tammies and ftuffs, which were the gene-
ral drefs of females before the year 1775, was very great ;
befides which, we fupplied with worfted goods many of the
fouthern parts of Europe, and particularly Spain and Por-
tugal, for the ufe of their South American colonies, and
for the drefles of the clergy, monks, and nuns, which form
no inconfiderable part of the population in thofe countries.
About the year 1775, the introduétion of Arkwright’s
inventions for fpinning, carding, &c. into the cotton trade,
produced a great change in the article of female drefs in
England, ftuffsand tammies being fupplanted by cotton goods,
which were become extremely cheap. The failure of the
foreign trade alfo greatly affeCted our manufa@urers, both
woollens and worfteds. The price of Englifh wool at the
latter end of the American war was lower than it had been
in any period of our hiftory, when money was of much
higher relative value. A tod of 28lbs. of the beft Lincoln-
fhire wool for combing was not worth more than nine
fhillings, and the inferior kinds fix fhillings, or about three-
pence and four-pence fer pound. From the time of
Elizabeth to the middle of the laft century, fearcely any
alteration or improvements had taken place in the proceffes
of manufaéture, either in woollen or worfted, beyond the
variation of colours or patterns, to fuit the fafhion of the
day. The ingenious mechanical inventions of Arkwright,
applied to the {pinning and carding of cotton, were foon
after modified, and applied to the woollen and worfted trade,
and produced an entire revolution in fome of the feats of
their manufaéture.. Before that period, the manufa&ture of
heavy woollens and coarfe worlted goods had been gra-
dually concentrating into Yorkfhire and Lancafhire, where
the cheapnefs of living, the aétive induftry of the inhabit-
ants, and, above all, the cheapnefs and abundance of coal,
gave the manufacturers a decided advantage over thofe in
the midland and weftern counties. The following table,
fhewing the amount of broad and narrow cloths made in
the Weft Riding of Yorkthire, will prove the fa& moft
decifively. It may be proper to remark, that eighty years
fince, about 1738, when our woollen exports exceeded four
millions fterling, the total number of pieces of broad and
narrow cloth made in Yorkfhire was only fifty-fix thoufand
nine hundred. At prefent our woollen exports are only
about double what they then were; but the number of
cloths manufaétured in Yorkfhire is not lefs than four
hundred and ninety thoufand pieces, or eight times more
than the quantity made at the period above referred to.
It muft be remarked alfo, that this account does not in-
clude the cloth manufa@tured in Laneafhire, and the borders.
of Chefhire adjoining Yorkfhire, nor the blankets, ferges,
baizes, flannels, caflimeres, toilinets, carpets, rugs, worfted
goods, or any other defcription of woollens or worfteds,
except plain and narrow broad-cloths. The total amount
of thefe different woollen articles exceed, we believe, in
weight, if not in value, that of the woollen cloths.
The yearly medium value of woollen crane} £
An
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
An Account of the Number of Broad Cloths, milled at the feveral Fulling Mills in the Weft Riding of the County of
York, from the 24th of June, 1725, (the Commencement of the hig to the 12th of March, 1726, and thence
annually, diftinguithing each Year; and of the Narrow Cloths, from the rift of Augult, 1737, (the Commence-
ment of the AG) to the 2oth of January, 1738, and thence annually, diftinguifhing each Year; likewife the
Number of Yards in Length, made each Year, from Eafter Seffions, 1768.
Broads. Narrows. Broads.
Years. —— ees
Pieces Yards Pieces. Pieces. Yards.
1726 | 26671 112370 3223913 95539 23775172
1727 | 28990 120245 36356123] 898744 | 2306235
1728 | 252234 87201 | 25873645) 88323 | 2133583
1729 | 29643 95878 | 2841213 | 96794 | 2441007
99733 | 2975389 | 99586 | 2488140}
1731 | 35563 | 107750 | 3153891 | 95786 | 2601583
1732 | 355483 | 132506 3795990 | 101629 2746712
1733 | 34620 110942 3427150 | 93143 2659659
1734.|. 31123 94625 2802671 87309. | 2571324
1735 | 317444 | 102018 3099127 | 98721 2671397
1736 | 38899 112470 | 4458405 | 96743 | 2598751
1737 | 42256 | 131092 4563376 | 108641 3292002
1738 | 42404 | 14495 138023 | 4094335 | 115500 | 3356648
1739 | 430863 | 58848 157275 | 4844855 | 116036 | 3409278
1740 | 41441 | 58620 158792 | 4934975 | 123025 | 3536889
1741 | 46364 61196 155748 4850832 | 128740 4058157
1742 | 44954 62804 139406 4244322 | 132143 4208303
1743 | 451782 63545 154134 | 4716460 | 145495 | 4409573
1744 | 5462735 63065 172588 | 5151677 | 140407 "| 4582122
1745 | $0453 63423 187569 | 5815079 | 154373 | 4797594
1746 | 56637 68775 214851 6760728 | 190468 | 5531698
1747 | 62480 68374 190332 6054946 | 150666 4783722
1748 | 60765 68080 190988 { 6067208 | 130403 | 4634258
1749 | 607052 68889 250993 | 7759907 | 155087 | 5172511
1750 604474 78115 246770 7830536 | 151594 5245704
1751 | 60964 74022 229292 | 7235038 | 156709 | 5503648
1752 | 60724 72442 224159 7134114 | 148566 5180313
1753 | 55358 71618 272755 | 8806688 | 180168 | 6377277
1754 | 560704 72394 285851 9263966 | 169262 6014420
1755 | 57125 76295 264082 | 8699242 | 137231 | 4833534
1756 | 335904 719318 265660 | 8686046 | 137016 | 5023754
1757.) 55777 77°97 266785 | 8942798 | 139575 | 5023996
1758 | 60396 66396 298178 | 9987255 | 150010 | 5440179
1759 | 51877 65513 300237 | 10079256. | 165847 | 6193317
1760 at 69573 290269 | 9561178 | 175334 | 6430101
1761 | 48944 75468 262024 8422143 | 161816 | 5931253
1762 | 48621 72946 279859 | 9050970 | 144624 | 5309007
1763 | 480383 72096 311239 | g8a6o48 | 15igit 5951762
1764 | 54916 79458 273664 8671042 | 158252 6180811
1765 | 54660 77419 269892 | 8535559 | 141809 | 5715534
1766 | 725755 78893 316431 | 9949419 | 136863 | 5117209
1767 | 102428 78819 369890 | 11702837 | 142863 5615755
1768 | 90036 74480 338869 | 10656491 | 147474 | 6045472
6649859
5650669
| §233516
1769 | 92522 27716673] 87762 2144019 | 1815 | 330310 | 10394466 | 162355
1770 | 93075 2717105 85376 2255625 | 1816 | 325449 |10135285 | 120901
1771 | 92782 29662245| 89920 2235625 | 1817 | 351122 [10974473 | 132607
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
In the table that will be afterwards given, it will be feen
that the quantity of yards of different woollen articles ex-
ported, which are not included with cloths, greatly exceeds
that of broad and narrow cloths. Taking this as a ftandard,
it would appear that the cloth returned at the fulling-mills in
the Welt Riding of Yorkfhire is not more than one-third of
the total quantity of woollens and worfteds of every defcrip-
tion made in the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire, and the borders
of Chefhire and Lancafhire. Now to make the quantity of
broad and narrow cloth given in the returns of the Weft
Riding, would require about one hundred and ten thoufand
packs: we may therefore ftate the annual confumption of
wool in thefe diftriéts to be from two hundred and fifty to
three hundred thoufand packs of 240 pounds each ; and we
may further {tate the amount confumed in thefe diftri&s to
exceed that of all the other parts of England and Wales
colle&tively by one-third, including hofiery and all other
articles made of wool. This will make the total amount of
wool manufa@tured in England to be nearly what we have
before eftimated, or five hundred thoufand packs.
The number of perfons immediately, employed in the
various branches of the woollen manufature in England
was ftated, in the year 1800, to be 1,500,000, and that the
trade dire€tly and collaterally employed double the above
number. This was afferted in the fpeech of Mr. Law, now
lord Ellenborough, in the houfe of lords, as council for the
petitioners againit the export of wool to Ireland. But we
apprehend that the ftatement greatly exceeds the actual
number employed in this trade, including their families.
The amount of the population of the Welt Riding of York-
fhire is nearly afcertained, and perhaps two-thirds of the
whole may be engaged in the woollen manufacture, including
the families of the perfons employed. If we ftate thefe to be
340,000, exclufive of the woollen manufaturers in Chefhire
and Lancafhire, we fhall certainly not under-rate them.
A large part of the Weft Riding being agricultural folely,
and in the manufa@uring diftri€s cutlery, as at Sheffield,
and cottons in the more weftern parts, employ no incon-
fiderable portion of the people. If then we take 340,000
as the amount of perfons, with their families, engaged in the
woollen trade in the Weft Riding, exclufive oF Lancafhire
and Chefhire, and if we fuppofe that they are one-third
of the total number of perfons employed in the fame manu-
faéture in England, it will make the whole rather exceed
1,c00,000 of manufa€turers, including their families, which
we apprehend is not far from the true eftimate. We fhall,
however, give the precife words of Mr. Law’s fpeech in the
houfe of lords on the above occafion, the obje& of which, it
muft be recolle&ted, was to enhance the importance of the
woollen manufaéture. ‘ In order to give your lordfhips
fome idea of its magnitude, I may venture to ftate, that
there are no lefs than 1,500,000 perfons who are imme-
diately concerned in the operative branches of this vatt
manufacture; and if what Dr. Campbell ftates in his ¢ Poli-
tieal Survey of the Kingdom’ be true, that from the
wool-grower to the confumer a piece of broad-cloth paffes
through 100 different hands, and that there are nearly the
fame number of hands dependent on the woollen manu-
faQure, though not actually concerned in it, I may aflume
that the trade direG@ly and collaterally employs double the
above number of hands, or 3,000,000. If we eftimate the
magnitude of this queftion (the export of wool) according
to the number of perfons interefted in it, it goes to nearly
one-third of the entire population of this kingdom, etti-
mating that population at what is generally reckoned,
namely between g and 10,000,000.’ Though the woollen
manufaétures of England have confiderably increafed within
the laft fifty years, we do not apprehend the number of
hands employed is greater than before the introdu@tion of
mechanical inventions for carding, f{pinning, and combing.
The working up of one pack of wool, particularly of
combing-wool, formerly employed a great number of hands,
and was divided into {mall portions, to be fpun in the
houfes of cottagers in remote diftrids. This afforded
employment to the wives and families of labourers who were
engaged in agriculture ; but fo much time was occupied in
taking out and colleGting in the work, that at the period
we refer to, few, if any, of the mafter manufa&turers in
Yorkfhire confumed more than one pack of wool per week
in their trade. At prefent there are numerous manufac-
turers in Yorkfhire and Lancafhire, who confume from
twenty to fifty packs of wool per week.
The cotton manufaéture, which may be regarded as of
recent date, has employed the population that would other-
wife have been thrown out of work in the woollen trade
fince the introduétion of machinery, and has prevented any
inconvenience of this kind from being felt at prefent in
Yorkfhire. We may, however, obferve, that many branches
of the woollen and wortted trade have been gradually retirin
from the fouth of England, and concentrating in the Welt
Riding of Yorkfhire and in Lancafhire. Thefe diftriGs
were the firft to introduce mechanical improvements into
the woollen manufaéture, and thus gained a decided advan-
tage over the more ancient feats of he woollen trade. For
feveral years afterwards the effe€ts were felt in the manu-
facturing diftriéts in the weft of England, and great diftrefs
from want of due employment for the labouring claffes
was the confequence.
At prefent all kinds of machinery that have hitherto been
applied to wool are extenfivelyemployed in the weft of England,
and the manufacture of fuperfine cloth is in a flourifhing
ftate in the counties of Gloucefterfhire, Somerfetfhire, and
Wilthhire, all ancient feats of the clothing trade. The
manufa@ture of broad-cloth in other parts of the fouth and
weft of England is not carried on to any great extent.
The manufaéture of flannels, ferges, baizes, &c. though
branches of the woollen manufa@ture, are diftin@ from the
cloth trade, and feldom carried on in the fame diftri&.
The export of woollen goods of all kinds from England,
in the year 1815, amounted in declared value to ten millions
one hundred and ninety-eight thoufand pounds. This was
rather an extraordinary quantity; and in the following
year the exports fell under nine millions, which may be
taken as the regular annual amount of woollen exports at
prefent.
The following table gives the amount of different kinds
of woollens exported, with their value, and the places to
which they were fent in the year 1816; a year in which our
foreign trade was confidered as in a declining ftate. It may
be worthy of remark, that though our woollen exports
{carcely reached eight millions and a half, the amount taken
by the United States of America in that year exceeded
three millions ; a fa&t which proves the vaft importance of
the American market to our manufaéturers.
WOOLLEN: MANUFACTURE.
An Account of the Quantity of Woollen Goods exported from Great Britain, in the year ending the sth
poffible, the various Articles,
Quantity and declared Value of Woollen
pera ti par es oe Caffimeres. ae OH all Flannel.
Countries to which exported. Quality. ECA ES
Ke “als a Zs > Ze a Zs > res
3 a> é a? 6 a7 2} a7 @ a”
Pieces. j Pieces. L, Pieces. UB Pieces. i Yards. L
Rufia - - - + = | 79671 | 777074] 27 | 153] 2180 | 19857] 128 | 565) 624363) 5633
Sweden - - - - = CS OP Pe) ggg I 4 —] — 832 54
Norway - - - - - 588 4921| 217 949} 60 378} 272| 165) 4335 389
Denmark - - - - 717 7447| 34| 130) 354] 2308) — | — 81423) 646
Poland - - - - - 2 a5, _ _ _ _ a 100 10
Pruoffia - - - - - 83 1100) 67 324, 214] 1544 3 18} 1324 137
Germany - = = = | 9274 | 54042/27740 |110457/27882 |103534) 200 | 580) 144972 | 9494
Holland - - - = = | 9892 5329413374 63462) 2374 | 9367] 1741 | 11950, 37928 | 3373
Flanders - - - - 3164 23086] 6586 | 29540] 1575 | 7364) 13 94] 44555 | 4602
France - - - - - 73 72 — _ 67 [oP fe) 3 3} 1944 154
Portugal,&c. - - - - | 39854 | 292141] 7466 | 38755) 3931 | 30037)13114 | 80377] 14859] 1355
Spain, &c. = - = = | 33953] 30286] 1228 | 5071) 930] 5975} 5584 | 38139, 42554 | 4411
Gibraltar - = = = | 4344 | 32520) 1270 | 6805) 950] 5415) 883 | 4886, 79720| 8913
Italy - - = + = | 9729 | 45360] 2772 | 11765) 658) 3395] 48 | 285) 20623 | 1535
Malta - - = = | 8453 | 45964) 1305 | 5466] 811 | 4274 53 198} 4730] 537
Turkey and Ravn - - 185 2850; 51 258; — — o 1450 160
Ireland and Ifleof Man - 21734 | 327049] 61 399| 4008 | 60851 or 556) 200707 | 18898
Ifles, Spent pertey; & Aldemey 991 13975] 93 515} 20%] 194] 1403] 540) 25054 | 2213
Afia - | 19433 | 407614) 170] 936) 231 | 2777) 330] 1374) 225487 | 28130
Africa - - - 14854 | 17396) 498 | 2538) 1122 | 6586) 241 1460! 143863} 1209
America; viz. United States - |195124 |1463028|19798 | 73143/39899 |263284) 4446 | 12787/2288758 [187940
Britith Northern Colonies 32412 246504] 1827 | 5544) 22483] 15442] 1051 | 4227| 484129 | 35971
Wett Indies . - | 166495 | 114544] 5292) 1926) 2708 | 16991) S109 | 40098) 69729 | 6451
ae he eae — 33319 | 238796 5409 30863 2911 | 1888813926 | 80236, 12999 895
Honduras - 30 337 50 312} — — 700 53
Total - - 37924545)323 163
488658$ |4201073/905225|388999/95 184515 79687|501293)2785 38
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
of January, 1817, ao ees the Countries to which exported, and alfo diftinguifhing, as far as
and their refpective
Goods and Yarn exported from Great Britain.
Sundry
Articles
eonfifting
of
fi Hofiery
Blankets and Carpets and Stuffs, Woollen Stockings, monde Woollers, Woollen and
Blanketing. Carpeting. or Worlted. Woartted. feribed, | mixed with Cotton. | Worfted Yarn.
Rugs,
lids,
Tapes,
&e.
oy Bo > 3s > Zz > oo anil Putas > z Sah all ioe
geet lols: Pat ge eee Shar | Ape [ae | 6 | a>
Yards. Ee Yards Pieves b. Doz. Prs.| LL. Ls, Yards, |. : Lbs
6742) 885) 30863 | 6335| 2261 4723; 208 o| 276) 1234] 12433 | 2188
58 7) 4249 421 5 25 4 9 9 Ee =
268} 37] 645 | 155} 479 | 1096) 41 4 62) 319) 17152) 426
382) - 51). 1047 297| 891 1850 10 Oo 13) 152] 786 270
180 20} 1130 265 52 120 _ _ _ _ _
_ — 1832 485, 188 382 3 3} 1028] 2260 652
12660} 1285) 73579 | 17742] 37748 | 80244] 3936 5201| 15052|135862 | 26041
769 600] 287374| 5462] 31447 | 62391/ 8636 ro] 10384} 3986] 197303] 3968
6663 6499} 3645) 31785 | 9072
685) 6162 754 5635 | 13326) 5145
44745, 5026] 18043 | 3394) 27472 | 72091| 3417
10552] 1189) 6064] 1086] 11644 | 29281] 2840
Poke k ide ei Pee a ce
2150] 219] 2600 474| 10659 | 24874| S92 1 1029] 13846] 19593 | 4563
570 68| 2765 627| 14852 | 37930 62 84| 1060] 2894 720
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Vou. XXXVIII. 40
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
If we ftate the amount of woollen goods exported to be
about one-third of our own confumption, or from one-third
to one-fourth, which is probably more corre&t, this would
make the total value of manufaétured woollens to exceed
thirty millions annually.. Of the woollen goods exported, the
quantity confumed on the European continent fearcely ex-
ceeds three millions fterling in value, and a great part of that
amount given in the preceding account was for army cloth.
Hence it appears, that a very {mall proportion of the gene-
ral population of Europe is indebted to this country for its
woollens, including under the term both woollen and worfted
oods. The increafed demand for woollens of every de-
Eiotion in England arifes partly from the increafe of popu-
lation, but more from the increafing demand for articles of
luxury or convenience. In the middle of the laft century,
carpets were fcarcely to be feen in the country, except in
the houfes of the nobility ; at prefent almoft every houfe in
England, except thofe of cottagers and the labouring clafles,
has carpets {pread in fome of the rooms. The confumption
of worfted yarn in articles of furniture, and in the linings of
carriages, and what is called horfe millinery, is very great ;
add to which the people of England are better dreffed than
they were formerly. We may from all thefe caufes ftate,
that the home confumption of woollens, in proportion to
our population, is double that of any other nation in Europe.
To prove that we do not over-rate the proportion of woollens
confumed at home, it may be {ufficient to ftate, that the Weft
Riding of Yorkfhire alone manufactured, in the year 1817,
nearly twice as many pieces of cloth as were exported in that
year ; but few woollen broad-cloths are made for exportation
in the weft of England, the manufatures there being prin-
cipally fine and fuperfine cloth for home confumption, the
value of which fer yard on the average is much greater than
that of the Yorkfhire cloth. In the prefent ftate of Europe,
we think it an encouraging circumftance toour woollen manu-
faGturers, that fo large a proportion of their goods are con-
fumed at home, where the demand will remain certain; and
again, that the United States of America take fo confider-
able a part of our exports, as from the increafing population
of thefe ftates, we may expect that the demand will be in-
creafing for many centuries, and will foon exceed what it
will be in the power of this country to fupply.
In the year 1800, the woollen manufacturers of England
were greatly alarmed at the liberty which was intended to
be granted, of exporting wool to Ireland, and petitioned
parliament againft the meafure. The grounds on which
their alarms refted, were partly the preference given to the
Irifh, and partly the fuppofed facility that would be
afforded to fmuggling wool to the continent. Several
manufaéturers and wool-dealers from different parts of the
kingdom were examined before the two houfes of parlia-
ment; but neither in their evidence, nor in the {peeches of
the learned council, who were heard in fupport of the peti-
tioners, can we trace any comprehenfive or enlightened views
of the fubjeét. The objections urged againit the export of
wool were grounded principally on the praétice of former
reigns, particularly thofe of Edward III. and queen Eliza-
beth: but the faéts we conceive were in oppofition to the
ftatements ; for during the whole of the latter reign, in which
our woollen manufaétures were in a highly flourifhing con-
dition, the export of wool was freely admitted, on the
payment of certain duties; and during the reign of Ed-
ward III., the prohibition to export wool under heavy
penalties was confined to denizens and foreigners, in
order to fecure a larger amount of duties to the king,
the former paying lefs duty on exports than natives ;
nor was it till the rcign of Charles II. that the ex-
port of wool was ftri&ly prohibited. All the former
prohibitions were evadable by licences, which were readily
granted for money. It is from this reign, therefore, we
muft date the prohibition to export wool, as forming an
eftablifhed law of the land; and it is not unworthy of re-
mark, that immediately after this period, and to the time of
the revolution in 1688, our woollen manufaGtures were in a
very declining ftate, which proves that they had not derived
much benefit from the meafure. The policy of admitting
the export of wool has been again recently agitated in par-
liament, and has renewed the alarm of the manufaéturers. It
is not by precedents drawn from former ages, but folely by
the wifdom and juftice of the meafure, as applicable to one
prefent condition, that a queftion of this kind fhould be deter-
mined. With refpeét to fhort or clothing wool, we believe
that a permiffion to export it would not produce the leaft
effet, as we already import thefe wools from almoft every
nation in Europe; it is not, therefore, probable, that
foreigners would give a better price for them than our
own manufa@turers can afford. With long combing-
wools, the cafe is fomewhat different, as by the acknow-
ledgment of the French themfelves, thefe wools are wanted
to mix with and improve their own. We apprehend, how-
ever, that as much is exported at prefent clandeftinely in the
form of worfted yarn, as the market may require, the free
export of cotton yarn giving great facility for evading the
penalty, by packing them together. The permiffion to ex-
port wool to Ireland, which was granted in 1800, has not
been attended with any one of the fatal effe&s which our manu-
faéturers anticipated ; nor do we apprehend, that permitting
the free export of wool under certain duties would be found
to injure our own woollen trade.
In taking this view of the fubje&, which we truft is an
impartial one, we readily admit that the permiffion to ex-
port wool, were it granted, would not be attended with any
permanent benefit to the landed intereft. A {mall pamphlet
on the fubje&t, recently publifhed by John Maitland, efq.,
contains the following judicious obfervations :—‘ The manu-
fa€turer of our native wool claims from government the
prefervation of it for his ufe; for by the flatute law’of the land,
he is confined to its foil for the exprefs purpofe of working up the
wool which grows upon it. This wool cannot, therefore,
upon any juit or moral principle, be permitted to go out of
the country in an unmanufaCtured ftate, without allowing
the manufaéturer to follow it, or without obliging the
grower and exporter of it to maintain him and his children.??
This is fo obvioufly juft, that whenever the export of wool
is admitted, we cannot any longer, as at prefent, prohibit the
woollen manufacturers from emigrating and carrying their
induftry to the beft market. ‘ The wool,” as Mr. Mait-
land elfewhere obferves, ** does not on an average compofe
more than one-fixth part of the value of the animal on
which it grows; and the manufa@turer, by obtaining this
fixth part, at fuch a moderate rate as may enable him to fell
his goods, when manufa€tured at a reafonable profit, infures
to the owner of land a moral certainty of obtaining the full
value for the remaining five-fixths, and receiving an ample
price alfo for all the other produétions of his ground.”? The
truth of this obfervation we know to be fully proved in the
Yorkfhire markets. Whenever there is any confiderable
depreffion of the woollen trade, it is always attended with a
decreafed confumption of animal food, fupplied principally
from Lincolnfhire, and the counties which produce the
largeft quantity of wool. Should the permiffion to export
wool be attended with any effe& in diminifhing our own
manufactures, the refult would be highly injurious to the
land-owner, who would then have to find new cuftomers for
his
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
his general produce, and new affociates to fhare with him
the burden of taxation.
The prices of heavy combing-wool in Lincolnfhire,
Nottinghamfhire, or Leicefterfhire, may be taken as the
average price of this kind of wool over the whole kingdom,
there being little variation in the value of this wool from
different diftriéts. ‘The following table will fhew what have
been the prices for a great part of the laft century :
Price per Tod of Lincolnfhire Fleeces, the Tod weigh-
ing 28 lbs.
iss ae
1706 - - - - o17 6
1707 - - - =O TO! 16
1711 - - - = © 13" 0
1713 - - - Soy ASN itGf yf)
1714 - - - SOMES TO
1715 - - - =! 0) 15) 0
1716 - - - <9 CO ae
1717 - - - crib eee
1718 - - - Hg pbk 9 Phew
1719 - - : ive 20
1720 . - - ar, Om
1721 - - =a t 1OyO
1722 . - - Sant OO
1723 eer MAYS BE OKr7 216
1724 - St pied Sor 16, 10
1725 - - - =O). 1610
1726 - - - On Len G
1727 - - - =) TO) 16; 0
1728 - - - =O) Ta) 10
1729 - - - SORTS tO
1730 - - - = OLS ~O
1731 - - - 5 OO) 1)
1732 - - - = Ong) 0
1733 - - - Sp Oui 1G
1734 - - - =P OnTOm oO
1735 - - - = 10) 14) 60
1736 - - - = 0 14-0
SUBST a = - Se Qn’
1738 - - - Shy Cty ls)
ahs) - = = yy Seep)
1740 - - - = O14 0
1741 - - - SOW ©
1742 - - - = Sn iity We)
1743 - - - - 019 6
1744 - - - aie a tLe)
From the year 1744 to the year 1777, the prices, though
occafionally fluctuating, continued much the fame as in the
preceding years, but we have not the means of afcertaining
precifely what they were in each year. The following
table will fhew the prices of Nottinghamfhire and Leicetter-
fhire heavy combing-wool, taken from the moft authentic
fource. We confider the value of this wool to have been
fully equal to that of Lincolnfhire on each year.
Price per Tod of 28 Ibs. of Nottinghamfhire and Leicefter-
fhire heavy Combing-Wools.
Eh ds
si by | - - - o18 oO
1778 - - - =O) 150
1779 - - - -SORHIN (©
1780 - - - =) or 1! 16
. 1781 a D - =) 0 109°6
1782 - - - - © 9 0
£783 - - - - © 12 ©
vs, id
1784 - - - - 016 0
1785 - - - - 012 0
1786 - - - Fog} 0
1787 - - - =O) 17) 16
1788 - - - = YO L7H e
1789 - - - ER OVLO ENO
1790 - - - - 018 o
1791 - - - - o19 6
1792 - - - =r 26
1793 . - - - o18 oO
oe ct een ee = OTE
1795 : = = So 8S)
1796 - - - ar Ge
1797 - - - =i "OG
1798 - - - - 018 o
1799 - - - > Retr 96
1800 - - - = EAS (6
1801 - - - = ‘1 too
1802 - - - - I 10 0
1803 - - - =" Ol O
1804 - - - = "S120
1805 - - - =n 53/46
1806 - - - = ME LI2-00
1807 - - - - 1 4 6
1808 - - - Mee yb 46)
1809 - - - =i DSC
1810 - . - =i WI TO" NO
1811 - - - =f GVO
1812 - - - =i LOO
1813 - - - Ry Weare)
By the end of the year - 2 5 0
1814 - ='2, 02.) ojto’ 2/12) 0
Spring of 1815. - = 2/1000
1815 - - - =)" 210, Yo
1816 - - - --(r 100
1817 - = T1g) Oto. 2 0R10
The above were the average prices of the beft lots; the
inferior ones might range from one to two fhillings per tod
under the prices here given. It may be obferved, that the
price of this kind of wool was lower towards the clofe of
the American war, or about the year 1781 and 1782, than
in any former or fubfequent period of our hiftory, if we
take into confideration the relative value of money. At
that time, the quantity of wool unfold in the hands of the
farmer was nearly equal to three years annual growth; a
quantity too large to have been confumed by our manu-
fa€turers, had not the introduétion of machinery enabled
them to work it up with much greater facility than formerly.
The average weight of thefe fleeces may be ftated at four or
feven pounds each fleece to the tod of 28 pounds. Since the
commencement of the prefent century, the price of this kind
of wool, it will be feen from the above table, has been amply
fufficient to remunerate the wool-growers ; and we confefs we
are utterly at a lofs to difcover on what grounds of found
policy or intereft they would with to make any change in the
laws refpecting the export of wool. With refpe& to fhort or
clothing wools, any change in the exifting laws would make
no alteration whatever in the price ; for it is the extreme of
prejudice to aflert, that our native clothing fleeces are
neceflary to the foreign manufa¢turer, either to fupply his
demand or improve the quality of his own wool. We
might with equal juftnefs revive the abfurd opinion, fo con-
fidently maintained a few years fince, that the beft Spanifh
wool would not make cloth without an admixture with that
of England,
402
WOOLLEN-MANUFACTURE.
Wooten Manufaure, Protefs of. In an early part of
this work, under the article CLotH, we have given a general
view of the procefs of cloth-making, furnifhed by a prin-
cipal manufaéturer in the weft of England. In the pre-
fent article, we fhall confine our account chiefly to thofe
improvements in the procefles which have fince been intro-
duced, and fhall add a defcription of the machines which
were only flightly noticed in the article Corn, and give
references to the plates. The proceffes of the woollen
manufaéture may be claffed under two heads; thofe by
which wool is prepared for the weaver, and thofe by which
the cloth is finifhed after it is taken out of the loom. The
forting of wool has already been referred to under the
article Woot. Englifh wool is fuppofed to be fuffi-
ciently cleaned from pitch marks or other extraneous fub-
ftances by the wool-forter, and left by him in a proper
ftate to commence the procefs of cloth-making. Spanifh
wool in the bale has generally fome part of the pitch em-
ployed to mark the fheep ‘till adhering to it, which muft be
carefully cut off. It was till recently the praétice to beat
the wool with rods, in order to fhake out the duft and open
the ftaples ; but this is now principally done by an opening
machine with long coarfe teeth, called a devil, or wool-mill.
Spanifh wool is frequently fo hardly preffed together in the
bag, that it requires to be opened out by beating, to pre-
pare it for the further proceffes.
In the weft of England, wool is generally fcoured before
itis dyed or carded ;. but in Yorkshire this is feldom prac-
tifed on wool intended for white cloths, and among the
{maller, manufa@turers who dye their own wool, it is fre-
quently put into the dyeing-vat unfcoured; a practice
which injures the brightnefs of the colours, but which
enables the manufaéturer to make a ater weight of
cloth with the fame quantity of hhh There is alfo
fome faving of labour and expence; but this is more
than counter-balanced by the increafed quantity of oil
per pack required for unfcoured wool, which is at leaft
one-third more than would be neceflary if the wool
were {coured. In the weft of England, where the wool
is fcoured previoufly to its manufacture, the procefs is
carried on with a degree of neatnefs and cleanlinefs, which
form a perfeét contraft with the horrid ftench and difguft-
ing filthinefs of the woollen factories in Yorkfhire. For
fine cloths, olive-oil, called Gallipoli, from the part where
it was fuppofed to be fent, is principally ufed; and for the
coarfer cloths rape-oil. Where attention to colour is not
required in very coarfe goode, fifh-oil is fometimes em-
ployed ; but if the latter remain in the wool or cloth, it
turns it brown, undergoing a degree of fermentation inju-
rious to the cloth, and which fometimes occafions {ponta-
neous combuttion. To leffen the expence of oil for coarfe
cloths, fome manufa@turers in Yorkfhire make ufe of a mix-
ture of foap and water with oil, which anfwers very well jn
moift weather, if the wool be immediately carded and {pun ;
but if it remain fome time unwafhed, or the weather be very
hot, the mixture evaporates. It has been attempted to
work wool without any oil whatever, but without fuccefs.
The ufe of oil is to cover the furface of the fibres, and
enable them to flide eafily over each other in carding or
{pinning. What we have before faid of the ftrudture of
the furface of wool or hair, under the article Woot, will
fuffice to fhew the advantage that muft refult from oiling.
The wool is fprinkled with oil as evenly as poffible. In
Yorkshire the proportion on fine wool is about fix gallons
per pack, and this is more equally diftributed over it by
the wool-mill, through which it pafles previous to the pro-
cefs called fcribbling. This procefs is a kind of coarfe
carding, and is performed’on a machine fimilar to that ufed
for fcribbling cotton, but larger, and with coarfer cards,
the principle being fimilar to that of the carding-maehine,
hereafter to be Tetehedt By this engine the longer fibres
are broken down, and they are all laid ftraight and nearly
arallel to each other. The wool leaves the roller of the
cribbling-mill in one thin undivided fheet, and the more
clear, even, and tranfparent it appears when held between
the eye and the light, the more perfe€tly has the operation
been performed. On the carding-engine, the operation is
repeated on finer cards ; but inftead of leaving the machine
in one continued fheet, it is finally divided into feparate
portions, which by a fluted roller are formed into feparate
round pieces about one inch in diameter, and two feet three
inches in length. The fibres are now arranged fo as more
eafily to flide over and twift round each other in the next
procefs, which is a kind of coarfe {pinning called flubbing,
wey with the flubbing-machine, which will be de-
cribed. On this machine each of the rolls from the card-
ing-machine are joined together, and drawn out into a
loofely-twifted thread, and wound round a fpindle, forming
what is technically called a flubbing. Thefe flubbings bein
taken to the {pinning jenny, which will alfo be deleribed,
are twifted in an oppofite dire€tion, and drawn out into
threads of yarn of the requifite length. For very fine yarn
ufed in fhawls, a machine called the mule is fometimes em-
ployed, nearly fimilar to the cotton mule (fee Manufa@ure
of Corton), the flubbing paffing through rollers which
affift in drawing out the thread {maller and more regular.
The yarn is now prepared for winding, fizing, warping,
and weaving. (See Crotu.) Since the article CLrotu
was written, broad-cloth is almoft univerfally woven by one
perfon only in a loom, making ufe of the fly-fhuttle. (See
Weavinc.) The next procefs is fcouring and burling,
already defcribed under the articles CLoru and Furiine.
The cloth is then fent to the fulling-mill; the finer kinds
are prepared for fulling by a mixture of foap and water ; in
cparfe kinds, fuller’s-earth fupplies the place of foap. (See
Furiinc-Mill, and a farther defcription at the end of the
article.) The principle on which the felting depends has
been defcribed under the article Woot. By the procefs of
fulling, the cloth becomes fhortened in length and breadth,
and the fibres are incorporated and intimately united with
each other, In the beft manufactured cloths, this incor-
poration is fo complete, that the feparate threads can
fcarcely be diftinguifhed, the bottom of the cloth appear-
ing to form one even continuous fubftance. An improve-
ment in this re{pect has recently been made at Leeds, by
{pinning the wool much fofter and thicker than has ufually
been the practice, and uniting the threads in the fulling-
mill, and then working the fub{tance of the cloth down to a
uifite degree of thinnefs by the gig-mill, hereafter to be
defcribed. At the end of the procefs, the face or furface
of the cloth is much fofter, and greatly fuperior in appear-
ance to cloth manufa@tured in the common pyocefs. A
pack of wool of 240 Ibs. will make when milled about one
hundred and twenty yards of mixed or coloured cloth from
fifty to fixty inches in breadth, according to the quality
and finenefs of the wool. ‘The procefs of raifing, fhearing,
and preffing, have been mentioned under the article CLorn,
and will be more fully defcribed when an account is given
of the gig-mill and fhearing-machine. The object of thefe
procefles is to cover the thread with a foft a, confifting
of the fibres of the wool, cut down to an even furfaee over
the whole piece.
There are various kinds of woollen goods worked on the
fame principle as cloth, and made with both the warp and the
weft
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
weft of carded wool, but which being unmilled, or finifhed in
a different manner, receive different names. Blankets are ma-
nufatured on the card, but from wool that pofleffes a greater
Jength of flaple, and which therefore admits of a deeper pile,
being raifed on the furface. The yarnis {pun thicker, and left
as foft as poflible, in order that it may form a full cover or pile.
Fine blankets are made much ftouter and heavier than coarfe
ones; they are both fcoured in the mill, but are fcarcely
fuffered to undergo the fulling procefs. ~ Thick cloths with
a long pile, called duffields, fearnoughts, and bear-fkins, are
saeneeneed on the fame principle as blankets, but they
are milled much thicker and dyed, and alfo raifed to a deeper
pile. Flannels and very light cloths, fuch as Bath coatings,
are ufually fpun fmall, in proportion to the quality of the
wool. In weaving plain cloths, the chain or warp is equally
divided by the gears, one half of the threads being above
and the other half below, and they crofs each other every
time the thread of the weft is thrown through by the fhuttle.
In weaving kerfeymeres or caffimeres, on the contrary, the
warp is unequally divided, to produce what is called the
twill, or tweel, (fee WeavinG,) one-third being always
above and two-thirds below the fhuttle as it paffes. It is
owing'to this arrangement of the warp, that it forms a flant-
ing or diagonal rib acrofs the body of the cloth, which is
the diftinguifhing chara¢ter of this kind of woollens. See
Dravueur of Looms. :
Caffimeres are ufually fet in the loom from thirty-four to
thirty-fix inches wide, and milled to twenty-feven inches.
Forty pounds of wool from the bag will make rather more
than fixty yards of common milled fine caffimeres; the
double milled ones make lefs in proportion to the degree of
milling they receive.
Swandowns and toilinets are made with a cotton warp ;
the weft is woollen or worfted yarn of various colours, ac-
cording to the patterns required. Woollen cords have alfo
the warp of cotton and the weft of woollen ; they are woven
and cut precifely in the fame manner as cotton cords. See
Fustian.
Serges are made with the warp of worfted and the weft
of coarfe woollen yarn, and are twilled. Thefe goods have
been for a very long time manufactured extenfively in De-
vonfhire, and are principally purchafed by the Eaft India
company for the China trade.
Carpets have worfted warps and woollen wefts. See
Carrer and WEAVING.
_ From the moft remote period of the woollen manufaGture
until the latter end of the laft century, or about the year 1780,
very few, if any, mechanical improvements had been intro-
duced into it. During the whole time the various procefles
were carried on nearly in the fame manner, but with greater
or lefs fkill, and were employed upon materials more or lefs
valuable. The carding and {pinning of wool, and the
weaving and finifhing of cloth, in the early part of the reign
of George III,, were effeGted by the fame machines as in
the time of Edward III., which probably were fimilar to
thofe of the ancient Romans, but more rude in their con-
ftru@tion. In an art which had feen fo many centuries roll
on without any change, it did not appear poffible to the
manufacturer that any improvement could be effected ; and
had not the genius of Hargreaves and Arkwright changed
entirely the modes of carding and {pinning cotton, the woollen
manufaéture would probably have remained at this day
what it was in the earlieft ages of civilized fociety. That
it would have been better for general fociety if it had fo
remained we readily admit ; but after the improved modes
of working cotton were difcovered, this was impoffible.
The {pinning jenny, which was the fame as that employed in
the cotton manufa@ture, but fomewhat larger, was introduced
into Yorkfhire from Laacafhire about the year 1780, but
did not become general till about three years afterwards.
In the firft jennies, not more than eighteen or twenty threads
could be fpun, and the mode of winding the thread upon
the {pindle was very imperfe&. ‘The carding was ftill
effe€ted by the hand, and the flubbing or roving was pre-
pared on the common fpinning-wheel. For fome time con-
fiderable difficulty was experienced in carding by machinery,
particularly in clearing the wool from the card ; and a flight
change in the conftruétion of the machine was found necef-
fary to prepare the wool for the flubbing-billy, of which
an account will be given in the defcription of the carding-
machine. Soon after this, the carding and {pinning of
wool and yarn by machinery became general through the
manufacturing diftri€ts of the Weft Riding of Yorkhhire,
and large mills were erected, in which the carding and {crib-
bling machines were turned by a water-wheel, and the roving
or flubbing performed on the billy. The wool carded at
thefe mills was fent to the fmaller manufa@turers in the ftate
of flubbing, and the farther procefs of {pinning was effected
on jennies in their own premifes. Before the year 1787, the
old proceffes of carding by the hand, and {pinning on the
wheel, were entirely difcontinued in Yorkfhire ; but it was
fome years after before the new proceffes were generally
introduced in the weft of England, and thus, as we have
before ftated, the woollen trade became more concentrated
in Yorkfhire, where cloths could be manufatured at lefs
expence. About this time, machinery began to be applied
to the combing and {pinning of long combing-wool, to make
worlted yarn. See Worsrep Spinning.
In confequence of the great increafe of trade in York.
fhire, it was found difficult to obtain fituations for mills
to be turned by water, and the application of the fteam-
engine to woollen machinery became very general. The
abundance of fuel was highly advantageous to the York-
fhire manufaéturer ; and it was found to be equally cheap to
work the machines by {team as by water, where any con-
fiderable rent was paid for the water. The motion of the
improved fteam-engine was alfo rendered as regular as a
water-wheel, and the great inconvenience and lofs from the
interruption of the works by frofts or continued droughts
were thereby avoided.
The fmaller manufacturers in Yorkfhire were at firft
benefited by the introdu€tion of machinery, but in a little
time large capitalifts began to engage in the woollen trade,
and performing all the procefles with their own machinery,
they were enabled to work cheaper and underfell the {maller
makers. ‘The facility alfo with which wool could nar ake
worked up kept the markets always well ftocked with goods,
and prevented the manufacturers from taking the advantage
of a temporary fcarcity or a brifk demand, which they had
formerly done, an overftocked market always reducing the
rofits.
, Soon after the year 1800, the number of {mall manufac-
turers began rapidly to deereafe many of them, being ruined
by the change which had taken place, and compelled to
become workmen in the faCtories of the large capitalifts.
The gig-mill and the fhearing-machine were not intro-
duced into Yorkfhire until they had been feveral years em-
ployed in the weft of England, owing to the refiftance
made to them by the working cloth-dreffers or croppers in
the north.
The manufa@ure of worfted is properly a branch of the
woollen manufa&ture, and noticed as fuch in our hiftory of
its progrefs in England; yet the mode of manufacture, both
in preparing the worlted yarn and finifhing the goods, being
entirely
WOOLLEN
entirely different from woollens made of carded wool, and
part of it ae applied to hofiery, we refer, for a fur-
ther account of it, to the articles Worstep Manufa@ure,
and WorsTep Spinning.
Defeription of the Machines employed in the Woollen Manu-
fa8Sure.—The wool-mill, or willy, is the firft machine which is
employed on the raw wool to open and difentangle the clofe
matting, in which the wool comes from the wool-ftapler. It
is alfo ufed for clearing the dyed wool from the dye ftuff,
and again for mixing different parcels of wool together ;
alfo for incorporating the oil with the wool.
The wool-mill ufed in Yorkfhire confifts of a cylindrical
drum, about three feet long and two feet and a half diameter,
which is made to revolve near three hundred times per minute.
Its circumference is furnifhed with teeth or fpikes, and im-
mediately above it five {mall rollers are placed, which are alfo
furnifhed with fimilar teeth. The teeth of the rollers and
thofe of the drum interfe& each other when they all turn
round; and the teeth of the five fmall rollers alfo interfec&
each other. The cylinder and rollers are inclofed in a box
or cafe, which is clofed on all fides, except a door in front,
which turns down, the hinges being at the lower fide. When
this door is fhut up it ftands in a perpendicular plane,
very near to the teeth of the drum; when the door is
opened, or turned down into the horizontal pofition, the
wool is laid upon it, about one pound weight at once, and
the door being clofed the wool is brought within reach of
the teeth of the cylinder, which take the wool and carry it
upwards, fo as to work it between the teeth of the cylinder
and thofe of the five rollers placed over it. This effects
the opening of the wool, and breaks the fibres if the ftaple
is too long: it alfo feparates the matted fibres. In about
three feconds, the pound of wool is generally fufficiently
worked, during which time the cylinder has made about
fifteen turns. The lower part of the cafe in which the
cylinder revolves is a grating of wooden rods, through
which the dirt and duit efcape. The cylinder is fitted
very clofe to this grating, fo that the wool cannot efcape
from the cylinder, but is carried round in it, and is thus re-
peatedly fubmitted to the aGtion between the teeth of the
cylinder and thofe of the rollers. When it is judged that
the wool is fufficiently worked, the door is opened again,
and the centrifugal force throws out the wool in an inftant ;
a frefh charge is then laid upon the door, and fhut up in the
machine. A preferable mode is to have two doors on
oppofite fides of the cafe ; one to put in the raw wool, and
the other for the finifhed wool to come out at.
The wool for coarfe goods is pafled feveral times through
the wool-mill ; firft, to break the mats of the raw wool and
render it light; then a fecond time after it is dyed; a third
time to mix the different forts together; and laftly, after
the wool is oiled, it is paffed a Brurth time through the
wool-mill, with a view to incorporate the oil well with the
fibres of the wool.
Scribbling-Machine.—This is the firft flage of carding.
The operation tends to difentangle the fibres which were
before clofely entangled, and draw them out feparately, fo as
to render the wool light and faky. The fcribbling-machine
is very fimilar to the carding-machine, having a large cylin-
der or drum, which is covered on the furface with fheets of
leather ftuck full of projeGting wire-teeth, called card-wires.
The teeth are fo clofe together as to cover the whole fur-
face of the cylinder, like the briftles of a brufh. This
cylinder is turned rapidly round by the machinery, and the
wool is regularly and flowly fupplied by feeding machinery
to its teeth, which take it up, and the cylinder, as it were,
clothes itfelf with wool. This wool is carded or worked by
9
MANUFACTURE.
the teeth of feveral other {maller cylinders, called workers
and clearers, which are fixed around the great cylinder in
pairs. The teeth of the workers take the wool from the
great cylinder, and ae it to the clearers, which return it
again to the great cylinder. It is then transferred to another
worker, and by its clearer is given back to the great cylin-
der, and fo on. It is by the repeated transferring of the
wool from one cylinder to another, that the chief aGtion
of fcribbling or carding is performed. The teeth of the
different cylinders do not aétually touch each other, but they
work fo near together, that the fibres of the wool which
the teeth of one card contains are caught by the teeth of
the other card, and drawn out a very few at a time. This
action tends to feparate the fibres, and renders the wool light
and open, and alfo diltributes the wool with great evennefs
over the furfaces of the cylinders. After the wool has
pafled between three or four pairs of workers and clearers,
it is taken up by a cylinder, called the doffer, which is
{maller than the great cylinder, and turns round very flowly.
The wool is {tripped off from this doffer by a fteel comb,
which is fituated parallel to the axis of the doffer, and is
moved rapidly up and down by acrank through a {mall fpace.
In afcending, the comb does not touch the doffer; but when
the comb makes its down ftroke, it comes in conta with
the teeth of the cards, and combs out almoft all the wool
they contain. As the doffer turns round very flowly, and
the comb aés at {mall intervals, the fucceflive portions of
wool which it combs or ftrips off, hang together in a con-
tinued fleece or web of a very thin texture, which hangs
down from the doffer, and is received in a bafket.
The wool in this {tate is faid to be feribbled, but the
fibres are not yet fufficiently combed out or feparated; for
on examination of the fcribbled wool, many {mall knots and
films of wool are found, which are ftill clofely entangled.
The f{cribbling is therefore repeated twice or three times, and
then the wool undergoes another operation, which is called
carding, but which is very nearly the fame as the fcribbling,
only the wool is formed into {mall cylindrical rolls, which
are the firft rudiments of a thread.
We have thought it needlefs to give a drawing of a
{cribbling-machine, as it may be readily conceived from the
following defcription of the carding machine.
Carding-Machine. (See Plate 1V . Woollen Manufa&ure. )—
A is the wood frame of the machine, but the beft machines
have caft-iron frames; CC is the outfide of the large
cylinder, which is about thirty inches diameter, and twenty-
fix inches wide: its axisis f{upported on bearings at each fide
of the frame, and it is put in motion by an endlefs {trap
applied upon a pulley at one end of its axis, which pulley
cannot be feen in the figure. The cylinder revolves about
100 times per minute. B is an arch of wood to receive
f{crews, which fupport the fix fmall cylinders marked 2 a
and 2; thefe are the workers and clearers. The workers
2 a are larger, and turn flower than the clearers 2; each
worker is aéted upon by its clearer, and both worker and
clearer a& againft the cards of the great cylinder.
The raw wool is {pread evenly upon the feeding-cloth 5,
at one end of the machine: it is an endlefs fheet ftretched
over two rollers, one of which has a cog-wheel G upon the
end of its axis, and receives motion from a pinion fituated
behind the pulley F. This pulley is turned by an endlefs
cord pafling round a pulley n, fixed upon the cog-wheel E,
which is turned by a pinion 8 on the end of the axis of the
great cylinder. The wool which is fpread on the cloth 5
is taken off, between a pair of feeding-rollers, which are
clothed with cards laid on in fpiral fillets. Thefe rollers
cannot be feen, being within the frame; they are about 24
inches
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
inches diameter, and are turned round by toothed pinions
on the axis of the cloth-roller, fo as to move rather quicker
than the feeding-cloth. The feeding-rollers give the wool
to acylinder 4 a, called the carrier, which is about nine
inches diameter. The carrier works againft the cylinder C ;
but as its furface moves more flowly than the furface of the
cylinder, the wool contained in the teeth of the carrier is
taken up by the cylinder. The carding-machine repre-
fented in our plate is fhewn with a cylinder 3, beneath the
carrier; this is not ufed in the prefent machines, but the
feeding-rollers give the wool at once to the carrier 4 a.
That part of the cylinder which is adjacent to the carrier
moves upwards, fo as to carry up the wool it has'taken from
the carrier, and give it to the workers 2 a and clearers 2.
The furfaces of the workers 2 a move in the fame direction
as the furface of the great cylinder, but they turn flowly,
being put in motion by the chain 9, which pafles over
wheels at the ends of all the three workers. Thefe wheels
have cogs or teeth to enter into the links of the chain, and
prevent it from flipping ; the chain pafles beneath a wheel
fixed on the axis of the cog-wheel E, but withinfide the
frame. The wheel E is turned by a pinion 8, fixed on the
extremity of the axis of the great cylinder ; and the propor-
tions are fuch, that the workers 2 a revolve once to about
four turns of the great cylinder, and the workers being
about 64 inches diameter, whilft the cylinder is 30 inches
diameter, the furface of the cylinder moves about 184 times
as fat as the furfaces of the workers.
The {mall rollers 2, called clearers, are placed fo as to
card the wool on the workers, and on the great cylinder
alfo. The clearers are turned round very quickly, and take
the wool from the workers, but their furfaces do not move
fo faft as the furface of the cylinder. Thus the ftrap 13
pafles over a wheel of about 84 inches diameter, fixed on
the extremity of the axis of each clearer; this {trap is put in
motion by a wheel of about 22 inches diameter, fixed on the
axis of the great cylinder ; therefore, the clearers turn about
24 times to one of the great cylinder; but as they are only
3% inches diameter, and the great cylinder is 30 inches
diameter, the furface of the cylinder moves near 34 times
as faft as that of the clearer. The carrier 4 ais turned by the
fame ftrap 13 ; but being larger than the clearers, its furface
moyes much quicker, fo that the cylinder’s furface moves
only about once and a half as faft as the carrier’s furface.
The ftrap 13 alfo turns a cylinder 2, at the right-hand
end of the machine, called the fly: its furface moves the
fame way as the furface of the cylinder, but moves nearly
once and a half as faft; the pulley at the end of the fly
being only 43 inches diameter, and the fly itfelf nine
inches, The fly is not placed fo clofe to the cylinder as
to take the wool away therefrom, but is intended to raife
and loofen it in the cards of the cylinder, fo that the
cylinder 4 beneath it, called the doffer, can take off the
wool more readily. This doffer is 14 inches diameter, and
is covered with feparate fheets of card-wire, each about
4 inches wide, leaving vacant {paces between them parallel
to the axis of the cylinder. The doffer moves round very
flowly, its furface moving only ~'; of the velocity of the fur-
face of the cylinder: it is turned by a band from a pulley on
the axis of the roller D, which we fhall next defcribe,
The comb which works againft the furface of the doffer,
and ftrips off the wool from it, cannot be feen in the draw-
ing. The comb is fupported by two upright rods, {crewed
to it one at each end; the upper ends of thefe rods are
guided by two horizontal levers, and the lower ends are
jointed to two fmall cranks formed on an horizontal axis,
which is fituated at the lower part of the frame near the
ground, and put in rapid motion by a ftrap, from’a pulley
at the bottom of the frame beneath the great cylinder. This
pulley has a fmaller one fixed on the extreme end of its
axis, and receives its motion from the fame ftrap 13, which
turns the clearers. Every revolution of the cranks caufes
the comb to rife and fall about two inches; and when the
comb defcends, the teeth on its edge aét againft the cards,
on the furface of the doffer 4, fo as to take out the wool
from them. This wool is feparated in a continued fheet or
film, becaufe the ftrokes of the comb fucceed each other
very quickly, and the doffer turns round flowly ; but owing
to the vacant {paces between the cards on the doffer, this
film only continues for a width of about four inches, and is
then difcontinued until the vacant fpace on the doffer has
pafled by the comb, which then aéts again to {trip off the
wool, and fo on: hence the wool is drawn off from the
machine in a carded ftate, in {mall and very delicate films or
webs of about 4 inches wide, and 27 or 28 inches long,
which is the length of the doffer.
Thefe detached portions of wool are next rolled up fo as
to form fmall cylindrical rolls, which is done by what is
called the roller-bowl D: it is a cylinder of wood, with
fhallow flutes upon its furface, parallel to its axis; it is
turned round flowly by a pulley H on the end of its axis,
and an endlefs band, 14, which paffes round a pulley. I,
fixed on the wheel E. The lower part of the roller-bowl,
D, is inclofed within a hollow cylinder of wood, called
the fhell; it encompaffes the lower half, being fixed beneath
the revolving cylinder ; the fhell is fluted within fide, but
does not touch the bowl, leaving a {mall interval between the
two. ‘The portions of wool, as they are flripped or combed
off from the doffer, fall down over the edge of the fhell,
which for that purpofe is fituated clofe to the doffer, at that
part. of its circumference where the comb works: by this
means, the wool which is {tripped off falls down into the
{pace between the fhell and the roller-bowl; and when the
portion of wool is completely detached and drops off, the
motion of the bowl within its fhell rolls the wool between
them with a rolling motion, which forms the wool into a
very round and ftraight cylindrical roll, called a carding, when
thefe cardings drop out from between the roller-bowl and
its fhell ; they fall upon a flat table, @ a, as fhewn at 7 7 7.
This table is covered with an endlefs cloth, which is
ftretched over two horizontal rollers ; one of thefe rollers has
a crofs, marked 16, 16, fixed on the end of its axis; the
arms of the crofs are feized by a cranked lever, 15, which 1s
fixed to the axis of the roller-bowl, and at every revolution
the crofs 16 is turned round one-fourth: this moves the
endlefs cloth forwards, and carries the cardings away in the
manner fhewn at 7 7 7, as faft as they drop out from the
fhell, and from this table they are carried away to the flubbing-
machine, or billy.
In moft modern machines the latter movement is altered,
the endlefs cloth being kept in a continual and flow motion
by an endlefs band pafling round a fmall pulley fixed to the
pulley H, and a larger pulley fixed in place of the crofs 16.
In fome old carding-engines many of the motions were
performed by toothed wheels and pinions ; but of late years
all the parts are moved by bands or ftraps, which produce
a much more equable and fteady movement. The large cy-
linders are generally made by placing two or more wheels of
caft iron on one axle, the circumference of the wheels being
cafed with wood, which is attached to them by {crews or
rivets. The fmaller rollers are formed in a fimilar manner
on wooden difks, but. all are made hollow, to avoid warping,
which would render the action of the cards irregular and
uncertain,
We
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
We muft now return to the f{cribbling-machine : it is the
fame as the carding-machine, except that the breadth of the
cylinder is greater, and the teeth are coarfer; there is no
roller-bowl D, and the doffer 4 is completely covered with
cards, without”any breaks or intervals; hence the film of
wool which is taken off is continuous, and is fuffered to fall
down into a bafket.
Double Scribblers—In Yorkihire it is common to employ
double fcribblers ; that is, two of the machines combined to-
gether, and placed in one frame; there are two large cylinders,
each furrounded with its workers and clearers, and doffer, as
we have defcribed, making in all feventeen {mall cylinders.
The firft great cylinder has a feeding-cloth and carrier, to
fupply the wool to the cylinder ; but the fecond large cylin-
der is {upplied with wool from the doffer of the firft cy-
linder, which doffer ferves in place of a carrier to the fecond ;
it therefore has no comb. The doffer of the fecond cylin-
der has a comb to take off the wool, which then falls into a
bafket.
This machine is faid to fave trouble of attendance, and
does more work than two fingle machines. The ufual prac-
tice is to pafs the wool once through the double machine,
and then once through a fingle machine. A double machine
will {eribble about a hundred weight of wool per day.
After the wool is {cribbled it is weighed, and when it is
taken to the carding-machine, a certain weight is f{pread
over a certain length of the feeding-cloth, fo as to fupply
the wool to the machine with perfe&t regularity. The proper
weight which fhould be allowed is afcertained experimentally,
according to the finenefs of the thread which is required to be
{pun. ‘Phe cardings are weighed from time to time, to
afcertain if each one contains the proper quantity of wool.
The cardings produced by the united operations of f{crib-
bling and carding are compoled of fibres of wool laid very
lightly together with the leaft poffible entanglement ; they are
very regular and even in fize, and upon this circumflance the
perfe&tion of the fpinning chiefly depends.
Slubbing-Machine, or Billy.—This performs the firft procefs
of {pinning. It reduces the cardings, and draws them out in
length ; joins them together, and gives them a flight twift, in
order to form a coarfe and loofe thread, called a flubbing or
roving, which muft be fpun over again in the jenny, to
make a thread fine enough for the loom.
This operation was formerly performed by hand on the
common hand fpinning-wheel, which is fimilar to that ufed
for {pinning wool, but of a {maller fize. Machines were
then contrived by which a number of flubbings cou!d be
drawn out together ; but the aid of the hands was required
for joining the rolls or cardings of wool together in fuccef-
fion, and for other purpofes, which were found to take fo
much time, that very little, if any, faving of labour was
effe&ted by the ufe of fuch machines.
A perfpeétive view of the flubbing-machine, now univer-
fally employed, is given in Plate I. Woollen reer teat
A A is the wood frame of the machine; within this frame is
a moveable carriage, D D, which runs upon the lower fide-
rails at a a, with wheels 1, 2, to make it move ealily ; and
it is capable of running backwards and forwards in the
frame from one end to the other. The carriage contains a
number of perpendicular fpindles, marked 3, 3, which are
put in rapid motien by a long cylinder F, and a feparate
band from each fpindle, which paffes round afmall pulley on
the fpindle. The cylinder F extends horizontally acrofs the
whole breadth of the carriage; it is made of tin plate,
hollow like a tube, and covered with paper on the outfide.
The f{pindles are placed in a frame, fo as to ftand near]
perpendicular, at abut four inches from each other; their
6
lower extremities are fharp-pointed, and turn in fockets, and
they are retained in their perpendicular pofition by a {mall
collar of ‘brafs for each, which furrounds the fpindle at
about the middle of its length. The upper half of each
{pindle projeéts above the frame, and on the lower part the
{mall pulley or whirl is fixed, to receive the band from the
horizontal cylinder, which is about fix inches in diameter,
and a little longer than the row of f{pindles ; it is placed be-
fore them with its centre at a lower pofition than the row of
whirls. The cylinder receives motion by a pulley at one
end, with an endlefs band from a wheel E, made like the
large wheel ufed in {pinning wool by hand, and of the fame
dimenfions. The wheel is fituated at the outfide of the
great frame of the machine, and its axis is fupported by up-
right ftandards ere€ted from the carriage D; the wheel is
turned by the left-hand of the fpinner, applied to a winch,
which is plainly feen in the drawing, and gives motion to the
cylinder F, which again turns all the {pindles at once with a
great velocity.
Each fpindle receives a thread, or flubbing, which
threads iffue from beneath a roller, C C, at one end of the
frame, and proceed to the row of fpindles placed in the
carriage, fo that the flubbings are extended nearly in an ho-
rizontal direction. The {pindles, by the motion of the car-
riage, are capable of advancing or retreating from the roller
C, fo as to extend any required length of flubbing.
The cardings of wool, which are to be {pun into flub-
bings, are extended fide by fide upon an endlefs cloth,
which is {trained in an inclined pofition between two hori-
zontal rollers, one marked BB, and the other cannot be
feen. There is one carding for each {pindle, and the number
is ufually from 50 to 80. C is a light wooden roller to
bear upon the cardings which lie upon the cloth, and prefs
flightly upon them by its weight. Immediately before this
roller is a wooden rail G, and another beneath it, which is
fixed horizontally acrofs the frame: the cardings are con-
duéted between thefe two rails, the upper of which is
capable of rifing ; but when it falls by its weight, it holds
the cardings faft between the two, and hence thefe rails are
called the clafp ; the upper moveable rail G of the clafp is
guided between fliders, and a wire 7 defcends from it te a
lever 6. When the carriage D is wheeled clofe home to the
end of the machine, a wheel 5 lifts up the end 6 of the
lever; and this, by the wire 7, raifes the upper rail G fo
as to open the clafp, and releafe all the cardings: in this
itate, if the carriage is wheeled or withdrawn back from the
clafp, it will draw the cardings forward. There is a {mall
catch which receives the upper rail G of the clafp, and
bears it up from falling until the carriage has retreated a
certain diftance, and drawn out about eight inches length of
the cardings ; a ftop on the carriage then comes again{t the
catch and withdraws it ; the upper rail of the clap G then
falls and holds the cardings Bh whilft the carriage con-
tinues to recede, and draw out or ftretch that portion of
each carding which is between the clafp and the fpindle.
All this time the wheel is turned to keep the {pindles in mo-
tion, and give twift to the cardings in proportion as they are
drawn out, by which means it is prevented from breaking ;
becaufe as the carding diminifhes in fize, and increafes in
length, the increafing twift combines the fibres of the wool;
fo as to give ftrength to the coarfe thread or flubbing which
is thus produced.
The flubbing is lapped round the fpindle, but the clafp
being higher than the upper ends of the fpindles, the direc-
tion of the flubbing is not quite at right angles to the
{pindle; hence the fpindle, when it is turned round, will
give twift to the Jubbing, without winding or gathering it
up
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
up upon the fpindle, becaufe the flubbing always flips over
the top-end of the fpindle; but when a portion of each
flubbing is finifhed, and it is required to wind it up round the
{pindle in a ball, the flubbing muft be preffed down by a
wire 8, fo as to bear it from the point of the {pindle, and
place it oppofite to the middle part of the cop or ball upon
the {pindle, and then the motion of the fpindle will caufe it
to wind up upon the fpindle, and form a ball.
The wire 8 is made to operate upon the whole row of
flubbings at once, and for this purpofe a horizontal rail 4.
is placed in the front of the row of f{pindles, being provided
with pivots at its extreme ends, on which it is fupported in
ftandards rifing from the carriage D. It has a {mall arm or
lever projeGting from it at each end, and the wire 8 is
ftretched between thefe arms. By turning the rail 4 round
upon its pivots, the wire is capable of being raifed up, as
in the figure, or lowered down at pleafure: when the wire
is lowered, it defcends below the level of the top of the
{pindles, fo as to bear down the threads which, when the wire
is raifed up, as fhewn in the figure, proceed from the points
of the f{pindles.
The fpinner holds the rail 4 in his right-hand, and it is
by this that he draws the carriage either in or out, according
as it may require ; and by turning the rail 4 round, he can
elevate or deprefs the wire 8, fo as to make it bear
down the flubbings to any degree at pleafure; by this
means, he diftributes the flubbings upon the fpindles in
a proper manner, to form a regular ball or cop, as fhewn in
the figure.
As the cardings are very flight and tender, they would be
liable to break if they were dragged forwards on the inclined
cloth, or even if the cloth were to be moved round its roller
by the force applied to the cardings. To avoid this, a cord
is applied round a groove in the middle part of the upper
roller, and after pafling over proper pulleys, as fhewn in the
drawing, it has a weight fufpended to one end, and a {maller
weight to the other; the {mall weight is only to keep the
rope tight, but the large weight tends to turn the rollers
aad endlefs cloth round in a dire€tion to deliver out the
cardings, fo that there will be no ftrain on them.
Every time that the carriage is wheeled home, the large
weight is wound up by means of a piece of wood projeéting
from the carriage, which feizes a knot in the cord at the part
which lies horizontally ; this pufhes the cord back a certain
diftance, fo as to draw up the great weight ; but the endlefs
cloth cannot turn backwards, becaufe there is a ratchet and
click at one end of the roller which prevents it; the rope,
therefore, flips round upon the roller. When the carriage
retires, the great weight turns the roller and endlefs cloth
round, fo as to deliver out the cardings at the fame rate as
the carriage retreats and takes them up; but when the pro-
per quantity is given out, the knot in the rope arrives at a
fixed ftop, which does not permit it to move any farther ;
and at the fame inftant the roller 5 quits the lever 6, and
allows the upper rail G of the clafp to fall, and hold the
carding faft from being drawn out any farther ; the wheel E
is then put in motion to turn the fpindles round, and the
carriage is drawn back, which extends the flubbings, and
twifts them at the fame time, as before mentioned.
When the carriage is drawn out to its full extent, and
the neceflary twift is given, the wire 8 ie put down to bear
down the flubbing from the point of the fpindle, and the
motion of the wheel being continued, the flubbings are wound
up upon the middle part of the cop or ball which is formed
upon the fpindle ; but as faft as the flubbings are wound up,
the {pinner muft pufh back the carriage towards the clafp ;
and he muft turn the wheel round at fuch a rate that the
VoL, XXXVIII.
Tegulated by the difcretion of the {pinner in turnin
{pindles will not wind up any fafter than the carriage returns,
otherwife the flubbings would be broken or unequally
ftretched ; he muft alfo raife and lower the wire 8 con-
tinually, by turning the rail 4 round in his hand, in order
to diftribute the flubbing on the cop in a regular manner, fo
as to make a firm ball or cop.
A child attends the machine to bring the cardings from
the carding-machine, and place them upon the inclined
cloth ; and when they are exhautted, frefh ones are joined
on, {fo as to keep the machine conftantly fupplied.
The degree of twift which is given to the flubbing is
the
wheel at a proper rate, correfponding to the quicknefs
with which he draws out the carriage. Slubbings which
are intended to be {pun into yarn for the warp of the cloth
require to be more twifted than the flubbings intended for
the weft ; but the proper quantity of twift depends on the
finenefs of the wool, and the length of its fibres. In general
it may be ftated, that no more twift is given to the flubbings
than is neceflary to make them draw out to the required
extent without breaking. This twift is of no ufe to the
yarn, becaufe the flubbing will be twifted in the contrary
dire€tion, when it is fpun the fecond time in the jenny.
An improved flubbing-machine has been introduced,
which is put in motion by the mill, and the carriage is made
to draw out by the power of the machine. The fpinner
has only to pufh the carriage in, and turn the handle, in order
to wind up the flubbings ; by this means, a greater degree of
regularity is attained in the quantity of twift which is
given to the flubbings when they are drawn out. The
movements to effect this are taken from the mule ufed in
cotton-fpinning. See Manufadure of Corton.
Spinning Jenny.—In this machine, the flubbings are {pun
over again, and reduced to the requifite finenefs for weaving.
The jenny has nearly the fame parts as the billy, but differ-
ently arranged. ~ The fpindles are placed at one end of the
frame, and the clafp which holds the flubbings is placed on
the carriage, fo that it can be moved backwards and for-
wards, to and from the fpindles by the fpinner, in order to
draw out and extend the yarn at the fame time it is twifted.
A perfpeétive view of the jenny:is given in Plate II.
Woollen Manufadure.
The {pindles 3, 3, 3, are placed perpendicularly at about
four inches afunder at one end of the frame A A of the
machine. The lower extremities of the {pindles are pointed,
and turn in fmall cups or fockets in a crofs-rail of the
frame; they are fupported near the middle of their length
by pafling through brafs-collars in a horizontal rail. Near
the lower end of each f{pindle a {mall pulley is fixed, to re-
ceive an endlefs band, which paffes round the horizontal
cylinder or roller 2, about fix inches diameter. The cy-
linder is f{upported on pivots at its ends in the fides of the
frame, and lying in a direétion parallel to the row of {pin-
dles, it turns them all round by a {mall band for each.
This cylinder is ufually made of tin-plate, that it may not
alter its figure by the weather, as wood would do; and its
furface is covered with coarfe brown paper, to prevent the
bands from flipping upon it. The cylinder 2 is put in
motion by a ftrap or band 1, 1, which paffes round a pulley
at the end of it, and alfo round the great wheel B B, which
is fupported in a framing fufpended over the machine
from the ceiling, but which is not fhewn in the drawing.
The wheel B is turned by applying the right-hand to the
winch B. In front of the row of {pindles, and about a
foot higher than their points, a long crofs-rail 16 is
fituated horizontally : it is fupported at each extremity by
being mortifed into blocks of wood cc, which are furnifhed
4P with
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
with {mall wheels or caftors, forming a fort of carriage, to
run horizontally upon the fide-beams of the main-frame in
grooves, which guide them, fo that the rail 16 can be moved
backwards and forwards through a fpace of about fix or
feven feet, in a horizontal pofition, without varying from its
parallelifm with the row of fpindles. The underfide of the
rail 16 is formed into a number of narrow notches for the
lubbings to pafs through; and thefe notches are partly filled
up by projecting pieces, rifing up from a fecond crofs-rail
5, 5, fo as to form the clafp which confines or pinches the
flubbings in the notches when the lower rail is raifed up ;
but the flubbings can draw freely through the notches when _
the lower rail is let down. This lower rail is guided and
limited to move up and down only a fmall fpace by ftaples,
which proje& downwards from the rail 16, and receive the
ends of the lower rail 5 of the clafp. The rifing and fall-
ing of the lower rail is effe&ted by {mall cords faftened to it
at about every yard of its length; thefe cords are conducted
over {mall pulleys (concealed in the fubftance of the upper
rail 16), and are all attached to a handle, fituated over the
middle of the upper rail at 16, and beneath an arched" bar,
which is fixed on the top of the clafp. The fpinner holds
this handle in the left-hand, whilft the right is employed in
turning the wheel; and by the fingers of the left-hand fhe
can raife up the lower rail 5 of the clafp, and draw it clofe
to the upper one. It will then be retained in that pofi-
tion by a {mall fpring-catch, and will clafp the flabbings
faft in the notches, through which they pafs ; but when the
fpring-catch is puthed back, fo as to relieve the handle, the
lower rail will fall down by its own weight,’ and releafe the
flubbings, to allow them to flide through the notches.
The cops of flubbings which are to be {pun are fup-
ported in an inclined frame 4, 4; faftened within the main
frame of the machine. The caps are mounted upon iron
wires ; they are placed in two rows, one above the other,
as fhewn in the drawing; but each row fhould only contain
half as many cops as there are fpindles.
Each flubbing is conduéted through a notch in the clafp,
and thence it proceeds nearly in an horizontal pofition to
the fpindles 3, 3.
When the yarns have been ‘drawn out and twifted they are
wound up on the fpindles in balls, in a fimilar manner:to the
billy. The wire which is ufed for bearing down the thread
from the points of the {pindles is marked 12; it is attached
to a horizontal rail, which is fupported on pivots at its ends,
clofe to the row of fpindles. ‘There is a {mall pulley 11,
fixed at one end of the rail, and a fhort lever at the other,
which lever is hidden ii the drawing by a part of the framing.
Between the pulley 11 and:the lever, the wire 12 is ex-
tended, and by turning the rail round upon its pivots, the
wire will have a motion up or down.
The fpinner can communicate motion to the pulley 11 by
means of a cord 7, 7, which paffes round it, and extends the
whole length of the frame, the end being made faft to a
pin at A; this cord lies over the furface of one of the blocks
c, which contains the wheels of the carriage, and paffes be-
tween three {mall pulleys 9, 6, and 8. The centre pins of the
pulleys 9 and 8 are fixed to the block ; but the centre pin
of the pulley 6 is fixed to a {mall flider, and can be drawn
in the dire¢tion of the rail 16, by applying the finger to
a {mall trigger near the handle 16. This aétion removes the
pulley 6 out of the line of the other two pulleys, fo as to
fhorten the cord 7, and turn round the pulley 11; this
brings down the wire 12, and bears down the threads upon
the fpindles. A fmall counterweight is fufpended from
the wheel 11, to return the wire to its former pofition when
the preflure of the finger on the trigger is removed. By
I
this movement, the fpinner has full command of the wire
12, to raife or lower it in any degree fhe thinks proper; and
this is done independently of the motion of de carriage,
becaufe the pulleys 9, 6, and 8, run freely along the cord 7,
and their motion has no tendency to move the wheel 11
either way.
The jenny is worked by one perfon, who ftands within
the frame, and turns the wheel B with the right-hand, whilit
he holds the clafp in the left, fo as to run it backwards
and forwards along the frame at pleafure. The flubbings are
drawn between the moveable rails'16 and 5, in the notches
of the clafp, and each flubbing is faftened on to its corre-
{ponding fpindle. The clafp being left open is drawn
backwards from the fpindles, and the flubbings. run freely
through the notches of the clafp; the flubbings are drawn
off the balls at 4, when the clatp retires from the fpindles,
until a certain length of each flubbing is drawn out and ex-
tended nearly in an horizontal pofition between the f{pindles
and the clafp: this length is regulated by a mark made on
the frame " the machine, to indicate when the clafp has
arrived at its proper pofition. The bars of the clafp are
then brought together by raifing up the handle under the
catch, as before defcribed, and it faftens all the flubbings in
the notches. ‘This being done, the {pindles are put in rapid
motion by turning round the large wheel B B ; they twift
thofe parts ef the flubbings which are extended, and the mo-
tion being in a contrary direétion to the twift of the flubbing,
the firft tendency is'to untwift the flubbing, at the fame
time that the carriage and clafp are gently drawn back,
or from the f{pindles. By this means, the flubbings are
ftretched or drawn out in length at the fame time that they
get a new twift in the oppofite dire€tion ; this keeps them
from breaking, and when they are drawn to their intended
extent by the carriage being moved back to'the {tops at the
extremity of the main frame, the great wheel is turned
round as many turns as is neceffary to give them all the twift
which thofe portions of thread are intended to have.
The threads extended between the clafp and the {pindles
are now finifhed, and it only remains to wind them up upon
the fpindles, previoufly to drawing out a frefh portion of each
flubbing, in order to fpin it inthe fame manner. To wind
up the threads, they are pufhed down upon their refpec-
tive fpindles, by prefling the trigger which moves the wire
12; and the motion of the great wheel B is continued, in
order to wind up the flubbings in balls upon the fpindles, at
the fame time that the carriage and clafp are pufhed back to-
wards the fpindles. When the carriage is got homie, the
thread is finifhed and wound up, and a frefh portion of
flubbing isextended. To do this, the lower rail oft the clafp
is dropped down, and it releafes the flubbings; the carriage
is then drawn back to the mark upon the frame, as before
defcribed, which fhews that a proper length of each flubbing
is drawn off from the balls, and extended between the fpin-
dles and theclafp. The clafp is then clofed, and the wheel B
put in motion to twilt the threads whilft the carriage is
drawn out; thus the fpinning operation is repeated as
before, and prepares another length of each of the threads,
When finifhed, they are pufhed down from the points
of the f{pindles, in order to make them wind up thereon in
the balls, as before.
There is fome difcretion required in fpinning with the
jenny; to draw out the carriage with a movement corre-
fpondent to the rapidity with which the fpindles give the
twit, or rather untwitt, to the flubbing ; for the principal ex-
tenfion of the thread is effected whilit the flubbing is un-
twifting, and whilft the firft portion of twift is given to the
threads. Thefe motions muft be properly proportioned by
the
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
the {pinner, who mutt alfo be careful to give an equal de-
ree of twilt to each fucceffive portion of thread which is
nae otherwife the thread will confift of hard and foft places.
When the yarn is intended for the warp of the cloth, the
{pindles are turned for a given time after the thread is ex-
tended to its full length, as we have before mentioned ; but
for the yarn which is to be ufed as weft, it is different: the
whole of the twift is given during the extenfion of the
thread, and none afterwards; this difference is to render
the weft fofter than the warp, becaufe in the cloth the weft
appears more on the furfaces than the warp, and it is prin-
cipally the felting and interlacing of the fibres of the weft
that will form the furface of the cloth when finifhed.
The yarns are ufually extended in the jenny two and
a half or three times the length of the flubbings from
which they are fpun; and that degree of twift given to
them which is fuitable to the purpofe for which the yarn is
to be employed.
The Mule for /pinning of Yarn is very nearly the fame ma-
chine as the mule for {pinning cotton ; this is ufed for fpin-
ning fome kinds of woollen yarn inftead of the jenny.
When the mule is employed for {pinning yarn for weft, it
is ufed in the fame manner as defcribed in our article Cor-
ton Manufa@ure ; but for {pinning warp, the {pindles are
made to revolve, and twift the thread fome time after the
carriage is run completely out, and the ftretching of the
yarn is finifhed. There is a movement in the machine that
fhifts the endlefs {trap which turns the mule upon a larger
pulley, as foon as the carriage is run fully out, fo as to give a
more rapid motion to the fpindles after the ftretching, or
drawing out, is finifhed, than they had during the drawing
back of the carriage. By this means fome time is faved,
becaufe the f{pindles may be allowed to run very quick when
it is only required to twift the threads; but whilft the ex-
tenfion is going on, the twifting motion muft be moderate,
or the threads would be broken. A very fimilar movement
is ufed in the mule for {pinning cotton, and is called the
double-{peed ; but the defcription of this mechanifm is
omitted in the article MANUFACTURE.
The mule has not, till lately, been in much repute for
{pinning woollen yarn, and the jenny is {till thought to {pin
better yarn ; but we have no doubt that when certain modi-
fications are made, it will become a much more perfect
method than the jenny, being much lefs dependent on the
difcretion and dexterity of the {pinner ; for if the machine
is once conftruéted fo as to fpin properly, it will always
continue to do fo.
To keep the yarn to the fize which is intended, a few of
the coppins are reeled off, in order to meafure out a certain
length of the yarn, which is weighed ; and if it does not
prove of the weight expected, the quantity of wool which
is {pread over a given furface of the feeding-cloth of the
carding-machine mutt be increafed or diminifhed accordingly ;
and when the right quantity is formed, the lead weights
which are ufed for weighing the given quantity of wool are
altered to fuit it. The draft of the jenny may alfo be
altered to effect the fame thing.
The {pinning proceffes are now finifhed, and it remains
to weave the yarns into cloth. From the defcription we
have given, it will appear that woollen yarn is {pun in a
very different manner from cotton. The opening procefles
and the fcribbling and carding are very fimilar, except that the
carded wool, inftead of being drawn into a continued fliver
like cotton, with the fibres ftretched the lengthways of the
fliver, is formed into feparate rolls, with the fibres difpofed
croffwife or fpirally round the roll,
By the flubbing-machine thefe are joined together, drawn
out in length, and flightly twifted, by operations fimilar
to that of roving in cotton-{pinning ; but the operation
of drawing, which is fo frequently repeated for cotton,
would be ufelefs, and to a certain extent even prejudicial for
wool, The objeét of that procefs is to elongate and ftretch
the fibres of the cotton ftraight, and lay them parallel to
each other; but it does not reduce the fliver to a fmaller
fize, becaufe as many times as the fliver is extended in
length, fo many flivers are put together into the drawing-
frame at once, leaving the fliver which has been drawn the
fame fize as it was before, but elongated to three or four
times the length, and all its fibres fully extended.
As woollen cloth is intended for felting, it is not defirable
to ftraighten the fibres, but only to difentangle all knots,
and unfold any fibres which may be doubled, alfo to lay
the fibres in the diretion of the length of the thread.
There is a natural curl in the fibres of wool which fhould
be preferved, and will contribute to the firmnefs with which
the fibres will entangle in the felting.
The operation of {pinning by the jenny and billy are very
fimilar, but both differ from the manner in which the ex-
teffion is:made in the cotton fpinning-machines by rollers.
In the jenny, the extenfion is made upon a confider-
able length of the carding or flubbing at once ; but in the
rollers, the length of cotton which is {ubmitted to the ation
of drawing out is very fhort, indeed very little longer than
the length of the fibres of the cotton. In mule {pinning
both modes of extenfion are praétifed; firft, drawing the
roving by rollers, and then a certain length is ftretched out
to a greater extent.
Warping.—The coppins of yarn are mounted on wires in
a frame, and the yarns are drawn off from them, in order
to combine a fufficient number of them together, to form
the warp for the web of cloth which it is intended to weave.
For inflance, for making the cloth called double drab,
which we fhall take as an example, 2960 threads, each
65 yards long, are laid parallel to each other ; but a fepara-
tion is preferved at every 40 threads, dividing the whole
into 74 parcels, for the convenience of the weaver.
The warping is performed by the warping-mill, which is
a large reel, with its axis horizontal ; the ends of the threads
are made faft to the reel, which is turned round, and it draws
the threads off the coppins, fo as to wind them upon its cir-
cumference; and to prevent the different turns of the threads
from lying one over another, the threads are guided
through an eye or ring affixed to a flider, which is moved
along a wooden rail, in a direction parallel to the axis of the
reel, by acord that winds round one end of the axis of the reel.
A warping-mill for filks is defcribed in our article SrxxK,
and will give a clear idea of the prefent, which only differs
in the horizontal pofition of the axis, and in the greatnefs
of its dimenfions. The threads for the warp being thus
aflembled together, are taken off the reel, and rolled up
into a bundle.
The warp is then fcoured in urine, to remove the
greafinefs of the wool, and is next fized; to do this, it
1s dipped into the cauldron of fize, about ten yards
in length at a time, and well worked in by the hands.
After fizing, the yarns are ftretched out at length in a
fields tll they are dry, and the warp is then ready for the
oom,
The yarn for the weft is wound off from the cops of the
jenny to the quills or {mall bobbins, which are to be put into
the fhuttle.
The leom for weaving broad-cloth has the fame parts as
the fimple loom defcribed in our article WEAVING ; but it is
made very ftrong, to enable it to refift the ftrain of weaving
Ly Dies fuch
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
fuch broad and heavy cloth. The fly-fhuttle, invented by
John Kay in 1737, is now in general ufe ; it enables one
weaver to do the work, which formerly employed two men at
oppofite fides of the piece, to throw the fhuttle from one to
the other, the width being greater than a man can reach.
The warp is wound on the yarn-beam, which is placed
in the loom, and the threads being drawn through the
heddles and the reed, and faftened to the cloth-beam, the
loom is ready for working, in the ufual manner of weaving
plain cloth. At each edge of the warp a few threads
of ftrong and coarfe yarn are placed ; thefe form what
are called the lifts when the cloth is woven, and ferve to
give ftrength to the cloth, and receive the hooks by which
the piece is ftretched in the tenters after milling.
The width of the cloth is meafured between the lifts and
the number of yarns, which we have {pecified will make 100
inches in width for the double drab-cloth, or for common
cloth 3000 threads will make a piece 103% inches wide.
The quantity of weft ufed for thefe cloths is upon an average
one pound weight to a yard in length. The length of the
warp contraéts a little in the weaving, fo that the fixty-five
ds of yarns will make only fixty-two yards of cloth.
Scouring.—The piece of cloth mutt be cleanfed from the
greafinefs of the oil before it can be felted ; for this pur-
pofe, it is firft foaked three hours in a mixture of urine and
pig’s dung, it is then fcoured in the mill for two hours, and
haftly, for half an hour with fair water. The fcouring is
performed at the fulling-mill by a pair of ftocks. (See
Furinc-Mill.) The pair of ftocks are two large wooden
hammers, fufpended with the helves or handles in an inclined
pofition, and the heads are lifted in fucceffion by cogs or
tappets, fixed on the axis of a water-wheel. When the cogs
uit the hammers, they fall by their own weight, and ftrike
the piece of cloth, which is contained in a wooden ciftern or
trough, in which the hammers work. The aétion of the
hammers is to beat and comprefs the folds of cloth, and to
turn the piece continually round in the trough or ciftern in
which it is placed. The form of the trough is fuch, that
the weight of the piece of cloth caufes it to occupy the
lower part of the trough, and each hammer when it de-
fcends drives the cloth out from this loweft part, and forces
it up a curved {weep. When the hammer is lifted up, the
cloth falls again into the fpace which it before occupied,
and at the fubfequent defcent of the hammer it is again
driven out; the heap of cloth is of a confiderable bulk,
and this aétion of the hammers is chiefly on the lower part of
the heap; the beaks of the hammers ftrike nearly hori-
zontally under it, as it were to undermine the heap, fo
that the top part falls over when the hammers retreat.
This a@tion caufes a continual circulation or turning round
of the piece of cloth within the trough, and effe&ts the
{couring, by continually bending and Folia the cloth in a
freth dire@tion ; and as the ftrokes a& upon a great number
of folds at once, the different furfaces of the cloth are caufed
to rub againft each other, with a very fimilar a€tion to
wafhing cloth by hand.
When the fcouring is finifhed, the piece of cloth is taken
out, and extended in a vertical plane, in a frame called the
tenter, where it remains till dry.
The tenter confifts of a number of vertical pofts fixed in
the ground with a continued horizontal rail, which is fixed on
the top of them, and is as long as the piece of cloth ; there
is alfo another line of horizontal rails, which are fitted be-
tween the upright pofts, fo as to flide freely up and down ;
and they ean be fixed at any diftance beneath the upper
rails by means of pins in the pofts, according to the width
of the piece of cloth. Both the upper and Kotrer horizon-
3
tal rails are driven full of tenter-hooks, which are {mall i
rails fharpened at both ends, and bent at right angles, like an
L;; on thefe hooks the lifts of the cloth are faftened, and
the lower or moveable rails are fixed at the proper diftance
beneath the upper rails, in order to extend the cloth to its
full width.
Burling.—The cloth being dried is burled, that is
examined minutely in every part, and all knots and uneven
threads or ftraws, or extraneous matters, removed ; any rents
or defe&ts which can be found are repaired, by introducing
frefh threads. This being done before the milling or felt-
ing, the fibres of the new threads will become fo entangled
- . render fuch defeéts nearly imperceptible in the fitithed
cloth. :
Fulling- Mill for felting the Cloth.—There is another kind of
ftocks in a fulling-mill ; but the fhape of the trough in which
the ftocks or hammers work on the cloth is different from that
defcribed in the article FuLiinc- Mill, which is only proper
for fcouring. In order to fubje& the cloth to the blows
of the hammers, the trough for milling ts formed in fuch a
manner that the cloth cannot efcape from them, becaufe
that part of the trough which is oppofed to the beaks of
the hammers is nearly a flat furface, and perpendicular to
the dire&tion in which the hammers ftrike, fo that the cloth
is actually beaten between the beaks of the hammers and
the flat bottom or rather fide of the trough.
The hammers are made to ftrike very heavy blows; but
they do not bruife or injure the cloth, becaufe there is
always a_great number of folds of cloth on which they
ftrike. The helves or handles of the hammers are placed
in a different pofition from the fcouring-ftocks, in order to
make the hammer-heads fall in a more perpendicular dire&tion
when they make their ftroke, and hence they ftrike with
more force. On this account they are called falling-ftocks
whilft thofe ufed for fcouring are called hanging-ftocks,
in which the helves of the hammers being nearer to the per-
pendicular, the heads move in a more horizontal dire&tion
in the manner of a pendulum, and exert lefs force on the cloth 2
the other difference is, that the hammers of the fcouring-
ftocks only drive the heap of cloth round in the trough
there being no part direétly oppofed to the beaks of the
hammers but a fair curve, which is fo much inclined to the
ere e en the hammers move, that the cloth mounts
up the inclined curve when the hammer {trike
the dire& force of the blow. sirens
There is another kind of fulling-ftocks, in which the
trough and hammer are conftruéted with a view to mill or
felt the cloth; but the hammers are put in motion in a
different manner: thus the helves are futpended in a vertical
pofition, like pendulums, and the force of the cogs on the
horizontal fhaft, which is turned by the water-wheel, is
applied to drive the hammers forwards againft the cloth, and
produce the felting. To return or draw back the hammers,
a chain is attached to each, and thefe chains are linked to
the oppofite ends of an horizontal lever, like a {cale-beam
which is fixed in front of the ftocks. This lever and chains
draw back one hammer when the other is pufhed forwards ;
and as the hammers are actuated alternately by the cogs,
a conftant aétion is kept up. :
The moft fimple fulling-mill by a water-wheel has no other
wheels, but the tappets or cogs which lift the hammers are
fixed immediately into the axis of the water-wheel, and it
ufually gives motion to two pair, one at each fide of the
wheel. It rarely happens that this conftru€tion of a mill
allows the water to be ufed to the greateft advantage, be-
caufe the circumference of a water-wheel fhould not move
with a greater velocity than between 180 and 240 feet per
minute ;
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
minute ; and the hammers of a fulling-mill fhould be fo timed,
that each one will make from about 30 to 36 blows per
migute. This requires that the cogs for the hammers fhould
be numerous, and fixed in the circumference of a large wheel
fixed on the axis of the water-wheel, otherwife the water-wheel
muft be made to turn fo quickly as to lofe a great part of
its force. A better way is to apply a cog-wheel on the axis
of the water-wheel to turn a pinion on the horizontal fhaft,
which carries the cogs for the hammers, and this horizontal
fhaft may have a fly-wheel upon it, to regulate the motion
and’render it uniform.
Mr. Smeaton’s proportions for a fulling-mill for two pair of
ftocks were as follows :—The water-wheel, 14 feet diameter,
7 feet broad ; it was a breaft-wheel, and the fall of the water
was five feet from the furface of the mill-pond to the tail-
water below. The fpur-wheel on the axis of the water-
wheel 72 cogs, and 93 feet diameter ; the lantern turned by
it 23 rounds. Upon the fame fhaft as this lantern was a fly-
wheel of eight feet diameter, with a rim of caft-iron feven
inches fquare, and alfo the two cogs or tappets for each of
the four hammers forming two pair of ftocks. The fame
mill was adapted to be turned by the power of horfes in dry
feafons; for this purpofe, another lantern of 13 teeth was
applied on the other end of the fame horizontal axis, which
could be occafionally turned by a horizontal cog-wheel of
go teeth and 12 feet diameter, fixed on the vertical fhaft,
which the horfes turned. The levers by which the horfes
drew were 15 feet long, fo that the horfes’ track was 30
feet diameter.
It required four horfes to work one pair of ftocks in this
mill, and when Mr. Smeaton tried the expenditure of water
at this mill, and alfo at another mill with an overfhot-wheel,
he found it required from 1200 to 1400 cubic feet of water
per minute, falling one foot, to work a pair of ftocks. Taking
the force of a horfe at 352 cubic feet per minute raifed
one foot, this is very nearly equal to four horfes. Thefe
itocks were ufed for fulling of bays, and we apprehend the
power for working the fulling-mills for broad-cloth is
greater.
Procefs of Milling.—A piece of cloth of fixty-two yards
long has fix pounds of foap allowed for it, which is diflolved
in water, and a handful {pread upon every yard in length;
the piece is then put into the trough of the mill, and worked
for three hours; during this time the cloth is frequently
moved in the trough, to expofe frefh furfaces to the aétion
of the hammers. The blows upon the cloth caufe a motion
of the fibres of the wool amongit one another, and the foap
facilitates this motion ; the fibres of the wool have the fin-
gular property of moving always forwards in the direGtion
of the roots of the hairs, when a number of hairs are rubbed
~ or worked together, but they will not retreat in the oppofite
dire&tion ; this produces the matting or entangling of all the
. fibrestogether. After three hours milling, the piece of cloth
is taken out of the trough, and foaped again, then returned
and milled again for three hours. This is repeated four
times, making twelve hours milling in the whole, and then
a ftream of fair water is admitted into the trough, to wafh
away the foap. The piece of cloth, when taken out of the
mill the laft time, is generally found reduced to about 60
inches broad, and 40 yards in length ; before the operation, it
was 100 inches broad, and 62 yards in length.
The operation of felting is fo well explained by
M. Monge, in the Annales de Chimie, that we think proper
to give an extract from his memoir, in addition to what is
dtated in our articles Fertinc, Fuxiine, and Woot.
If we examine a human hair, a fibre of wool, or the hair
of a rabbit, hare, beaver, &c. in a microfcope of the greatelt
magnifying power, the furface of each hair appears {mooth
and even; or at leaft if any inequalities are perceptible,
they feem rather to arife from fome difference in the colour
and tranfparency of particular parts of the fibres than from
the irregularity of their furfaces; -for their images, when
viewed by a folar microfcope, are terminated by even lines,
without any roughnefs. Neverthelefs it is probable the fur-
faces of thefe objeéts are formed either of lamine, which
cover each other from the root to the point, much in the
fame manner as the feales of a fifh cover the animal from
the head to the tail; or ftill more probably of zones placed
one over the other, like what is obferved in the ftru@ture of
horns ; to this conformation it is, that fuch fubftances owe
their difpofition to what is called felting.
If with one hand we take hold of a hair by the roots, and
draw it between two fingers of the other from the root
towards the point, we are hardly fenfible of any fri€tion or
refiftance, nor can we diftinguifh any found ; but if, on the
contrary, we draw it between the fingers from the point
towards the root, we are fenfible of a refiftance which did
not exift in the former cafe. A fort of tremulous motion is
alfo produced, which is not only perceptible to the touch,
but may alfo be diftinguifhed by the ear.
It is evident, therefore, that the texture of the furface of
a hair is not the fame from the root towards the point, as
from the point towards the root. As this texture is the
principal obje& of the prefent memoir, it is neceflary to
demonttrate it by fome other obfervations.
If a hair is held between the fore-finger and thumb, and
rubbed by them backwards and forwards alternately in the
direétion of its length, a progreffive motion of the hair will
take place; but this motion is always with the root for-
wards, although the rubbing of the finger and thumb is
alternately in both directions. This effeét does not at all
depend on the nature of the fkin of the fingers, or its tex-
ture; for if the hair be turned, fo that the point is placed
where the root was, the moyement then becomes con-
trary, viz. its motion is always direted towards the root.
What is obferved in the above inftance is entirely analo-
pau to what happens when country children, by way of
port, introduce an ear of rye between the wrift and the
fhirt-fleeve ; the points of the beards of the ear are dire@ted
outwards, and by the various motions of the arm, this ear,
fometimes catching againft the fhirt, fometimes againit the fin,
takes a progreflive motion backwards, but the beards always
refift its return, fo that it foon gets up to the arm-pit. It
is very clear, that this effe& is produced by the afperities
upon thefe beards, which being all directed towards the
point, do not permit the ear to move in any other direGtion
than towards that part which was united to the ftalk.
There can be no doubt that it is the fame with refpe& to
hair, and that its furface is befet with afperities, which bein
laid one upon the other and turned towards the point relate
all motion, except towards the root.
Thefe obfervations, which it would be ufelefs to multi-
ply, relate to long hair, which have been taken as examples ;
but they apply with equal propriety to wool, furs, and in
general to every kind of animal hair. The furface of all
thefe is, therefore, to be confidered as compofed of hard .
lamelle placed one upon another, like tiles, from the root to
the point ; which /amelle allow the progreflive motion of
the hair towards the root, but prevent a fimilar motion
towards the point.
From what has been faid, it will be eafy to explain why
the contaé&t of woollen ftuffs is rough to the fkin, while that
of cotton or linen cloths is {mooth: the reafon is, that not-
withftanding the flexibility of each particular fibre, the af-
perities
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
perities upon the furface of the fibres of the wool, by fixing
themfelves in the fkin, produce a difagreeable fenfation, at
leatt till we are aécuftomed to it; whereas the furface of
the fibres of hemp or flax, of which linen is made, being
perfe&tly {mooth, do not caufe any fuch fenfation. It is
alfo probable, that the injury arifing to wounds or fores
from the application of wool does not proceed fo much
from any chemical properties, but is occafioned folely by
the form of the furface of the fibres, the afperities
of which attach themfelves to the raw and expofed fleth,
which they ftimulate and irritate to fuch a degree as to pro-
duce inflammation.
The afperities with which the furface of wool is every
where furrounded, and the difpofition which it has to affume
a progreffive motion towards the root, renders the {pinning
of wool and making it into cloth difficult operations. In
order to fpin wool and afterwards to weave it, we are
obliged'to cover its fibres with a coating of oil, which,
filling up the cavities, renders the afperities lefs fenfible ; in
the {ame way as oil, when rubbed upon the furface of a very
fine file, renders it ftill lefs cae
When a piece of cloth is finifhed it muft be cleanfed
from this oil, which, befides giving it a difagreeable {mell,
would caufe it to foil whatever it came in conta&with, and
would prevent its taking the colour which is intended to be
given to it by the dyer. To deprive it of the oil it is
{coured at the fulling-mill, by working it with hammers in
a trough full of water or urine, in which fuller’s-earth is
fometimes mixed. This earth combines with the oil which
it feparates from the cloth, and both together are wafhed
away by the frefh water, which is afterwards brought to it
in the machine. Thus after a certain time the oil is entirely
wafhed out of the cloth.
The fulling, which fucceeds the fcouring of the cloth,
is aided by the ‘application of the foap. The alternate
preflure given by the hammers to the piece of cloth, efpe-
cially when the milling is pretty far advanced, occafions an
effe& analogous to that which:is produced upon hats by the
hands of the hatter; the fibres of wool which compofe one
of the threads, whether of the warp or the weft, afflume a
progreflive movement with their roots forwards, and intro-
duce themfelves among the fibres of the threads neareft to
them, then into thofe which follow ; and thus by degrees all
the threads, both of the warp and the woof, become felted
together. The cloth, having by the above means become
fhortened in all its dimenfions, and thickened in its fub-
ftance, partakes both of the nature of cloth and of that of
felt ; for at the fame time that the threads give it confider-
able ftrength, it may be cut without being fubjeé to ravel,
and on that account we are not obliged to hem the edges of
the pieces of which wearing apparel is made. Laftly, as
the threads of the warp and thofe of the weft are no longer
fo diftin& and feparated from each other as to leave inter-
flices between them, the cloth forms a warmer clothing, in-
dependently of its having acquired a greater degree of thick-
ach. Knit wortted is ‘fo rendered lefs apt to run, in cafe
a ftitch fhould drop, by the operation of fulling.
Tentering-—When the milling is finifhed, the cloth is
ftretched again on the tenter. It is ufual to extend the
piece to forty-two yards in length, but not at all in breadth;
indeed only one inch of extenfion in each yard is allowed by
law. The cloth remains in the open air until it is perfe@ly
dry and ready for the fucceeding operations of finifhing,
which are only intended to give it a beautiful furface, for it
already poffeffes all the ufeful qualities of cloth.
Dreffing the Cloth with Teafels.—This operation is to raife
up the nap or loofe fibres on the furface of the cloth, by
{cratching it over with a f{pecies of thiftles called teafels,
in order to form a wool on the furface, which can be
removed by pie The teafels are the balls or ears which
contain the feed of the plant called dipfacus fullonum; the
feales which form the ball proje& on all fides, and are
terminated with fharp points, which turn downwards, like
hooks, and are very elaftic. See TEAset.
A number of teafels are put into a {mall frame, which is
compofed of a handle eight or ten inches long, having a
fmall ftick paffed through it at one end about eight inches
long, which is {plit into two at each end nearly all its length.
There is alfo another fimilar ftick, which is paffed through
the handle near the middle of its length ; the two fplit fticks
are perpendicular to the ftem or handle, and parallel to each
other. The {pace between them is filled with teafels, which
are jambed in very faft between them, and alfo in the clefts
of the fplit flicks, where they are fecured by ftrings extended
between the ends of the fplit fticks, and twifted, until they
draw the fticks forcibly together, and bind the teafels very
faft. This frame filled with eeaicitforms atool, which very
much refembles the curry-comb ufed to clean horfes, and is
ufed in a fimilar manner, to feratch over the whole furface
of the cloth, and draw out all loofe ends of the fibres of the
wool, which are not firmly confined by the entanglement of
the felting.
The drefling is performed by two men, who hold the
teafel-frame by its handle, and work the cloth, when it is
hung up ina vertical pofition over two rails fixed to the
ceiling ; when they have worked over as much [urface as
they can reach, they draw down a frefh portion, which they
work in turn, and thus proceed until they have finifhed the
whole piece. The firft time the cloth is’ dreffed it is wetted
with water ; it is worked three times over in the wet ftate,
by ftrokes in the dire€tion of the length of the -piece, and
then it is worked again three times in the other direGtion ; by
this means all the fibres are raifed, and the cloth is prepared
for fhearing. .
In the moft improved manufatories, the drefling is per-
formed by the gig or gig-mill. This is a cylinder covered
on its farhat with tealele; and turned rapidly round whilft
the cloth is drawn over it.
The: Gig-mill is reprefented in perfpeGtive in Plate V.
Woollen hat M is the wood frame of the machine ;
F F is the cylinder or drum, which is compofed of 12 rails
or troughs, filled with teafels FF, 3,4, &c. Thefe are
faftened on the circumference of two or three wheels fixed
upon a wooden axis 7; the drumis put in motion by a
ulley ED at one end of its axis, which receives an end-
les ftrap, 2, from the drum C, fituated above the machine.
There are two pulleys, E and D, one fixed faft on the axis,
and the other fitted on loofely, with liberty to turn round
freely upon it ; the ftrap can be fhifted to either pulley, and
accordingly the machine will be put in motion, or will ftand
ill.
The drum C is fixed on one end of an iron fhaft 1, which
is put in motion by a bevelled wheel B, from the larger
wheel A, fixed on the great horizontal fhaft, which proceeds
the whole length of the mill. The drum, F F, covered
with teafels, is mounted on bearings fupported by the frame,
and the piece of cloth G is conduéted over it, to receive the
action of the teafels ; one end of the piece of cloth is wound
round a roller J, and the other end of the piece is wound on
the roller L ; both thefe rollers are put in motion from a
bevelled wheel 6, fixed on the extremity of the axis of the
drum ; this turns.a wheel H upon an inclined axis, which
has a pinion at each end ;- one of thefe pinions, 9, turns a
bevelled wheel, K, on the end of the axle of the upper
roller
eee
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
roller L ; and the other, 8, turns’the wheel I belonging to the
lower roller J. By means of this wheel-work both rollers
are turned round in the proper direétion, to make the upper
roller L. wind up or draw the cloth, whilft the lower roller
unwinds and gives out the cloth. N is a pipe, which con-
veys water to the machine; itis pierced with a number of
holes to throw jets of water on the cloth, and wet it.
As faft as the cloth is taken up by the roller L, it is
given out by the other roller J, and is then drawn over the
furface of the cylinder, as at G, the teafels of which, as it
revolves, act very effe€tually on the cloth to raife the nap.
When the whole piece has paffed, and is gathered up on the
roller L, the machine is ftopped, by fhifting the ftrap 2 to
the loofe pulley D, then the two rollers L and J are ex-
changed, and the operation is repeated as before, and fo on
ull the nap is fufficiently raifed.
The mode of repeating the aétion on the cloth by ex-
changing the rollers is troublefome, and a better mode is to
provide the means of difengaging either of the wheels K or
I from its refpeétive pinion, making the machine fo that only
one wheel and pinion can be engaged at once; alfo to make
the motions in fuch direétion that the roller which is engaged
fhall always wind up the cloth upon itfelf. Each roller
mutt have a {mall wheel upon one end of it, as fhewn at 10,
with a lever and weight 11, to prefs upon the circumference of
the wheel with fuch force as to occafion a friction, and make
the cloth draw tight when it is drawn off the roller. In this
way, the cloth can be made to work either backwards or for-
wards ; becaufe that roller which is engaged with the wheel-
work will wind up the cloth, and draw it off from the other
roller acrofs the drum ; but when all the cloth is wound off,
that roller which has taken the cloth muft be difengaged,
and the other put in action, which will make the cloth work
back again.
The moft improved gig-mills ufed in Yorkfhire have a
ftill better method of moving the cloth. This is by means
of a pair of rollers in the place of the upper roller L: they
are turned round by a large fpur-wheel on the end of the
roller, which works in a {maller wheel on the end of the
drum ; one roller is mounted over the other, like the two
rollers of a flatting-mill, and prefled together by fcrews
with fufficient force to draw the cloth between them. The
piece of cloth, when brought to the machine, is laid down
on a board on the ground before the machine, and one end
is paffed under the roller J, which is merely to guide it ;
then it is carried over the drum, as at G, and introduced
between the pair of rollers at L, which draw it flowly for-
wards; from thefe the cloth turns upwards, and is extended
horizontally over two rollers which are fufpended from the
ceiling. After quitting thefe rollers, it defcends perpendi-
cularly, and is gathered on the ground in folds on a board
or bench, clofe to the place where the piece of cloth was
laid before the dreffing was begun. In order to make the
piece of cloth pafs a fecond time through the machine, or
as many times as is required, the two ends of it are fewed
together, fo that it circulates continually over the drum
without any interruption or trouble; it is ufually done three
or four times.
It is an advantage of this method, that the cloth, in
defcending from the ceiling, hangs perpendicularly, and
with that fide which has been drefled oppofite to the light,
fo that the workman who gathers it in folds can examine
the progrefs of the work; and when he judges that the
cloth is fufficiently dreffed, he cuts the fewing which unites
the two ends together, and then the end of the piece comes
out of the machine, and the cloth is carried away to give
place to another piece.
The drum or cylinder of the gig-mill is compofed of
number of fhallow troughs, fixed on the circumference o
the wheels of the drum, and parallel to its axis: into thefe
troughs, frames filled with teafels, like thofe we have before
defcribed, are faftened in a very fimple manner; and the
frames are placed fo clofe together, that the trough is wholly
filled, and forms a continuous furface of teafels to a& upon
the cloth when the cylinder revolves. When the hooks of
the teafels become filled with flocks or fibres of wool, which
they have drawn out from the cloth, they are removed from
the cylinder, in order to be cleaned by children, who pick
out the flocks with a {mall fteel comb.
The teafels are cultivated very largely in the clothing
countries; but it fometimes happens, in particular feafons,
that the crops fail, and they are then very dear. This has
produced many trials of metallic teeth as fubftitutes for
teafels. Mr. Price of Stroud, in Gloucefterfhire, has two
patents, dated 1807 and 1817, for this objet ; Mr. Laiffalle
of Briftol took a patent in 1816, Mr. Williams of Furfley in
1817, and Mefirs. Lewis of Brinfcomb in 1817. We are
not informed if any of thefe inventions are yet brought into
real ufe in the manufacturing diftri@.
Shearing or Cropping the Cloth.—By the operation of the
teafels, the wool is become raifed all over the furface of the
cloth in a loofe fur, which muft be removed by fhearing
before the cloth will be fit for wearing, becaufe the fur
would gather dirt and duft, and would: wear very un-
equally.
The fhears ufed for cropping by hand are the fame as thofe
ufed in the common fhearing-machine, and are reprefented at
E, E, in Plate 111. Woollen Manufa@ure. The clothier’s
fhears confift of two very large flat blades of fteel, united
together by a ftem of fteel, which is bent into a circular
bow, -and is fufficiently flexible to allow one of the blades
to be moved upon the other, in order to make them cut.
Both blades are ground to fharp and ftraight edges, which
apply one to the other, but the blades are not in parallel
planes like {ciflars, for one of the blades is laid quite flat
upon the cloth, and the plane of the other blade will then be
inclined to the cloth at about an angle of 45 degrees, as is
fhewn in Plate III. The cutting-edge of this inclined
blade bears upon the furface of the flat blade, and the
{pring of the bow is fo fet, as to prefs the two edges always
in contaé&t. The lines of the edges of the two blades are
net parallel to each other, but inclined, fo that the edge of
the upper blade crofles the edge of the lower blade, and
bears upon the flat furface of that blade, at the end neareft
to the bow, whilft the other end of the edge of the upper
blade is removed over the edge of the lower blade, thus
leaving an interval between the two edges, when the fhears
are open, as is plainly fhewn in the figure. In this {tate,
the fhears being open, if the lower blade is laid flat upon the
furface of the cloth, the nap or wool, which is to be removed
by the cropping, will ftand up above the edge of the lower
blade, in the interval between the two edges; then if the
blades be forced together, the edge of the upper blade will
pafs or crofs over that of the lower, and cut away all the
wool which projects above the edge of the lower blade.
The conta& of the cutting-edges begins at the end neareft
to the bow, and proceeds regularly to the other, becaufe, as
before mentioned, the edges are not parallel to each other.
The blades open or return to their former pofition by the
elafticity of the bow, but in order to make the cut they are
clofed by means of a handle or lever 10, which is fitted or
lodged on a round part of the ftem of the bow, fo as to
play thereupon as upon a centre of motion. A double cord
is made faft to the lever or handle near to this centre, na
the
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
the other end of the cord is faftened to a block of wood,
which is {crewed to the flat of the lower blade, and rifes up
to a proper height. By depreffing this handle, the fhears
are clofed, and make their cut with the greateft facility,
the elafticity of the bow returning the handle.
The manner of cropping with thefe fhears is as follows : —
The piece of cloth is laid down in folds upon a plank or low
bench placed on the ground, and the end is drawn acrofs a
table or bench, which is covered with cloth, and ftuffed with
horfe-hair, like a cufhion. The cloth is ftretched out flat
upon the furface of the table, and is retained by hooks and
weights. Two workmen are employed to fhear a piece of
cloth; they place the lower blades of their fhears flat on the
furface of the cloth, with the line of the edge in the direc-
tion of the length of the piece ; one of the fhears is laid on
the edge or lift of the cloth, and the other exaétly in the
middle of the breadth of the cloth. The bows and ftems
of the fhears proje&t over the edge of the table, and. the
workmen place themfelves at that edge. Each man guides
the fhears with his left-hand, and makes the cut with his
right. To hold the thears by, a fhort ftaff is lafhed to the
bow of the fhears, and fecured by a ftay to the lower blade ;
its dire€tion is nearly parallel to the back edge of the upper
blade. The workman puts his arm through the bow as far
as the elbow-joint, then lays the fore-arm flat againft the
ftaff, which he grafps with the hand ; and in this way he has
a great command of the fhears, leaving the right-hand at
liberty to work the handle which clofes the fhears. This
handle is moved backwards and forwards with great rapidity,
to make cuts or clips on the cloth, and between every cut
the lower blade is moved a {mall fpace on the cloth, to cut
in a frefh part.
The art of fhearing confifts in moving the fhears with
pret regularity and parallelifm, fo that every part of the
urface fhall be equally cropped. The clofenefs with which
the fhears cut is regulated by weights laid upon the flat of
the lower blade ; thefe prefs the blade down into the foft
cufhion on which the cloth is {pread, fo that the fur will
ftand up more above the edge of the blade.
As the two fhearers advance in their work, their fhears
proceed acrofs the breadth of the piece of cloth, and when
the man who began in the middle has worked to the lift of
the cloth, the other who began at the lift will have worked
to the middle, where the firft began; the whole breadth is
now fhorn, and they remove the fhears, and draw the piece
of cloth forwards acrofs the table, to obtain a frefh furface
te work upon.
For fhearing common cloth, it is cut wet the firft time,
then it is drefled again with teafels, dried on the tenter, and
cut again in a dry ftate three times over.
Shearing-Frame. —The moft common machine ufed in
Yorkthire is only applied to give motion to the fame kind
of fhears as are ufed for cropping by hand, and is ufually
called the thearing-frame. At the fide of the table or cufhion
on which the cloth is fpread, a long ftool is placed, having
grooves at the edges to guide the wheels of a carriage, to
which the fhears are affixed by their bows. There is a
carriage for each pair of fhears, and they are flowly and
gradually moved along the ftool, by a cord which winds
upon a roller turned by wheel-work ; and at the fame time,
the handles of the fhears are continually pulled by a cord
conne&ted with a fmall crank, which turns round very ra-
pidly. The direétion of the cuts is the lengthways of the
piece of cloth, and the two pair of fhears advance acrofs
the breadth of the piece until a whole breadth is cut ; the
machine is then flopped, the {hears removed, and the piece
of cloth fhifted upon the table. Thefe thearing-frames
operate very well, but require great care and attention to
make the different cuttings join, in order to cut equally over
the whole furface.
The machine invented by Mr. Harmar of Sheffield was
of this defcription ; his firft patent was in 1787, and another
in 1794. At one period his machines were in general ufe,
but the prefent fhearing-frames, although of the fame kind,
are very much fimplified, and work equally well.
A perpetual Shearing-Machine is reprefented in Plate III.
Woollen oh: geen it is ufed in the welt of England, and is
beft adapted for narrow cloths. The fhears lay croflwife over
the piece, which is drawn regularly beneath the fhears in the
dire¢tion of its length without any interruptions ; hence it is
called a perpetual fhearing-machine.
The fhears, EE, are the fame as what we have already
defcribed. Each pair is faftened acro{s the frame by means
of a piece of wood, to which the lower blade of the fhears
are {crewed ; immediately beneath this blade is the cufhion
to bear the cloth, which pafles between the blade and the
cufhion. The piece of cloth is wound round the roller C,
upon the end of which is a wheel N, and a lever M, which
bears up againft the lower part of this wheel with fo much
friction as to make the cloth ftrain tight in drawing off from
the roller. The cloth firft paffes over a rail B, from which
it proceeds in an horizontal dire€tion beneath the two pair
of fhears E E, then turns over another rail at the other end
of the frame, and defcends to a roller D, which is turned
ir round by the machinery, in order to wind up the
cloth.
The machine is put in motion by the endlefs ftrap round
the drum F upon a fhaft, which proceeds all the length of
the mill. The ftrap turns the pulley G upon the end of
the {mall horizontal fpindle H: in this fpindle two cranks
are formed at a and 4, which are conneéted, by wires 7
and 8, with the handles 9 and 10 of the fhears E, fo as to
give them a continual motion, and make a cut of each pair
of fhears every time the fpindle H makes aturn. The mo-
tion of the machine can be ftopped by releafing the lever P,
on which the bearing of the fpindle is fcrewed: when the
lever P is depreffed, and kept down by the catch, as repre-
fented in the drawing, the endlefs ftrap is drawn tight, fo
as to turn the {pindle; but if the catch is removed, and the
lever raifed up, the {trap becomes loofe, and flips round
upon the pulley without turning it. A {mall pulley is
fixed upon the fpindle at I, to receive an endlefs ftrap
which paffes round a larger wheel J. Upon the fame axis
with this are three other pulleys of different diameters,
which receive a ftrap 2, and give motion to three fimilar
pulleys fixed upon a fpindle 3: the latter fpindle has a
pinion on the end of it, which works a bevelled wheel fixed
on the end of the roller D, and thus it is turned flowly
round. The three pulleys on the fpindles 3 and J are
placed reverfed to each other, that is, the {malleft pulley
on one is oppofite to the largeft on the other; by this
means, the fame ftrap 2 may be fhifted, and will work on
any of the three pair of pulleys, but each one will com-
municate a different degree of movement to the roller D,
and confequently to the cloth, fo as to draw it quicker or
flower, and make the fucceffive cuts of the fhears at a greater
or lefs diftance afunder at pleafure.
The cufhions which bear up the cloth againft the fhears
are moveable on centres of motion, and are capable of bein
raifed or lowered. When they are lowered down, the cloth
can be readily introduced beneath the lower blades of the
fhears ; and when raifed up, they prefs the cloth up to the
fhears, and the force of this preffure can be reguistia by
turning a {mal] handle. Ia many machines this motion is
c ils Ni te applied
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
zpplied to the fhears themfelves, inftead of to the cufhion or
bed, and is much more convenient.
The perpetual machines anfwer very well for fhearing
narrow cloth, when the fhears can cut at once acrofs the
whole breadth; and then as the two fhears E work in fuc-
ceffion over the fame furface, they crop the cloth twice over
in paffing once through the machine. It has been attempted
to fhear wide cloths in this machine, by making one pair of
fhears take one half the breadth, and the other pair the
other half; but it is very difficult to draw a wide piece of
cloth fo evenly over the cufhions, as to keep it ftretched to
the full breadth without any wrinkles in the lengthways of
the piece ; and if there are any fuch wrinkles, the cloth will
be cut very irregularly. In this particular, the firft
machines have the advantage, becaufe the cloth is ftretched
over the cufhion by the workman with difcretion, and he
makes it tight before the cropping is begun.
There have been many patents for the improvements of
fhearing-machines. Mr. Buffington’s, in 1804, is for a
method of ftretching or extending the cloth breadthways
whilft it is in the fhearing-frame. His plan is to attach
a narrow web of ftrong cloth to the lifts of the cloth, by
fewing or lacing ; the outer edge of this web is alfo fewed
to a cord or fmall rope, fo that the cloth becomes edged or
bordered with ropes. Thefe ropes are conduéted through
holes or openings in the frame, which will fuffer the cloth
and ropes to be moved in the direétion of their length ; but
as the ropes cannot draw fideways out of thefe openings, the
cloth may be continually ftretched in its breadth. The
openings fhould have rollers to facilitate the motion of the
ropes.
Mi Jofeph Fryer’s patent fhearing-machine, dated 1802,
acts with three fhearing-blades, one long one, which extends
acrofs the breadth of the piece to form the lower or fixed
blade, and two other moveable blades of half the length,
which are jointed to the long blade at the two ends, and
are moveable thereon, fo as to cut in the manner of {ciffar-
blades. The moveable blades are preffed into conta& with
the edge of the fixed blade by fprings, and are put in motion
by means of two cranks upon an horizontal {pindle, fo that
the blades make their ftrokes or cutsalternately. The edge
of the lower blade is a ftraight line, but the edges of the
moveable blades are convex on the cutting fide, fo as to
caufe them to interfeét the edge of the lower blade always
at the fame angle when they are wide open, as when they are
nearly clofed.
The piece of cloth is condu€ted over proper rollers, and
wound up by one, which is turned round by the machine, fo
as to draw the piece of cloth from one end to the other
with a flow and progreffive motion. The cloth, when it is
immediately beneath the edge of the long blade, is benz
fuddenly over a narrow ridge of metal, which is parallel
with the edge of the lower blade, but fo far diftant as to,
permit the cloth to pafs between them. This ridge of
metal is capable of adjultment by means of fcrews, and can
be placed fo that the nap of the cloth will be fhorn longer
or fhorter, as it is required.
Tn fome cafes, efpecially in finifhing broad-cloths, inftead
of drawing the piece from end to end, it may be more con-
venient to caufe it, or part of it, to move under the fhearing-
blades from lift to lift, or from one fide to the other. This
will require a machine confiderably larger, though the fame
blades will fuffice ; or it is found equally convenient to
eaufe the blades, at the time they are cutting, to move over
the cloth in any direGtion, but more efpecially from lift to
htt.
Mr. Fryer alfo contemplated the finifhing of the cloth
Vou. XXXVIII.
by the fame machine which performed the fhearing. Thus
after the cloth has undergone the operation of fhearing or
cropping, in its paffage down to the cylinder on which it is
wound up, it is expofed to a current of fteam thrown out
from a horizontal tube at a number of {mall apertures, fo as
to give foftnefs and pliability to the cloth ; a brufhing cy-
linder is next made to move againft it, by which the re-
maining wool or fur is laid in one dire€tion. It then paffes
between two polifhed metal cylinders, which are made
hollow, and kept hot by the admiffion of fteam or other-
wife. Thefe occafion a great preffure on the cloth, and
diffipate all the water imbibed from the fteam.
Rotatory Shearing-Machine-—A very complete machine
for cropping cloth ofany breadth was invented by Mr. Price,
of Stroud, in Gloucefterfhire, and for which he obtained a
patent in 1815. This machine fhears or crops the cloth
acrofs the breadth, beginning at one end of the piece,
and continuing regularly to the other. For this pur-
pofe, the cloth is condu€ed through the machine by the
motion of rollers, and is drawn over a bed or fupport which
lies beneath the ftationary or fixed blade of the fhears or
croppers, (which anfwers to what is called the ledger-blade
in the common fhears,) fo that the cloth pafles between the
bed and the ftationary blade.
The moving blades of the fhears are fixed on the circum-
ference of a cylinder fituated above the fixed blade, with its
axis exactly parallel thereto, and capable of revolving by the
power of machinery, fo that the edges of the moving blades
will be carried againft and paffed over the edge of the fixed
blade, in order to cut away all the wool of the cloth which
rifes above the edge of the fixed blade. Several fuch moving
blades are fixed upon the fame cylinder, to a& in fucceffion
againft the fixed blade ; and thefe moving blades are placed
obliquely to the axis of the cylinder, or in fuch a manner
as to form portions of fpirals; but as all parts of the
cutting edges are equidiftant from the axis of the cylinder,
it is manifeft, that in the revolution of the cylinder, every
part of each fpiral edge is brought in fucceffion into
contaét with the fixed blade, fo that in its revolution it
crops off all the wool, which by the progreffive motion of
the cloth over its bed is raifed up againft the fixed edge.
The edges of the moving blades are placed at fuch a degree
of obliquity to the axis of the cylinder, that at the an
inftant the end of one ceafes to cut againft the edge of the
fixed blade, the following revolving blade will begin its
aétion at the other end of the cylinder; therefore, by the
time that any one of the revolving edges has paffed over and
made its cut againft the whole length of the fixed blade, and:
is ready to quit it, the fucceeding revolving edge is brought
into action, and when this has paffed, the next in fuccefiion
begins, fo as to keep up a continued aétion.
The cloth is ftretched in width by a contrivance which he
calls ftretching-bands, to prevent it getting into folds or
wrinkles, which would be injured by the fhears, or make
irregularities in the fhearing. ‘Thefe ftretching-bands are
endlefs ftraps or bands, each of which is extended over
two wheels. The bands have fharp pins projeG@ing from
them to prick into the lifts at the edges of the cloth, and
the bands being fo fituated that one of them lies exaGtly
beneath each lift, they will be caufed to circulate round their
refpective wheels by the motion of the cloth. The ttretch-
ing of the cloth is effeéted by the pofition of the wheels on
which the bands circulate, the direétion of the bands being
flightly oblique to the lengthways of the cloth, The
endlefs ftraps are fo fitted into grooves or troughs, that they
are firmly retained to move ftraight forwards in their oblique
direction; and the direétion of the obliquity is fuch, that the
4 Q bands
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
bands ‘are neareft together at that end where their pins take
hold of the lifts of the cloth; but as the bands move for-
wards with the cloth, they recede from each other, and
extend the cloth in breadth in confequence of their obliquity,
which may be increafed or diminifhed as is found neceflary.
The aétual width between the two bands can alfo be re-
gulated according to the width of the piece of cloth.
It is not ufual to crop the lifts of the cloth, and indeed
as the lifts are ufually of thicker, fubftance than the other
ts of the cloth, they would bear up the fixed blade too
Sigh from the cloth to cut the nap quite clofe.
For this reafon, the bed or fupport on which the cloth is
cut is fo conftruéed, that it can be adapted in length to the
breadth of the piece of cloth between the lifts, in order that
the cloth only may be fupported or borne up to the edge
of the fixed blade ; whilft the lifts, being depreffed or borne
down below the level of the bed, (by thin flips of metal
called guards,) will efcape the aétion of cropping, and
thereby remain with the long wool upon their furfaces.
The bed by which the cloth is borne whilft it is cut is only
a narrow ridge of metal, over which it pales, fo as to be
bent with a fudden curvature, and in this way, the nap
can be cut more clofe and even than upon a flat bed or foft
cufhion. The operation of cutting is facilitated by a row
of pieces of metal {crewed to a ftrong bar, to form a ftraight
edge, very fimilar to the cutting edge of the fixed blade, but
thin and elaltic; this edge is placed clofe to the elevated
ridge of the bed, and prefles the cloth gently down upon the
bed immediately before it comes to the edge of the fixed
blade, againft which the nap is to be cut off; this elaftic
edge being placed on one fide of the ridge, and the cutting
edge of the lower blade on the other fide, the cloth is only
expofed for a very narrow {pace juft where it comes to the
cutting edge. By this means, the cloth can with fafety be
brought nearer to a level with the upper furface of the
fixed blade, fo as to fhear it clofer than could otherwife be
done without endangering the cloth.
The ends of the ridge part of the bed are compofed of a
number of narrow plates of metal, accurately fitted toge-
ther, and placed fide by fide in a mortife made in the end of
the folid bed; their upper ends proje& out of the mortife fo
as to line with the elevated ridge, ‘and form a continuation
thereof; but there is a fliding piece in the bottom of the
mortife on which they all bear, and the point of it is of a
wedge form. By removing this wedge, any number of
the moveable pieces may be let down, {fo as to diminifh the
length of the elevated part of the bed at pleafure, according
to the breadth of the cloth. The whole of this machine is
very well contrived to effec the defired obje& ; it will be
found fully defcribed with drawings in the Repertory of
Arts, vol. xxix. p. 65.
Frizing is an operation fometimes ufed in the finifhing of
woollen cloth: it confifts in rolling up and entangling the
fibres, which form the nap on the furface of the cloth into
fmall knots or burs, which cover near the whole furface, fo
that the cloth appears covered with fmall grams, which
almoft touch each other. :
This operation is of no utility to the cloth, and it is diffi-
cult to bs for what reafon it was ever pratifed at all.
The French firft introduced it, and it was fo much the
fafhion many years ago, that no other cloth was thought
comparable in beauty. At prefent it is but little ufed, ex-
cept for foreign markets, where our cloth meets the French
cloth, which is ftill prepared in this manner, but generally
on the back-fide of the cloth only.
The frizing is done by a fimple machine, in which the
cloth is drawn acrofs a narrow table by means of rollers,
It
to give ita flow progreflive motion. The table is
cone witha cele ome cloth, and over the table is
a a heavy plank of wood, of the fame fize as the table.
he lower fide of this plank, which bears upon the cloth,
is covered with an artificial ftone, compofed of coarfe fand,
which is ftuck together into a folid mafs by glue or other
cement, and a {mall but rapid reciprocating motion is given
to the plank by means of two cranks of very fmall radius.
Thefe cranks are formed at the tops of two vertical
{pindles, the upper ends of which are fitted in fockets at the
ends of the fixed table, and the ends which proje& up a few
inches above the furface of the table are received into
fockets formed in each end of the moveable plank. The
Projedting parts of the fpindles are not in ftraight lines
with thofe parts which are fitted in the fixed collars at the
ends of the table, but are flightly cranked ; hence, if the
{pindles are turned round, they muft communicate motion
to the plank, and flide it over the cloth backwards and for-
wards ; orrather they move it with a circular motion, caufing
every point and grain of fand cemented to the plank to
defcribe a {mall circle upon the cloth. It is this a€tion
which gathers together the fibres of the nap, and entangles
them into knots or grains, as before mentioned.
To put the two {pindles in motion, each one has a trundle
or lantern fixed on the middle part of it, and the lower end
is received in a ftationary focket. Thefe lanterns are turned
round by the teeth of two face-wheels, fixed upon an
horizontal axis, which lies beneath the machine. By this
means, both the fpindles and cranks are turned round at
the fame time, and with a very rapid motion. The rollers
which draw the cloth forwards are turned round flowly by
a communication of wheel-work, and draw the piece of
cloth through the machine, that is, acrofs the frizing-table,
fo that every part is in turn fubjeéted to the a€tion of the
fand cemented to the plank. The nap muft be left long
for that cloth which is intended to be frized, and the
operation is repeated twice or three times. See fome fur-
ther particulars in our article Fr1z1Ne, vol. xv.
Brufbing.—After being thorn for the laft time, the cloth
is brufhed all over, to remove the loofe cuttings. This
operation is now commonly performed by a machine which
has two horizontal drums, or cylinders, covered with hair-
brufhes on the circumference. The piece of cloth is con-
duéted over a fyftem of rollers to extend it and draw it
flowly forwards: it is conduéted over one of the brufhing-
cylinders, and under the other; and as they are kept in
rapid motion by the machine, they brufh over both fides
of the cloth at the fame time, and lay all the fibres one way.
Preffing.—This is the lait finifh to the cloth, and gives
it a fmooth and even furface. The piece of cloth is folded
backwards and forwards at every yard, fo as to form a pack
on the board of a fcrew-prefs; and between every fold
fheets of glazed paper are placed, fo that no part of the
furfaces of the cloth can come in conta& ; alfo at every
twenty yards three hot iron plates are put in between the
folds, the plates being laid fide by fide, fo that they occupy
the whole furface of the folds; and thin iron plates, which
are not heated, are alfo put above and below the hot plates
to moderate the heat. When the pack of cloth is pro-
perly folded, and the prefs contains a proper quantity, the
{crew is forced down to give a very locate preffure to the
pack. The cloth remains in the prefs until the plates are
quite cold; it is then taken out and folded again, fo that
the creafes of the former folds will come oppofite to the
ay of the paper, in order to be prefled with other hot
plates.
The heat tends to foften the fibres of the wool, and the
preflure
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE.
preflure againft the glazed paper, whilft they are fo foftened,
lays all the fibres flat and fmooth, fo that the cloth has a
very glofly appearance, and feels fmooth, like fatin; but
this high finifh to the cloth is very obje€tionable, becaufe
the flighteft fhower of rain will take it away, and when the
drops of rain only wet it in parts, the cloth will become
{potted and disfigured. For this reafon, in prefling fuper-
fine cloth, the plates are very flightly warmed, and the
cloth has but little glofs given to it. The glazed paper is
a thick kind of cartridge, which is prepared by glazing or
rubbing it very forcibly with a flint, as it lies upon a hard
metal table. “This operation is done by a water-mill.
For coarfer cloths, fome manufaéturers glofs them with
a large hot iron: it is a hollow box, into which a red-hot
heater is introduced. The cloth is {pread out upon a large
flat table, and extended by hooks. The iron box is fuf-
pended by a tackle from the ceiling, fo that it can be hoifted
over to the middle of the table, and then two men work it
backwards and forwards over the whole furface of the
cloth, by means of two long poles or handles, which are
jointed to it at one end.
The cloth is now finifhed, and is packed up in bales of
twenty or twenty-five pieces, in order to be tranfported.
The bale is firft inclofed in paper, and then in canvas, and
clofely compreffed by the fcrew-prefs. Some manufacturers
ufe the hydroftatic preffes for this purpofe.
In confidering the proceffes of the woollen manufacture,
as they were practifed forty or fifty years ago, and com-
paring them with the prefent practices, we find great changes
and improvements, but they are by no means carried to fo
great an extent asin the cotton manufacture. This is owing
in agreat degree to the circumftance that the manufaéture of
woollen cloth was rendered very perfe€t, as far as the good-
nefs and beauty of the cloth was concerned, long before the
improved fyftem was begun ; and there were great numbers
of experienced and able workmen trained up for each pro-
cefs, who by habit and dexterity performed their work as
well as it could be done by machinery. The reduétion of
labour, or the fubftitution of ordinary hands for experienced
workmen, was in this cafe all that machinery of the moft
perfect kind could effe& ; both thefe were advantages to the
public and the manufa@urer, but were fo direGly oppofite
to the inclination and intereft of the able workmen, that we
find they have made greater and more effectual oppofition to
the introduction of improvements in the woollen than in any
other of our great manufaétures.
At various periods attempts have been made by the work-
men to fupprefs machinery, and many mills have been de-
ftroyed. In July 1802, confiderable riots took place in
Wiltfhire and Somerfetfhire, in confequence of an attempt
to fet up the machines called gig-mills. It was contended
that this was the fame machine which was prohibited by an
ancient ftatute of Edward VI. The difputes ran fo high,
that the attention of parliament was called to the fubje& of
the laws then exifting for the regulation of the woollen ma-
nufacture, and a committee was appointed to inveftigate the
policy of encouraging or regulating machinery. In confe-
quence, all the prohibitions of machinery were fufpended.
The report of this committee contains the following re-
marks, fome of which are applicable to other manufaétures
as well as the woollen.
The introduétion of the gig-mill and other machines was
oppofed from an idea that it would throw a confiderable
number of hands out of work ; and it was contended, that it
was highly injurious to the quality and texture of the cloth.
With refpe& to the a€tual effets of the gig-mill and
fhearmg-frame on the cloth, the committee report that deci-
five evidence has been adduced before them by merchants and
manufaGturers of the greateft credit and experience, to prove
that thefe machines, efpecially the gig-mill, when carefully
employed, finifh the cloth in the moft perfe&t manner, and
that manufa€turers refiding in parts of the country where
the gig-mill is not ufed, frequently fend their cloths to a
diftance to be dreffed by it.
It alfo appeared in evidence, that alarms fimilar to the
prefent had exifted among workmen at the introduétion of
feveral of the machines which are now in generalufe. Such
alarms have gradually fubfided as prejudice died away ; and
the machines are now fully eftablifhed, without, as it appears,
impairing the comforts or leffening the numbers of work-
men. ‘The committee remark with much fatisfa@tion, that
in many inftances in which it was apprehended that the intro-
duétion of particular machines would throw fuch a number
of people out of employment as to occafion great diftrefs, the
refult has been very different ; for befides the occupations
which the attendance on fuch machines has given rife to, a
frefh demand for labour to an immenfe extent has arifen out of
the increafed fale of the article, in confequence of the cheap-
nefs and fuperior quality of the manufaéture.
They approve the fyftem of patents, by which the in-
ventor of any new machine fecures to himfelf the exclufive
benefits of his difcovery for fourteen years ; and only, at the
end of that term, they are thrown open to the public ; this
provides in moft cafes againft the too fudden and general
eftablifhment of any invention, by which a number of
workmen might at once be thrown out of employment.
They next obferve, that if the principles on which the
ufe of thefe particular machines is obje€ted to were once ad-
mitted, it would be impoffible to define the limits or to fore-
fee the extent of their applications. If the parliament had
ated on fuch principles fifty years ago, the woollen manu-
faéture could never have attained to near its prefent ex-
tent. The rapid and prodigious increafe of late years in all
the manufa€tures and commerce of this country is univerfally
known, as well as the effe&ts of that increafe on our revenue
and national ftrength. In confidering the immediate caufes
of that augmentation, it appears to the committee, that it
is principally to be afcribed, under the favour of Providence,
to the general {pirit of enterprize and induftry among a free
and enlightened people, left to the unreftrained exercife of
their talents in the employment of a vaft capital, pufhing to
the utmoft the principle of the divifion of labour, calling in
all the refources of fcientific refearch and mechanical inge-
nuity, and, finally, availing themfelves of all the benefits to
be derived from vifiting foreign countries, not only for
forming new and confirming old commercial conneétions,
but for obtaining a perfonal knowledge of the wants, the
tafte, the habits, the difcoveries and improvements, the pro-
du@tions and fabrics, of other civilized nations. Thus
bringing home faéts and fuggeftions, perfeéting our exifting
manufactures, and adding new ones to our domettic ftock ;
opening, at the fame time, new markets for the produét of
our manufaturing and commercial induftry, and qualifying
ourfelves for fupplying them.
The committee declare it to be their opinion, that by
thefe means alone, and above all by the effect of machinery in
improving the quality and cheapening the fabrication of our
various articles of export, notwithitanding a continually accu-
mulating weight of taxes, and with all the neceflaries and com-
forts of life gradually increafing in price, (the effects of
which on the wages of labour could not but be very con-
fiderable, ) our commerce and manufaétures have alfo been
increafing in fuch a degree as to furpafs the moft fanguine
calculations of the ableft political writers who have fpecu-
4Q2 lated
WOO
lated on the improvements of a future age. The exports of
woollen goods at the time of this report, (1807,) amounted
to fix millions of pounds official, or nine millions of real
value.
It appeared alfo to be an important confideration, of which
we fhould never lofe fight, that we are at this day furrounded
by powerful and civilized nations, who are intent on culti-
vating their manufaétures and pufhing their commerce ; and
who are more eager to become our competitors in trade,
from having witneffed the aftonifhing effect of our commer-
cial profperity. The attempts which have been made to
carry our machines and implements over to foreign coun-
tries, and to tempt our artifans to fettle in thofe countries,
evince the importance of machinery, under the diretions
of men of approved {kill, in conftru€ting and ufing them.
It is needlefs to remark how much thefe attempts would be
favoured by our throwing any obftruétions in the way of
enterprize and ingenuity. and the free application of capital
in this country ; for any machines which fhould be prohibited
here would infallibly find their way into foreign nations in
a very fhort time.
Among the attempts to improve the woollen manufaCture,
we muit not omit to notice the invention of Mr. Jofeph
Booth, for fabricating woollen cloth without {pinning or
weaving. This was effected by felting wool into a web by
the aid of machinery, which operated mechanically upon a
tiffue of carded wool, to entangle and interlace the fabrics
together. The inventor took a patent for this in 1793 or
1794, but before the time for the enrolment of the {pecifi-
cation of his procefs, he obtained an a& of parliament, the
preamble of which {tates, that on account of the great im-
portance of the art, and the danger of its being carried
abroad to the injury of the flaple manufaéture of the king-
dom, parliament had determined to keep the {pecification
fealed ; hence we are not able to give the details of this
machinery. ‘
We find thefe expeftations have not been realized ; for,
although the procefs has been repeatedly tried on a large
f{cale and in the mo{t complete manner, it has been aban-
doned, Three large mills were eftablifhed at Taunton and
near Salifbury, by experienced woollen manufacturers of the
weft of England; another mill was converted to the pur-
pofe at Lewifham, in Kent; and the laft mill was ereéted
at Merton, in Surrey, the property of James Perry, efq.
We learn from this gentleman, that he was able to manu-
fa&ture cloth of a fine tarface, and of a very even and regular
fubftance, but it was rather deficient in ftrength, for want of
the threads which form the fubftance of common cloth; and
in re{pe& to wear it was lefs durable than common cloth, as it
did not long withftand brufhing ; otherwife the expence of
the procefs, which was not one-fourth of the common pro-
cefs, would have brought it into general wear.
There has been a great number of other projets and
patents for the improvement of different branches of the
woollen manufacture ; but as we have already noticed moit
of thofe which have come into ufe, we fhall not enumerate
any more of the unfuccefsful attempts.
The machinery for manufacturing long combing-wool is
defcribed in the article WorsTep.
Wootten Nets, in Gardening, a kind of nets employed
as a protection in the fetting of the fruit of different forts
of tender trees. See Woopen Frames, &c.
Wootten Rags, in Agriculture. See Woollen Racs.
Wootens, Bleaching of. See BLEACHING.
WOOLLEY-WOOLLEY, in Geography, a town of
Africa, in the kingdom of Yani.
WOOLLI, a kingdom of Africa, bounded by Walli
12
Woo
onthe W., by the Gambia on the S., by the {mall river
‘Walli on the N.W., by Bondou on the N.E., and on the
E. by the Simbani wildernefs. The country every where
rifes into gentle acclivities, which are generally covered with
extenfive woods, and the towns are ol in the interme-
diate valleys. Each town is furrounded by a tra& of culti-
vated land, the produce of which is thought to be fufficient
for fupplying the wants of the inhabitants ; the foil appeared
to Mr..Park to be every where fertile, except near the tops
of the ridges, where the red iron-ftone and ftunted fhrubs
fufficiently marked the boundaries between fertility and bar-
rennefs. The chief produétions are, cotton, tobacco, and
efculent vegetables ; all which are raifed in the valleys, the
rifing grounds being appropriated to different forts of corn.
The capital is Madina, or Medina, fignifying in the Arabic
city. (See Mepina.) The inhabitants are Mandingoes,
(fee ManpinG,) who, like moit of the Mandingo nations,
are divided into two great fects, the Mahometans, who are
called Bufhreens, and the Pagans, who are denominated indif-
criminately Kafirs, i. e. unbelievers, and Sonakies, i. e. men
who drink ftrong liquors. The latter are the moft numerous,
and the government of the country is vetted in them ; for
though the Bufhreens.are cenfulted in all matters of import-
ance, they are not allowed to take any fhare in the executive
government, which refts folely in the Manfa, or fovereign,
and great officers of the ftate. Of thefe, the firft in point of
rank is the prefumptive heir of the crown, called the Far-
bonna; and next to him are the Alkaids, or provincial go-
vernors, who are more frequently ftyled Keamos. Then
follow the two grand divifions of freemen and flaves, the
Slatees being beh Ra as the principal of the former ; but
in all claffes great refpeét is paid to the authority of aged
men, _Park’s Travels, vol. i.
WOOLLIMA, Ba, ariver of Africa, called alfo Wonda ;
which fee. .
WOOLLY-PASTINUM, in Natural Hiflory, a name
given by the Eaft Indians to a {pecies of native red arfenic,
or orpiment, found in that part of the world.
It is of a paler colour than the red orpiment of Ger-
many.
WOOLMAN, Joun, in Biography, a minifter of the
fociety of Friends in North America, chiefly remarkable
as an early and faithful advocate of the rights of the enflaved
Africans, was born at Northampton, in Rucliag igs county,
Weft New-Jerfey, in the year 1720. From fome memoirs
of his life left by himfelf, it appears that he had ftrong im-
preffions of religion in childhood, which being feconded by
the care and admonition of pious parents, he arrived at man-
hood, after a ftruggle of fome years with youthful levities,
with a decidedly religious charaéter. An incident which
befel him when a child, and which he records as a proof of
the early influence of divine grace on the mind, may be men-
tioned here, as connected allo with his future character, and
with the firft developement of thofe tender fympathies of the
heart which, under the guidance of Chriftian principle, fitted
him fo eminently to efpoufe the caufe of the oppreffed ne-
groes. Going on an errand to a neighbour’s, he obferved
that a robin quitted her neft at his approach, and flew about
in alarm for her young ones. He ftood and threw {tones at
her, till being ftruck, fhe fell down dead. ‘ At firft,’? he
fays, “ I was pleafed with the exploit, but after a few
minutes was feized with horror. I beheld her lying dead,
and thought thofe young ones, for which fhe had been fo.
careful, muft now perifh for want of their dam to nourifh
them: and after fome painful confiderations on the fubjeét,
I climbed up the tree, took all the young birds, and killed
them, fuppofing that better than to leave them to pine
away,
e
WOOLMAN.
away, and perifh miferably. I then went on my errand, but
for fome hours could think of little elfe but the cruelties I
had committed, and was much troubled. Thus He, whofe
tender mercies are over all his works, hath placed a principle
in the human mind, which incites to exercife goodnefs towards
every living creature: and this being fingly attended to,
people become tender-hearted and fympathifing, but being
frequently and totally rejeted, the mind becomes fhut up in
a contrary difpofition.”? Of his opinions at one-and-twenty
he writes thus : ‘* I was early convinced in mind that true
religion confifted in an inward life, wherein the heart doth
love and reverence God the Creator, and learns to exercife
true juftice and goodnefs, not only toward all men, but alfo
toward the brute creatures. I found no narrownefs re-
{peéting feéts and opinions, but believed that fincere, upright-
hearted people in every fociety, who truly loved God, were
accepted of him.’?
The right of every individual, of whatever colour, who
has not offended againft fociety, to liberty and the common
gifts of providence, was confequently at this time an article
of John Woolman’s religious creed: and we fhall fee that he
foon brought himfelf to a& in confiftency with his faith.
The firft occafion of trial occurred while he was yet in fervi-
tude ; for he had engaged himfelf as clerk and affiftant to a
fhop-keeper at a place called Mount-Holly. His employer
parted with a negrefs, and defired Woolman to write out a
bill of fale for her. ‘ The thing,”? fays he, ‘* was fudden,
and although the thought of writing an inftrument of flavery
for one of my fellow-creatures felt uneafy, yet I remem-
bered that I was hired by the year, that it was my matter
“who direéted me to do it, and that it was an elderly man, a
member of our fociety, who bought her. So through
weaknefs I gave way and wrote; but at the execution of it
I was fo afflicted in my mind, that I faid before my matter
and the friend, that I believed flave-keeping to be a prattice
‘ inconfiftent with the Chriftian religion.’ This in fome degree
abated my uneafinefs; yet as often as I refleGted ferioully
upon it, I thought I fhould have been clearer if I had de-
fired to be excufed from it, ‘as a thing againft my con-
{cience:’ for fuch it was.’”? Accordingly, on the next occa-
fion he took this fecond ftep. “* A-young man of our fo-
ciety,” he proceeds, ‘ fpoke to me to write a conveyance ofa
flave to him, he having lately taken a negro into his houfe.
I told him I was not eafy to write it: for though many of
our meeting and in other places kept flaves, I itill believed
the practice was not right.”? Other cafes followed, in
which being employed (as it appears for an adequate fee)
to'write the will of a neighbour or a friend, he uniformly
refufed to be acceflary to their bequeathing as property the
perfons of his fellow-men. ‘* Deep-rooted cuftoms,”’ he
obferyes, ‘¢ though wrong, are not eafily altered; but it is
the duty of all to be ‘ firm in that’ which they certainly
know is ‘ right for them.? A charitable benevolent man,
well acquainted with a negro, may, I believe, under fome
circumftances, keep him in his family as a fervant for no
other motive than the negro’s good. But man, as man, knows
not what fhall be after him, nor hath affurance that his
children will attain to that perfeGtion in wifdom and good-
nefs neceflary rightly to exercife fuch power,” viz. as that
of the owner over his flave. Ass the firft-fruits of this firm-
nefs, and which no doubt were highly grateful, he relates
initances in which his refufal, and the reafons he gave for it,
procured the freedom in lieu of the tran{miffion of the flaves
in queftion. ‘
Having been acknowledged by his friends in the capacity
of a minifter of the gofpel, he made fome journies in the ex-
ercife of his gift, which ferved to give him a further infight
into the condition of the negroes on that continent, and
further excited his attention to the then praétice of the fo-
ciety of friends, in common with others, of holding them
in bondage, and even of buying them. «In the year 1746
he paffed through Virginia, Maryland, and Carolina, of
which he writes as follows : ‘* Two things were remarkable
to me in this journey : firft, in regard to my entertainment,
when I ate, drank, and lodged at free-coft with people who
lived in eafe on the hard labour of their flaves, I felt uneafy ;
and as my mind was inward to the Lord, I found, from
place to place, this uneafinefs return upon me at times
through the whole vifit. Where the maiters bore a good
fhare of the burthen, and lived frugally, fo that their fer-
vants were well provided for, and their labour moderate, I
felt more eafy ; but where they lived in a coftly way, and
laid heavy burthens on their flaves, my exercife (trouble of
mind) was often great, and I frequently had converfation
with them in private concerning it. | Secondly, this trade of
importing flaves from their native country being much en-
couraged among them, and the white people and their chil-
dren fo generally living without much labour, was frequently
the fubject of my ferious thoughts. And I faw in thefe
fouthern provinces fo many vices and corruptions, increafed
by this trade and this way of life, that it appeared to me ¢ as
a gloom over the land ;” and though now many willingly run
into it, yet in future the confequence will be grievous to
pofterity. I exprefs it as it hath appeared to me, not once
nor twice, but as a matter fixed on my mind.”? :
It is probable that the inhabitants of the fouthern pro-
vinces of North America now fee pretty clearly that their
negro population, without confummate prudence, as well as.
great kindnefs in the management of them, are likely one
day to juftify thefe anticipations.
On his return from the above-mentioned journey, he com-
mitted to paper his fentiments on flave-keeping, and after the
MS. had lain long by him, it was publifhed, with the appro-
bation and at the expence of his friends, who began (in
Pennfylvania and the Jerfeys at leait) to be more generally
influenced by the humane and Chriftian views of Woolman,
Benezet, and others on this fubje&. - It was entitled
«* Some Confiderations en the keeping of Negroes ;? and in
1762 was followed by a “ Second Part,” the expence of
which he preferred to take upon himfelf, for a reafon which
evinces his ftri€ regard to jultice. He confidered that
many, who did not yet fee the evil of the praétice, nor
approve of his writings againft it, were contributors to the
general fund of the fociety, aut of which the caufe was pro-
pofed to be defrayed.
Some other refleGtions, written in 1757, while he was on:
a journey among flave-holders, and recorded in his’ ** Me=
motr,”” are forcibly defcriptive of his views and feelings.
The neceflary brevity of this article will permit only a
general account of John Woolman’s labours in the caufe
of humanity. From private conferences with the holders of
flaves, he proceeded to public addreffes to the fociety in
their meetings for difcipline : and when at length the prin-
ciple of the unlawfulnefs to Chriftians of this degrading’
practice had been generally recognized among them, he
united other members with himfelf in, paying vifits to fuch
of the fociety, within his {phere of aétion, as requiréd the:
ftimulus of remonftrances to induce them to comply with the:
fenfe of their brethren on this fubje@.. Thefe proceedings
were profecuted through feveral journies ; in which at one:
time the religious welfare in a more general fenfe, at another
the right conduct in this particular of his fellow-members,
engaged his attention. He did not live to fee the comple-
tion of his wifh, as it related to the fociety ; for it was not
tik
woo
till the year 1787 that the laft flave difappeared from among
them. But the near approach of this confummation was
witneffed by his coadjutor, Anthony Benezet, who died in
1784, whofe fame has f{pread wider than Woolman’s, be-
caufe his opportunities were more extenfive, who lived for
the caufe throughout Europe, and carried its fuccefsful
plea from the narrow limits of the fociety of Friends into
the world at large. Of this excellent man, whofe biography
efcaped the early part of this work, it may not be too late
here to record in brief,—that he was born at St. Quintin, in
Picardy, of a refpeétable family, in 1713; that he .was
carried by his father, who fled from the perfecutions which
fell upon the Huguenots, to London, and there formed for
mercantile purfuits ; that upon removing to Philadelphia with
his family in 1731, having now entered into the fociety of
Friends, he devoted his life, upon principle, firft to the
education of youth in ufeful knowledge and the Chriftian
faith, and ultimately to the nobleft toils of humanity. But
to return to our prefent fubject: in the year 1772, John
Woolman, believing it his duty to pay a religious vifit to
the friends in England, embarked for that purpofe at
Chefter, on the Delaware, and arrived at London in time to
attend their yearly meeting. After it he travelled, exer-
cifing his miniftry among his friends, through feveral coun-
ties, as faras York. Tere, at a large quarterly meeting,
he once more pleaded for the negroes, endeavouring, and
probably with effeé, to engage the fupport of thofe prefent
to the caufe of humanity : foon after which he was feized
with the {mall-pox. During a fevere ftruggle with this dif-
eafe, he manifefted great patience and humility, with a firm
faith in the Redeemer: and nature finking in the confli€, he
expired in peace in his fifty-fecond year.
As a preacher, we hear not of his eloquence nor of his
learning, except, fays one of the refpeétable friends who has
favoured us with the documents of this article, “ in heart-
knowledge, and in the fchool of Chrift ;?? but in life, he was
a bright example of the integrity, meeknefs, charity, and
beneficence which in that {chool alone are to be acquired ;
and his memory for his works’ fake is bleffed. Memoir of
John Woolman, chiefly extraéted from a Journal of his Life
and Writings, London, 1815.
WOOLPER’s Creek, in Geography, a river of Ken-
tucky, which runs into the Ohio, N. lat. 38° 53/. W.
long. 85° 7!.
WOOLPIT, a village of England, in the county of
Suffolk ; 8 miles E. of Bury St. Edmunds.
WOOLSTANTON, a village of England, in Stafford-
fhire ; 2 miles N. of Newcaftle-under-Line.
WOOL-STAPLE, denotes a city or town where
wool ufed to be fold. See STapte.
WOOLSTED. See Worstep.
WOOLSTON, Tuomas, in Biography, an Englith
divine, was born in 1669 at Northampton, and admitted in
1685 of Sidney college, Cambridge, where he was diftin-
git by his diligence and regularity. He was elected
ellow of his college, took orders, preached with approba-
tion, and was efteemed for his learning and piety. In his
exercifes for the degree of B.D. he maintained ‘the exa&
fitnefs of the time in which Chrift was manifefted in the
flefh,”’ in a difcourfe which was well received. But his
temper being naturally enthufiaftic, and perufing the
works of Origen, he indulged a great fondnefs for allego-
rical interpretations of f{cripture, which afterwards fed
him into a varicty of fingular and extravagant opinions.
He began in 1705 with “The old Apology for the Truth
of the Chriftian Religion againft the Jews and Gentiles
revived,’ maintaining that all the aétions of Mofes were
woo
typical of Chrift, and of his church; and the book was
iffued from the univerfity prefs. Woolfton remained in
college till the year 1720, when he went to London, and
publithed a Latin differtation concerning the fuppofed
epiftle of Pontius Pilate to Tiberius, relative to Jefus Chrift.
In the fame year he alfo publifhed two Latin epiftles, ad-
dreffed to Whitby, Waterland, Whifton, and others :
‘* Circa Fidem vere Orthodoxam et Scripturarum Interpre-
tationem,” defending Origen’s allegorical interpretation of
{cripture. His deviation from the eftablifhed faith was
more apparent in his inquiry, ‘‘ Whether the people called
Quakers do not the neareft of any other feé in religion
refemble the primitive Chriftians in principles and praétice 2”?
Blending farcafm with argument, he now feemed to indul
a fpirit of animofity againft the clergy. Declining at
fame time to refide at college, he was deprived of his fellow-
fhip in 1721. In his “ Four Free Gifts to the Clergy,”
he denominated them ‘“ hireling priefts,”? and ‘ minifters of
the letter.”” Although he might be fufpeéted, he was not
yet chargeable with hifiorical incredulity ; for in 1726 he
publifhed “A Defence of the Miracle of the Thundering
Legion againft Mr. Moyle.”” At length he engaged in
the controverfy between Anthony Collins and his oppo-
nents, and publifhed ‘* The Moderator between an Infidel
and an Apoftate,”’ and “ Two Supplements,” in which
he not only contended for myttical interpretations of the
miracles of Chrift, but maintained that they were never
actually wrought. Confidered as an avowed enemy to the
Chriftian religion, a profecution was inftituted againft him
by the attorney-general, but ftayed by the interpofition of
Whitton, and fome other advocates of toleration. Not-
withftanding this lenity, he proceeded in publifhing “ Six
Difcourfes on the Miracles,”? and two “ Defences of the
Difcourfes,” in which, blending ridicule and buffoonery
with argument, he maintained his offenfive opinions, This
pertinacity and rudenefs prejudiced believers in the divine
miflion of Chrift againft him; replies iffued from the prefs ;
but as he again became amenable to the law, he was tried
at Guildhall before lord chief juftice Raymond, when, after
many arguments for and again{ft him, he was found guilty,
and fentenced to a year’s imprifonment, and a fine of 100J.
Unable to pay his fine, he refided within the rules of the
King’s Bench, and fubfifted by an annual allowance granted
to him by his brother, and the contributions of fome learned
and liberal friends, who vindicated his intentions, whilft th
difapproved his enthufiafm and fanaticifm. Among thefe
were fome, and particularly Dr. S. Clarke, who condemned
every fpecies or femblance of Ree: perfecution, and
who endeavoured to procure his releafe; but they could
not prevail upon him to ftipulate that he would not per-
fevere in publifhing his peculiar opinions. But death gave
him that releafe, which his friends could not obtain for him ;
as he was carried off by an epidemic difeafe, within four
days after his feizure, in January 1732-3. Not long before
he expired, he faid, * This is a ftruggle which all men
muft go through, and which I bear, not only patiently, but
willingly.” His moral charaéter is faid to have been un-
impeachable, and his head was thought to have been more
difordered than his heart. Biog. Brit.
WOOLWICH, in Gingraphy , a market-town and parifh
in the hundred of Blackheath, lathe of Sutton-at-Hone,
and county of Kent, England, is fituated on the S. bank
of the Thames, 8 miles E, from London. The etymology
of Woolwich, a name very varioufly written at different
periods, is uncertain: according to Hatta, in his * Hif-
tory of Kent,’” one of the ancient names, Hulviz, fignified
the “ dwelling on the creek.” The parifh esi
about
woo
about 700 acres, of which above one-half, however, lie on
the oppofite bank of the Thames, in the county of Effex,
and confifts of marfh-land, on which ftood formerly a
few houfes, anda chapel of eafe. The manor of Woolwich
is fubordinate to the royal manor of Eltham. The town
confifts chiefly of one narrow irregular ftreet, confined be-
tween the rifing land and the river; but feveral other ftreets,
rows, andlanes, are conne¢ted with it. The church, a {pacious
brick building, confifts of a nave, chancel, and aifles. It
is fituated on an eminence overlooking the town and the
dock-yard, and was completed in 1740. Befides this building,
Woolwich contains feveral different diflenting meeting-houfes.
The principal charitable eftablifhments are an alms-houfe
and two fchools. Woolwich was originally but a {mall
place, inhabited by fifhermen, and is indebted for its im-
portance to the eftablifhment of a royal dock there in the
reign of Henry VIII. Since that time, it has gradually
arrived at its prefent augmented ftate; but particularly
fince the eftablifhment there of the head-quarters of the
artillery and the royal arfenal ; by which means the popu-
lation within the laft hundred years has increafed fix-fold.
The precife period of the eftablifhment of the dock-yard
is uncertain: it appears, however, that the Harry Grace
de Dieu, of 1000 tons, was built there in 1512. This
eelebrated fhip is ftated to have been in length 128 feet,
and in breadth 48 feet: fhe had three flufh decks, a fore-
caftle, half-deck, quarter-deck, and round-houfe, and car-
ried 176 pieces of ordnance: fhe had eleven anchors, the
largeit of which weighed 44oolbs. In its prefent enlarged
ftate, the yard extends about five furlongs along the river
by one furlong in breadth. It comprehends two dry
docks, feveral flips, three maft-ponds, a {mith’s-fhop and
forges for making anchors, a model-loft, ftore-houfes, fheds,
dwellings for various officers, and all other requifite build-
ings. The whole is under the immediate infpetion of the
navy board, but conduéted by feveral refident officers,
The number of artificers and labourers employed during
peace is about 1500 ; but in war-time it rifes towards 4000.
Between the dock-yard and the royal arfenal, formerly
called the Warren, is the rope-walk, 400 yards in length.
The military and civil branches of the office of ordnance
have been eftablifhed at Woolwich fince the acceffion of
George I. In the time of peace, this arfenal is the great
repofitory of naval ordnance, where the guns of moft of the
fhips of war are laid up there inorder. The repofitory con-
tains alfo an extenfive’ colle€tion of military machines and
models. The arfenal, comprehending about fixty acres of
ground, contains, with other buildings, the foundery, and
the late military academy, which was ereéted by fir John
WVanbrugh. The foundery is provided with feveral furnaces,
the largeft of which will melt about feventeen tons of metal
at once. It contains alfo machinery for boring brafs
cannon, as they are improperly called, for they are com-
pofed of copper and tin inftead of zinc. In the adjoining
laboratory, bombs, carcafes, cartridges, &c. for the navy
and army, are prepared. The number of perfons employed
in the arfenal during war is about 300, exclufive of the
conviéts belonging to the hulks or prifon-fhips lying in
the river. The military academy, although founded in
1719, was not finally arranged till 1741, and has been for-
tunate in poffefling, in the mathematical chairs, the eminent
profeffors Derham, Simpfon, and Hutton. Befides the ma-
thematical profeffors, here are matters in chemiftry, fortifica-
tion, arithmetic, French, drawing, fencing, &c. The number
of pupils or cadets, deftined for the two corps of artillery and
royal engineers, has been lately about 300. To provide necef-
fary accommodation, with offices, &c. a new edifice was con-
woo
ftruéted and opened in 1806, about a mile S. from the town,
on the upper part of the common. It is built in the caftel-
lated form, from defigns by Mr. James Wyatt. The prin-
cipal front facing the N. extends above 200 yards. The
expence of the ftru€ture is eftimated at not lefs than
150,000/. The eftablifhment is appropriated to the fenior
clafs of the cadets, the junior being for the prefent fixed at
Black-Water in Hampfhire. Between this new academy
and the town are extenfive ranges of barracks, &c. for the
royal artillery, horfe and foot, which has increafed during
the late war beyond all former example.
The population of Woolwich, in the return of 1800, was
ftated at 9826, exclufive of the military, inhabiting 1362
houfes ; but the number was probably under-rated ; for in
the return of 1811, the inhabitants are ftated to be 17,054,
and the houfes 2487. Woolwich-common unites with the
extenfive plain of Blackheath on the S., which gives name
to the hundred. At its eaftern extremity rifes Shooter’s-
hill, which commands extenfive and interefting profpeés in
all direGtions. The view from it of London, the Thames,
and the fhipping, is peculiarly impreffive. Over this hill
pafled the great Roman road from the E. coaft of Kent,
through Durovernum, now Canterbury, and Durobriva, Ro-
chefter, to London. Its courfe is nearly purfued by the
prefent road from Shooter’s-hill, for eight miles, to a place
beyond Dartford.—Beauties of England, Kent, by E. W.
EBrayley, 8vo. 1806.
Wootwicn, a townfhip of New Jerfey, in the county
of Gloucefter, with 3063 inhabitants; 10 miles S.E. of
Philadelphia.—Alfo, a townfhip of the province of Maine,
containing 1050 inhabitants, on the E. fide of the Kenne-
beck ; 16 miles N.E. of Brunfwick.
WOOL-WINDERS are perfons employed in winding
up fleeces or wool into bundles to be packed, and fold by
weight. Perfons winding and felling deceitful wool, fhail
forfeit for every fleece 6d. Thefe are {worn to do it truly
between the owner and the merchant. § Hen. VI. cap. 22.
23 Hen. VIII. cap. 17.
WOORLA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Vifiapour ; 16 miles N. of Merritch.
WOOTAMALLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Madura ;
15 miles S.W. of Coilpetta.
WOOTTON, Joun, in Biography, an eminent, though
not very able, painter of landfcape and animals, who
flourifhed in England about 1720. He was a pupil of
John Wyck, and was much employed in the portraits of
horfes and dogs, and in painting the fports of the field,
particularly fox-hunting ; upon which fubje€& there are
feven pictures of his engraved by Canot. Once at leaft he
attempted (but he did not frequently repeat the attempt )
to pourtray a battle, and his fubje& was that of Culloden at
the time of the rout of the rebel army. It has been en-
graved by Baron, though it is but an indifferent performance.
He died in 1765. He had been fuccefsful in. the purfuit
of his art, for he was enabled by its proceeds to build a
houfe in Cavendifh-fquare, where he lived, and had painted
it with tafte, according to Walpole, who praifes his works
ridiculoufly. His pieces, he fays, were high, forty guineas
for a fingle horfe the fize of life, and twenty if {maller.
WOOTTON-BASSET, in Geography, a borough and
market-town of Wiltthire, England, is fituated near the
northern extremity of the county, at the diftance of 36
miles N. by W. from Salifbury, and 89 miles W. from
London. _ It confifts chiefly of one principal ftreet, about
half a mile in length. The houfes are moftly conftru@ed
of brick with thatched roofs. Two reprefentatives have
been regularly deputed from this town to ferve in parlia-
ment
Woo
ment fince'the 25th of the reign of Henry VI. They are
ele&ed by the inhabitant houfeholders legally fettled
there, and paying feot and lot. The corporation is com-
pofed of a mayor, two aldermen, and twelve burgefles.
The market-day is Tuefday, weekly ; and there are alfo
fix fairs annually. In the centre of the town are a market-
houfe and fhambles; and near this is the town-hall, in
which a machine, called a “ cucking or ducking-ftool,”’
formerly ufed for the punifhment of female fcolds, was
lately preferved. The church is an old building dedicated
to St. Bartholomew, but it is not remarkable for beauty of
architecture, nor does it contain any monument or infcrip-
tion worthy of notice.
According to the population ‘returns of 1811, the
borough and parifh contained 321 houfes, and 1390 inha-
bitants, who formerly carried on a confiderable trade in
broad-cloths; but there is now no ftaple manufaétory of
any fort, though fome attempts have been lately made to
introduce the bufinefs of rope-making and fack-making.
In this parifh are two free-fchools and a Sunday fchool.
The former were founded and endowed by the earl of
Clarendon, one of them for twelve boys, and the other for
twelve girls.
At the time of the Conquett, this place was called fimply
*Wodeton.’? It was then the property of Milo Crifpin;
but in lefs than a century afterwards it was poflefled by the
Baffets of Wycomb, a branch of the noble family of the
Baffets of Drayton. The prefent proprietor is the earl of
Clarendon. The ancient manor-houfe, which ftands on the
fummit of a confiderable eminence, is now converted into a
farm-houfe, whence.the eye furveys a very extenfive pro-
{pe&t into Somerfetfhire, Gloucefterfhire, &c. A variety
of curious conical ftones, refembling {mall fir-apples, have
been dug up in different fpots around the town, imbedded
in a fort of blue marly ftone.
Liddiard-Tregooze, or Lydiard-Tregofe, is a village and
parifh, fituated at the diftance of three miles north-eatt from
Wootton-Baffet. According to the population returns of
1811, the parifh contains 95 houfes, and 613 inhabitants.
The church, an ancient itru€ture, is divided into a nave,
two. fide aifles, and a chancel, with a {quare tower at the
weft end, furmounted by an open baluftrade and angular
pinnacles. The church contains feveral interefling monu-
ments of the St. John family ; alfo a very curious genea-
logical table with arms, &c.
Adjoining to the church is Liddiard-park, the feat of
lord Bolingbroke. The attached grounds are extenfive,
and contain many large clumps of trees, among which are
a great number of old oaks.—Beauties of England and
Wales, Wiltthire, by J. Britton, 1815.
WOOTZ, in Metallurgy, a metal extra&ted from an
ore of iron in the Eaft Indies, the nature of which is not
known at prefent in Europe. Wootz is highly efteemed
by the natives of India, and applied to various purpofes in
the arts.
Dr. Scott gave the following account of its properties,
in a letter to the prefident of Bombay :—“ Wootz admits of
2 harder temper than any thing known in that part of
India. It is employed for covering that part of gun-locks
againft which the flint ftrikes. It is ufed for cutting iron
ona lathe, for cutting ftones,.and for chifels; alfo for
making files and faws, and for every purpofe where excef-
five hardnefs is neceffary: it cannot, however, bear any
thing beyond a flight red heat, which makes it work very
tedioufly inthe hands of the fmith. It has a ftill greater
inconvenience or defeét, that of not being welded with iron
or Steel, to which, therefore, it is only joined by fergs and
Wop
other contrivances.”” Dr. Scott obferves farther, that
when wootz is heated above a light red heat, part of the
mafs feems to run, and the whole is loft, as if it confifted of
metals of different degrees of fufibility. The working with
wootz is fo difficult, that it is a feparate art from that of
forging iron. The magnetical power can only be imper-:
feétly communicated to it. Specimens of wootz fent
India were examined by Dr. George Pearfon, who ftates
in the Phil. Tranf. vol.xcv., that they were in the form of
round cakes, about five inches in diameter and one thick,
each of which weighed more than two pounds. The eake
had almoft been cut through, fo as to divide it into two
nearly equal parts. It was externally of a dull black’
colour, the furtace was fmooth, the cut part was alfo
f{mooth, and, excepting a few {mall holes, the texture ap-
peared to be uniform. No indentation could be made in it
by blows with a heavy hammer, nor was it broken by blows
that might have broken a like piece of fteel. Fire was
elicited on collifion with flint. It poffeffed the hardnefs
of fome kinds of crude iron, but did not effectually refift
the file, like highly tempered fteel, and many kinds of crude
iron. It admitted a polifh equal to the beft fteel. The
wootz-filings were attraéted by the magnet like common
iron-filings. When broken, it exhibited the fra@ture and
colour oF a rather open-grained fteel. It was taftelefs and
inodorous. Its fpecific gravity in different ftates, as given
by Dr. Pearfon, ranges from 7.2 to about 7.7, which is
nearly the fame as fteel. From the properties of this fub-
ftance, Dr. Pearfon concludes, that wootz approaches
nearer to the ftate of fteel than raw iron, although it pof-
feffes fome of the properties of this lait fubftance. It is’
not to be referred to that kind of fteel in which there is
either an excefs or deficiency of carbon, but it contains
fomething befides carbon and iron, otherwife it would be»
common fteel. The folution in nitrous and dilute ful-
phuric acid contained only oxyd of iron, ‘and the refidue’
of carbonaceous matter, as in common fteel. - Hence, fays
Dr. Pearfon, it is obvious to fufpe&t, that wootz contains:
_ oxygen, either equally united with every part of the mafs,
or united with a portion of iron to compofe oxyd, which is
diffufed through the mafs. To this circumftance, Dr. Pear-’
fon feems inclined to attribute the fmaller quantity of
hydrogen gas given out during folution, than is afforded by’
common tteel, and to account for its partial fufibility and diffi-
cult malleability,'and may be the reafon of its taking a fine edge
or polifh. The oxydis not perhaps equally diffufed ; hence
the wootz is not quite uniform in its texture and hardnefs
until it has been remelted. The proportion of oxygen in
wootz, fays Dr. Pearfon, muft, however, be very fmall,
otherwife it would not poffefs fo much ftrength, and break
with fo much difficulty. The oozing out of matter when’
fufed is analogous to what appears on refining raw iron.
Although no account is given by Dr. Scott of the procefs
for making wootz, we may without much rifk conclude,
that it is made dire&tly from the ore, and confequently that
it has never been in the ftate of wrought iron, for the cake
is evidently a mafs which has been fufed, and appears to
have been cut almoft quite through while white hot at the:
place where wootz is manufa@tured. The particular ufes to
which wootz may be applied are to be inferred from the
preceding account of its properties and compofition ; and’
may be proved by an extenfive trial of it in all the arts which
require iron. See Phil. Tranf. vol. xcv.
WOPANKEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, int
the province of Bartenland; 2 miles E. of Bartenftein. >
WOPELBACH, a river of Ofnabruck, which runs into
the Dalcke, 2 miles N. of Weidenbruck. :
WORADA,
EE
enti
WOR
WORADA, a country of Africa, of an oval form, about
go miles in circumference, S. of Konkadoo,
WORANY, a town of Lithuania; 28 miles S. of
Troki.
WORBIS, or Srapt Worsis, a town of Weltphalia,
in the territory of Eichsfeld, on the Wipper; 8 miles $.S.E.
of Duderftadt. ;
Woreis, Breiten, a town of Weiltphalia, in the territory
of Eichsfeld ; g miles S.E. of Duderttadt. ;
Woreis, Kirch, a town of Wettphalia, in the territory
of Ejichsfeld ; 8 miles S.S.E. of Duderftadt.
WORBITZ, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of Czaflau ;
ro miles S. of Czaflau.
Worsitrz See, a lake of the Ucker Mark of Branden-
burg, near Joachimfthal; 28 miles N.N.E. of Berlin.
WORBSTADT, a town of France, in the department
of Mont Tonnerre; 10 miles S.S.W. of Mentz.
WORCESTER, the capital city of a county of its own
name, in the W. of England, fituated in N. lat. 52° 10',
and W. long. 2° oo! ; diftant 26 miles N. from Gloucefter,
27 S.W. from Birmingham, 30 E. by N. from Hereford,
and 111 W.N.W. from London. The inhabitants in 1811
were, according to the returns made to parliament, 5953
males, and 7861 females, in all 13,814, and the houfes
2527.
> Hiporical Events.—W orcetter is a place of high antiquity,
as implied by the latter part of the name, indicating that the
original town occupied the pofition of a Roman ftation : its
proper name under thofe people, however, has not yet been
afcertained. Camden indeed conceives it to be the Brano-
nium of Antoninus’ Itinerary, the fame with the Branoge-
nium of Ptolemy ; but that town is placed by Horfley at
Ludlow, more to the N.W., on the S. border of Shropfhire.
Nennius, who wrote in the beginning of the 7th century,
points out Worcefter by the Britifh names Caer-Guorangon
and Caer-Guorcon. By the Saxons it was called Weogare-
ceafter, or Wegeorna-ceafler, from which came Wigornia, the
Latin name ftill in ufe. In the Domefday-book it is called
Wirecefire. The diocefe of Worcefter was founded by
Ethelred, king of Mercia, about 680, the firft bifhop nomi-
nated being Tatfrith ; but dying before confecration, the
firft who filled the epifcopal chair was Bofel, a learned man
from the celebrated monaftery of St. Hilda, at Whitby in
Yorkfhire. St. Egwin, the third bifhop, who was appointed
in 693, was the founder of the abbey at Evefham. Milred
was nominated in 744. ‘The 17th prelate was the famous
St. Dunftan, who was appointed in 957. St. WulftanIT.,
appointed in 1062, was the founder of the prefent cathedral.
Adam de Orleton, bifhop in 1327, is fuppofed to have
promptéd the murder of Edward II. by the equivocal
anfwer he gave when confulted on the projet: “ Edwardum
accidere nolite timere bonum eft.”’ ‘The 69th bifhop, nominated
to Worcefter in 1521, was the celebrated Julius de Medicis,
a cardinal, and afterwards pope Clement VII. His fuc-
ceflor, Jerome de Ghinucci, alfo an Italian, was deprived at
the Reformation, and, in 1535, was fucceeded by Hugh
Latimer, who fuffered for his Proteftant profeffion, under
queen Mary, in 1555. John Prideaux, the 84th prelate,
appointed in 1641, was difmiffed during the interregnum,
his bifhopric fequeftered, and himfelf allowed four fhillings
and fixpence per week for his maintenance. The eminent
{cholar Stillingfleet filled the fee from 1689 to 1699.
In 1717, the fee was filled by John Hough. (See
his biographical article.) The learned bifhop Hurd,
appointed in 1781, was fucceeded in 1799 by the pre-
fent prelate, bifhop Cornwall, ‘The revenues of the fee
Vou. XXXVIII.
WOR
were, in 1699, fixed at 1302/. 155. 44d.; but now fup-
pofed to exceed 3000/. The fee has poffeffed one pope,
four faints, feven high-treafurers of England, eleven arch-
bifhops, befides chancellors of the kingdom, and other
great officers of the ftate. Few places, perhaps, have
{uffered more than Worcefter by the inteftine broils of the
country, and by cafual difafters. Ruined by the Danes
about the year 894, it was rebuilt by Ethelred and Ethel-
fleda; but the inhabitants refufing to pay the tax called
danegelt, the city was again laid wafte by Hardicanute.
Again reftored, it fuffered feverely during the conteft be-
tween king Stephen and the emprefs Maud, as well as by a
fire, from which the walls of the cathedral alone were pre-
ferved. Taking the part of Lewis, the dauphin of France,
againft king John, the king’s troops exercifed every tyranni-
cal feverity on the inhabitants; the church was plundered,
and a heavy fum exaéted from the clergy. John was
neverthelefs interred in the cathedral in 1216. It was in
Worcelter that, previoufly ta the battle of Evefham, young
Edward raifed the ftandard of loyalty for his father,
Henry III. After the acceffion of Henry VII. feveral
citizens were beheaded, and a fine of 500 marks was levied
onthe city. In 1642 Worcefter witneffed the fanguinary
conteft which terminated fo fatally for the affairs of
Charles I. (See Cuartes.) In 1646, the city furren-
dered by capitulation to the parliament’s army, having
been the firft city in England to declare for the crown, and
the laft which held out in its defence. In 1651 happened
the fecond battle of Worcefter under Charles II. ; a battle
which decided the deftruétive and vindiétive controverfy
between the royalifts and the parliamentary party, by
which the latter obtained a complete afcendancy ; and
the king himfelf efcaped with difficulty out of the country,
To preferve the memory of this fuccefs, ‘* the lord-general
Cromwell, on the 18th of September 1651,” fays Leach,
in his Diurnal, “ with many, officers of the army, was at
Woollidge, at the launching of a gallant new frigot of the
ftates, carrying three-fcore peeces of ordnance, and called
her name Worcetter.”’
Prefent State.—Worcelter is diftinguifhed among the
provincial towns of England for its refemblance, in various
re{peéts, to the metropolis. It is defcribed to be well built,
well paved, and well lighted. It confifts principally of one
great {treet running from N. to S., and terminating at the
cathedral ; alfo thirteen other collateral ftreets, befides lanes of
inferior dimenfions. The circuit of the city exceeds three
miles and a half. The Severn, bathing the weftern fide, and
carrying veffels of confiderable burthen, is of great utility in
facilitating the commerce to and from, as well as the requifite
fupplies of the city. On it, paflage-boats fail up as far as
Shrewfbury, and down to Gloucefter and Briftol. The
buildings now extend beyond the ancient limits, which may,
however, itill be traced; the old wall, according to a plan
made before the civil wars, was in extent 11,650 paces; but
this wall, after the laft battle of Worcefter, was almoft
wholly deftroyed. The caftle was erected by Urfo of
Abitoth about 1088. The area, now called the College-
green, was, in the Norman times, the outer ward of that
caftle, behind which to the S. was the inner ward, or for-
trefs itfelf. A gaol for the retention of the prifoners of the
county is all that now remains of the caftle, on the {pot where
the kings of England formerly kept their court. A fteep
artificial mount, on which probably ftood the keep of the
fortrefs, is a prominent objet; the furrounding ditch and
rampart may alfo be eafily traced.
_ Cathedral.—The original cathedral of Worcefter was
founded in 680; but in 969 its revenues were transferred
4R to
WORCESTER.
to the monaltery of St. Mary, an eftablifhment of the be-
ginning of the eighth century. The church of this monaf-
me being unfuitable to its novel application, another
cathedral was ereéted and confecrated by St. Ofwald, the
bifhop, in 983. Being ruined by Hardicanute in 1041, the
foundation of a new cathedral was laid in 1084, by bifhop
Wulftan II.; and in 1089 he finifhed it, together with the
monaftery, and called the fame wT LO St. Maria in
Cryptis? The original plan of this church feems to: have
been a fimple cro{s, the entrance being at the weft end of
the prefent choir, which occupies the place of the ancient
nave. This ancient ftru€ture had probably a central or
principal tower; as it is recorded that the new tower fell
down in 1175, and two f{maller ones were: deftroyed bya
ftorm in 1222. The antiquity of this part of the edifice is
particularly apparent from the crypt or undercroft, which
extends under the choir and its aifles. This is a curious
and interefting part of the fabric. Twice feverely injured by
fire, in «1113 and in 1202, the cathedral was re-confecrated
in 1218, by bifhop Silvefter, in the prefence of Henry III.
and ‘his court. Six years afterwards’ the foundation of an
additional work, the prefent nave, was laid by bifhop Wil-
liam de Bloys, in which is difplayed the fkill of the archi-
tet, in adapting the new parts to the former ftructure.
The ftone-vaulting of the edifice was begun by bifhop
Cobham in 1327, and the whole was finifhed in 1357. The
beautiful central tower was conftruéted in 1374. Worcefter
cathedral is in the exterior extremely plain, ‘and its attrac-
tions confift principally in the height, {pace, and the light-
nefs of its architecture, to which the lofty pinnacles, rifing
irom ‘every termination of the building, as well as from the
tower, not a little contribute. The external length, in-
cluding buttrefles, is 426 feet; the internal, 394: that of
the nave, from the front to the weft tranfept, 180; of the
choir, including the organ-loft, 120; of the Lady-chapel,
Go; of the weft crofs or tranfept, 128; and of the eait
tranfept, 120 feet. The nave is feparated’ from the aifles
by ten cluftered columns on each fide, fupporting three
ranges of pointed arches; an arrangement alfo carried on
through the choir. A ftone pulpit, originally placed near
the weft’ end of the nave, is now fixed at the north fide of
the choir. It is of an octagonal form, ornamented with
emblematic feulpture, and furmounted by a canopy. *
-Worcefter cathedral has, like many other edifices of the
fame nature, been a great fufferer by the lapfe of time, and
by the various modes of repair adopted at different periods.
It now fearcely contains one‘arris or moulding, as originally
conftru@ed. » Roman cornices now occupy the place of
battlements; buttreffes are pannelled in various hetero-
geneous ways; pinnacles have been reftored after the Gre-
cian {chool; windows formed without ramifications or
cufps, and filled with modern ftained glafs, deftitute of
fubje& or defign ; Roman arches refting on entablatures, to
fupport or OTs the tranfepts; Roman fquares with
leaves, inftead of proper bafes to regular cluftered pillars:
Indeed this edifice affords a curious, but not a very pleafing,
difplay of heterogeneous parts and ftyles.
OF the numerous monuments contained in the cathedral,
a few only can be noticed in this: work. Between the
pulpit and the communion-table, in the midft of. the'choir,
is placed the altar-tomb of king John, who died: in 1216.
On it is extended his ‘effigy.’ The infcription, ‘ Johannes
Rex Angliz,” is now. almoft illegible.. The figure, ‘as
large as life, has in the right-hand a {ceptre, and in the left
a {word, with its point inthe mouth ob a lion couchant at
the feet. On each fide, on a level, with the pavement, are
{mall figures of bifhops’Ofwald and Wulttan. | It had long
been imagined that this monument was merely an honorary
cenotaph, while the body of John really lay in the Lady-
chapel ;, but by an. inveftigation in 1797, the contrary was
afcertained. Removing the effigy and ftone on which it
refted, ‘the interior of the monument was laid open. Be-
tween two brick walls, and under fome elm boards, lay a
{tone coffin containing the royal corpfe. The body had
evidently been deranged at fome former period ; but many
of the parts were very perfect. Inftead of the crown, how-
ever, as fhewn in the effigy, the head had been invefted
with the hood of a monk’s cowl. The body had been en-
veloped in an embroidered robe, feemingly of crimfon
damafk. The coffin refted on the pavement of the choir,
and the original cover was the ftone’ on which the effigy is
fculptured. On the right-hand of the communion-table,
occupying one of the arcades between the choir and the
fouth aifle, ftands the celebrated monumental chapel or -
chantry of Arthur, eldeft fon of Henry VI1., and elder
brother of Henry VIII. This chapel, of an oblong form,
is richly ornamented on the north, weft, and fouth fides, by
open {creen-work ; the pillars adorned with a number of
{mall ftatues, with fhields, rofes, and other figures em-
blematic of the houfes of York and Lancafter, whofe con-
tending claims to the Englifh throne were united in that
young prince, who died in,1502, inthe 17th year of his
age. Againft the eaft end was placed an altar, behind
which was a wall ornamented with five figures ; in the centre
the Saviour, on the right-hand two kings in their robes,
and on the left another fimilar king, and a warrior in armour.
Over the {tatues are richly-wrought canopies. To preferve
thofe figures from deftru@tion, they had been covered over
with *plafter, probably in the reign of Elizabeth, and re-
mained thus unknown. until..November.1788, when the
plafter being removed, they were once more laid open to
view. The tomb of prince Arthur is of marble, with the
arms of England and. France quartered, painted on the
fides; round the edge of the cover is an infeription in
Englifhes v4 serey :
» Worcefter cathedral contains alfo the monument of the
celebrated judge Littleton, the father of Englifh law, a
juttice of the common pleas under Edward 1V., who died
in‘1481. Of more modern fepulchral monuments it will be
fufficient to mention thofe of bifhops Hough, Maddox, and
Johnfon, not only for the eminent names they commemorate,
but as diftinguifhed examples of modern fculpture. Attached
to the fouth fide of the nave of the church is the ancient
cloifter, a {quare of- about, 120 feet, on the eaft fide of
which is the chapter-houfe, a decagon of 58 feet in dia-
meter, and 45 in height, the roof of which is fupported by »
a central column: it now ferves as a library, as well as a
council-room, and contains a valuable collection of books,
and of manufcripts, chiefly relating to the canon law.
Adjoining to the fouth fide of the cloifter is the ancient re-
feétory of the monattery attached to the cathedral, called
the college-hall, a lofty and fpacious room, 120 feet long
by 38 broad, now kept as the king’s fchool. Here are
alfo held the triennial mufical meetings of the three choirs
of Worcefter, Hereford, and Gloucetter, for the benefit of
the widows and orphans of the clergy.of their refpective
counties. This fchool was founded by Henry VIII. for
forty {cholars, who are prepared for the univerfity, and in-
ftructed in various branches of modern education. A little
to the eaftward of the chapter-houfe ftands the audit-hall,
anciently called the Guetten-hall, built in 1320, for the
entertainment of {trangers reforting to the monaftery and
cathedral. It is: {till the fcene of hofpitality during the
annual audits of the chapter of the cathedral, At the back -
6
of
a
WORCESTER.
of the feventh prebendal houfe, which formerly belonged
_to the kitchener or cook of the monaftery, are the remains
of the great kitchen, a fpacious otagonal apartment,
'34 feet in diameter. ; ‘6
Other places of worfhip belonging to the eftablifhment
in Worcefter are, the churches of St. Peter the Great, St.
Michael, St. Alban, St. Helen, St. Andrew, St. Clement,
St. John Baptift, All Saints, St. Swithun, St. Martin, St.
Nicholas, and Claines. Of thefe buildings, fome preferve
their ancient appearance. St. Andrew’s church is diftin-
guifhed by a fquare tower, go feet high, fupporting an
oGtagonal {pire, in height 155 feet. 6 inches; the whole
-height being 245 feet 6 inches. The church and tower are
fuppofed to have been ereéted in the eleventh century, but
the {pire was not added till 1751. Among the various
reonattic inftitutions of Worcefter was that remarkable one,
now called the Commandery, eftablifhed for the maintenance
of two chaplains, five poor men, and two poor women,
founded by St. Wulftan, who died in 1097: it became,
after the diffolution, a part of the endowment of Chrift-
church in Oxford. Commanderies were, among the knights-
hofpitallers of Jerufalem, the fame with the preceptories
among the knights-templars; being focieties placed on the
country eftates of the order, under the controul of a com-
mander, but accountable to the grand prior or mafter in
‘London. Part of the ancient buildings {till exift ; but the
whole, now in the pofleflion of a private individual, has of
late years undergone great alteration.
Though containing fo many parifh-churches in propor-
tion to the population, Worcefter is. not deficient in the
number of chapels for various clafles of diflenters. _Amon
thefe, are reckoned Anabaptifts, Independents, Methodifts,
Prefbyterians, Quakers, and Roman Catholics.
On the fouth fide of the cathedral and cloifter,is an open
fpace, called the. College-green, on the eatt fide of which is
agate, known by, the name of Edgar’s tower, having on
the outer front the: flatues of that king and his two queens,
-Elfleda and Elfrida.. Antiquarian curiofity has been much
excited by charaéters once exifting on this tower, fuppofed
to indicate a date much older than the received introduétion
of our prefent numerical figures into this part of the world.
But the chara&ers were probably mifunderftood ; nor is the
tower itfelf believed to be of the age of Edgar, who died
in 975. fu
: eoheedd from the cathedral, on the rifing bank of the
Severn, is the bifhop’s palace, originally furrounded with
embattled walls in 1270, but brought into its prefent ftate
by bifhop Stillingfleet and fucceeding prelates... The welt
fide ftill retains much of the antique archite€ture. ,
Public Buildings. —The chief of thefe is the guildhall,
fituated on the weit fide of the High-{treet, near the market-
place. It is a handfome edifice of two fpacious ftories,
finifhed in 1723: the lower part is in one room, 110 feet
6 inches long, by 25 feet 6 inches broad, and 21 feet high,
in which are held the feveral courts of juftice for the city
andthe county. The council-chamber is 109 feet long, by
26 broad, and 15 feet 8 inches high. The bridge over the
Severn, in length between the abutments 270 feet, and in
breadth 25, is an elegant ftone {tructure of 5 femicircular
arches, opened in 1781. The centre arch is in fpan
41 feet, but the other arches gradually diminifh in width.
Conneéted with the bridge a new ftreet has been opened,
leading into the middle of the city, and the new roads from
the weftward, the embankments, and quays along both fides
of the river, are at once ornamental and ufeful. r ,
_ Charitable Inflitutions.—The chief of thefe is the houfe of
induitry, completed in 1794, a handfome building on the eaft
fide of the city, advantageoufly fituated on an eminence, and
calculated to accommodate 150 perfons belonging to the
different parifhes of the city.. The infirmary, fituated in'an
airy pofition, overlooking the race-ground, the river, and the
north-weft parts of the county, was commenced in 1767:
it receives about 58 patients on an average annually... A
number of hofpitals and alms-houfes, fome of ancient found-
ation, provide fupport for age, and education for youth. A
free-fchool on the Lancafterian plan was eftablifhed fome
years ago. The old county-gaol is fituated in the catftle-
yard; but a new one has been lately ereéted in the neigh-
bourhood of the infirmary, on the Howardian plan. The
city-gaol is an ancient building in a crowded fituation,
having been originally a Francifcan convent, founded in the
13th century, but granted to the city at the diffolution.
Public Amufements.—Worcefter has long maintained its
claim to be one of the moft fafhionable cities in the weftern
parts of the kingdom : it is confequently the winter-refidence
of a number of confiderable families from the furrounding
counties of England and Wales. The theatre, affemblies,
concerts, races, the various public walks, clubs, the public
library, &c.. render Worcefter a bufy, gay, and much-fre-
quented city.
Municipal Government.—The city was incorporated by
Henry L., but the firft charter was granted in the 45th year
of Henry III. In 1621, the rgth year of James I., a mayor
was.eltablifhed. The corporation now confifts of a mayor,
fix aldermen, 24 common-council-men, and 48 affiftants,
by which laft two bodies the magiftrates are chofen. - But
the right of ele@ting the members for parliament extends
to upwards of 2000 citizens, the fheriff being the return-
ing officer. Worcefter fent two reprefentatives to
parliament in the 23d year of Edward I. — Florence of
Worcefter, the author of the Chronicon, a general hiftory
of the world down to 1118, when he died, was a monk of
the cathedral of this city. William of Worcefter was edu-
cated in Oxford in 1434, and drew up his “ Polyandria
Oxonienfis,’’ a hiftory of the learned men bred in that uni-
verfity. His Annals, at the end of the ‘ Black Book”? of
the exchequer, contain notes on the affairs of his own times.
The famous empyric and myttic philofopher, Edward Kelly,
was born in Worcetter towards the middle of the 16th
century. ‘The relation of the impoftures of this perfon and
his affociate Dr. Dee, furnifhed by Lilly, prefent a humili-
ating picture of the human mind and underitanding in thofe
days, on the continent as well as in England. Worcefter
produced, in 1650, the eminent lawyer lord Somers, who, by
his knowledge and eloquence, defended the caufe of liberty
and juftice in the latter part of the reign of Charles II.,
when but few warm and able advocates were found on their
fide in Weftminfter-hall. See Somers, Lord. :
Worcetfter has long been rendered very interefting, from
the circumftance of the Royal Porcelain Works being elta-
blifhed within its walls. It is, on our part, a moft pleafing
duty, not only to traee its rife and progrefs, but to hold up its
elegant and highly-finifhed produétions to the attention of
the liberal and {cientific. A very material difference exifts
between this eftablifhment, and others of a fimilar kind on the
continent ; as the improvements made by expenfive experi-
ments are here effected ut the fole charge of the proprietors,
while the moff famed manufaétories on the continent are fup-
ported and carried on at the coft of the government of the
countries to which they belong. The Worcefter porcelain
works were founded in the year 1751, by Dr. Wall anda
company of proprietors, compofed of many gentlemen of
fortune and confideration in the city and county ; who con-
tinued to carry on the concern under thofe adverfe circum-
: j AUR 2, © ftances
WORCESTER.
to the monaltery of St. Mary, an eftablifhment of the be-
ginning of the eighth century. The church of this monaf-
_ being unfuitable to its novel application, another
cathedral was ereéted and confecrated by St. Ofwald, the
bifhop, in 983. Being ruined by Hardicanute in 1041, the
foundation of a new cathedral was laid in 1084, by bifhop
Wulftan II.; and in 1089 he finifhed it, together with the
monaftery, and called the fame Monaflerium St. Maria in
Cryptis? The original plan of this church feems to: have
been a fimple crofs, the entrance being at the weft end of
the prefent choir, which occupies the place of the ancient
nave. This ancient ftru€@ture had probably a central or
principal tower; as it is recorded that the new tower fell
down in 1175, and two fmaller ones were deftroyed by a
ftorm in 1222. The antiquity of this part of the edifice is
particularly apparent from the crypt or undercroft, which
extends under the choir and its aifles. This is a curious
and interefting part of the fabric. Twice feverely injured by
fire; in:1113 and in 1202, the cathedral was're-confecrated
in 1218, by bifhop Silvefter, in the prefence of Henry III.
and his court. Six years afterwards the foundation of an
additional work, the prefent nave, was laid by bifhop Wil-
liam de Bloys, in which is difplayed the fkill of the archi-
te&, in adapting the new parts to the former ftructure.
The ftone-vaulting of the edifice was begun by bifhop
Cobham in 1327, and the whole was finifhed in 1357. ‘The
beautiful central tower was conftruéted in 1374. Worcefter
cathedral is in the exterior extremely plain, ‘and its attrac-
tions confift principally in the height, fpace, and the light-
nefs of its architeGture, to which the lofty pinnacles, rifing
irom every termination of the building, as well as from the
tower, not a little contribute. The external length, in-
cluding buttreffes, is 426 feet; the internal, 394: that of
the nave, from the front to the weft tranfept, 180; of the
choif, including the organ-loft, 120; of the Lady-chapel,
6o; ofthe weft crofs or tranfept, 128; and of the eait
tranfept, 120 feet. The nave is feparated’ from the aifles
by ten cluftered columns on each fide, fupporting three
ranges of pointed arches; an arrangement alfo carried on
through the choir.’ A ftone pulpit, originally placed near
the weft end of the nave, is now fixed at the north fide of
the choir. It is of an octagonal form, ornamented with
emblematic feulpture, and furmounted by a canopy. *
-Worcefter cathedral has, like many other edifices of the
fame nature, been a great fufferer by the lapfe of time, and
by the various modes of repair adopted at different periods.
It now fearcely contains one’arris or moulding, as Originally
conftru@ed. » Roman cornices now occupy the place of
battlements; buttreffes are pannelled in various ‘hetero-
geneous ways; pinnacles have been reftored after the Gre-
cian f{chool; windows formed ‘without ramifications or
cufps, and filled with modern ftained glafs, deftitute of
fubje& or defign ; Roman arches refting on entablatures, to
fupport or Th ce the tranfepts; Roman fquares with
leaves, inftead of proper bales to regular cluftered »pillars:
Indeed this edifice affords a curious, but not a very pleafing,
difplay of heterogeneous parts and {tyles.
OF the numerous monuments contained in the cathedral,
a few only can be noticed in this* work. Between the
pulpit and the communion-table, in the midft of. the’choir,
is placed the altar-tomb of king John, who died: in 1216.
On it is extended his ‘effigy.’ The infcription, ‘ Johannes
Rex Angliz,”’ is now. almoft illegible.| .The figure, ‘as
large as life, has in the right-hand a {ceptre, and in the left
a {word, with its point in-the mouth’of a lion couchant at
the feet. On each fide, on a level, with the pavement, are
{mall figures of bifhops’Ofwald and Wul{tan. | It had long
been imagined that this.monument was merely an honorary
cenotaph, while the body of John. really lay in the Lady-
chapel ;, but by an inveftigation in 1797, the contrary was
afcertained. Removing the effigy and ftone on which it
refted, the interior of the monument was laid open; Be-
tween two brick walls, and under fome elm boards, lay a
ftone coffin containing the royal corpfe. The body had
evidently been deranged at fome former period ; but many
of the parts were very perfe&t. Inftead of the crown, how-
ever, as fhewn in the effigy, the head had been invefted
with the hood of a monk’s cowl. The body had been en-
veloped in an embroidered robe, feemingly of crimfon
damafk. The coffin refted on the pavement of the choir,
and the original cover was the itone* on which the effigy is
fculptured. On the right-hand of the communion-table,
occupying one of the arcades between the choir and the
fouth aifle, ftands the celebrated monumental chapel or -
chantry of. Arthur, eldeft fon of Henry VI1., and elder
brother of Henry VIII. . This chapel, of an oblong form,
is richly ornamented on the north, weft, and fouth fides, by
open fcreen-work ; the pillars adorned with a number of
{mall ftatues, with fhields, rofes, and other figures em-
blematic of the houfes of York and Lancafter, whofe con-
tending claims to the Englifh throne were united in that
young prince, who died in, 1502, in the 17th year of his
age. Againft the eaft end was placed an altar, behind
which was a wall ornamented with five figures ; in the centre
the Saviour, on the right-hand two kings in their robes,
and on the left another fimilar king, and a warrior in armour.
Over the {tatues are richly-wrought canopies. To preferve
thofe figures from deftru@tion, they had been covered over
with ‘platter, probably in the reign of Elizabeth, and re-
mained thus unknown. until..November.1788, when the
plafter being removed, they were once more laid open to
view. The tomb of prince Arthur is of marble, with the
arms of England and. France quartered, painted on the
fides; round the edge of the cover is an infcription in
Englifhes +4 sees :
» Worcefter cathedral contains alfo the monument of the
celebrated judge Littleton, the father of Englifh law, a
jultice of the common pleas under Edward 1V., who died
in ‘1481. Of more modern fepulchral monuments it will be
fufficient to mention thofe of bifhops Hough, Maddox, and
Johnfon, not only for the eminent names they commemorate,
but as diftinguifhed examples of modern fculpture. Attached
to the fouth fide of the nave of the church is the ancient
cloifter, a fquare of- about, 120 feet, on the eaft fide of
which ‘is the chapter-houfe, a decagon of 58 feet in dia-
meter, and 45 in height, the roof of which is fupported by
a central'column: it now ferves as a library, as well as a
council-room, and contains a valuable collection of books,
and of manufcripts, -chiefly relating to the canon law.
Adjoining to the fouth fide of the cloifter is the ancient re-
feftory of the monattery attached to the cathedral, called
the college-hall, a lofty and fpacious room, 120 feet long
by 38 broad, now kept as the king’s fchool. Here are
alfo held the triennial mufical meetings of the three choirs
of Worcefter, Hereford, and Gloucetter, for the benefit of
the widows and orphans of the clergy.of their refpective
counties. This fchool was founded by Henry VIII. for
forty {cholars, who are prepared for the univerfity, and in-
ftruéted in various branches of modern education. A little
to the eaftward of the chapter-houfe ftands the audit-hall,
anciently called the Guetten-hall, built in 1320, for the
entertainment of {trangers reforting to the monaftery and
cathedral. It is: fill the fcene of hofpitality during the
annual audits of the chapter of the cathedral, At the back -
6
of
i
WORCESTER.
of the feventh prebendal houfe, which formerly belonged
_to the kitchener or cook of the monaftery, are the remains
of the great kitchen, a {pacious o¢tagonal apartment,
'34 feet in diameter. : 10
Other places of worfhip belonging to the eftablifhment
in Worcefter are, the churches of St. Peter the Great, St.
Michael, St. Alban, St. Helen, St. Andrew, St. Clement,
_St. John Baptift, All Saints, St. Swithun, St. Martin, St.
Nicholas, and Claines. Of thefe buildings, fome preferve
their ancient appearance. St. Andrew’s church is diftin-
guifhed by a fquare tower, go fect high, {upporting an
oGtagonal {pire, in height 155 feet. 6 inches; the whole
-height being 245 feet 6 inches. The church and tower are
fuppofed to have been ereéted in the eleventh century, but
the {pire was not added till 1751. Among the various
reonattic inftitutions of Worcefter was that remarkable one,
now called the Commandery, eftablifhed for the maintenance
of two chaplains, five poor men, and two poor women,
founded by St. Wulftan, who died in 1097: it became,
after the diflolution, a part of the endowment of Chrift-
church in Oxford. Commanderies were, among the knights-
hofpitallers of Jerufalem, the fame with the preceptories
among the knights-templars; being focieties placed on the
country eftates of the order, under the controul of a com-
mander, but accountable to the grand prior or mafter in
‘London. Part of the ancient buildings {till exift ; but the
whole, now in the pofleffion of a private individual, has of
late years undergone great alteration.
Though containing fo many parifh-churches in propor-
tion to the population, Worcefter is. not deficient in the
number of chapels for various clafles of diflenters. Among
thefe, are reckoned Anabaptifts, Independents, Methodifts,
Prefbyterians, Quakers, and Roman Catholics.
On the fouth fide of the cathedral and cloifter,is an open
{pace, called the, College-green, on the eaft fide of which is
agate, known by. the name of Edgar’s tower, having on
the outer front the flatues of that king and his two queens,
-Elfleda and Elfrida.. Antiquarian curiofity has been much
excited by chara¢ters once exifting on this tower, fuppofed
to indicate a date much older than the received introduétion
of our prefent numerical figures into this part of the world.
But the characters were probably mifunderftgod ; nor is the
tower itfelf believed to be of the age of Edgar, who died
in 3 y bit
: eae from the cathedral, on the rifing bank of the
Severn, is the bifhop’s palace, originally furrounded with
embattled walls in 1270, but brought into its prefent ftate
by bifhop Stillingfleet and fucceeding prelates. .The welt
fide ftill retains much of the antique architecture. :
Public Buildings. —The chief of thefe is the guildkall,
fituated on the weit fide of the High-{treet, near the market-
place. It is a handfome edifice of two fpacious ftories,
finifhed in 1723: the lower part is in one room, 110 feet
6 inches long, by 25 feet 6 inches broad, and 21 feet high,
in which are held the feveral courts of juftice for the city
andthe county. The council-chamber is 109 feet long, by
26 broad, and 15 feet 8 inches high. The bridge over the
Severn, in length between the abutments 270 feet, and in
breadth 25, is an elegant ftone {tructure of 5 femicircular
arches, opened in 1781. The centre arch is in {pan
41 feet, but the other arches gradually diminifh in width.
Conneéted with the bridge a new ftreet has been opened,
leading into the middle of the city, and the new roads from
the weftward, the embankments, and quays along both fides
of the river, are at once ornamental and ufeful.
_ Charitable Inftitutions.—The chief of thefe is the houfe of
induitry, completed in 1794, a handfome building on the eaft
fide of the city, advantageoufly fituated on an eminence, and
calculated to accommodate 150 perfons belonging to the
different parifhes of the city. ‘The infirmary, fituated inan
airy pofition, overlooking the race-ground, the river, and the
north-weft parts of the county, was commenced in 1767 :
it receives about 58 patients on an average annually...A
number of hofpitals and alms-houfes, fome of ancient found-
ation, provide fupport for age, and education for youth. A
free-fchool on the Lancafterian plan was eftablifhed fome
years ago. The old county-gaol is fituated in the caftle-
yard ; but a new one has been lately ereéted in the neigh-
bourhood of the infirmary, on the Howardian plan. he
city-gaol is an ancient building in a crowded fituation,
having been originally a Francifcan convent, founded in the
13th century, but granted to the city at the diflolution.
Public Amufements.—Worcefter has long maintained its
claim to be one of the moft fafhionable cities in the weftern
parts of the kingdom : it is confequently the winter-refidence
of a number of confiderable families from the furrounding
counties of England and Wales. The theatre, affemblies,
concerts, races, the various public walks, clubs, the public
library, &c. render Worcefter a bufy, gay, and much-fre-
quented city.
Municipal Government.—The city was incorporated by
Henry I., but the firft charter was granted in the 45th year
of Henry III. In 1621, the roth year of James I., a mayor
was eltablifhed. The corporation now confifts of a mayor,
fix aldermen, 24 common-council-men, and 48 affiftants,
by which laft two bodies the magiftrates are chofen. - But
the right of eleGting the members for parliament extends
to upwards of 2000 citizens, the fheriff being the return-
ing officer. Worcefter fent two reprefentatives to
parliament in the 23d year of Edward I. ~ Florence of
Worcefter, the author of the Chronicon, a general hiftory
of the world down to 1118, when he died, was a monk of
the cathedral of this city. William of Worcefter was edu-
cated in Oxford in 1434, and drew up his ‘ Polyandria
Oxonienfis,”’ a hiftory of the learned men bred in that uni-
verfity. His Annals, at the end of the “ Black Book” of
the exchequer, contain notes on the affairs of his own times.
The famous empyric and myftic philofopher, Edward Kelly,
was born in Worcetter towards the middle of the 16th
century. The relation of the impoftures of this perfon and
his aflociate Dr. Dee, furnifhed by Lilly, prefent a humili-
ating picture of the human mind and under{tanding in thofe
days, on the continent as well as in England. Worcefter
produced, in 1650, the eminent lawyer lord Somers, who, by
his knowledge and eloquence, defended the caufe of liberty
and juftice in the latter part of the reign of Charles II.,
when but few warm and able advocates were found on their
fide in Weftminfter-hall. See Somers, Lord. ‘
Worcetter has long been rendered very interefting, from
the circumitance of the Royal Porcelain Works being elta-
blithed within its walls. It is, on our part, a moft pleafing
duty, not only to traee its rife and progrefs, but to hold up its
elegant and highly-finifhed produétions to the attention of
the liberal and fcientific. A very material difference exifts
between this eftablifhment, and others of a fimilar kind on the
continent ; as the improvements made by expenfive experi-
ments are here effected at the fole charge of the proprietors,
while the moff famed manufaétories on the continent are fup-
ported and carried on at the coft of the government of the
countries to which they belong. The Worcefter porcelain
works were founded in the year 1751, by Dr. Wall and a
company of proprietors, compofed of many gentlemen of
fortune and.confideration in the city and county ; who con-
tinued to carry on the concern under thofe adverfe circum-
: f A 2 {tances
WORCESTER.
ftances generally attending the introduétion of a new /pecies
of manufa@ure: for at that time little was known of porce-
lain in England, except by the imports from foreign nations.
The Worcefter porcelain company had the merit of dif-
covering the method of transferring impreffions from engraved
c -plates to the furface of the porcelain. The invention,
shee a lapfe of feveral years, was conveyed into Stafford-
fhire, and now forms a grand branch of the extenfive foreign
and home trade carried on in the potteries, giving employ-
ment to many thoufands. | out pee oh of this manufaétory,
befides the printing, produced neat enamelled defigns, but
not very fuperior either in defign or execution. efe ex-
tenfive premifes, fituate on the banks of the Severn, were
fubfequently purchafed by Meflrs. Jofeph Flight and Martin
Barr, and by a liberal policy, and great exertion and expence
in a long feries of experiments, the produétions of thefe works
have rifen rapidly in the public eftimation. His prefent
majefty, the queen, and princeffes, in the year 1788, ho-
noured the manufactory by minutely infpeCting its various
proceffes; and at this time the king gracioufly granted his
patent, when thefe works were ftyled ‘ Royal,’ being the
firft that enjoyed this diftin@tion. His majelty condefcended
to fuggeft the eltablifhment of a warehoufe in London, and
one was immediately opened in Coventry-ftreet. The pro-
prietors have fince had the honour of receiving a patent and
every encouragement from his royal highhefs the prince
regent, the enlightened patron of the arts ; and from the late
princefs Charlotte, as well as from other members of the royal
family, and even from foreign courts ; but our limits forbid
our entering into detail. On the demife of Martin Barr,
efq. in the year 1813, he was fucceeded by his fons; and
the works are now carried on under the firm of Flight, Barr,
and Barr. It is not a little remarkable, that a confiderable
part of the export trade of the Worcetter porcelain works
is to our fettlements in the Eaft Indies, and even to Canton.
We cannot but obferve the fingular change in our commer-
cial relations im this manufa@ure; for the Chinefe, who
feventy years fince furnifhed this country and nearly all
Europe with porcelain, are now excluded from our markets,
sand thrown into the back-ground, and their extenfive manu-
fa&tories nearly ruined. What Wedgwood did in his coarfer
clays, in his beautiful imitations of the Etrufcan vafes, and
in antique defigns on jafper, will long live in the recolleGtion
of his country. The fame fpirit feems to a€tuate the pro-
prietors of the Royal Worcefter Porcelain Works, as they
have {pared no expence in “their finer materials, and highly-
finifhed models and paintings, to excel the manufa€tories on
the continent. In thefe works, the utmoft attention is
piid to the ftudy of hiftorical compofitions, landfcapes,
flowers, &c.; and the fuccefs which has attended the new me-
thod is moft evident, as the produétions now fairly rival the
beft foreign fpecimens. It is with peculiar pleafure we can
at length announce, that we have feen a fabric, recently made
by the prefent proprietors of thefe works, which in its colour,
fraéture, and tranfparency, is equal to the porcelain made at
Sevre or Drefden. This fabric is compofed entirely of Briti/h
materials, and the fa&t muft be the ground of triumph, after
all that has been faid of the impoffibility of finding in this
country proper materials for a true ini The proce/s is
moft curious and elaborate, of which we can but give a
flight defcription, as its details are fo numerous. It may
be viewed by tickets, granted by order of the proprietors
to any refpeétable individuals leaving their names. The
materials, Eeveral of which are procured from the county of
Cornwall, are firft feleted with great care, and fome undergo
a fevere calcination previous to their being compofed in
proper proportions; they are then weighed and mixed,
and burnt in a kiln toa mtenfe degree of heat, and
form what is termed a Cf? This is ground under a
maffive iron roller previous to an admixture of a certain pro-
portion of the pureft argil, or working clay, which is ground
with the frit in a mill, the bottom of which is laid with
ftone, over which large ftones of about fifteen hundred or
a ton weight are driven by upright * drivers,’ fixed in
wooden arms attached to the centre fhafts; thefe, with
water, reduce the fubftance to a thick white liquid, which
is afterwards paffed through an extremely fine lawn fieve,
and is run from cifterns into large brick pans, warmed by
flues underneath ; the heat being fufficient to drive off, by
evaporation, the water that cannot be colleGted on the fur-
face, fo that the refiduum is a moift clay, which is after-
wards tempered in ftone vaults, and rendered fit for the ufe
of the potter. The man who firft brings the rude mafs of
clay into form, on a circular block, moved horizontally by
a boy, who drives a vertieal wheel, is called a * thrower.’
The dexterity and rapidity with which the clay appears to
{pring into the fhape required feems like magic, as it is
performed filently, and almoft unperceived, by the preffure
of the fingers and thumb. This mode of ¢ throwing’ differs
from the Chinefe method, and that praétifed on the con-
tinent, where the thrower moves his block by the a@tion of
his feet: in the one he has the advantage of an undivided
attention, and the clay is literally obedient to his touch ;
while in the foreign method, the thrower is diftra&ted with
two diftin& operations, and at the beft it can be but 2
clumfy exhibition. By this mode all round veffels derive
their firft formation ; any article of an oval, {quare, or other
fhape, muft be made off a mould formed of alabafter, pre-
pared in a powder, and with water brought into a liquid
form, when it is run on the model, and fet's quite hard, pre-
fenting a cafe the precife reverfe of the model, on which
layers of clay, cut to a proper thicknefs, are preffed with a
f{ponge and the hand, and the artift from this is termed ‘a
preffer.? Great care is requifite in drying the different
articles in a ftove after they come from the thrower, to render
them fufficiently firm to hang on a lathe, where they are
reduced to a proper thicknefs, and a more accurate form,
by a turner, who works his wheel on the fame principle as
one for wood or ivory. It is again committed to the ftove,
where it is rendered quite dry and crifp ; and the furface is
afterwards fponged, and then rubbed with paper perfeétly
fmooth. In pieces which have any particular marks or
decorations in the clay, they are preffed from moulds, and
the handles are attached to the veffel fimply by the cla
reduced to a liquid form. When burnt, the union is re
complete, that it appears to have been made altogether, and
is perfe@ly as firm. We cannot trace the operations in this
ftage any farther, but are furprifed to fee how many hands
the moft fimple article paffes through, while the rifk and
labour in thefe and more elaborate fpecimens are very great
in this tender ftate of the clay. From the potter’s-ftove
the ware is carried to what is termed the bifcuit-kiln, and
placed in cafes of fire-clay, called feggars, in which each
piece requires particular fupports to prevent its yielding to
the fire, and lofing its proper fhape. Here the porcelain is
burnt to an intenfe degree of heat, and is rendered quite
white and tranfparent, but has a flight roughnefs on its
furface. From henee it is carried to the warehoufe, exa-
mined, freed from duft and other imperfeGtions, and then
dipped in a liquid termed the glaze, dried in a ftove, and
afterwards every piece is carefully examined and ‘trimmed ;?
which corififts in rendering the furface quite even, and
{craping the glaze from the feet, which, if not removed,
would me/t and adhere to the cafes in which they are burnt.
4 From
WORCESTERSHIRE.
From the glazing-room the articles are carried to the fecond
kiln, and here they undergo another fevere fire, which fluxes
the glaze, and gives to the porcelain a beautiful glofly: fur-
face. In this kiln the loffes are great, as the porcelain can
have no fupport. It is again warehoufed, examined, and
delivered to the painters, who decorate it with gold, reduced
by a chemical procefs, fo that it may be worked in a liquid
form. In paintings of various defigns, the outline is made
with a black-lead pencil, on the glazed furface, correéted
with Indian ink ; and the colours, all of which are prepared
from mineral fubftances, worked in oil and {pirits of turpen-
tine, are laid on with fine camel’s-hair pencils. The colours
in this ftate are difficult for ftrangers to underftand, as their
tints are fo furprifingly changed by the aétion of the fire ;
while their opaque and obf{cure appearance is increafed at
every ftage of drying at a common fire, previous to their
being burnt in the kiln. The finer kinds of paintings in
figures, landfcapes, flowers, &c. require repeated burnings,
in order to give them fufficient depth and richnefs by work-
ing one tint over another, The enamelling kiln, in which
they are fired, is rendered fufficiently hot to fufe the glaze,
without occafioning it to run; while the colours, by the
aid of their fluxes, are melted into the glaze, fo as to render
their union perfe&t, and give them their rich tranfparent
effec.
The durability of thefe colours, which cannot be aéted on
by any atmofphere, renders good painting in this ftyle very
defirable. It has long been a defideratum with the greateft
mafters to procure colours for painting on canvas, on which
time can have no injurious effet ; but in this they have hitherto
unfortunately not fucceeded, and it was the regret of an
eminent artift, that his paintings had not the permanency of
porcelain colours. A method of printing, entirely different
from the original mode invented by the founders of the works,
is now carried on here. (For a defcription, fee PrinTING
on Porcelain, in the Addenda.) The laft operation is the bur-
nifhing of the gold, which is executed with a ftone, black in
its external appearance, and remarkable for its hardnefs and
the high polifh it takes. This work is performed by women,
who render the gold extremely brilliant by rubbing its fur-
face with great care and fkill. The emboffed gold, for
which this manufa&tory is celebrated, is burnifhed with a fine
agate, which is alfo ufed in chafing and in finifhing the
handles of vafes, &c. We have now fketched the procefs,
but we fhould not omit to mention that in every flage the
porcelain is very liable to accident and imperfeétions ; and if
not totally {poiled, it may require a repetition of firings, which
much increafes the rifk and expence. The moft coftly arti-
cles are expofed in the fire from 150 to 200 hours, in their
different flages colleGtively. An important colour ufed in
porcelain manufa¢tories is the rich dark blue, generally called
‘royal? It is prepared from cobalt, and the oxyd of
this ore is fo powerful as to require the heat of the glaze-
kiln to bring cut its beautiful tint. It is not, like other
colours, worked on a glazed furface, but laid on the porce-
lain after the firft burning, when in the rough or *‘ bifcuit’
ftate, then fired, and afterwards dipped in the glaze, and
paffed through the glaze-kiln, frequently requiring two or
three fuch ordeals of heat to perfe&t its colour. We were
formerly fupplied with this mineral from the mines of
Saxony, but have now the pleafure to learn that the proprie-
tors of thefe works made fome fuccefsful experiments for a
company of gentlemen, who difcovered cobalt-ore in Corn-
wall; which by a particular preparation produces as fine a
blue as the Saxon cobalt, and it is now ufed in preference to the
foreign, which can only be imported in the adulterated
form of a zaffer. The refleGtion, that by fcienee and labour
the rude materials of the earth are raifed and converted
into elegant and ufeful forms, and embellifhed with claffi-
cal and tafteful defigns, is highly pleafing ; while it affords
the means of maintenance to fo many induftrious work-
men and ingenious artifts. All the perfons employed in
thefe interefting works are Briti/h, and this manufacture
ftands as one proof of the increafed civilization of England.
—The Hiftory and Antiquities of Worceiter, by Valentine
Green, 2 vols. 4to. 1796. Beauties of England and Wales,
Worcetterfhire ; by I. C. Laird, 8vo. 1813. Graphic and
Hiftorical Defcription of the Cathedrals of Great Britain,
Worcefter, 8vo. 1815. Hiftory, &c. of Worcetter, by
J. Chambers, 8vo. 1818.
Worcester, the fouth-eafterly county of the {tate of
Maryland, with 16,971 inhabitants, including 4427 flaves.
Snowhill is the chief town.—Alfo, a county of Mafla-
chufetts, large and populous, with 50 townfhips, 53 con-
regational churches, and 64,910 inhabitants; 50 miles
fang from N. to S. and 40 broad.—Alfo, a town of the
ftate of Maflachufetts, containing 2577 inhabitants. This
is the chief town of a county of the fame name, and one of
the largeft inland towns in the ftate. It contains two
churches, atown-houfe, anda gaol; 34 miles W. of Boiton.
N. lat. 42° 10!. W. long. 71° 46/.—Alfo, a townfhip of
Vermont, in the county of Chittenden, with 41 inhabitants ;
30 miles N. of New Haven.—Alfo, a townfhip of Pennfyl-
vania, in the county of Montgomery, with 868 inhabitants ;
18 miles N.W. of Philadelphia.—Alfo, a town of Ohio, im
the county of Wafhington, witk 385 inhabitants.
WORCESTERSHIRE, an inland county in the weit-
ern part of England, bounded by Herefordfhire, which
feparates it from Wales, on the S.W., by Shropfhire on the
N.W., by Staffordfhire on the N., by Warwickfhire on
the E., and by Gloucefterfhire on the S. The form of the
county is very irregular, having on every fide detached
parts furrounded by other counties, and comprehending
within its bounds parts belonging to the neighbouring
fhires. The mean length may be eftimated at about 30
miles, and the mean breadth at 25 miles, giving a furface of
750 {quare miles, or 480,000 acres; but according to the
official report laid before parliament, the contents are re-
duced to 431,360 acres: about two-thirds of the county
lie on the I. and one-third on the W. fide of the river
Severn. Worcefterfhire comprehends one city, eheven
market-towns, three of them parliamentary boroughs, and
in all 152 parifhes ; the whole is diftributed into five hun-
dreds. The inhabitants amounted, in 1811, to 160,546, of
whom 78,033 were males, and 82,513 females, and the in-
habited houfes were 30,206.
Hiflorical Events.—Worcelterfhire is fuppofed to}have
formed a part of the territory of the Cornavii, who allo
inhabited the contiguous diftri€ts of Warwickfhire, Stafford-
fhire, Shropfhire, and Chefhire. That numerous tribe ap-
pear from the Notitia Imperii to have furnifhed bodies of
troops to the Roman armies ; but no trace of their name is
now to be difcovered in the traéts they are believed to have
occupied. The county was called by the Saxons Wire-
ceafer-/cire, and in Domefday-book Wireceffre-feire, and the
inhabitants in Bede’s time were named Wicct; a term
which, in the opinion of Camden, may have been derived
from Wich, fignifying, in the old Englifh language, a falt-
pit, in allufion to the mines of that fubftance found in the
county. Of the Roman hiftory of Worcefterfhire but
little is known. Ptolemy feems to take no notice of it;
nor does it appear to be traverfed by any of the roads traced
out in the Itineraries of Antoninus. It is highly probable,
however, that Worcelterfhire muit have been the theatre of
parts
WORCESTERSHIRE.
parts of the exploits of Oftorius, when propretor in Bri-
tain ; becaufe he was certainly poited on the Sabrina, now
the Severn. The other river mentioned by the hiftorians
of his‘operations, the Antona, has been by fome writers con-
jeGtured to be the Avon, which falls into the Severn in the
S. part of the county, while others fuppofe it to fignify
the Nen of Northamptonfhire. ‘The Roman roads, of
which veitiges are difcovered in different parts of Worcef-
terfhire, although not known to be laid down in the Itine-
raries, fufficiently prove the county to have profited by the
arts and the policy of the conquerors, in the opening of
communications; one of the earlieft and moft effectual
means of promoting civilization, as well as of eftablifhing
dominion, among a rude and vanquifhed people. One of
thefe ancient or Roman roads is the Runed-way, or Ridge-
way, on the E. fide of the county, running between Wor-
cefter and Alcefter, in Warwickfhire : another is a paved
way from’ Kenchefter, in Herefordfhire, pointing N.E.
towards Worcefter. The great Ikening-ftreet enters the
county from Staffordfhire, and paffes near Bromfgrove :
another great road, fuppofed by Nafh to be the ancient
Portway, but now called the King’s head-land, pafles over
Hagley common. According to Dr. Stukeley, a Roman
road extended from Worcefter down the bank of the Severn
to Upton, and thence to Tewkefbury on the N. border of
Gloucefterfhire, where it joined Ricning-{treetway. _Wor-
cefterfhire formed a part of the Saxon kingdom of Myrcna-
ric, or Mearc-lond, in Latin changed into Merkia. This,
by much the largeft kingdom of that people in England,
was founded by Crida about the year 586, and enlarged
by Pénda, under whom the Chriftian religion was introduced
among the Merkians.. During the ftruggles between the
native Britons and their invaders, this part of the country
muft have fuffered feverely ; but at laft the Britons, driven
from the plains, retired behind the Severn into the moun-
tainous tra&ts of Wales. The ravages of the Danes in the
gth and roth centuries were not unknown in Worcelter-
fhire ; and to that people tradition afcribes various fepul-
chral and military antiquities difcovered in it.
During the heptarchy, the greater part of Worcefterfhire,
Gloucefterfhire on the E. of the Severn, and a portion of
Warwickthire, were inhabited by the /Viccit, and under the
jurifdiGion of the bifhop of Worcefter : but on the accef-
fion of William of Normandy, the epifcopal government
was fuperfeded, and the civil power entrufted to the theriffs
of Worcefter. The firft of thefe was Urfo of Abitoth, as he
is ftyled in Domefday-book, fon of the lord of that place, in
Normandy, and brother of Robert Le Defpenfer, ancettor
of the prefent families of that name in England. Urfo is
alfo ftyled Vice-comes, having received from the king the
hereditary fhrievalty, with the conftablefhip of the caitle of
Worcefter. He fat in the great councils held in London
in the 15th, and in Weitmintter in the 18th years of Wil-
liam I. During the confpiracy of Roger, earl of Here-
ford, and Ralph, earl of Norfolk, he prevented the former
from pafling over the Severn to form a junétion with the in-
furgents: His daughter and heirefs, Emmeline, married
Walter, the progenitor of Beauchamp, whofe family after-
wards became earls of Warwick. ‘The firft. earl of Wor-
cefter was Walleran de Mellent, a relation of the royal
family. He held alfo the paternal honours in Normandy ;
but fiding with the barons againft Henry I., his eftates
were laid waite, himfelf long held a prifoner, and even
when enlarged not entrufted with the keeping of any of
his own caitles. Taking part with Stephen againft the
emprefs Maud, his city of Worcefter was carried by aflault,
and reduced to aflics. Dying 2 prifoner in Normandy, his
fon inherited the; Norman but. not the Englifh honours.’
All this. happenedin the 12th century ; and the title of
earl of Worcefter feems to have lain dormant until 1397,
when it was conferred on Thomas Percy, fon of Henry, lord
Percy, by his firft wife Mary, daughter of Henry Plan-
tagenet, earl of Lancafter; and brother of Henry I. earl of
Northumberland. This. gallant earl of Worcefter, accom-
panying the Black Prince to France, &c. diftinguifhed him-
felf under the command of John of Gaunt, duke of Lan-,
cafter.. The title in.1420 was beftowed on Richard Beau-
champ, of the houfe of Warwick, defcended from the firit
Norman fheriff or earl. He ferved with great reputation:
in France ; but dying in 1449 without male iffue, the’ title;
was granted to John Tibetot or Tiptoft, baron ef Powis.»
Under Henry VI. he was charged ‘with the guard of the
narrow feas, and appointed lord-deputy of Ireland ; and by
Edward IV. juitice.of North Wales, conftable of the
Tower of London, and treafurer of the exchequer. . Soon
after he became chancellor of the kingdom, {till, however,
retaining his command at fea. It was not in military,and:
ftate affairs alone that this nobleman diftinguifhed himfelfs
Educated at Oxford in all the learning of thofe days, he
afterwards vifited Jerufalem for devotion ; alfo Padua, Ve-
nice, and Rome, to confult the libraries and the learned fo-
cieties of thofe places ; and was the author of feveral works.
On the temporary reftoration of Henry VI. by Neville,
earl of Warwick, the earl of Worcefter was apprehended
and beheaded at London in 1471. His fon was afterwards
replaced in the family honours and eftates by Edward IV. ;
but dying without iffue in 1485, the title was, by
Henry VILI., conferred on Charles, natural fon of Henry,
duke of Somerfet. His grandfon, Henry, was created mar-
quis of Worcefter by Charles I. ; and his grandfon, Henry,
was, in 1682, by Charles II. created duke of Beaufort, the
title of marquis of Worcefter being by courtefy attached to
the eldeft fon of that family_to the prefent time. 9"
State of Property. —Prior to the Norman Conqueft, great
part of the lands of Worcefterfhire belonged to the church ;
but on that event much was beftowed on the favourites and
followers of the Conqueror. Very little is now pofleffed by
the defcendants of the ancient proprietors; for in the
various revolutions of the kingdom, the adherents of the
lofing fovereign were in general deprived of their property.
William Beauchamp, baron of. Elmfley, .poffeffed great
eftates by defcent from the firft earl of Worcefter ; but loft
them. by adhering to the emprefs Maud againft Stephen.
They were reftored however by Henry II.. In the con-
tefts between king John and the barons, the grandfon of
William Beauchamp was a material fufferer ; for having
taken the fide of the nobles, the church of Worcefter, on
the re-eftablifhment of John’s power, laid hold of; the op-
portunity to enlarge their precinéts, abridging the’accom-
modations of the caftle, fo that it was no longer fit for the
habitation of the fheriff.and his retinue ; and Font that time
it began to fall into decay. The whole county was then
the property of, or poflefled by ecclefiaitics, and by a few
barons ; nor was it untila much later period that a more
general divifion of lands, from various caufes, took place.
In the reign of Richard II., the Beauchamps, earls of
Warwick, were again deprived of their lands: under
Henry VII. tran Sto pofleffors of land, who had borne
arms in Bofworth-field, were ftripped of their property.
But the greateft forfeiture of lands in Worcefterihire took
place in confequence of the attainder and execution of
Edward, earl of Warwick, who had taken the part of
Perkin Warbeck againft Henry VII. Confiderable changes
were alfo occafioned by the transfer under Henry VIII. of
the
ee
WORCESTERSHIRE.
the lands of the diffolved religious eftablifhments, to his
favourites and the nobles who co-operated in his {chemes.
Inthe unhappy reign and life of Charles I., Worcefterfhire:
was often the theatre of warfare ; many eftates were dila-
pidated or ruined, and but few really acquired; for the
prices fet on the church-lands by the parliamentary fur-
veyors were fo enormous, that though fold at nominally a
‘few years value, the purchafers generally loft by the acqui-
fition. In later times, the changes of property in this
county have been numerous and frequent ; but the caufes of
thofe changes depending’ on private motives and not on
public interefts, as in former days, they do not come within
the {cope of this article. Itis, however, worthy of remark,
that out of the great number of families who recorded their
armorial bearings, on the firft vifitation of the county by
the Clarencieux, king at arms, in 1533, only fix or feven
now remain, and of thefe only two refide on the ancient family
eftates. Of thofe named in the laft vifitation (1683) but few
defcendants now exift. By thefe changes, however, it has
happened in Worcetterfhire, as in other diftrifts where manu-
faétures and commercial enterprize prévail, that the landed
property is now diltributed amongft a much greater number
of proprietors, and that the country is incomparably better
peopled and cultivated than in former times.
General A/pe&, Soil, and Climate.—W ben viewed from any
of the numerous. furrounding eminences, - Worcetterfhire
affumes the afpest of a plain, the gentle flopes and riflings
‘on. the eaft and welt of the capital being then fearcely
defcernible.. From thofe eminences alfo the cultivation of
the plains is viewed to great advantage, as there are no tra¢ts
of confiderable extent fo barren or fo neglected as not to
prefent an agreeable as well as profitable verdure. Ona
nearer view, from a hill in the centre of the county, to the
eaftward of the capital, a moft beautiful landfcape prefents
itfelf; the whole back-ground, diftant from eight to twelve
miles, appears to be the continuation of one range of hills,
enclofing rich and beautiful plains, in which the flourifhing
-hop-grounds and plentiful orchards conikitute very inte-
wefting and gratifying objects. ;
The foil of the county is various; but it chiefly confifts
of rich loamy fand, mixed with a {mall proportion of gravel,
in the central parts on the north of Worcefter. ‘Towards
the eaft the foil is a very light fand, containing a few {pots
of clay, and fome peat-earth ; but the eaftern diftri& of the
‘county is, in general, a {trong clay, the wafte lands being
principally a deep black peat-earth. Between Worceiter
and the vale of Evefham,. in the fouth-eaft part of the
county, the foil is partly red marle, and partly {trong clay,
whilft the fubfoil in fome-places is compofed of lime-ftone.
In the celebrated vale of Evefham, watered by the river
‘Avon, the foil is particularly deep, of a darkifh earth, reft-
ing on-clay; and in parts on gravel. Farther fouth lime-
ftone prevails, in the upper lands, on the fkirts of the Cotf-
wold chills, and a rich loam in the lower lands. In ‘the
fouth-welt divifion of the county, between the Severn and
the. Malvern hills, the foil is in general clay, mixed with
fand or gravel; but farther. to the northward the gravel in-
“ereafes, until it terminates in.the light fands of the northern
border of the county. Im all ‘of thefe, diftriéts, however,
fome rocky and ftony foil-is found ; but according to Mr.
Pomeroy; in his Agricultural Survey, no traces of chalk or
flint any. where occur ; nor have any been found, it is faid,
in the *lime-quarries. The vale of Severn, is deferibed by
Mr./Pitt, in his fubfequent furvey of the county, to contain
-probably ten thoufand acres of a deep rich fediment, depo-
fited.in the courfe of ages by the river and its tributary
ftreams. . In fome parts, this fediment confifts of a pure
water-clay, fit for brick-making, but generally of a rich
mud, fertile and favourable to vegetation. 'The county has
been lately diftributed in the following manner:
Common fields of arable land eftimated at marcy
Inclofed ditto - - - - - 340,000
Permanent grafs-land_ - = & = 100,000
Kitchen-gardens, &c. - - - 5,000
Woods, wattes, rivers,’ roads, &c. - 35,000
Whole county about —- - 500,000
Refpecting the corn-produce of the county, it is thus etti-
mated in Pitt’s furvey : In 360,000 acres of arable land,
43,500 are fuppofed to be laid down in wheat, yielding
from 20 to 32 bufhels ger acre, or 1,200,000, bufhels on an
average. From this quantity deduéting 108,750 buthels,
at 23 per acre, the remaining neat produce is 1,091,250
bufhels.
The climate of Worcefterfhire, particularly in the middle,
fouthern, and weftern parts, is ftated to be remarkably mild,
foft, and healthy. ‘The vale of the Severn rifes but little
above the fea, and the valleys of the Avon and Teme are
nearly onthe fame level; and the adjoining uplands, feldom
rifing at the moft 150 feet higher, poffefs a warmth and foft-
nefs which ripen the grain and bring to perfeétion the
fruits of the earth, from a fortnight to a month earlier than
in more elevated counties, even enjoying a fimilar foil and
furface. The principal bleak and inclement parts are the
Bredon and Broadway hills on the fouth border of the
county, and the Lickey range on the north: for the Mal-
vern hills on the weft, although only fheep-pafture, poffefs
a moft falubrious climate. :
Hills.—The higheft hills are certain points of the Lickey
range, which, Apne to the north-eaft of Bromfgroye, runs
north towards Hagley, and diverges to the eaftward. Some
of thofe points are eftimated to be elevated 800 or goo feet
above the general level of the country. .On this range is a
{mall fpring producing two ftreams, one of which flows
northward to the Rea, which falls into the Trent, and with
it is difcharged into the German ocean on the eaft fide of
the ifland; the other, falling into the Stour, is carried by
the Severn into the Briftol Channel on the weft. Bredon-
hill, in the fouth-eaft corner of the county, is of about
equal elevation. The higheft point of the Malvern range
of hills, called the Herefordfhire beacon, rifes, according
to the great ordnance furvey of England, 1444 feet above
the level of the fea: the Worcelterfhire beacon, barometri-
cally meafured, rifes 1298 feet; and North-hill 1211 feet
above the Severn. :
Rivers.—Thefe are, the Severn, the Avon, the Teme,
and the Stour ; the {maller ftreams are, the Salwarp, Arrowe,
Ledden, Rea, &c. The Severn, called by the Romans
Sabrina, is f{uppofed to be fo named from the Britifh terms
Jabr, fand, or fabrin, fandy, becaufe it is often turbid,
efpecially when heavy rains fall on the Welth mountains. See
SEVERN.
The river Avon is faid to have been originally fo named
by the Britons, on account of the gentlenefs of its courfe.
It is commonly diftinguifhed from a number of other rivers
in Britain of the fame name, as the Warwickfhire-A von,
and will be ever memorable while the name of Shakfpeare
remains. Entering Warwickfhire towards the fowth-eaft
corner, the Avon, by a winding. courfe, waters the vale of
Evefham, paffes.by Perfhore, and unites with the. Severn in
the neighbourhood of Tewkefbury. It is navigable for
barges
WORCESTERSHIRE.
b through the whole extent of the county, by means
of locks in different places. See Avon.
The Teme, rifing in Radnorfhire, enters Worcetterfhire
a little above Tenbury, and thence patra a winding but
rapid courfe, through a fucceffion of beautiful and romantic
{cenery, along the woods and dales of Stanford, the feat of
fir Edward Winnington, bart., it is loft in the Severn below
Worcefter. From the declivity of its bed, and confequent
rapidity, it is a po for barges only up to Powick bridge,
a mile and a half from the Severn. But although on this
account the Teme be of little commercial ufe, it is peculiarly
ornamental to the county, no part of which furpaffes the banks
of this {tream in variety of ground, wood, and open lawn.
A ramble along its various windings, extending upwards of
twenty miles, through a fucceffion of orchards, hop-grounds,
corn and pafture land, is, in autumn, peculiarly agreeable.
The Stour, an inconfiderable ftream, has rifen into notice
fince the opening along its courfe of the important canal by
Kidderminfter, uniting the Severn and the Merfey. The
Salwarp purfues its fhort courfe to the Severn by Brom{-
rove and Droitwich, where it formerly received the over-
diexive of the falt-fprings, but thefe are now turned into
the new canal from that town to the Severn. The other little
ftreams of Worcefterfhire merit no particular notice.
Canals.—Conneéted with the natural rivers are the arti-
ficial canals opened throughout the county. Thefe are, the
Trent-and-Severn, or the Staffordfhire and Worcetterfhire
canal, more commonly called the Stourport canal, from
the place where it falls into the Severn, eleven miles north
from Worcefter ; the Droitwich canal, for the conveyance
of the produce of the falt-fprings to the Severn ; the Wor-
cefter and Birmingham canal; the Dudley extenfion canal ;
and the Leomintter canal, near Tenbury. See CANALS.
Woods and Forefts.—About the time of the Norman
Conqueft, Worceiterfhire was confidered to poflefs five
forefts; namely, thofe of Feckenham, Omberfley, Hore-
well, Malvern, and Wyre; but of the lait only a {mall por-
tion lies within the county. Feckenham foreft, once very
extenfive, has now almoft difappeared, owing to the con-
tinual demand for fuel to the falt-works at Droitwich, until
of late years a fufficient fupply of pit-coal has been ob-
tained. Omberfley foreft, on the north of Worcefter, and
Horewell foreft on the fouth, have long been difafforelted.
Malvern foreft or chafe extended between the Severn and
the fummit of the hills of the fame name, where may {till be
traced the trench which divided the foreft and the count
from Herefordshire on the weft. Wyre foreft, on the north
border of the county, now more properly belongs to Shrop-
fhire and Staffordshire. Befides the veltiges of thefe forefts,
the county contains feveral traéts of woodland, of oak, elm,
and beech: but from the demand for young trees to make
hop-poles, and for trees to be converted into charcoal for
the iron-works in the neighbouring counties, much timber of
{uperior fize cannot now well be expected in Worcetterfhire.
Mineralogy.—The minerals of this county are neither nu-
merous nor peculiarly valuable. Clay and lime-ftone are
abundant; but coal, to render the beter ufeful in agri-
culture as well as building, is not eafily procured where
the ftone is found. Some coal is indeed raifed in the north-
weft diftri&, about Mamble, where is a rail-way leading
to the Leominfter canal. Coal is alfo found at Penfax,
and the Whitley-hills, in the fame quarter, and is much
ufed for coke for the hop-kilns and lime-pits ; but the vein
is too thin to promife much advantage to the county at
large, which is principally fupplied from the Staffordthire
mines, by means of the Severn. In the vale of Evefham,
and many other parts of the county, fuel is particularly
fcaree and dear. The lime-ftone quarries about Dudley are
very extenfive, and extremely curious excavations: but al-
though the town ftands in a detached part of the county,
inclofed by Staffordthire, thofe quarries aétually belong to
the latter county. Building-ftone of different forts ‘is alfo
found in feveral parts. But the principal mineral riches of
Worcetterfhire arife from the falt-mines of Droitwich, a
parliamentary borough, fituated fix miles north-eaft from
ipa on the road ha Birmingham. Thefe falt-works
are of great antiquity, having been granted by Ken
king of Mercia, to the ienil of Woreetter, ng 816 —
it appears from Domefday-book, that fhares in them were
annexed to many eftates at even a confiderable diftance, on
account probably of the wood they yielded’ for the manu-
fa&ture of the falt. The principal brine-pits, however,
belonged to the crown, but were granted by king John to
the burgeffes of Droitwich. The general fubftratum of
the environs of the town is fuppofed to be a falt-rock,
lying ufually from 150 to 200 feet below the furface. On
boring in any part, the falt-fprings are met with about 110
feet below the furface: the boring-machine then pafles
through about 130 feet of gypfum to the brine-river, in
depth about 22 inches, beyond which is a bed of falt-rock
hitherto unexplored. In fearching for this brine-river fome
years ago, the miners paffed through four feet of mould,
32 of marle, 40 of gypfum, a brine-river of 22 inches, and
75 feet of another itratum of gypfum, below which they
came to the falt-rock. (See Drorrwicu and Saxt.) For
an account of the mineral waters of Malvern, fee that
article ; and more particularly the paper of Mr. Horner, in
the firft volume of the Geological Society of London.
Befides thefe, Worcefterfhire has fome chalybeate fprings at
Sandbourne and the Round-hill, in the parifh of Kidder-
minfter.
Manufadures and Commerce.—The commerce of Worcef-
terfhire is confiderable, from its own produ@tions, and from
the depofit and tranfit of thofe of the neighbouring mining
and manufacturing diftri&s. Of its own produéts may be
noticed the hops, fruit, cyder, and perry, which render the
capital the principal mart for thofe articles in the weftern
part of the kingdom. ‘The county alfo exports a confider-
able furplus of its own manufactures, confifting of Kidder-
minfter ftuffs and carpets ; of Worcefter gloves, china and
glafs-ware, and of nails, bar and fheet iron. Great quan-
tities of falt are annually fent from Droitwich ; Evefham fur-
nifhes oil and oil-cake; timber, grafs-feeds, corn, flour,
malt, falmon, cattle and fheep, and other agricultural pro-
duétions are furnifhed by the county in general.
_ Civil and Ecclefaflical Divifions.—W orcetterthire is divided
into five hundreds; viz. Ofwaldeflow, Halfshire, Dodding-
ton, Perfhore, and Blackenhurft: the firit containing the
capital and the centre of the county, with feveral detached
portions in other quarters ; the fecond occupying the north-
welt parts ; the third, the north-eait ; the fourth, the fouth ;
and the fifth, the fouth-eaft quarter, around Evefham, In
ecclefiattical matters, the county is under the government of
the bifhop of Worcefter, and contains 152 parifhes. The
diocefe was formerly of great extent ; but in 1541 the fee of
Gloucefter, and in 1542 that of Brittol, being ereéted, a
confiderable part of the epifcopal jurifdi€tion of Worcetter
was withdrawn. At prefent the bifhopric comprehends all
the county, with the exception of 15 parifhes and 8 chapel-
ries belonging to Hereford ; about one-third part of War-
wick hire, together with the parifhes of Brome and Clent
in Staffordfhire, and Hales-Owen in Shropfhire. The dio-
cefe thus contains 116 rectories, 79 vicarages, 26 curacies,
and 41 chapelries, all diftributed into 9 deaneries.
Parliamentary
WOR
Parliamentary Hiflory—Worcefterfhire has been repre-
fented in parliament ever fince the third year of Edward III.,
and at and ever fince the revolution has maintained a re{pe&-
able charaéter for independence in the choice of its repre-
fentatives. In the early part of the laft century, fir John
Pakynton accufed the bifhop of interfering in the ele¢tion,
of forbidding the clergy to vote for fir John, of threatening
the tenantry of the fee not to renéw their leafes if they
voted for him, and even of defiring the baronet to withdraw
his pretenfions. The charges were eftablifhed ; and atter a
long conteft between the two houfes of parliament, on an
addrefs to queen Anne, the bifhop was difmiffed from his
office of almoner. Worcefterfhire, which is included in
the Oxford circuit, fends nine members to parliament ; viz.
two for the county, two for the city of Worcefter, two for
each of the boroughs of Droitwich and Evefham, and one
for the borough of Bewdley.
Manfions and Country-feats.—Of thefe, W orcefterfhire con-
tains a very confiderable number, fome:of which are highly
deferving of notice. Hagley-park, the * Britifh Tempe’? of
Thomfon, the favourite feat of the ingenious and amiable
lord Lyttelton, the hiftorian of Henry II., is fituated to-
ward the northern frontier of the county. The grounds
have long been celebrated for variety and beauty of eae.
Croome-court, the handfome feat of the earl of Coventry,
eight miles to the fouth of Worcefter, is more indebted to
modern art and {kill for its beauties than to the natural
features of the ground. The agricultural improvements,
chiefly carried on by the late earl, are both extenfive and
important. Six miles-north from Worcefter is Omberfley,
the refidence of the marchionefs of Downfhire, in the midft
of {pacious grounds. The houfe has been lately modernized.
Grafton-hall, about a mile weft from Bromfgrove, the pro-
perty of the earl of Shrewfbury, was in ancient times a
capital manfion ; but being burned down in 1710, the porch
and a part of the hall alone remain as fpecimens of its ori-
ginal magnificence. The latter has been converted into a
chapel for a modern building annexed. Madresfield, fix
miles fouth-weft from Worcefter, the refidence of vifcount
Beauchamp, is an ancient baronial caftle, greatly altered in
the modern ftyle. Whitley-court, the feat of lord Foley,
eight miles north-weft from Worcetter, is a highly improved
and fpacious manfion, in the midft of an extenfive park.
The parifh-church, clofely adjoining to the houfe, is one of
the moft elegant in the kingdom. Annexed to the fee of
Worcefter is the ancient caftle of Hartlebury, the refidence
of the bifhops from the time of Henry III., fituated be-
tween nine and ten miles north from Worcefter. The prin-
pte part of the buildings, as they now ftand, is the work
of bifhop Hough. Much of the improvements, however,
are due to the late bifhop Hurd, who furnifhed the palace
with a valuable library, for the ufe of his fucceffors in the
fee, in which are the principal books from the libraries of
Mr. Pope and bifhop Warburton.—Colleétions for the Hif-
tory of Worcefterfhire, by the Rev. Tredway Nafh, D.D.
2 vols. fol. Lond. 1781-2. Supplement to ditto, ditto,
1799. -General View of the Agriculture of the County of
Worcetter, by William Thomas Pomcroy, 4to. Lond. 1794.
General View of the Agriculture of the County of Wor-
cefter, by W. Pitt, 8vo. Lond. 1813. Beauties of Eng-
land and Wales, Worcetterfhire, by F. C. Laird, 8vo. Lond.
1816.
WORCUM, or WoupricHem, or Wodercum, a town
of Holland, fituated on the fouth fide of the Wahal, firft
furrounded with walls in 1460, and defended with four
baftions ; 13 miles E.N.E. of Dort,
Worcvum, a fea-port town of Friefeland, fituated in a
VoL. XXXVIII.
WOR
fertile country, but fubje& to inundations of the fea, efpe-
cially when the wind blows from the eaft. The harbour is
blocked up with fand, but it carries on a confiderable trade
by means of its canals; 18 miles S.W. of Lewarden. N.
lat. 53°. E. long. 5° 35/.
WORD, in Language, is an articulate found,
to reprefent fome idea.
Worn, in Writing, is an aflemblage of feveral letters,
forming one or more fyllables, and fignifying fome thing.
The Port-royalifts define words to be diftin& articulate
founds, agreed on by mankind for conveying their thoughts
and fentiments.
The proper charaéter of a word, according to the in-
genious Mr. Harris, is that of its being a found fignificant,
of which no part is of itfelf fignificant ; and hence he infers,
that words are the fmalleft parts of {peech.
The firft and moft obvious diftin¢tion of words is into
fuch as are fignificant abfolutely or by themfelves, and fuch
as are fignificant by relation: the former may be called prin-
cipals, and the latter acceffories. Moreover, all words
whatever, fignificant as principals, are either Subftantives
or attributives ; and thofe, which are fignificant as accef-
fories, acquire a fignification either from being aflociated to
one word, in which cafe they only define and determine, and
may juitly be called definitives, or to many words at once, in
which cafe they ferve ‘to no other purpofe than to conneé,
whence they are called conneGives. Accordingly, Mr.
Harris refers all words to thefe four {fpecies. Hermes,
p- 20, &c. See Sprecu.
Grammarians divide words into eight claffes, called parts
of Speech 3 which are, the noun, pronoun, verb, participle, ad-
verb, conjuntlion, prepofition, and interje@ion ; to one or other
of which, all the words and terms in all languages, which
have been, or may be invented to exprefs our ideas, are re-
ducible. See each.
Words, again, are divided into primitives and. derivatives,
negative and pofitive, fimple and complex, common and proper,
abfirad and concrete, Synonymous and equivocal.
_ With regard to their fyllables, words are farther divided
into monofyllables and poly/yllables.
The grammatical figures of words, which occafion
changes in the form, &c. thereof, are, Syncope, apocope,
apoftrophe, diarefis, apharefis, profthefis, epenthefis, paragoge,
metathefis, &c. See SyNcoPE, Apocorr, &c. See alfo
Ficure.
The ufe of words, we have obferved, is to ferve as fen-
fible figns of our ideas; and the ideas they ftand for in
the mind of the perfon that fpeaks, are their proper figni-
fications.
Simple and primitive words have no natural conneétion
with the words they fignify ; whence there is no rationale to
be given of them: it is by a mere arbitrary inftitution and
agreement of men, that they come to fignify any thing.
Certain words have no natural propriety or aptitude to ex-
prefs certain thoughts, more than others: were that the
cafe, there could have been but one language.
But in derivative and compound words the cafe is fome-
what different. In the forming of thefe, we fee a regard
is to be had to agreement, relation, and analogy : thus moft
words that have the fame ending, have one common and
general way of denoting. or fignifying things; and thofe
compounded with the fame prepofitions, have a fimilar
manner of exprefling and fignifying fimilar ideas in all the
learned languages where they occur.
For the perfeGtion of language, it is not enough, Mr,
Locke obferves, that founds can be made figns of ideas;
unlefs thefe can be made ufe of, fo as to comprehend feveral
45 partieular
defigned
worR
articular things; for the multiplication 6f words would
ave perplexed their ufe, had every particular thing needed
a diftin& name to be fignified by.
To remedy this inconvenience, language had a farther
improvement in the ufe of general terms, by which one
word was made to mark a multitude of particular exiftences ;
which advantageous ufe of founds was obtained only by the
difference of the ideas they were made figns of : thofe names
becoming general, which are made to ftand for general
ideas ; and thofe remaining particular, where the ideas they
are ufed for are particular.
Some of our philofophers have complained much of the
great ufe, or rather abufe, of vague and a terms,
which have no precife definite fignification. To diftinguifh
thefe, F. Malebranche obferves, that every thing that is, and
confequently every thing that is intelligible, is either a
being, or a mode and manner of being. Hence it is evi-
dent, that every term which does not fignify either of
thefe, fignifies nothing, and is an obfcure and confufed
term. In metaphyfics, the ufe of fuch terms, he fays, is
fometimes neceflary and allowable, as in {peaking of the
divine perfeétions, &c. But in phyfics it is always mif-
chievous, however common.
It is obfervable, that the words which ftand for aétions,
and notions quite removed from fenfe, are borrowed from
fenfible ideas; as, to imagine, apprehend, comprehend,
underftand, adhere, conceive, inftil, difguft, difturbance,
tranquillity, &c. which are all taken from the operations of
things fenfible, and applied to modes of thinking. Spirit,
in its primary fignification, is no more than breath ; angel,
a meflenger. By which we may guefs what kind of notions
thofe were, and whence derived, which filled the minds of
the firft beginners of languages ; and how nature, even in
the naming of things, unawares, {ug e{ted to men the ori-
ginals of all their knowledge: whilit, to give names that
might make known to others any operations they felt in
themfelves, or any other ideas that came not under their
fenfes, they were a: to borrow words from the ordinary
and known ideas of fenfation.
The ends of language, in our difcourfe with others, are
chiefly three: firft, to make our thoughts or ideas known
one to another. ‘This we fail in, 1. When we ufe names
without clear and diftin& ideas in our minds. 2. When we
apply received names to ideas, to which the common ufe of
that language doth not apply them. 3. When we apply
them unfteadily, making them ftand now for one, and anon
for another idea.
Secondly, to make known our thoughts with as much
eafe and quicknefs as is poffible. This men fail in, when they
have complex ideas, without having diftin& names for them ;
which may happen either through the defect of a language,
which has none; or the fault x the man, who has not yet
rned them.
Viely, to convey the knowledge of things. This can-
not be done, but when our ideas agree to the-reality of
things. He that has names without ideas wants meaning in
his words, and {peaks only empty founds. He that has
complex ideas without names for them, wants difpatch in
his expreffion. He that ufes his words loofely and un-
fteadily, will either not be minded, or not underftood.. He
that applies names to his ideas, different from the common
ufe, wants propriety in his language, and fpeaks gibberifh ;
and he that has ideas of fubitances, difagreeing with the
real exiftence of things, fo far wants the materials of true
knowledge.
Worns, Divifion of. See Division.
Worps, General. See Generac.
WOR
- Worps of Command. See Exencise.
Worp, Watch-Word, in an Army or Garrifon, is fome
acme word or fentence, by which the foldiers are to
ow and diftinguifh one another in the night, &c. and by
which {pies and defigning perfons are difcovered. :
It is ufed alfo to prevent furprizes. The word is given
out in an army every night by the general, to the lieutenant,
or major-general of the day, who gives it to the major of
the brigades, and they to the adjutants ; who give it firit to
the field-officers, and afterwards to a ferjeant of each com-
pany, who carry it to the fubalterns.
In garrifons it is given, after the gate is fhut, to the
town-major, who gives it to the adjutants, and they to the
ferjeants.
Worn, in Heraldry, &c. See Morto.
Worps, Defamatory, Treafonable, &c., in Law. See
DeraMaTion, SCANDAL, and TREASON.
WORDEN, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Holftein, on the right fide of the Elbe; 10 miles NW. of
Gluckftadt.
Worven, Grofen, a town of the duchy of Bremen; 10
miles N.N.W. of Stade. ;
WORDERNBERG, a mountain of the duchy of
Stiria ; 6 miles S.S.E. of Eifenhartz.
WORDINGBERG, a fea-port of Denmark, fituated
on the fouth coaft of the ifland of Zealand, oppofite the
ifland of Falfter. In the year 1066, Waldemar I. built a
{trong caftle here, which is now gone to decay. Walde-
mar III., who was exceedingly fond of this place, refided
here for the moft part ; and in derifion of the Hanfe towns,
built the well-known tower, which, from a golden goofe
erected on the top of it, he called Gans, that is, The Goo/e.
In this tower, he purpofed to confine the prifoners of the
Hanfe towns that fhould fall into his hands in the war he in-
tended to carry on againft them. As the old caftle graduall
fell to decay, prince George, who was brother to Chrif-
tian V., and married to Anne, queen of England, built
here an entire new caftle, which Frederick IV. afterwards
enlarged ; but that edifice has been pulled down. The
ufual paflage to the iflands Falfter and Laaland is from this
place. In 1240, at a famous diet held here, the Old Juf-
tifche Low-buck, or Codex Legum Juricarum, was com-
piled and promulged: this body of laws is ftill in force in
South Jutland. In 1256 another diet was held here ; and in
1658, preliminaries for a peace between Denmark. and
Sweden were treated of in this town; 43 miles S.W. of
Copenhagen. N. lat. 55° 3’. E. long. 11° 58’.
WORE. See Wyre.
WORENZUTTE, a town of Pruffia, in Ermeland ;
8 miles S. of Heilfberg.
WORGAN, Dr. Joun, in Biography, a mufical gra-
duate of Oxford, organift of St. Mary-Axe, Bedford
chapel, and many years a diftinguifhed performer on the
organ at Vauxhall, and Dr. Arne’s fucceffor there in the
compofition of cantatas, fongs, and ballads.
He learned the rudiments of mufic of his elder brother,
who had likewife an organift’s place in the city, and played
the violoncello in the Vauxhall band. Their pate a on the
harpfichord were very numerous, particularly within Temple-
bar; and John, as an organift and opener of new organs,
rivalled Stanley. He was a very ftudious man, and dipt
very early into the old ecclefiaftical compofers of Italy. He
fucceeded Gladwin in playing the organ at Vauxhall. His
firft ftudy in compofition fa$ th eso was directed by
Rofeingrave, who pointed his attention to th
e pure harmon
and modulation of Paleftrina, and organ-fugues of Handel.
His conftant ufe of the organ at Vauxhall, during the
fummer,
WOR
fummer, ranked him with Stanley and Keeble ; and his en-
thuiiafm for Scarlatti’s leffons, with which he was imprefled
by Rofeingrave, rendered him equal to Kelway in their
execution.
With an extempore prelude, alla Pale/lrina, and one of
Handel’s organ-fugues, he ufed to preface his concerto every
night.
at length he got acquainted with Geminiani, {wore by
no other divinity, and on confulting him on the fubjeé& of
compofition, he was told that he would never be acquainted
with all the arcana of the fcience, without reading “ El
Porque della Mufica,” a book written in Spanifh per Andres
Lorente, en Alcala, 1672. But where was this book to
be had? Geminiani told him, and told him truly, that the
tra was very f{carce. He had, indeed, a copy of it him-
felf ; but he would not part with it under twenty guineas.
Worgan, on fire to be in poffeffion of this oracular au-
thor, immediately purchafed the book at the price men-
tioned ; not underftanding a word of Spanifh, he went to
work in learning it as eagerly as Rowe the poet, when lord
Oxford had expreffed a wifh that he underftood that lan-
guage, which Rowe thought would qualify him for a good
place under government. But after hard drudgery, when
he haftened to acquaint the minifter of ftate that he thought
himfelf a tolerable mafter of the Spanifh tongue, “I give
you joy (fays lord Oxford) ; you are now able to read Don
uixote in the original.””
The knowledge of Spanifh and ftudy of Lorente feem to
have had no other effe€ on Worgan’s compofitions, than to
{poil his Vauxhall fongs ; which though fung into popularity
by dint of repetition, had no attraétive grace, or pleafing
caft of melody.
He compofed feveral oratorios, in which the choruffes are
learned, and the accompaniments to his fongs ingenious.
The cantilena was original, it is true, but it was original
awkwardnefs, and attempts at novelty without nature for his
ide.
Orla organ-playing, though more in the ftyle of Handel
than of any other fchool, is indeed learned and matterly, in
a way quite his own. In his youth, he was impreffed with
a reverence for Domenico Scarlatti by old Rofeingrave’s ac-
count of his wonderful performance on the Harhehord, as
well as by his leffons; and afterwards he became a great
colleétor of his pieces, fome of which he had been honoured
with from Madrid by the author himfelf. He was the edi-
tor of twelve at one time, and fix at another, that are ad-
mirable, though few have now perfeverance fufficient to
vanquifh their peculiar difficulties of execution. He is ftill
in poffeffion of many more, which he has always locked up
as Sybil’s leaves.
He had the misfortune to labour under two dreadful cala-
mities ; a bad wife, and the ftone. He got rid of the
former, after great mortifications and expence, by divorce ;
but in too cally wifhing to abridge his fufferings from the
jatter, he loft his life in the torture of an operation, Au-
guit 20, 1790.
WORGAUDM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the country of the Mahrattas; 20 miles W. of Poonah..
WORK, in the Manege. To work a horfe, is to exer-
cife him at pace, trot, or gallop, and ride him at the
manege.
To work a horfe upen volts, or head and haunches in or
between two heels, is to paflage him, or make him go fide-
ways upon parallel lines.
To Work, in Sea Language, is to dire& the movements
of a fhip, by adapting the fails to the force and direGtion of
the wind. A fhip is alfo faid to work when fhe {trains and
WOR
labours heavily in a tempeftuous fea, fo as to loofen her joints
or timbers. See Roiiine.
Work, Carpenter’s, Clock, Crown, Field, Fire, Fret,
Grotefque, Horn, Mofaic, Out, Regimen of the, Rufticy
Scratch, Stream, Vermicular, and Wan. See the feveral
articles,
Work, Difcharge, in Calico-Printing, &c. a peculiar
kind of procefs, in which the cloth is firft dyed of fome
uniform colour, by means of a mixture of iron-liquor and
fome one or more of the common vegetable dyeing fub-
ftances ; and calicoes thus prepared are faid to be dyed
of felf-colours. They are then wafhed and dried, and
when properly prefled or calendered, they are fit for receiv-
ing any pattern, according to the views of the artift. This
operation is generally effeéted by means of the mineral acids,
previoufly fitted for the purpofe by diffolving in them a por-
tion of one or more of the metals, according to the nature
of the dye which is intended to be difcharged, or of the
colour to be produced. In doing this, the difcharging liquor
fhould be fo made as to be capable of diffolving the iron
which is contained in the dye, and which is always ufed in
quantity fufficient for covering, or at leaft difguifing in a
great meafure, the other colour or. colours which had been
employed with it, and at the fame time for a&ting as a mor-
dant in beautifying and fixing thofe colours. Thus a piece
treated with a decoétion of Brafil-wood, and dyed black by
being padded with iron-liquor, if when dried it be printed
with a peculiar folution of tin, the ferruginous portion
of the dye will be diffolved, and the printed part will be in-
{tantly converted from a deep black to a brilliant crimfon,
The term padding denotes the operation of paffing the pieces
from a roller through a trough, containing a folution of
iron, or any other mordant, and is fynonymous with dlotsh-
ing. Inthe fame way, an olive-coloured calico, dyed in a
folution of iron and a decoétion of weld, will be as {peedily
changed to a bright pale yellow ; and the various drabs and
flates of every fhade which have been in their compofition,
will undergo as fudden a change by the fame treatment 5
though the colour of the figures produced upon them will
depend on the materials with which the cloths were original
dyed. Even the deepeft gold colours, or ftrongeft buffs, if
produced by iron only, may, by a peculiar preparation of
tin, be difcharged ; and thofe parts of the cloth which have
been treated with this metallic folution, will be reftored to
their former whitenefs. Calicoes alfo, dyed of a light blue
in the indigo-vat, then paffed through fumach and copperas,
and finifhed in a bath of quercitron bark and alum, may
have figures of a bright green imparted to them. In this
cafe, the green is originally formed by means of the
indigo-vat and the bark, though it is enveloped by the iron
of the copperas, which overcomes the other colours, till the
folution of the tin is applied, which removes the iron from
thofe particular parts, and gives a brilliancy to the remain-
ing colour, which they would not otherwife have poffeffed ;
the tin being a powerful mordant for the bark, by which
the yellow of the green is procured. A good felf-colour
~may likewife be given to calicoes, merely by dyeing them in
fumach and copperas, and then running them through an
alkaline folution of annotto ; and here the figures produced
by the application of a colourlefs folution of tin will be of a
bright orange.
In the inftances above cited from Mr. Parkes’s Effays,
vol. ii., he refers only to that branch of difcharge-work in
which all the purpofesare attained by diflolving the iron that
makes a part of the colour intended to be difcharged ;
whereas the finer and more expenfive work is done by a dif-
ferent procefs. The particular kind of chemical difcharge-
482 work
WOR
work above-defcribed is fubje& to the imperfeétion of
not being
duced will not bear frequent wafhing like thofe which are
done by the bath of madder or Sart In this conneétion
with permanent colours, Mr. Parkes is led to mention a very
valuable green, not long ago invented by a Mr. Iflet of
London, fecured to him by patent, which was produced by
printing ground indigo, mixed with a peculiar kind of folu-
tion of tin, and then faftening the indigo within the fibres of
the calico, by means of that procefs denominated china-blue
ing. (See Dierryc.) After this, the goods are to be
dyed in a copper of bark or weld, which converts the blue
into a green, and the whites are to be cleanfed by croft-
bleaching, &c.
In another kind of difcharge-work, the
ployed is the citric acid, in various degrees o
according to the purpofe to which it is to be applied, or the
ftrength of the ground intended to be difcharged. This is
employed chiefly for the produétion of white figures upon
felf-coloured grounds produced by madder and fundry other
dyes. The acid for this purpofe is mixed with either gum
or patte to a proper confiftency for the black, the plate, or
the cylinder, and from thence it is transferred to the piece ;
and wherever it attacks, the mordant, whether iron or alu-
mine, is difcharged, and a delicate white appears in its ftead.
In ufing citric acid for this purpofe, a portion of one of the
mineral acids is fometimes mixed with it. There is another
fpecies of difcharge, on which the agent employed by the
printers is the nitrous, and fometimes the nitro-muriatic
acid. See DiscHarcine of Colour and Cotour.
WORKALLEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
Oberland ; 4 miles S.W. of Liebftadt.
WORK-HOUSE, a place where indigent, vagrant, and
idle people are fet to work, and maintained with clothing,
diet, &c. See House of CorreGion.
Such are the Bridewells, and feveral other places about
the city of London, or fuburbs ; fuch alfo was the found-
ation of that in Bifhopfgate-ftreet, for employing the poor
children of the city and liberties, who have no fettlement ;
and that for the parifh of St. Margaret’s, Weftmintter,
called the Grey-coat hofpital.
By 43 Eliz. cap. 2. the church-wardens and overfeers,
with the confent of two juftices, are empowered to fet to
work the children of the poor and other deftitute perfons,
and to provide for the relief of the lame, old, blind, and
fuch as are poor, but not able to work; and they may
ere&t, with the leave of the lord of the manor, on any
wafte or common, of which the parifh is parcel, convenient
houfes of dwelling for the poor. (See Poor.) By
3 Car. IV. they may fet up and ufe any trade, merely for
the employment and relief of the poor. By 9 Geo. eap. 7.
they may contra& for the maintenance and employment of
the poor in houfes purchafed or hired ; and poor perfons
refufing to be lodged and maintained in fuch houfes, fhall
be put out of the parifh-books, and not entitled to receive
relief from the church-wardens and overfeers; and two or
more parifhes are allowed to unite in lodging their refpec-
tive poor in one houfe ; and the officers of one parifh are
allowed to contra& with thofe of another for the main-
tenance, &c. of their poor. Moreover, by 8 & g Will.
cap. 30. parifh poor that are relieved are required to wear
on the fhoulder of the right fleeve of the uppermoft gar-
ment, in red or blue’cloth, a large Roman P, together with
the firft letter of the name of the parifh or place to which
they belong. By 24 Geo. II. cap. 43. no fpirituous
liquor thall be fold or ufed in any hn or houfe of
entertainment for parifh poor. The ftatute. 22 Geo. III.
agent that is em-
perfeétly fait; that.is, the goods thus pro- th
concentration, ,
WOR
cap. 83. eflablifhes many new regulations with regard to
maintenance of the poor ; but leaves it optional in any
parifh or place whether they will adopt thefe, or retain the
prefent mode. At Amfterdam they have a famous work.
houfe, or houfe of correétion, called the Ra/phuy/e, (which
fee,) which, by a privilege granted in 1602, has alone the
right of fhaving and cutting the dyer’s woods, as brafil,
fantal, campechy, faffafras, &c. Each perfon, tolerably
ftrong, kept in the houfe, is obliged to furnifh two hun-
dred and fifty pounds of rafped wood per day; and the
weaker, a certain proportionable quantity of chips.
WORKING to Windward, in Sea Language, denotes
the operation by which a fhip endeavours to make a pro-
grefs againftthe wind. See Beatine, Pryine, Tackina,
and TURNING.
Workinec Furnace. See Furnace.
Workine of Glafs. See Grass.
WORKINGTON, in Geography, a confiderable market
and fea-port town in the ward of Allerdale-above-Derwent,
county of Cumberland, England, is fituated on the borders
of the river Derwent, at the diftance of 34 miles S.W. by
W. from Carlifle, and 310 miles N.W. by N. from Lon-
don. The manor was anciently poffefled by the Culwens,
now Curwens, a family of great confequence in the county,
of whom eight out of ten, in fucceflive defcent, were knights
of the fhire. The prefent importance of the town has
originated from the working of the collieries fince the reign
of queen Elizabeth, at which period the entire maritime
ftrength of the county confifted of only twelve veflels,
though the number now belonging to this port alone is
more than 160, and many of them are from one to three
hundred tons burthen. ‘Thefe are principally engaged in
the exportation of coals to Ireland, and fome few to the
Baltic, The» river is navigable to the town for fhips of
four hundred tons ; and on each bank, near the mouth, are
piers. The harbour is one of the fafeft on the coaft 5 and
many improvements have been recently made in the fituation
and conftruétion of the quays. The appearance of the town
is diverfified : feveral of the ancient ftreets are narrow and
bas hie ; thofe of modern ereétion are better formed ; the
public buildings are all of late date. The houfes are prin-
cipally difpofed in two clufters: in that called the Upper
Town a new {quare has been ereGted, in the area of which
is the corn-market; at a little diftance are the butchers’
fhambles. The church, a neat edifice, contains the monu-
ment of fir Patrick Curwen, baronet, who died in 1661.
In the town are meeting-houfes for Prefbyterians and
Methodifts, and a Catholic chapel; alfo a theatre and an
aflembly-room, Two large weekly markets are held on
Wednefdays and Saturdays for meat and other provifions,
Corn is fold only on the Wednefdays, which is the prin-
cipal market-day. Here are alfo two annual fairs for cattle,
but of no great note. The principal manufactures are thofe
of fail-cloth and cordage, and every thing conneéted with
fhipping. Veffels of from four to five hundred tons, copper-
bottomed, are built here, and fold to the merchants of
Liverpool, Cork, &c. In the population return of the
year 1811, the town of Workington is ftated to, contain
1059 houfes, and 5807 inhabitants. The parifh includes the
townfhips of Great Clifton, Little Clifton, Stainburn, and
Winfcales, making an addition of 726 to the population,
and of 161 to the number of houfes,
On an eminence, near the eaft end of the town, over-
looking the river Derwent, is Workington-hall, the feat
of John Chriftian Curwen, efq., who has nearly rebuilt it,
from the defigns of Mr. Carr of York, and greatly extended
and improved the park and pleafure-grounds. The old
manfiony
WOR
manifion, of which there are fearcely any remains, was caf-
tellated, purfuant to a licence granted by Richard II. to
fir Gilbert de Culwen in 1379. Mr. Gough obferves, that
the walls were fo remarkably thick, that in making fome
recent improvements; a paflage was excavated through one
of them lengthways, leaving fufficient thicknefs on each
fide to anfwer every purpofe of ftrength. In this manfion,
Mary, queen of Scots, when fhe landed in England in
1568, was hofpitably entertained by fir Henry Curwen,
till he was required by queen Elizabeth to refign his royal
gueft, who was removed to Cockermouth caftle, and after-
wards to that of Carlifle-—Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. ii. Cumberland, by J. Britton and E. W. Brayley,
1802. Lyfons’s Magna Britannia, vol. iy. 4to. Cumberland,
1816. :
WORKS, Opera, in Fortification, the feveral lines,
trenches, ditches, &c. made round a place, an army, or the
like, to fortify and defend it. See Linz, PARALLEL, and
TRENCH. :
The principal works in a fortrefs, or fortified place, fee
under Fortiriep Place, FortTIFICATION, &c.
Works, Covenant of, in Theology. See Covenant.
WORKSBORN, in Geography, a river of Northumber-
land, which runs into the North Tine.
WORKSOP, a market-town in the hundred of Bafflet-
law, and county of Nottingham, England, is fituated 22
miles N. from Nottingham, the fame diftance N.W. from
Newark, and 146 N. by W. from London. The town is
{fmall, but neat and pleafantly feated in a valley, near the
fource of the river Ryton. According to the population
returns of 1811, the houfes were then 759, and the inha-
bitants 3702. A market, noted for malt, is held on Wed-
nefday, and fairs on the 2oth of March, 20th of May, 21ft of
June, and 3d of O&ober. Workfop, anciently Wirkenfop,
was, before the Norman Conqueft, the property of a Saxon
nobleman. Long afterwards it belonged fucceflively to
the families of Furnival, Nevill, and Talbot, earls of
Shrewfbury. The Talbot eftates defcending to co-heirefles,
a part was conveyed to the Howards, earls of Arundel,
afterwards dukes of Norfolk, by whom the lands of Work-
fop are ftill poffeffed, and who, on this account, enjoy the
privileges of furnifhing a glove for the king’s right-hand at
his coronation, and of fupporting that hand while he holds
the fceptre. Workfop was in former times defended by a
cattle, long ago deftroyed; but its {cite is ftill pointed out
ona ae hill, encompaffed with a trench, at the W. fide
of the town. :
Workfop was formerly noted for its monaftery, founded
by William de Lovetot, in the reign of Henry I., for canons
regular of the order of St. Auguttine. The inftitution was
fubfequently enriched by the gifts of various proprietors of
the town; but at the general diffolution its poffeffions
were feized by Henry VIII. Few veitiges of the monaf-
tery now remain ; but the church ftill partly fubfifts, and
is a noble {pecimen of ancient architeéture. What now re-
mains is but the W. end of the original church, with two
lofty towers. The W. entrance confifts of an arch with
zigzag ornaments, whilft the towers have the windows in
a gradation of different ftyles of architeéture. The interior
of the church, in length about 135 feet, confifts of a nave
and two aifles ; the roof is f{upported by eight pillars, alter-
nately otangular and cylindrical : the ancient pulpit is {till
preferved.. On the N. fide of the church are fragments of
walls; and foundations are difcovered in the adjoining
meadows: but the moft curious veftige of the ancient
buildings is a ruinous chapel, at the S.E. corner of the
church, now ufed as a place of burial, of which the windows,
II
WOR
{till well preferved, furnifh examples of the lancet form.
The gate of the monaftery is nearly entire, and retains a
few of the ftatues with which it was formerly furnifhed.
The church and church-yard contain fome monuments for
eminent perfons. of former times: one is the tomb of John,
brother of Ralph Nevill, the firft earl of Weitmoreland,
and treafurer of England. The trade of Workfop, and
its appendage Radford, has been much promoted by the
Chefterfield canal, which paffes clofe by the N. end of the
town. The fale of liquorice, formerly confiderable, has
been for fome years at an end, none being now raifed in the
neighbourhood. On the S.W. of the town ftands the
noble manfion of the duke of Norfolk, ftyled Work/op-
manor, in the midft of a park, eight miles in circuit, con-
taining a great variety of ground, and much ancient timber
of a fine growth, having once been a part of the great
foreft of Sherwood. The original manfion was ereéted by
the renowned Talbot, the firft earl of Shrewfbury, on a
feale of extent and magnificence fuited to his charaSter and
fortune: but in 1761 the whole was unfortunately burnt
down; by which accident, the lofs fuftained was very
great, not only in the furniture, but in the library, the
paintings, and the antique ftatues, part of the celebrated
Arundelian colleé&tion. Soon after this misfortune, the
duke of Norfolk commenced a new manfion, on a plan
of great magnificence, comprifing a quadrangle inclofing
two courts; but the execution of the fcheme was inter.
rupted by the unexpeGted death of the heir of the family.
One fide, however, which is the front, has been finifhed,
and is 318 feet in length, of great elegance and grandeur,
In the centre is a portico of fix Corinthian columns, on a
ruftic bafement. In the tympanum of the pediment is an
emblematic reprefentation of the high alliances of the houfe
of Norfolk ; and on the points are placed three ftatues.
The body of the building is crowned with an open baluf-
trade. The interior contains many valuable paintings. and
portraits of anceftors and conneétions of the family. The
chapel is adapted to the Roman Catholic fervice, to which
the dukes of Norfolk have always, with the exception of
the late duke, been fteadily attached : it ferves as a place of
worfhip for a number of perfons of the fame perfuafion
refiding in the neighbourhood.
At no great diftance to the S. of Workfop-manor is
Welbeck abbey, the feat of the duke of Portland. ‘This
place belonged to Sweyn the Dane before the Conquett.
A. monaftery is fuppofed to have been founded iin the reign
of Stephen, by Thomas de Cukeney, for Premonttratenfian
canons, who were removed from Newhoufe in Leicefterfhire,
In the reign of Edward III., the manor of Cukeney was
purchafed by the bifhop of Ely, and beftowed on the
monaftery. At the diffolution it was purchafed by a perfon
named Whalley, from whom it came to fir Charles Caven-
difh, youngeft fon of fir William, who married the cele-
brated countefs of Shrewfbury. The fon of fir Charles,
afterwards duke of Newcaftle, was the author of a well-
known treatife on horfemanfhip. His grand-daughter,
marrying John Hollis, duke of Newcaftle,. left: an,/only
daughter and child, who by marriage conveyed the
eftates to the earl of Oxford; and their only ‘child and
daughter by marriage transferred Welbeck to the an-
ceftor of the prefent proprietor. The’ manfion is a large
irregular ftru€ture, ereéted at. different periods, contain-
ing, particularly within, portions of the ancient monaftic
buildings. The greater-part of what is‘now feen was con-
ftructed about 1604. The interior contains many {pacious
and elegant apartments, which are decorated with a num-
ber of portraits of perfons important in Englifh hideny.
e
WOR
The grand riding-houfe and ftables were ere€ted by the
noted duke in 162 ; and 1625: having been long negle&ted
they have been of late years reftored, and are now among
the moft remarkable in the kingdom. Welbeck-park 1s
about eight miles in circuit, and contains noble woods of
venerable oaks, fome of very great age and extraordinary
fize. One in particular, noticed in Evelyn’s Silva, was
in his time thirty-three feet round at the bottom, and is
conceived to be 700 years old: it is now much de-
cayed. But the moft remarkable tree is “the duke’s
walking-ftick,”’ in height about 112 feet ; the folid contents
are eftimated at 440 feet. Near the gate leading to Work-
fop is a group of trees, called the “ feven fifters,’’ there
having been formerly feven ftems f{pringing from one root,
but one has lately been broken off. The late duke formed an
extenfive piece of water in the park, and raifed a bridge of
three fpacious arches over it, but which fell down juft as
it was completed.
About two miles to the eaftward of the parks of Work-
fop and Welbeck is that of Clumber, a feat of the duke
of Newcaftle. The manfion is a magnificent ftone ftruc-
ture of three fronts, one of which is ornamented with a light
Tonic colonnade. The apartments are {pacious, particularly
the ftate dining-room, fixty feet in length, thirty-four in
breadth, and thirty in height, which is fitted up with great
magnificence. In the various rooms are feveral very valuable
paintings. The arrangements for the domeftic accommo-
dation of the family are well worthy of notice. The park,
now eleven miles in compafs, was not long ago a wide
¢raét of foreft-land. It is in a manner wholly the creation
of the late duke of Newcaftle. It now contains about
4000 acres; but half a century ago the ground was little
Detter than a black heath, interfperfed with bogs and
marfhes, through which ran a {mall ftream. The park com-
prehends, however, two woods of ancient oaks, from one
of which the manfion takes its name.
Adjoining to Clumber-park, on the fouth, is that of
Thorefby, the feat of earl Manvers. The old houfe was de-
ftroyed by fire in 1745, after which it was rebuilt by the pro-
prietor, the laft duke of Kingfton, grandfather of the prefent
poffeffor. ‘The manfion, which is rather a comfortable refi-
dence than a magnificent feat, confifts of brick, on a ruftic
ftone bafement, with an Ionic portico of four columns in the
principal front. The great ftair-cafe, fingle at the bottom,
but divided into two at the firft landing, opens into a dome
fupported by columns, on which refts a gallery, which
communicates with the upper chambers. The apartments
contain fome valuable portraits and paintings. The park
is about thirteen miles in circumference, and contains
feveral pieces of water, of which one, near the houfe,
affumes the appearance of an extenfive river.—Thoroton’s
Hiftory of Nottinghamfhire, by Throfby, i vols. 4to.
London, 1790. Beauties of England and Wales, Notting-
hamhhire, by F. C. Laird, 8vo. London, 1812.
WORLD, Munopvs, the affemblage of parts which com-
pofe the univerfe.
The duration of the world is a fubje& which has been
atly difputed. Plato, after Ocellus Lucanus, held it to
Ee ciereal, and to have flowed from God, as rays flow from
the fun. Ariftotle was much of the fame mind: he af-
ferts, that the world was not generated, fo as to begin to
be a world, which before was none; and, in effect, his
whole eighth book of Phyf. and firft book de Ccelo, are
{pent in proving the eternity of the world.
He lays down a pre-exifting and eternal matter, as a
principle ; and thence argues fie world eternal. His ar-
gument amounts to this; that it is impoffible an eternal
WOR
agent, having an eternal paffive fubje@, fhould continue
ge without action.
is opinion was long generally followed ; as feeming to
be the fitteft to end the difpute among fo many feéts about
the firft caufe.
Epicurus, however, though he makes matter eternal, yet
fhews the world to be but a new thing, and fays it was
formed out of a fortuitous concourfe of atoms. See Lu-
cretius, lib. v.
Some of the modern philofophers refute the imaginary
eternity of the world, by this argument : that, if it be ad
aterno, there muft have been a generation of individuals,
in a continual fucceffion from all eternity ; fince no caufe
can be affigned why they fhould not be generated, viz. one
from another. Therefore, to confider the origin of things,
and the feries of eaufes, we muft go back in infinitum, #. e.
there muft have been an infinite number of men, and other
individuals, already generated; which fubverts the very
notion of number. And if the caufe which now ge-
nerates have been produced by an infinite feries of pa
how fhall an infinite feries be finite, to give room for new
generations? See Gop.
Dr. Halley fuggefts a new method of finding the
age of the world, from the degree of faltnefs oF the
ocean ; which fee.
It is another popular topic of controverfy, whether the
world be finite, or infinite? See the arguments on both
fides, under UNIVERSE. at
It is likewife difputed, whether the plurality of worlds
be poffible? See Prurariry.
Some hold the affirmative, from an opinion of the infinite
power of the Deity ; it being a fetting bounds to omnipo-
tence to fay, that he created fo many bodies at firft, and
that he could not create more.
The Cartefians maintain the negative, upon thefe princi-
ples: that it is a contradi€tion to fay, there are feveial
worlds exifting at the fame time, fince this implies feve-
ral univerfes of created beings, the world being the vo
way. That if there were feveral worlds, they muft either
be at a diftance from one another, or contiguous; but
neither can be faid: for were they contiguous, they.
would only conftitute one; and were they diftant, there
mutt be fomething between. But what can be between ?
If it be extended, it is corporeal ; and, inftead of fepa-
rating the feveral worlds, it will conneé them all into
one.
The exiffence of an external world has been much con~
troverted. The arguments on either fide, fee under An-
STRACTION, Bony, and ExIsTENCE. :
The world is fometimes divided into upper and lower :
the lower, or fublunary, is the globe of our earth (which
fee); and the upper includes the heavens, and heavenly
bodies.
Wor tp, Axis of the. See Axis.
Wortp, Map of the. See Map.
Wortp, Soul of the. See Anima Mundi.
Wor pn, Syftem of the. See System.
WORLITZ, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in the
principality of Anhalt ; sition E. of Deffau.
wo M, a river of Norway, which flows from the
lake Miofs into the Glom, or Glomen.
WORMDIT. See Warmstaprt.
WORMHOUT, a town of France, in the department
of the North; 5 miles S. of Bergues.
WORMIA, in Botany, a genus of plants firft eftablifhed
by Rottboll, was named by him in memory of the famous
Danifh phyfician and paturalift, Olaus Wormius, a
°
—
WORMIA.
of ‘Cafpar Bartholin in’ the profefforfhip of medicine at
Copenhagen. He died reftor of that univerfity in 1654.
His Latin writings, on the hiftory and antiquities of Den-
mark and Norway, are valued for their accuracy. His fon
William publifhed, in 1655, the Mufeum Wormianum, a
handfome work in folio, the fecond book of which, ac-
cording to Haller, confifts entirely of botanical fubjeéts.
Olaus Wormius herein defcribes and figures feveral rare plants,
or monftrous varieties, with a detail of their anatomy. His
letters, not publifhed till 1751, are faid to contain many
things relating to Botany. —“ Rottb. Nov. A&. Hafn. for
1783. v.2. 522. t.3.”’ Salifb. Parad. at p. 73. De
Cand. Syft. v.1. 433.—Clafs and order, Polyandria
Pentagynia. Wat. Ord. Magnolia, Jufl. Dilleniacee, De
Candolle.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five roundifh, con-
cave, very obtufe, coriaceous, permanent leaves. Cor.
Petals five, roundifh, concave, larger than the calyx, taper-
ing at the bafe, deciduous. S*am. Filaments very nume-
rous, crowded, fhort, equal ; anthers terminal, linear, longer
than the filaments, fhorter than the petals, recurved, burift-
ing by a double orifice at the fummit. Ps. Germens five,
or more, fuperior, diftinét, ovate, comprefled, crowded ;
ftyles terminal, tapering, recurved, longer than the ger-
mens; ftigmas notched. eric. Capfules as many as the
germens, and of the fame form, each of one cell and one
valve, burfting at the inner edge, crowned with one of the
permanent ftyles. Seeds feveral, from 8 to 12, roundifh,
“each with a pulpy tunic at the bafe.”? Sali/b.
Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, of five coriaceous, permanent
leaves. Petals five. Anthers with two terminal pores.
Capfules five, compreffed, diftin&, many-feeded. Styles
thread-fhaped. Stigmas notched. A genus of trees or
fhrubs, with rather twining ffems, and round fmooth
branches. Leaves alternate, ftalked, fimple, oval, coriace-
ous, with a fingle mid-rib, and many tranfverfe parallel par-
tial ribs. Svipulas large, oblong, pointed, deciduous ; the
young ones convoluted, forming a terminal point, as in the
Magnolia tribe. Flowerflalks about the ends of the
branches, oppofite to the leaves, angular, either racemofe or
panicled; often unilateral. Flowers white or yellow.
Calyx remaining coriaceous and dry, not becoming pulpy,
in which, as well as the feparate fligmas, and elongated
fiyles, this genus differs abundantly from Dillenia. (See that
article. ) - De Candolle notices the two terminal pores
of the anthers in W. alata, which he thought might afford
a charaéter for dividing the genus, if the fame were not
found in all the {pecies. We find this charaGter in W. den-
tata, as well as in our new W. fericea, and therefore venture
to make it a part of the generic diftin&ion.
1. W.. madagafcarienfis. Madagafcar Wormia. De
Cand. n. 1.—‘‘ Leaves oval, bluntly finuated. Clutters
panicled.’’—Gathered by Commerfon in Madagafcar. An
elegant tree, with thick round branches. Stipulas folitary,
large, long, leafy, externally villous, deciduous, each leaving
an annular fear on the branch. Leaves oval or orbicular,
{mooth, with broad, obtufe, fhallow, marginal notches.
Footftalks long, channelled above, and marked with tranf-
verfe wrinkles. Flower-ffalks nearly oppofite to the leaves,
ere&. Partial-ftalks fingle-flowered, without braGeas. Pe-
tals undulated, thrice as Jong as the calyx. Seeds roundifh.
De Candelle.
2. W. deatata. 'Toothed Wormia. De Cand. n. 2.
(Dillenia dentata; Thunb. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1. 201.
t. 20. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1253, excluding Rottboll’s
fynonym. Poiret in Lam. Di&. v. 7. 151.)—Leaves
_ovate, abrupt, coarfely and rather tePy toothed. Foot-
ftalks fimple, triangular, fmooth. Flower-italks triangular,
from three to fix-flowered.—Gathered by Thunberg in
Ceylon. We received a {pecimen, precifely anfwering to
the above plate, in 1786, from profeflor David Van Royen,
marked Dillenia indica ; Reaumuria of Koenig, by whom it
was gathered ; and Ghodaparra of the Cinghalefe. This is
a tree, with round branches. Leaves four inches long, of a
broad, elliptic-ovate figure, very abrupt, coriaceous ; paler
beneath ; entire at the bafe; wavy at the fides; moft
toothed at the end; tranfverfe ribs very ftraight. Convo-
luted /fipula, at the end of the branch, acute, two-edged,
{mooth. oot/alks linear, narrow, near two inches long,
acutely triangular, not bordered, fmooth. Clufter fimple,
on a long, {mooth, angular ftalk, not quite oppofite to the
uppermoft leaf, in our {pecimen confifting of fix flowers,
whofe partial ftalks are about an inch long. Thunberg
reprefents three flowers only, whofe petals are obovate, about
an inch in length.
3. W.. triquetra. Triangular Wormia. ‘ Rottb. Nov.
Ac. Hafn. vy. 2. 532. t. 3.” De Cand. n. 3-—Leaves
ovate, bluntifh, bluntly and flightly finuated. Footftalks
fimple, triangular. Flower-{talks triangular, racemofe.—
Native of Ceylon. Yan Royen. Defcribed by De Can-
dolle from a dried fpecimen. ‘ Branches round, brown,
{mooth, with an elevated ring round the origin of each leaf.
Footftalks ftraight, two inches long. Leaves oval, or
oblong ; rather tapering at the bafe ; obtufe, or fomewhat
pointed, at the end; either entire, or very bluntly and
flightly waved; the ribs pinnate, (as in the reft,) having
about eight or ten lateral ribs at each fide. Flower-/talks
fimple, nearly oppofite to the leaves. Two outer calyx-
leaves rather the largeft. Petals concave. Stamens very
fhort. Germens triangular, crowded. Styles reflexed.”?
Such is De Candolle’s defcription, but he doubts whether
this be a diftin@ fpecies from the laft. We have feen
neither fpecimen nor figure, but the plant having been re-
ceived from profeffor Van Royen, like our fpecimen of the
preceding, rather confirms the doubt than removes it.
4. W. alata. Wing-ftalked Wormia. De Cand. n. 4.
(Dillenia alata; Banks Ic. unpublifhed, communicated
with {pecimens, in flower and fruit, to Linnzus. )—Leaves
oval, entire. Footftalks fmooth, winged.—Gathered by fir
Jofeph Banks, in New Holland, near Endeavour river.
The branches are round, fmooth, except the annular fears
left by the fipulas. Leaves three or four inches long, and
above half as broad, fmooth, obtufe, with diftant tranfverfe
ribs, and copious reticulated veins; their under furface
rufty-coloured, but polifhed. Fovt/la/ks an inch or an inch
and a half long, winged at each fide with an entire leafy
border, contraéted at the apex, and quite fmooth. F/ower-
fialk oppofite to the upper leaf of the branch, folitary,
racemole, triangular, {mooth, fhorter than the leaves, bear-
ing two or three yellow flowers, larger than thofe of W.
dentata. Petals undulated. Anthers long, linear, with two
pores at the end, like W. dentata. Styles fometimes nine or
ten, recurved. Cap/fules coriaceous, gaping, apparently
real follicles, with a number of round feeds, Rtccma into the
margins, deftitute, as far as we can fee, of any pulpy
tunic.
5. W. fericea. Silky-ftalked Wormia.—Leaves oval,
bluntly ferrated. Footftalks depreffed, filky, as well as the
flower-ftalks and calyx.—Native of the Eatt Indies. A
f{pecimen in the herbarium of the younger Linnzus, which
he fuppofed to be Dillenia indica, is marked “ Mallei Man-
gatfokeri, a tree with {now-white flowers.’”? We cannot,
.refer this to any thing in profeflor De Candolle’s work.
It undoubtedly belongs to the genus before us. The
; branches
WOR
branches are round, ftrongly fcarred; when young, finel
downy. Leaves crowded about the extremity of eac
branch, apparently deciduous, being found on young fhoots
only, fhaped like the laft, and nearly as large, but fome-
what ferrated, and, in a young {tate at leaft, finely downy ;
their tranfverfe ribs much more copious, ftraight, and
parallel, than in that. Foot/alks half an inch long, ftout,
broad, and depreffed, blunt-edged, not bordered, denfel
clothed with fine, white, filky, permanent down. Stalks
fimple, fingle-flowered, filky, about the length of the
footftalks, each oppofite to a leaf. Calyx-leaves obovate,
concave, an inch long; f{mooth within; filky at the
back. The petals we have not feen. Filaments fhort.
Anthers long, compreffed, two-edged, each opening by two
terminal Seifices. Germens crowded together. Styles five,
recurved at the extremity. Stigmas {mall, abrupt.
We have at the end of the article Droventa, hazarded
an opinion, that the D. elliptica, integra, and retufa of Thun-
berg, as well as his dentata, above-defcribed, belong to this
enus of Wormia, to which profeflor De Candolle feems,
by a remark under D, integra, in his 6yft. v. 1. 437, dif-
pofed to agree. Probably he thought it bett, uavine ex-
amined no Yoceuekaa, to leave thefe plants where he found
them, but we cannot omit the following, on the authority
of Thunberg’s figure.
6. W. retufa. Abrupt Wormia. (Dillenia retufa ;
Thunb. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1. 200. t.19. De Cand.
Syft. v. 1. 437- Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1253.)—Leaves
obovate, gbrupt, diftantly toothed, fmooth. Footitalks
hairy at the bafe. Stalks fingle-flowered, fmooth.—Native
of woods in Ceylon. Thunberg. A tree, apparently nearly
related to W. dentata, but the flowers are folitary, and
rather fmaller, each on a fimple ftalk, oppofite to the upper-
moft leaf. Styles five, evidently thofe of a Wormia, nota
Dillenia.
WORMING, in Ship-Building, windling a rope clofe
along the cuntlines of larger ropes to ftrengthen them, and
make a fair furface for the fervice. See Plate I. jig. 46.
Rigging.
Wormrne, in Animals, an operation which is fometimes
performed on the young of the dog and fome other kinds.
Young puppies are thus cut, in fome cafes, under an igno-
rant Fs agohtists that it prevents their going mad ; but in
reality to cure them, as it generally does, of the difpofition
to gnaw every thing in their way. It confifts in the re-
moval of a {mall worm-like ligament, fituated beneath the
tongue ; and the part being afterwards fore for fome days,
the animal is thus weaned of his mifchievous habits. See
Difeafes of Doss.
WORMIUS, Otaus, in Biography, a Danifh phyfician,
defcended from a family which fled from Arnheim, in
Guelderland, to Denmark, from the perfecution of the
duke of Alva, was born at Aarhuus, in Jutland, in 1588,
and finifhed his education at the univerfity of Marpurg ;
afterwards availing himfelf of the le€tures which he at-
tended in the principal German academies, and in his tour
through France, Italy, Switzerland, and Holland. He
then returned to Denmark in 1610, and having in the fol-
lowing year taken the degree of doétor in medicine at
Bafle, he paffed through the Netherlands to England, and
in 1613 returned to his native country, where by fucceflive
preferments he became profeffor of medicine in 1624, in
confequence of the refignation of Cafpar Bartholin. ° Al-
though he obtained in 1636 a canonicate in the chapter of
Lund, he continued his profeffional praétice, and was often
confulted by Chriftian IV, and Chriftian V. His know-
kedge of antiquities, medicine, apd anatomy, waa profound ;
WOR
and in 1628 he difcovered bones in the human fkull, called
after his name ‘fex officula Wormiana in futura cranii
lamdoidea.”” His colle&tion of curiofities was, after his
death, lodged in the royal mufeum. He was thrice mar-
ried, and had 18 children. He died in 1654. His writings
were very numerous; and the principal of them are enume-
rated in the General Biography, to which we refer.
WORMS, in the Toe Syflem of Nature. See
VeERMES.
Worms, in Hufbandry, are very prejudicial to corn-fields,
eating up the roots of the young corn, and deftroying great
quantities of the crop.
Sea-falt is the beft of all things for deftroying them.
Sea-water is proper to fprinkle on the land where it can be
had; where the falt-fprings are, their water does as well;
and where neither are at hand, a little common or bay falt
melted in water does as well.
Soot will deftroy them in fome lands, but it is not to be
depended upon, for it does not always fucceed. Some
farmers {trew on their land a mixture of chalk and lime ;
and others truft wholly to their winter-fallowing to do it ;
if this is done in a wet feafon, when they come up to the
furface of the ground, and fome nails with fharp heads be
driven into the bottom of the plough.
If they are troublefome in gardens, the refufe brine of
falted meat will ferve the purpofe, or fome walnut leaves,
fleeped in a ciftern of water for a fortnight or three weeks,
will give it fuch a bitternefs that it will be certain poifon to
them.
A decoétion of wood-afhes, fprinkled on the ground,
will anfwer the fame purpofe; and any particular plant
may be fecured both from worms and fnails by ftrewing a
mixture of lime and afhes about its roots. It is a general
caution among the farmers to fow their corn as fhallow as
they can, where the field is very fubje& to worms. Mor-
timer’s Hufbandry, p. 328.
In the- roots of fome forts of garden crops, fuch as the
carrot, onion, fhallot, cauliflower, broccoli, and fome others,
worms and maggots are not unfrequently very injurious and
hurtful, unlefs they be deftroyed in fufficient time to prevent
fuch effets. In the firft, much advantage is fuppofed to
have been gained by the full ufe of pigeon dung in pre-
venting the worm.
And in this and the other forts of garden crops it is
found, that much benefit in removing fuch evils may be
produced by a proper fucceflion of cropping, as that of
following ftrawberries which have been four or five years
Pa with onions, and artichokes that have ftood the
ame length of time with carrots; as thefe forts of vermin
do not attack either the ftrawberry or the artichoke. In
fome cafes, it is fuppofed that it may be fafe to crop two
or three times with onions or carrots on the fame fpot, but
not oftener, as fome appearances of the worm and maggot
are. generally difplayed in the fecond or third year; but
that from the ground being four or five years under ftraw-
berries or usclahialeens plants on which thofe vermin cannot
fubfift, they foon perifh, and the land where the rows ftood
has all the advantage of a new foil.
Soot when applied as a manure is faid to be a good pre-
ventive of the maggot in onion crops; and that fhallots, as
requiring only a {mall fpot, may be much improved in
growth, and entirely preferved from the maggot, by the
application of old hot-bed dung as manure, in the bottoms
of the drills, well-mixed with foot ; planting the fhallots on
this mixed manure, and covering them in to a proper depth.
The foot in this cafe prevents the appearance of the
maggot, and at the fame time greatly improves the {trength,
of
WORMS.
of the’ fhallot plants: it is a method which has tiever been
found to fail in preventing worms and maggots in fuch
crops. ‘
Cauliflowers, broccoli, and the roots of other fuch plants,
may be preferved from the effe&ts of worms, by watering
the drills of them well with foap-fuds before planting them
out, and afterwards occafionally : this not only, it is faid,
prevents the worm, but encourages the growth of the plants,
and in fome meafure prepares the ground for other vegetables
that are liable to the fame fort of attacks.
The maggot is confidered by fome as peculiar to the
onion and fhallot, and that whenever the former becomes
difeafed, it is moft liable to its attacks; and that as it
could never be deteéted in the foil, it is highly probable
that the ova or eggs of it are depofited in the root, and may
be hatched in the greateft numbers when the plants are in a
fickly ftate. It is not fuppofed, that the maggot ever pafles
from one onion to another; but that any remedy which is
fufficiently powerfyl to deftroy the infe& muft inevitably
deflroy the onion itfelf; that all that can be done is,
therefore, to fele& proper foils and fituations for the onion
crops.
‘A is remarked, however, that the maggot which attacks
the carrot is unqueftionably to be found in the foil, and
that it vifibly enters from without.
It is concluded on the whole, that worms and infects of
thefe kinds in general are driven from their retreats under
ground, by pouring bitter or acrid water upon it, as fuch in
which green walnuts have been fteeped, or of which a ley
has been made by diflolving potafh. See feveral papers in
the firft volume of the ** Memoirs of the Caledonian Hor-
ticultural Society.’
Worms, in Medicine. ‘Three {pecies of worms infelt the
human body; namely, the Ascaris, Lumericus, and the
Tenia or Tare-Worm; which fee refpettively.
Worms were formerly fuppofed to be a common caufe of
a feries of morbid fymptoms, efpecially in children ; but it
is now well underftood, that the difeafe afcribed to their in+
fluence is a marafmus depending upon other morbid con-
ditions of the alimentary canal. The fymptoms of this
difeafe have been already detailed, under the head of Di/-
eafes of INFANTS, to which we refer.
Tin is often recommended as a good remedy againit
worms, particularly of the flat kind. Dr. Alfton, in the
Med. Eff. Edinb. vol. v. art. 7. direéts an ounce and a
half of the powder of pewter-metal to be mixed in half a
Scotch mutchkin, or about half a pint Englifh meafure of
treacle, for children; but to grown perfons, he gives two
ounces of the powder of pure tin, pafled through the fineft
hair-fieve, and mixed with eight ounces of treacle. As to
the adminiftration of this medicine, the original receipt
dire&ts half of it to be taken the Friday before the change
of the moon; the day after, half the remainder, and the reft
on Sunday. On the Monday, a purge is to be taken. The
doéor thinks there is probably nothing in the particularities
of the day ; but fays, the medicine fucceeds well in feveral
{pecies of worms.
The efficacy of fern-root againft worms was known in the
time of Diofcorides; and towards the beginning of this
century, Meffieurs Andry and Marchant publifhed accounts
of fuccefsful modes of exhibiting it in thefe cafes. But it
has been principally celebrated of late as a fpecific in the
cure of the tenia, or tape-worm.
Dr. Prieltley, confidering how fatal nitrous air is to
infe&ts, and likewife its great antifeptic power, conceived
that confiderable ufe might be made of it in medicine, in the
form of clyfters ; and he apprehends, that if nitrous air was
VoL. XXXVITII.
diluted with common air, or fixed air, the bowels might bear
it better, and that it might ftill be deftru@tive to worms of
all kinds, and be of ufe to check or correét putrefaGtion in
the inteftinal canal, or other parts of the fyftem. Prieftley’s
Obf. on Air, vol.i, p. 227.
Worms, in Animals, a troublefome fort of vermin often
found in the inteftines of the horfe, and fome other animals,
caufing difeafe. See Borrs, Eartu-Worms, AscARIDEs,
Tenia, and TererEs.
With refpe& to the caufe of worms in horfes, it is
imagined, that, as in the human fubje@, fome conftitutions
are more inclinable to breed worms than others. Gibfon
fays, the moft ufual caufe of worms is foul or high feeding,
which oceafion crudities and flimy indigefted matter in the
{tomach and bowels, (efpecially in horfes that have been
pampered for fale,) forming a proper nidus for worms.
This indeed may be the cafe, but the primary caufe of
worms is that which occafions thefe crudities, to wit, a
want of energy in the funétions of the {tomach and bowels,
as worms are never found in animals perfeGtly healthy in
thefe refpeGs.
According to Gibfon, the figns of worms in horfes are ,
various, according to their different kinds. .The botts that ~
many horfes are troubled with in the beginning of fummer
are always found {ticking to the re€tum, and are often
thruft out with the dung, along with a yellowifh-coloured
matter, like melted fulphur. ‘They are no way dangerous
there, but they are apt to make a horfe reftlefs and uneafy,
and rub his breech againft the pofts. The feafon of their
coming is ufually in the months of May and June, after
which they are feldom to be feen, and rarely continue in any
one horfe above a fortnight or three weeks. Thofe that
take pofleffion of the membranous portion of the ftomach
are extremely dangerous in caufing convulfions, and are
feldom difcovered by any previous figns before they bring a
horfe into violent agonies. See Bors.
But the teretes or earth-worms give little difturbance to
a horfe, and would hardly be difcovered, unlefs they were
feen now and then to come away with. the dung. Fre-
quently horfes void one or two, and no more; and fome-
times they will void pretty large quantities of the young
brood, not much larger than the afcarides, only of a red
colour, and not white, as the latter generally are. They
are moft ufual in autumn, or the beginning of winter,
though a horfe may now and then void one or two of thefe
at other times of the year.
However, the afcarides, or {mall needle-like worms, are
very troublefome to horfes, breed at all times of the year,
and often when one brood is deftroyed another fucceeds.
Thefe are not at all dangerous, yet when a horfe is peftered
in this fort of way, though he will go through his bufinefs
tolerably well, and fometimes feed heartily, yet he always
looks lean and jaded ; his hair ftares as if he was fickly, and
nothing that he eats makes him thrive. That he feels pain,
too, is plain, for he often ftrikes his hind foot againft his
belly, which fhews where his grievance lies, and is fometimes
griped, but yet without the very violent fymptoms that
attend a colic or ftrangury. He never rolls or tumbles,
but only fhews uneafinefs, and generally lays himfelf down
quietly on his belly for a little while, and then gets up, and
begins to feed; but the fureft fign is, when a horfe voids
thefe worms with his dung.
In regard to the cure, if a horfe be troubled with botts,
Gibfon fays, he may be relieved without much expence or
trouble, only by giving him a f{poonful of favin, cut very
fmall, once or twice every day, in oats or bran moiftened ;
and if three or four cloves of chopped garlic be mised
oy wit
WORMS.
with the favin, it will.do better, for garlic is of great fer-
vice in thefe complaints. Horfes that are troubled with
botts ought to be purged with calomel and aloetic purges
before the weather grows too hot ; and if they be kept to a
cleag diet after this, it will be a great chance if ever they
are troubled with them any more. As the botts generally
happen about the grafs feafon, thofe horfes that are turned
out to grafs often get rid of them there, by the firft
fortnight’s purging ; and, therefore, thofe that have the
convenience of a good pafture for their horfes need not be
very folicitous about giving them medicines.
And the earth-worms, which fome writers call teretes,
rotundi, or lumbrici, are alfo beft conquered by calomel and
occafional aloetic purges, for worms often come away in
purging, when, till then, it has not been known that the
ea was troubled with them; and it has been obferved,
after thefe have been voided, that the animal has thriven
better, grown more lively, and fhewn more alertnefs at his
bufinefs. There can {carcely be a better plan of treatment
than is fupplied in the following formule, recommended by
Mr. Denny in his ufeful work : —Take of calomel, one
drachm; anifeeds, in powder, half an ounce; treacle, enough
to make a ball. This is dire€ted to be given in the even-
‘ing ; and the next morning the following :—Take of fuc-
cotrine aloes, in powder, one ounce; ginger, in powder,
two drachms; treacle, enough to make a ball: and the
above bolus and purgative ball muft be repeated, with an in-
terval of nine days, until the horfe has taken three dofes.
Then it is advifed to give the following alterative powder,
daily for about a month; this procefs does not require
any change of diet, or involve any hazard from the effects
of cold:—Take of Ethiops mineral, crude antimony, pre-
pared, and anifeeds in powder, each half an ounce; mix
them. The management of the horfe during this courfe
of worm medicines 1s that in common cafes of phyfic; but
fome prefer giving Barbadoes aloes for the removal of
worms, thinking it the more efficacious, becaufe its operation
is very rough: and Gibfon thinks it may be given to
hackneys, and other horfes of {mall value; but he never
found it more efficacious than the fuccotrine, at the fame
time that it expofes a horfe more to gripes and other dan-
ome diforders, unlefs it be properly managed. The
ollowing he gives as a cheap well-correéted purge of this
kind :—Take of Barbadoes aloes, one ounce ; falt of tartar,
two drachms; ginger, grated, a drachm and a half; oil of
amber, a middling fpoonful ; fyrup of buckthorn, fufficient
to make a ball. The only obje€tion to this is the quantity
of aloes, which would be too confiderable even if of a milder
fort for fome horfes.
It may be obferved, that the fort of worms called afca-
rides fometimes come away from a horfe in great numbers,
with the help of a purge, and fome get quite clear of them
with purges only; but this does not very often happen,
for the horfes that breed afcarides, above all others, are
fubje& to flime and foulnefs in their inteftines. In the
human body, afcarides are thought to be bred in the reétum,
near to the fundament; but in horfes no other kind than
botts ufually adhere to that gut. On the contrary, thefe
worms in them feem to be lodged about the beginning of
‘the {mall inteftines near the {tomach, where they feed on
the alimentary parts of the chyle. The botts in a horfe
are often feen fticking near the {phinéter ani, and are con-
tinyally dropping away with the dung; but the afcarides
are feldom ia there, except when the animal has had a
purge given him, or when he falls into a natural purging,
which often happens from the irritation of the bowels, and
then they come away in very great numbers, accompanied
with much flime and mucus. Botts feldom alter a horfe’s
looks, but thefe not only make a horfe grow lean, and look
emaciated, but on opening his mouth one may ive a
more than ordinary languid whitenefs, and a fickly {mell,
inftead of that livelinefs of colour that is always perceivable
in the mouth of a found and vigorous horfe ; fo that, what-
ever be the primary caufe, chefs worms feem in a great mea-
fure to proceed from a vitiated appetite and a weak
digeftion, which renders them the more difficult to be re-
moved ; for which purpofe reeourfe muft be firft had to
the foregoing remedies, and after them, fuch medicines as
are proper to ftrengthen the ftomach, promote digeftion,
and give tone to the folids.
The treatment advifed by Gibfon for thefe worms
is chiefly the following :— Take of calomel, prepared,
two drachms; diapente, half an ounce; make thet. into
a ball, with a fufficient quantity of conferve of rofes,
and give it in the morning, keeping the horfe’ from
meat an hour or two before and ae the dofe; and
the next morning adminifter a moderate aloetic purge,
taking great care to keep the horfe from wet, or from any
thing that may expofe him to take cold. The above
calomel ball and the purge may be repeated in fix or eight
days, and again in fix or eight days more. Or the follow-
ing mercurial purge may be given, which will ‘be lefs
troublefome, ough not lefs efficacious :—Take of crude
quickfilver, two drachms; Venice turpentine, half an
ounce. Rub the quickfilver with the turpentine ‘in a
mortar till no particle of the former appear; then add, oil
of favin, thirty or forty drops ; fuccotrine aloes, in powder,
half anounce; ginger, grated, one drachm ; fyrup of buck-
thorn, enough to make it up into a ball.
One of thefe mercurial purges may be given in the fore-
going manner, viz. one in fix or eight days, with all the
fame precautions: it will work mildly, and with little or
no griping or ficknefs. And another mercurial purge,
which is proper to deftroy worms and to cleanfe the firft
paflages, is this: —Take of diagridium, calx of antimony,
and calomel, of each two drachms; fuccotrine aloes, fix
drachms; ginger, grated, one drachm ; oil of favin, cloves,
or anifeeds, thirty or forty drops; fyrup of buckthorn,
enough to form the ball. To be given as the preceding.
When a horfe has gone through a courfe of thefe mer-
curial purges, fome aivife the following drink to’ be given
two or three times a-week, or till the horfe begins to thrive
and look healthy :—Take of rue, camomile flowers, hore-
hound, of each a handful; galangals, bruifed in a mortar,
three drachms; liquorice-root, fliced, an ounce. Boil
thefe in a quart or three pints of forge-water fifteen or
fixteen minutes in a covered veffel, and keep it covered till
cold; then ftrain it through a piece of coarfe canvas, and
give it in the morning upon an empty ftomach.
Powdered tin has likewife been advifed with the intention
of deftroying worms; and alfo moft of the preparations of
antimony : fulphur is alfo good in all fuch cafes; and even
crude antimony in fine powder, given with equal parts of
fulphur, often fucceeds in the proportion of an ounce in the
morning and another at night.
‘The worms which infeft the bodies of other animals of
different domeftic kinds may be deftroyed, expelled, or got
rid of, by the fame remedies and modes of treatment, only
proportioning their quantities to the nature and ftrength of
the animals to which they may be given, and vegidlitts
the manner of exhibiting and continuing them, to that oe
the ftates in which they may be at the time, from the effeéts
of the worms and other caufes.
There is alfo a kind of worms which are frequently fatal
to
Es
WORMS.
to the gallinaceous birds, of which a curious account. has
‘beer given by Mr. Weinfenthal, in the Medical and Phyfical
Journal. The inconvenience produced by thefe creatures
is at firft but flight: however, it gradually becomes more
and more oppreflive, until it ultimately deftroys the birds.
Very few indeed recover; they languifh, grow difpirited,
droop, and die. It is found, on diffeétion, that thefe fymp-
toms are occafioned by worms in the trachea. The writer
has feen the whole of it completely filled with thefe worms,
and has been aftonifhed at the animal’s being capable of
refpiration at all under fuch circumftances.
They are of a reddifh colour, and at firft view refemble
the human lumbricus; but when examined are materially
different. When expofed to the microfcope, they are found
to have an orifice or mouth at one end, formed for fuétion ;
the other end, as far as it can be afcertained, is imperforated.
The inteftinal tube is much convoluted, like that of the
lumbricus.
It does not appear that any effeCtual remedy has been
yet difcovered for removing thefe moft deftruétive animals.
They have been drawn out of the trachea by means of a
feather, ftripped from near its end, which is paffed into the
larynx and twifted round, till it engages one or two of the
worms, which are extraGted, but without any relief to the
animal, after the operation has been performed. .
Worm, in Timber, a difeafe in growing fir, and perhaps
other timber-trees, produced by a worm. For which it is
fuppofed by Mr. Nicol, in his “* Praétical Planter,’’ that
there can be no remedy except in the draining and improve-
ment of the foil. Indeed, this difeafe is not known on {foils
congenial to the nature of the plant ; nor does it ever appear
until the tree becomes fickly, by its roots having touched a
cankering bottom.
It has been fuppofed this worm is the fame with that
which is found in deal, and fome other forts of wood.
Worms, Aquatic. See Water-Worms infra.
Worm, Afcaris, in the Linnean Syftem, a genus of the
order of inte/tina, and clafs of vermes; the characters of
which are, that the body is round and filiform, and at-
tenuated towards both ends. There are two fpecies. See
ASCARIDES.
Worm, Bee. See Generation of BEEs.
Worm, Butterfly. See AuRELIA, and CATERPILLAR.
Worm, Canker. See ScARABZUS.
Worm, Chur. See GryLuus.
Worm; Cochineal. See Coccus.
Worm, Connough, or Connaught, in Natural Hiftory, a
name given by the common people of Ireland to a kind of
caterpillar found in many parts of that kingdom; and, from
its ugly ape, reputed to be poifonous.
It is faid to be the only poifonous creature of that king-
dom, and many mifchievous effe€ts are attributed to its
iting, and to its poifonous quality, when eaten by cattle.
As to the firft of thefe opinions, it is evidently erroneous ;
the creature having no power to fting at all. The other is
not fo eafily proved falfe, but is much to be fufpected.
The reafons on which it is founded are thefe : the cattle in
Ireland are fubje& to a very terrible difeafe, which is moft
frequent in autumn; about the time when thefe animals are
in the greateft plenty.
It is moft frequent alfo among thofe cattle which feed in
low and marfhy grounds, where this creature lives and feeds ;
cows and hogs, which feed in thefe places, are the only
creatures fubjeét to the diftemper, and this is imputed to
the cow’s eating by large mouthfuls, becaufe the chews the
eud afecond time; and the hogs feeding fo foul and greedily,
as to cat things which other creatures refufe. Finally, the
great caufe of affigning this difeafe to this creature is, that
the worm only appears in great numbers about once in
feven years ; and in thefe, and thefe years only it is, that the
diftemper among the cattle is common.
The fymptoms by which this difeafe is diftinguifhed from
all others are, great {welling of the head, and a falling
down of the anus; the gut often hanging out to the length
of fix or feven inches. The common cure among the more
intelligent people is’ a {trong decoétion of. the ae called
bear’s-foot, or great black hellebore, with fome rue and
garlic given with butter and beer; this is found to have
great fuccefs with the cows. The hogs are cured only by
_mixing reddle, or the common red ochre powdered, with
butter-milk, and making them eat a large quantity of it.
The Irifh peafants have recourfe to many idle remedies ;
but thefe are found often of real fervice. The caterpillar,
fuppofed to occafion this difeafe, feeds on the common
ragwort, and is larger than moft other creatures of this
kind, being of the length and thicknefs of a man’s finger ;
it is marked with two large {pots behind the head, which
are fuppofed by the vulgar to be the eyes, but are only
round Variegations, of the nature of thofe common on other
caterpillars; and what they take to be a fting in the tail,
is no other than a horn in that part, which is not peculiar
to this caterpillar, but found on many others. That the
common people are deceived in regard to the external parts
of this creature is evident; but experiments are required
yet to prove whether or not they are fo, in regard to its
poifonous quality.
One trial is remarked by Mr, Molyneux to have been
made on a dog, who eating the {kin of only one of the
creatures was found dead about three days after; another
dog, which drank the juices exprefled from that fkin,
received no hurt. The infeét is defcribed in Lifter’s edi-
tion, under the name of the’ elephant caterpillar. Phil.
Tranf. N° 168. p. 880.
; Worm, Larth, lumbricus, a genus of the order of inteftina,
including two fpecies. See EartH-Worm and Lumsricus.
Worn, Flower-root. See FLower.
Worm, Fly, in Natural Hiflory, the worm or maggot
produced of the egg of a fly, and afterwards to be tranf-
formed into one.
Thefe worms are to the fly, what the caterpillar is to the
butterfly it produces. The cuftom of the world has appro-
priated the term caterpillar to that one {pecies of the flying
infe&ts’ firft fate; but we have unfortunately no term of
diftin€tion yet eftablifhed for any of the firft ftate of any of
the other flying infe&ts, the creature produced by the egg
of the fly fearce being indeterminately called worm. Till
more expreffive names fhall be invented for thefe, it may not
be improper to diftinguith thofe of the different claffes by
the additional name of the infeét they are to be changed
into, and to call that which is to become a beetle, the fcarab-
worm; that which is to be hereafter a fly, the Sy-worm ;
and fo of the reft.
Thofe which are to be hereafter winged creatures of the
fly-clafs are extremely different one from another in form
and figure, and may very properly be arranged into feveral
claffes.
The moft remarkable and ftriking differences between the
claffes of thofe creatures, are thofe of the form and fhape
of their heads. Many of them have heads which it is not
eafy to diftinguith to be fuch, as they carry no one mark of
the head of an animal vifibly about them. There are many
whofe heads are variable at the pleafure of the creature, and
which at times are feen to be more or lefs long, more or lefs
thick, more or lefs flat, more or lefs fhortened at pleafure
4T z by
WORMS.
by the animal, and eafilty bent and turned about in any
tireGtion. The heads of thefe creatures are compofed of a
very foft and flexible fleth.
There are others whofe heads are hard, and which always
retain the fame regular figure. The firft general arrange-
mient of thefe worms may be into thofe which have a varia-
ble, and thofe which have an invariable head. The fubor-
dinate diftin@ions may be deduced from the number, dif-
pofition, ftru€ture, and form of the other parts. Some
worms of this kind have no legs; thofe of others are mem-
branous or fcaly ; and others have them both membranous
and fcaly. Some worms have the power of altering the
figures of their bodies at pleafure, both as to length and
bulk : the bodies of others are rigid, and incapable of thefe
changes. Some, again, have a thin membranous coat ;
whereas that of others is firm and fealy, or cruftaceous.
Moreover, confiderable differences are obfervable with regard
lionaceous flies, are of this clafs. There is alfo a clafs of
worms, called falfe or baftard caterpillars. See Faussr
Chenille. See the more particular defcription of thefe
claffes, and their fubordinate genera, in Reaumar’s Hitt.
Inf. tom. iv. p. 161, &c.
Worm, Gourd, the name of a fpecies of tenia, or tape-
worm ; the body of which is of an oblong form, flat on the
belly, and rounded on the back; its fkin is foft, and its
mouth large, horizontal, and emarginated, or dented in the
middle. It refembles the common gourd in figure, and
from thence has got this name of vermis cucurbitinus, or the
gourd-worm. It is frequently found in the inteftines of
animals.
Worm, Golden. See APHRODITA.
Worm, Guinea, or Hair-Worm.
PHISBZNA, and DRACUNCULI.
Worm, Gally, Glow, Gnat, Goofeberry, Hay, Horfe, Ly-
See Cuatia, Am-
to the pofition, number, and figure, of their organs of jimachia, Mufbroom, Oyfler, Pile, Sheep-nofe, Silk, Solitary,
refpiration. é
Among the fly-worms of variable heads, the difpofition
of the ftigmata, or air-holes, at which the trachee of thefe
animals terminate, will afford feveral diftinétions of genera:
e. gr. the worms of the common flefh-fly has in its ftigmata
fix apertures, three in each, refembling button-holes; but
the worms of many other flies have only one {mall eminence
in each: others have them cylindric and hollow, and pro-
jeCting like horns, of which fome have two, and others three,
differently fituated and difpofed. The number and figure
of the hooks, which ferve thefe creatures for teeth, may
alfo ferve for matter of diftin@ion. The common worm of
the flefh-fly has two hooks, with a dart between them;
others have hooks without a dart ; fome have one hook, and
others none. The figure of the body, and the differences of
fize and colour, may furnifh farther diftin@tions with regard
to the genera of the firft clafs.
Thofe of the fecond clafs, which have variable heads, and
differ from the former in havin legs like thofe of the
caterpillar clafs, have often a hit of hooks faftened to
them: they have alfo along flefhy tail, capable of being
lengthened or contraéted at pleafure, and refembling the
tail of a rat ; whence thefe are called rat-tailed worms. In
thefe worms, the tail is the principal organ of refpiration ;
its end being always open, and fupplying the office of the
ftigmata of the other genera.
he fly-worms of the third clafs, which have invariable
heads, and have nothin analogous to the organization of
moveable jaws, have pointed heads, or fuch as feem trun-
cated, and {no fcaly legs: thefe form a very numerous
family both in the terreftrial and aquatic kingdom, and all
of them furnifh two-winged flies. Under this clafs Reaumur
enumerates and defcribes eight genera. ‘This ingenious
writer mentions worms of another clafs, which betty pro-
duce four-winged flies, having heads of an invariable figure,
and two teeth or moveable jaws near the aperture of the
mouth, without fcaly legs, and with the ftigmata placed on
the fides of their bodies. The flies produced from thefe
are, the bees, wafps, ichneumons, gall-flies, &c. There is
another clafs of the hexapode, or fix-legged worms, which
are transformed into fome fpecies of the libelle ; which have
flo mouth, but two openings at the top of their antennae,
through which their aliment may pafs., The formica leo,
and the puceron eaters, belong to this clafs. There is
another clafs, which have bodies like thofe of the caterpillar
clafs, and fix legs, befides two other fhorter legs or hooks
near their hinder part, which ferve for motion and for fixing
themfelves. The water-worms, which make for themfelves
cafes of different materials, and are transformed into papi-
and Truffle. See the refpetive articles.
Worms, Meal. There are two very different infeés
found in our meal or flour; the one is fo fmall, that it is
only to be feen by the microfcope ; all that the naked eye
can difcover of it is, that fomething is alive in the place,
from the whole fubftance of the flour being in motion. See
Frour.
The other meal-worm is larger, and more frequently
offers itfelf to our obfervation: it confifts of eleven rings,
and has three pair of legs. The mouth of this worm is
made into a kind of forceps, and from this arife, on each
fide, a great number of {mall fpinule ; thefe ferve inftead
of teeth, and the animal feeds by means of them. They
are found fometimes very foft and tender, fometimes hard
and firm ; at fome feafons they are very brifk and lively, at
others they have fcarce any life in them.
The moft remarkable thing in regard to thefe worms is,
that they are always exa@tly of the colour of the flour which
they live among. Ray has obferved, that the white flour
breeds white ones ; the coarfer flour breeds larger and greyer
ones; and that flour which has the bran among it, breeds
brown ones of the fame colour with that of itfelf. This is
a provifion of nature for the fafety of the animal, fince were
it of a colour different from that of the flour, it muft be
eafily difcovered among it, and would be picked out and
thrown away. The caterpillar tribe are thus preferved, by
being of the colour of the leaves they feed on; their green
vihaslly {uiting itfelf exa&ly to that of the tree or plant.
Deflandes, Trait. Phyf.
Worms of the Sea. The fea-worms are of the number
of thofe animals which, with the oyfter and feveral other
fhell-fifh, furnifh us an inftance of animals which remain all
their lives fixed in the manner of plants to one fpot, whence
there is no probability of their moving themfelves.
Thefe worms are included in a fort of cafes or pipes, and
may be divided into two clafles, according to the nature of
thofe cafes. In the one fpecies thefe only are made of
grains of fand, fragments of fhells, and the like, faftened
together by a vifcous humour; and in the other they are
compofed of a true fhelly matter.
Thofe worms which have fhelly cafes are fixed fometimes
to the fand at the bottom of the fea, fometimes to ftones,
or fea fubftances, and fometimes to the fhells of other fifhes;
their fhells are rounded, and, in fome degree, conic, as they
always gradually grow wider from their point or apex to
the mouth ; as to the reft, their fhape is different in almoft
every individual, forming divers irregular curves, and often
refembling the fhapes into which a common earth-worm
curls and twitts itfelf in its various motions.
10 When
WOR
When we confider the effets of the glutinous juice iflu-
ing from the body of this animal, in faftening together any
loofe fubftances it meets with, fo as to form a cafe for it, it
may be eafily fuppofed that the adhefion of the balani-
marini, and other the like fhells, which remain all their
lives fixed to fome one f{pot, is performed in the fame man-
ner. Mem. Acad. Par. 1711. See VERMICULUS.
Worms, Water. Of thefe there are fome which tranf-
form themfelves by a fingular procefs, without any vifible
change in its exterior form, into flies, and belong to the
third clafs of fly-worms. They are particularly defcribed
by M. Reaumur, Hift. Inf. tem. iv. p. 310, &c. iat
There is a fingular {pecies of thefe creatures, which is
found to be capable of reproduétion or multiplication from
cuttings, in the manner of the polype. ;
The difcovery Mr. Trembley made of this ftrange pro-
perty in the polype, gave occafion to the trying of the ex-
periment in regard to fome other infects. Worms were the
moft natural objeéts of thefe experiments ; and though they
failed in many fpecies, they yet fucceeded in fome, and
proved, that nature has not given that amazing property of
reproduGtion of its moft effential parts, to only one f{pecies
of animals.
Mr. Bonet tried the experiment on a very nimble kind of
water-worm, by cutting it into two in the middle, and the
fuccefs perfe&tly anfwered the expectation; for the two
pieces continued alive and vigorous, and in a little time be-
came two complete worms. ‘The ftru€ture of ‘thefe worms,
though it appear fimple to the naked eye, is very worthy
the examination of the microfcope, and when viewed with
this affiftance, there are difcovered in it parts extremely de-
ferving our attention. Phil. Tranf. N° 469. p. 470.
Dr. Hales, in his Vegetable Statics, relates a curious ex-
periment, by which it is proved that the bones of animals,
when they are offified to a certain degree, do not grow any
longer, except at their extremities ; and the cafe is the fame
in regard to thefe worms; for the old piece, which is the
middle of the animal, never lengthens itfelf, but the addi-
tion of new rings to each end makes the increafe of length
in the worm.
In all thefe pieces the liquor, which ferves as blood to
the animal, is found circulating from the tail-part towards
the head, in the ufual way; and by this motion of the
blood it is always eafy to know, even in the {malleft pieces,
which is the head and which the tail-end, and the new head
and tail are always feen to come regularly from the proper
ends. Phil. Tranf. N° 469. p. 470, &c. See Rrepropuc-
TION.
Worm, in Chemiffry, denotes a long, winding pewter-
pipe, which diftillers and apothecaries place in a tub of
water, to cool and condenfe the vapour in the diftillation of
{pirits. J
This the chemifts alfo call a /erpentine. Formerly, this
worm, or fomething like it, was placed above the head of
the ftill, with a refrigeratory at the upper end of it, which
is ufeful enough in the diftilling of f{pirit of wine. — .
Worm, in Gunnery, is a fingle or double-wired iron
f{crew, mounted on a wooden handle by means of a focket,
or fixed on the end of a rammer, to pull out the wad of a
cannon, firelock, carabine, or piftol; it is the fame with the
qwad-hook, only the one is more proper for {mall -fire-arms,
and the other for cannon.
This inftrument ferves to draw out the wadding, or
pieces of cartridges, which remain in the gun after frequent
firing, and which would otherwife accumulate fo much,
that other cartridges could not be rammed home enough to
reach the priming, whereby the gun would mifs fire.
WOR
Yo Worm a Cable or Hawfer, in Sea Language, figni-
fies to ftrengthen it, by winding a {mall line, or rope, all
along between the {trands.
Worm-Powders. See Powper.
Worm-Seed, Semen Contra, Semen San@um, or Semen San-
tonicum, is a hot, bitter, drying kind of feed, proper to de-
ftroy worms generated in a human body, and particularly in
children.
This feed is light, {mall, oval, compofed of a number of
thin membranous coats, of a yellowifh-green or brow 
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